Horticulture Value Chain Development Sector Project (RRP AFG 51039)

Supplementary Document 21: Detailed Social and Gender Assessment

Contents

Acronyms i 1. Executive Summary 1 2. Current Socio-economic Situation 3 2.1. Increase in the poverty rate 3 2.2. Conflict and Food Security 4 3. Population 6 3.1. Internally displaced people 7 3.2. Returnees 8 4. Ethnicity 9 5. Gender 10 5.1. National Gender Situation Overview 10 5.2. Women’s Access to Justice 11 5.3. Women and Health Care 11 5.4. Women and Education 12 5.5. Women and Employment 13 5.6. Women and Agriculture in Afghanistan 14 6. Education 16 7. Health 19 7.1. Children Health 19 7.2. Maternal Health 19 8. Employment 20 8.1. Economic sectors and socio-economic development 21 8.2. Formal and informal employment 21 8.3. Unemployment and economic migrants 22 8.4. Agriculture and employment 22 9. Access to Services 23 10. Provinces 24 10.1. Bamyan 25 10.2. Ghazni 26 10.3. Kabul 27 10.4. Khost 29 10.5. Kunar 30 10.6. Laghman 30 10.7. Logar 32 10.8. Nangahar 33 10.9. Paktya 34 10.10. Paktika 35 10.11. Wardak 36

Acronyms

ALCS Afghanistan Living Condition Survey ANP Afghan National Police IDP Internally Displaced Person IPC Intergrated Food Security Phase Classification MAIL Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock NGO non-government organization

i

1. Executive Summary

1. Afghanistan ranks 169th1 (out of 188 countries) in the United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index. This index is based on a number of economic, social, and health factors. It has been around this position for a number of years.

2. Afghanistan’s socio-economic situation has been negatively affected by the increasing insecurity and poverty in recent years. The decline in aid and growth damaged jobs, and the escalation of conflict further intensified the vulnerability of the Afghan people. Absolute poverty is increasing, with about 55% of Afghans now poor. There are not enough jobs to meet the needs of a fast-growing labor force and provide livelihoods to illiterate and unskilled Afghans.2

3. The gross domestic product growth increased from 2016 and was worth US$20.82 billion in 2017. The biggest sector of Afghanistan´s economy is services accouting for 49% of the gross domestic product. Agriculture creates 26% of the output. Manufacturing and mining constitute 13% of the wealth and construction 12%. Growth will likely remain below the 8% requirement to fully employ Afghanistan’s growing labor force. Meanwhile, conflict and fragility will likely continue constraining Afghanistan’s development and progress toward reducing poverty (footnote 2).

4. Insecurity in the country, poverty at the family level, and social and cultural constraints are the major obstacles that challenge Afghan people’s lives generally, in particular women’s and girls’ education and employment development in Afghanistan. The diffusion and intensification of conflict perpetuate poverty down to future generations as children miss school and more families flee their homes. The economic and security crisis has accentuated deep and widening inequalities between those who have the means to cope with shocks and those who must give up vital assets to stay alive. Lack of education, livelihoods, and access to basic services contribute to Afghan poverty. Poor people face higher unemployment and are more likely to work in agriculture or in the informal sector. The main economic problems faced by the poor are high food prices and the lack of formal jobs. The situation is deteriorating with further poverty challenges faced but the poor in general but by women and ethnic minorities in particular.

5. The stagnation and deterioration should be viewed against the recent worsening of the security situation, the large influx of returnees, the reduction of international presence in and aid to Afghanistan and macro-economic conditions. In addition, more structural factors continue to play a role in impeding development in the country, including the very low participation of women in the economy and in society in general, the low levels of education and skills in the country’s work force and the poor performance of the labour market. In this context, labor-market challenges are not just unemployment since the other equally important factors is low quality of employment characterized by vulnerable, low-productivity and low-paid jobs that prevent households from escaping poverty and improving their living conditions. Moreover, the high population growth rates generate unsustainable conditions for development. Analysis of the Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–2017 shows that these above-mentioned factors undermine the capacity of many households and individuals—in particular women and girls—to escape poverty and poor health.

