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Analysis of the Efficacy of Lidar Data As a Tool for Archaeological Prospection at the Highland Valley Copper Mine

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Analysis of the Efficacy of Lidar Data As a Tool for Archaeological Prospection at the Highland Valley Copper Mine Analysis of the Efficacy of LiDAR Data as a Tool for Archaeological Prospection at the Highland Valley Copper Mine by Sarah K. Smith B.A., University of British Columbia 2005 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology Faculty of Environment © Sarah K Smith 2021 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2021 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Declaration of Committee Name: Sarah K . Smith Degree: Master of Ar ts Title: Analysis of the Efficacy of LiDAR Data as a Tool for Archaeological Prospection at the Highland Valley Copper Mine Committee: Chair: John Welch Professor , Archaeology David Burley Supervisor Professor, Archaeology Kristin Safi Committee Member Senior Archaeologist Wood Environment & Infrastructure Solutions Travis Freeland Examiner Project Manager Kleanza Consulting Ltd. ii Abstract As heritage resource management and Indigenous heritage stewardship moves into the forefront of project design and operational planning in British Columbia, researchers look for innovative ways to foster impact assessment efficiency without sacrificing quality. In this study I explore methods for employing LiDAR-derived digital elevation models as a tool for archaeological prospection within the Highland Valley Copper Mine. A review of contemporary and formative LiDAR-analysis archaeological prospection research was conducted to identify the most appropriate visualization techniques and data management workflow. Specific methods for the identification of microtopographic relief with the potential to contain archaeological resources were developed. The efficacy of LiDAR-based topographic analysis using manual feature extraction is validated through comparison with georeferenced survey and ground-truthing data provided by my research partners at the Nlaka’pamux Nation Tribal Council. The LiDAR analysis method identified a high percentage of recorded archaeological sites and meets provincial requirements for a moderately effective predictive model. Results of LiDAR analysis are presented along with recommendations for improved performance using best practices and an interpolation workflow. An analysis of the cost implications of incorporating LiDAR-survey into the heritage management workflow in the study area identified a significant benefit during survey. These savings would allow for redistribution of resources and potentially a greater focus on mitigative systematic data recovery. The use of remote sensing technologies and methods can have a positive impact on heritage resource management industry in BC by decreasing program costs while maintaining quality. Keywords : LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging); Highland Valley Copper Mine; Nlaka’pamux Nation Tribal Council; Heritage Resource Management (HRM); Manual Feature Extraction (MFE); Archaeological Prospection iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Nlaka’pamux Nation Tribal Council for providing me with the opportunity to conduct research within their traditional territory and Teck Resources for their support of this research and for allowing me to access the Highland Valley Copper Mine study area. I would also like to acknowledge the Mitacs Accelerate Program, which facilitated on-line training and a funded internship providing me with the financial wiggle-room I needed to focus my time on research and data collection. iv Table of Contents Declaration of Committee ................................................................................................ ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures................................................................................................................ viii List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................. x Glossary ........................................................................................................................ xii Executive Summary ..................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1. Introduction and Research Context ........................................................ 1 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Research Problem and Goals ................................................................................ 1 1.3. Research Questions .............................................................................................. 3 1.4. Research Strategy and Methods ........................................................................... 4 1.5. Research Results .................................................................................................. 5 1.6. Research Context .................................................................................................. 5 1.6.1. Biophysical Setting ........................................................................................ 6 1.6.2. Ancient Environment...................................................................................... 7 1.6.3. Ethnographic Setting ..................................................................................... 8 1.6.4. Historic Setting .............................................................................................. 9 1.6.5. Highland Valley Copper Mine ...................................................................... 10 1.6.6. Regional Cultural Chronology ...................................................................... 10 1.6.7. Previous Archaeological Research in Highland Valley ................................. 13 1.6.8. Recorded Archaeological Sites within the Study Area .................................. 17 1.6.9. Subsurface Test Area Dataset Slope Analysis ............................................. 19 1.6.10. Heritage Protection Standards in British Columbia ................................... 20 1.6.11. Research Context Discussion .................................................................. 22 Chapter 2. LiDAR Research for Archaeological Prospection ................................ 24 2.1. LiDAR & Orthophotograph Imagery ..................................................................... 25 2.2. Formative and Current LiDAR Research ............................................................. 29 2.3. LiDAR Analysis for Archaeological Research in BC ............................................. 32 Chapter 3. Research Methods, Data Acquisition, and Interpretation ................... 35 3.1. Research Methods .............................................................................................. 36 3.1.1. Traditional Survey Methodology at HVC ...................................................... 36 3.1.2. Manual vs Automated Feature Extraction .................................................... 40 3.1.3. LiDAR-Derived DEM Interpolation Best Practice and Workflow ................... 41 3.2. Data Collection .................................................................................................... 43 3.2.1. Background Research (Step 1) .................................................................... 43 3.2.2. Target Feature Landform Attributes, Data Trimming and Zonal Statistics (Step 2) .................................................................................................................... 44 v 3.2.3. LiDAR Data Acquisition ............................................................................... 49 3.3. Data Review and Interpolation ............................................................................. 51 3.3.1. Imagery Visualization Techniques (Step 3) .................................................. 51 3.3.2. Imagery Display Errors ................................................................................ 58 3.3.3. Manual Feature Extraction Review of Test Areas and Iterative Comparison of Results (Step 4) ................................................................................. 58 3.3.4. Interpretive Mapping of Blind Study Areas (Step 5) ..................................... 59 3.3.5. Ground Observation/Field Visit (Step 6)....................................................... 59 3.4. Data Analysis and Interpretation .......................................................................... 60 3.4.1. Interpretation and Contextualization of Results (Step 7) .............................. 60 3.4.2. Analytic Methods ......................................................................................... 61 3.4.3. Evaluation and Contextualization of Results ................................................ 64 Chapter 4. Analysis Results .................................................................................... 65 4.1. Interpretation Bias Analysis ................................................................................. 66 4.2.
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