1 World Bank. 2013. World Development Indicators 2013. Washinton, DC. 2 World Bank. 2017. World Bank Country Assessment 2017. Washington, DC.

6. Considering the above socio-economic and other constraints, the proposed project has been designed in such a way that it will benefit agro-business enterpises (ABEs) and their affiliated farmers in the project areas that include low-income and marginal farmers (with landholdings of less than 1–2 ha). The project provinces have some of the highest food insecurity levels in the country: Bamyan, Ghazni, Kabul, Khost, Kunar, Laghman, Logar, Nangahar, Paktika, Paktya, and Wardak. Project interventions will help increase annual production of fruit and vegetables, contributing significantly to improve food security of project beneficiaries and others in the project area. Incremental household income and jobs created, particularly for women in packing and processing premises, will significantly contribute to local poverty reduction.

7. The project is categorized as effective gender mainstreaming. Gender activities will be mainstreamed in the project. It will directly benefit ABEs and affiliated farmers, including poor households within the project areas, through increases in agricultural production and farm incomes. Improved access to water-efficient on-farm distribution and application systems, quality planting material, modern production systems, on-farm greenhouses, and storage facilities will allow farmers to access higher off-season prices in perishable produce and reduce income inequality. Female subproject owners will be specifically targeted to ensure they participate equally in access to grant funding. Supply contract arrangements between ABEs and affiliated farmers will be developed taking into account the special requirements of female headed farming households who will be encouraged to actively participate in technical support training in the use of on-farm improvements as appropriate and particularly in the development of small-scale agro- processing activities. Training for women will be conducted by female trainers to ensure willingness to participate. A gender action plan has been prepared and is accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2 of the Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors.

8. Focus of the assessments and data limitations. These assessments focus on the socio-economic and gender aspects in Afghanistan and highlights the visible challenges of the Afghan population in education, health, employment, and agriculture. It discusses the role of women in agriculture and horticulture and contribution towards the household economy. The report is based on a secondary data and desk review. Most of the data comes from the Central Statistics Organisation (CSO) and donors such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the United Nations, and the World Food Program. Data also came from line ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL). However, in some cases, recent data are not available and there are discrepancies between the figures from the government’s sources and the figures available from key development partners. Due to the insecurity situation in large parts of the country, it is not possible for surveyors and enumeratos to collect reliable primary data.

2

2. Current Socio-economic Situation

9. A severe slow down in Afghanistan's development occurred since 2012 (specifically noted in the "transition period" leading to the 2014 election and handover of security responsibility to Afghan forces). The recent socio-economic deterioration is attributed to: • Reduction of international military forces • Decline in associated international spending • Reduction of aid and development interventions • Increasing conflict and political instability

10. While development aid fueled growth during 2007–2012, since 2012 the transition has magnified social inequalities between rich and poor, and between men and women and girls and boys. Overall, vulnerable groups suffer most as the security condition deteriorates with poverty on the rise (from 36% in 2012 to 55% in 2016–2017)3.

11. Vulnerability to shocks4 is a key social challenge. The country's heavy reliance on subsistence agriculture, difficult geography and climate-change risk, absence of formal social safety nets, and history of conflict, all contribute to the vulnerability context status. The socio- economic and security crisis that unfolded during 2012–2014 increased shock occurrence (almost doubled) pushing households unable to cope with poverty.5 This increases the risk of downward trend of social indicators as poverty and conflict combine to exacerbate Afghans' vulnerability to shocks. Poorer households and those living in high-conflict areas are not only more likely to be exposed to shocks, but they are also more likely to suffer the negative consequences of shocks over long periods of time.6

2.1. Increase in the poverty rate

12. Afghanistan shows that poverty increases without sustained, job-creating growth and sluggish growth, and increasing conflict has pushed 16 million Afghans into poverty, increasing the poverty rate to 55% (footnote 3). The increase in the poverty rate is experienced across the country and is present in urban as well as in rural areas. Not only the share of poor people among the general population increased, but also the depth or intensity of poverty.

3 Government of Afghanistan, Central Statistics Organization. 2018. Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–17. Kabul. 4 A shock is defined as exposure to an event that negatively affects households in the 12 months preceding the survey. 5 World Bank. 2017. Afghanistan Poverty Status Update. Washington, DC. 6 Lacking means to cope with risk, these households face trade-offs when hit by a shock and may be forced to resort to "harmful" coping mechanisms that depress future productivity and livelihoods, such as selling assets; increasing use of child labour leading to intergenerational poverty; or reducing consumption and going hungry, reducing health, human capital accumulation, and future productivity. 3

Figure 1: Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by survey year

Source: Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016-17.

13. The proportion of population living below the national poverty line7 increased from 34% in 2007–2008 to 55% in 2016–2017. Fewer jobs were created and existing ones were destroyed, hitting mostly youth, rural populations, and illiterate workers (footnote 5). Girls’ primary school attendance declined markedly, especially in rural and conflict-affected areas.

14. Food insecurity increased from 30% in 2011–2012 to 45% in 2016–2017. Beside insufficient energy intake, close to one third (30%) of the population do not meet the daily protein requirement of at least 50 grams per person per day. Almost 39% of the population have food consumption with poor dietary diversity, lacking adequate amounts of nutritious items, proteins, and micro-nutrients (footnote 3).

2.2. Conflict and Food Security

15. The conflict and security environment in Afghanistan has deteriorated over the course of the last few years, with very high levels of population displacement as well as fatalities due to conflict. The withdrawal of most International Security Assistance Force in 2014 has been followed by a significant increase in conflict-induced displacements in the ensuing years, with more than 1.5 million people displaced by conflict since the beginning of 2015.

16. Nearly 50,000 people were killed in conflict events in 2017, while more than 15,000 more people have died in 2018 through early June. The insecure environment has broad impacts on the ability of Afghans to establish and maintain normal livelihoods, leaving many to adjust frequently to new local realities that alter aspects of daily life such as market access, labor availability, access to grazing lands, and ability to engage in temporary migratory labor, to name a few. Against the backdrop of this environment, available evidence indicates a deterioration in living conditions for many Afghans in recent years.

17. The security situation has deteriorated in 2018, with an expansion in the geographic extent of conflict, particularly in the north, northeast, northwest, central, and east. Insecurity continues to disrupt normal livelihoods, both through displacement and by disrupting safe access to normal income opportunities and typical sources of food.

7 Living on less than 1,255 Afs per person per month. 4

18. Poor food and nutritional security outcomes are increasingly concentrated in drought and conflict-affected areas, typically affecting poor households, especially those who rely on rainfed agriculture and labor opportunities for income with which to purchase staple foods. Many people who are displaced from rural conflict areas are farmers, where crops are often left untended and unharvested. Small livestock, such as sheep and goats, and other household assets are also often left behind. In addition to the immediate impact of displacement and conflict on livelihoods, the associated destruction of property and disruption to normal livelihoods can lead to severe difficulty in meeting basic needs in the medium term. Conflicts often lead to situations that leave communities with destroyed infrastructure, lost assets, and reduced livelihoods options, from which medium-term recovery is often unlikely in the absence of external assistance.

19. In addition to food from own harvests in lower lying areas, poor households are currently relying on income earned from agricultural and non-agricultural labor, as well as remittances from household members abroad or in other areas within Afghanistan. However, these sources of income are mostly below last year and below normal. As a result, most poor households are estimated to be facing Stressed (IPC Phase 2)8 outcomes, as they forego essential non-food purchases to meet basic food needs.

20. In all broad geographic regions of the country, there are households who have suffered major losses of livelihood assets or crops due to drought, conflict, natural disasters, and in some cases pests and diseases. Many of these households are currently facing Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes. These households include people recently displaced by conflict who are still in the process of recovering livelihoods or establishing new means of obtaining necessary food and income. Areas with the greatest proportion of people estimated to be facing Crisis (IPC Phase 3) or worse outcomes include many parts of the north and central highlands that are heavily dependent on rainfed agriculture and livestock grazing, as well as areas that have been heavily affected by ongoing conflict.

8 Integrated Food Security Phase Classification. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification Global Platform. http://www.ipcinfo.org/ 5

Figure 2: Food security map of Afghanistan - IPC classification

Source: Integrated Food Security Phase Classification Global Platform.

3. Population

21. Afghanistan's population is estimated at 36.37 million in 2018 based on the most recent United Nations data and 29,724,323 according to the Central Statistics Organization estimated population of 2017–2018, of which 52% are males and 48% females. It's unclear how accurate these estimates may be, given that the last census was nearly 40 years ago in 1979. That census estimated the population at 15.5 million.

6

22. Most Afghans live in rural areas in tribal and kinship groups. About 26.3% of the population is urban (9,576,359 people in 2018). Around 10.0% of the population lives in the capital city, Kabul (footnote 3).

23. Almost half of the population (48%) consists of children under age 15 (footnote 3). This confirms national and international estimates of very high fertility9 and population growth10 in the country, which are consistently among the highest in the world.

24. Distribution of population between urban and rural areas shows that around 22 million are living in rural areas and around 7.5 million in urban areas. In addition, 1.5 million are living as nomads (footnote 3).

Figure 3: Population by age and by sex in percentages

Source: Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016-17.

25. The average household size in Afghanistan is 7.7 persons. Half of the population lives in households with nine or more people. Around 44% live in overcrowded dwellings—defined as housing with more than three persons per room—that expose household members to unhealthy and socially undesirable conditions.

3.1. Internally displaced people

9 According to the most recent estimates, the total fertility rate in Afghanistan is 5.3 children per woman (DHS, 2015). 10 The population of Afghanistan grew by 2.38% in the last year, according to the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. 7

26. Internally displaced people (IDP) are forced to flee home suddenly or unexpectedly in large numbers, as a result of armed conflict, internal strife, systematic violations of human rights, or natural or made-man disasters; and who are within their own country.

27. Often lacking identity documentation, IDP face significant barriers to social development including accessing justice, enrolling children in school and securing employment in the formal economy. Lacking means to enter the formal housing market, IDP frequently reside in informal settlements, with very limited access to water and other basic services in overcrowded housing conditions. The IDP face a range of social protection challenges including increased rates of crime, insecurity, increased risk of Gender Based Violence (GBV), child exploitation, and negative coping mechanisms, with women and girls in particular at greater risk. In addition, IDP tend to have significantly higher rates of illiteracy and lower paid jobs, with a clear ‘skills disadvantage’ compared to others.

28. Internal displacement reached new highs, further exacerbating the structural poverty faced by Afghan households. According to the latest United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs data, about 2.9 million Afghans are internally displaced, 22% of whom fled their homes in 2016 alone. The challenge posed by conflict and internal displacement is aggravated by the massive return of refugees and migrants from Pakistan and Iran.11

3.2. Returnees

29. According to the United Nations Refugee Agency and the Internazional Organization for Migration, an estimated 7,500 documented and 336,000 undocumented people have returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan and Iran during the first half of 2018, with limited options for establishing livelihoods and preparing for the upcoming winter. Many of those returning has lived outside of Afghanistan for many years and need support from the government and humanitarian actors both on arrival and as they seek to reintegrate into a country already struggling with widespread conflict and displacement.

30. Many repatriated households are facing lack of employment opportunities, shelter and security, making it difficult to establish livelihoods in their new environment. Many returnees, particularly those who were undocumented, have few assets with which to meet basic needs and are highly dependent on limited assistance from communities and humanitarian agencies. Furthermore, population movements away from insecure areas to cities and other more secure areas have increased competition for limited employment opportunities.

11 Figures as of January 2017 (see www.unocha.org/afghanistan). 8

4. Ethnicity

31. There are several ethnic groups in Afghanistan, the most numerically significant of which include Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Turkmens, and Baloch. In total, 14 ethnic groups are recognized. Among all the ethnic groups, Hazaras remain one of the poorest and most marginalized groups in the country, although at this point in time, one of the most vulnerable groups are the Kuchi.

32. The two official languages are Dari and Pashto, the former largely spoken in the country’s north while the latter is traditionally associated with the south. The next most commonly spoken languages are Uzbek and Turkmen, both Turkic languages are spoken by minority groups.

33. In addition to these languages, there are dozens of others spoken in Afghanistan by the many minority groups in the country.

Figure 4: Lingual-ethnic groups

34. Approximately 80% of Afghanistan’s population is Sunni Muslims, while Shia Muslims make up approximately 19% (footnote 3).

35. Ethnic Minorities. The Kuchi—a nomadic, indigenous ethnic group in Afghanistan—is one of the ethnic minority communities which have suffered most from the past years of conflict.

9

Many Kuchi12 (an estimated 40%) have exchanged their nomadic lifestyle for a fixed abode— mostly settling in peri-urban areas.

36. Across all social and economic indicators, Kuchi rank at the bottom, even below the urban poor. Nationally, 54% live in poverty (footnote 3). The Kuchi also faces increasing social stigma and are increasingly involved in inter-communal tensions and disputes, which are increasingly common due to urban expansion.

37. While the Kuchi are well known, there are other ethnic minorities less visible among Afghanistan’s poor, including the Jogi, Gorbat, and Chori Frosh.

5. Gender

5.1. National Gender Situation Overview

38. Gender as a social value is still a new concept in Afghanistan and people have doubts about equal rights of men and women and equal roles for men and women in Afghan society. Afghan women and girls have experienced both progress and setbacks regarding their role and contribution in country development. Political instability, war, and conflict for long periods and insufficient educational opportunities in the country have contributed to people ignoring women’s role as contributing equally to that of men in the country’s development (Heinrich Böll Foundation 2006).

39. The Taliban retain power in many provinces where women and girls do not have access to school and education and employment. Schools and education centres, and students and teachers in areas under the control of the Taliban are at risk of attack (Adkins 2016). Many women are not permitted by their families to work with the public. These social and cultural issues are a huge constraint on women education and employment.

40. However, the government of Afghanistan and international community make efforts to improve women’s situation and address gender gaps in Afghanistan. Generally, since 2003, the government of Afghanistan and the international community, civil society, local NGOs, and women activists have worked hard to deepen the understanding of the gender gap in Afghanistan and have made efforts to provide equal opportunities for men and women. Many projects have been implemented related to gender and the inclusion of men and women in development programs. This is notable progress and advancement for women in Afghanistan. Acknowledging all these efforts in the recent years, women still do not have fair access to employment and financial income, education, and proper health care towards meeting basic needs generally which requires long term commitment and work, resources, and facilities to improve the situation.

12 The number of Kuchi is currently estimated at 1.5 million. Increasing insecurity and their nomadic nature makes it difficult to obtain an accurate number. 10

5.2. Women’s Access to Justice

41. After the removal from power of the Taliban in 2001, progress and legal reform has been undertaken and many new laws were developed, and many laws amended. One of the reform areas is related to women’s legal rights which have been taken in consideration since then. There is a more robust legal framework for protecting women’s rights, for the first time in the history of Afghanistan, the Elimination of Violence Against Women (EVAW Law) ratified through a presidential decree in August 2009. This law and other pieces of legislation including the Anti- Trafficking law have strengthened or could further strengthen in future the legal framework of rights and protections for women.

42. However, despite these advancements toward strengthening women’s status under the law, in practice, women’s access to justice remains extremely limited. One of the key barriers to women access to justice services in practice across Afghanistan is their limited mobility. Poor physical access to formal courts and prosecutors’ offices is one of the main reasons why people choose traditional and informal justice systems, particularly in rural areas. The lack of physical access to formal courts or justice related office is particularly problematic for women, who often must be accompanied by a male family member (mahram) when they travel. Travelling with a family member is particularly problematic if a woman would like to report a case of violence occurring in the home.

43. One of the key access challenges that women face is the responsiveness and capacity of the Afghan National Police (ANP) particularly in rural areas. Reporting to the police is often the first step in engaging in a judicial process. The ability of the ANP to deal with sexual violence or gender-based violence along with physical proximity of police stations to communities, strongly impacts the likelihood of a case of violence against women being reported. Although the Ministry of Interior has a family response unit in some police stations composed of female staff, in practice this unit does not appear to have standard operating procedures for investigating and referring cases. In addition, some female ANP officers have reported difficult work environments within the ANP, which restrain their ability to respond to female victims. In any rate, traditional mediation approaches are often used in cases of violence against women, rather than formal legal processing.

44. Moreover, the lack of female legal professional is also a big challenge for female victims reporting their cases. Absence of female professional in legal centres means that many women accused of crimes or victims of violence feel unable to disclose potentially mitigating circumstances to male lawyers. Women who suffer from or witness of sexual abuse often do not want to share critical information with male lawyers even if it could help their case in court. Most women are illiterate particularly in rural areas, and they are unaware of their rights and do not have information to claim their rights. This issue links to culture issues which tie women economic empowerment (MAIL Gender Strategy Paper; SIGAR 2017).

5.3. Women and Health Care

45. The health environment in Afghanistan has improved in some critical areas since 2005. This is particularly the case for women, for whom the baseline was especially low. A notable improvement across several indicators occurred: life expectancy has increased for both women 11

and men from 47 years for men and 45 for women in 2004 to 63 years for men and 64 for women in 2010.13 Both infant and maternal mortality rates have decreased, and the number of health facilities has increased since 2005 across the country. The maternal mortality ratio was 1,600 fatalities/100,000 births in 2005 and by 2011 it had decreased to 327 fatalities/100,000 births (footnote 13). There are 2,047 health facilities of varying levels that make up the national health system as compared to 1,214 in 2005 (footnote 13). In addition, there are a number of private health facilities operating in the country as well. The number of women receiving antenatal care at least once during pregnancy from a skilled health worker has increased. The percentage of antenatal visits rose from 57% in 2005 to approximately 68% in 2009/2010 (footnote 13).

46. Although the trajectory indicated for the aforementioned improvements, gender inequality is still remained as one of the main issue in health sector in Afghanistan. For example, while maternal mortality ratios are improving, they are still particularly poor among adolescent girls (ages 15–19). In Afghanistan, 14% of girls in this age bracket have begun childbearing, with an additional 2% who had a live birth prior to the age of 15. The rate is high particularly in West, South, and Central Highlands (footnote 13).

47. This issue is closely connected to poverty and early marriage as high bride prices help to offset debt payments or alleviate the poverty of a girl’s family. In addition, many women particularly in rural areas give birth at home without the assistance of a skilled healthcare professional.

48. The number of healthcare professionals increased over the recent years from 2,181 in 2009–2010 to 3,227 in 2013, however the shortage of female doctors and midwifes in provinces remained a big challenge (footnote 13). It is a concern that currently nearly 25% of healthcare facilities still do not have female health workers. This is related to both a shortage of female health workers generally and also to a difficulty finding female health workers willing to work in remote or insecure areas (footnote 13). Poor quality food and limited access to medical care contribute to the malnurishment of men and women in Afghanistan. Women and girls are more likely than men and boys to be malnourished due to education levels, poverty level, rural house locations, household size, and women’s decision-making power in the household (footnote 13).

49. It is important to mention that malnourished mothers affect children in a variety of ways; a mother’s malnutrition during pregnancy is a key determinant of underweight babies and their poor nutritional status in infancy (31.2% of the poplulation is deemed underweight), while under nourishment in mothers has been shown to affect their capacity to engage in critical childcare practices including breastfeeding, contributing to poor nutritional status in early childhood. Poor nutritional status in infancy and early childhood not only affects survivals rates, but also has long term effects for surviving children, including lower school attendance and attainment rates (footnote 13).

5.4. Women and Education

50. After the removal from power of the Taliban in 2001, education in Afghanistan as became the centre of attention for the government and the international community. The education system was highlighted as one of the key areas needing support. The government and the international community made significant efforts to retrieve schooling after the period of wars (Husham 2015).

13 World Bank. 2013. The World Bank Report 2013. Washinton DC. 12

The constitution stipulates that basic education from classes one to nine is compulsory for all the country’s children, that higher education will be expanded, education from school level to bachelor’s degree level will be free of charge, special reference is made to the elimination of illiteracy and the promotion of education for women, and the initiation of private education was approved for the first time (Samadi 2013; Husham 2015; Afghanistan Constitution Law). The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education both separately developed new education laws in support of Afghanistan’s constitutional law. A significant increase in the number of students at school particularly girls is a big change in the education sector compared to the period under the Taliban. The number of female students increased from 34% in 2005 to 40% at primary school, and to 35% at secondary school and 34% at higher secondary school in 2012 (footnote 13). However, acknowledging all these efforts and improvement in education sector, Afghan girls still face huge obstacles to receiving education in practice. Insecurity in the county, poverty at the family level, and social and cultural constraints are the major obstacles that challenge women’s and girls’ education in Afghanistan.

51. Thousands of families, due to poor economic situations in both urban and rural areas, cannot afford to support their daughters’ education (Shayan 2015; SIGAR 2017). In addition, social and cultural beliefs limit women and girls’ education. Many girls have to marry at an early age and cannot attend school after marriage; some girl students have to leave school after primary level due to cultural issues in their environments; in some families, boys have the priority for education rather than girls; or families do not accept male teachers for female students in school and female teachers are not available in remote areas of Afghanistan (Shayan 2015). These social and cultural issues are a huge constraint on girls’ education.

52. Educating students from the early grades about boys’ and girls’ equal education rights and access is essential in order to address social and cultural limitations on gender. Schooling provides key opportunities to educate students on gender equality from an early age. This helps to improve and change the negative mindset of a generation’s attitude to gender discrimination to a better understanding of the roles of men and women and boys and girls, and for females to participate in education.

5.5. Women and Employment

53. In general, the informal sector dominates the labor market in Afghanistan. Formal labor market opportunities in Afghansitan are limited representing only 9.4% of the total employment nationwide. Formal employment makes up 29% of urban jobs, and only 6% of rural jobs in 2012 (footnote 13). This means that a large percentage of the workforce, both in rural and urban areas, is working in informal sometimes unpaid and or subsistence employment. Women’s employment is more likely to fall within the informal economy than that of men, and more likely to be unpaid. In addition to being characterized by informality, women’s employment is difficult to measure given that much of the work women do can be considered “reproductive” labor. Reproductive labor is unpaid labor that often lakes place within the household and contributes to the ongoing functioning of the family. It is the opposite of what is considered to be “productive” labor, which goes through market transactions and has a monetary value attached to it whether in informal or formal economies. Reproductive work often takes up the majority of women’s daily time including household chores and childcare.

13

54. In the rural settings, female involvement in the workforce is significantly higher than in towns and cities, due to the predominance of agriculture as the majority employment sector and the role women play in production processes and household farming strategies. In these settings, just over half of the female workforce is in employment (footnote 13). Despite their relatively high participation rate, women are largely confined to activities within agricultural production process that are not related to decision-making responsibility or brokering trade exchanges with the market.

55. Employment for women in the cities is lower than in rural settings. However, access to paid and formal employment is likely higher in cities where higher numbers of women work as teachers, health workers, and public servants. These women remain a minority; while 79% of the male urban workforce is employed, only 21% of the female urban workforce is employed. In addition, women are primarily involved in low-income, low civil influence roles such tailoring, cooking, and carpet weaving. Only 3.6% urban women are employed by the government and only 7.1% are teachers (footnote 13).

56. One of the other barriers to women’s participation in the economy is access to finance. Since many women work solely in an unpaid employment whether in the form of household tasks, in agriculture or in some other form of unpaid labor contribution, they often do not have financing available to them in order to make decisions about the household, develop business related skills, and possibly invest in their own income generation ventures. According to the World Bank, only 3% of Afghan women have a bank account (World Bank Afghanistan Country Dashboard). Microfinance initiatives and new bank loan mechanism have somewhat addressed this issue and women’s confidence had increased after taking a bank loan.

5.6. Women and Agriculture in Afghanistan

57. Agriculture is a critical source of livelihoods in Afghanistan and considered to be a key pathway out of poverty. Afghan women play a distinct role in agriculture and in rural economy: women are actively involved in many horticulture and livestock activities in subsistence farming. The percentage of women involved in agriculture production is estimated at 65% of the workforce (APPRO Report, 2010). Their participation is usually family-based and unremunerated.

58. Despite women’s great participation in the workforce in agriculture, Afghan women still remain in the periphery with limited access to productive resource. Afghan women encounter barriers to earning their own livelihood, have limited economic opportunities and paid work in agriculture, and are restricted in their access to work outside of the home.

59. However, MAIL, with support of the international community, have developed a strategy paper on women in agriculture. The main effort of this strategy paper is to involve women more in grain production and greater involvement of women in income-earning activities and improve women’s contribution in the general economy of the country. Generally, the strategy reinforces MAIL’s position as a leader in promoting women’s empowerment in the agricultural development of Afghanistan.

60. Horticulture. Having the opportunity to partake in agricultural activities is dependent foremost on having access to land, either in the form of ownership, or through sharecropping tenancy or encroaching on land without ownership. Most women in Afghanistan do not own land,

14

despite the fact that the Civil Code and Sharia Law give them the right to do so. This issue of land ownership and inheritance is highly complex and varies widely across regions of the country, and even from one community to the next, but many women who do inherit land depend on their husbands or brothers to administer land ownership claims and manage the land. It is not uncommon for a woman to renounce her inheritance and give it to her brother before marrying in order to keep her land in her birth family’s possession or if she carries land into her marriage, to sign it over to her husband based on cultural expectations. Many people are not aware of the civil code and Sharia Law and believe that women are not allowed to own land. Some even consider the notion of women owning land to be shameful. Therefore, women’s agricultural labor often entails working on their husband’s or family land through unpaid labor, except if they are very poor in which case they may be more likely to work on the land of others.

61. Although women do not have fair access to landownership, they are mainly involved in horticulture roles such as weeding, harvesting, and post harvest work like threshing and cleaning seed. It is more typical in some provinces for women to only participate in the post harvest processing elements, because these can be done inside the household compound. A baseline social assessment by MAIL shows some variances in women’s role in horticulture, for example in Herat province cultivation and sales are primarily a man’s role, while women are involved in drying fruit and shelling nuts. In Badakhshan, women do take part in the sale of vegetables, but in Bamyan, Panjshir, and Daikundi both men and women are involved in the cultivation of vegetables, cereals, and grains. In Daikundi, orchards are harvested primarily by women. In Takhar, women are heavily involved in harvesting.

62. Women play a key role in harvesting and post-harvest handling. Women are heavily engaged in production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling particularly in the grape and/or raisin, almond, and saffron value chains by providing unpaid domestic labor in family orchards and households. Women, in particular, play a key role in processing, but the social and cultural norms limit rural women from interacting with men or traveling by themselves and accessing the market. It limits women’s access to extension services, including harvesting and post-harvest handling, market (both information and physical access), and credit. Marketing is usually undertaken by men, because women do not interact with village-level traders (who are mostly men), travel to the market, or lift heavy bags. Men transport bags to the local market or sell those bags at home to village-level traders who visit their village on an ad hoc basis (footnote 5).

63. A key crop where women are playing a significant role throughout the value chain is saffron. A contributory factor to the employment of women in this value chain compared to other crops may be that the short harvest season with high labour demand cannot be met by the available male labour supply (Minoia and Pain. 2016),14 while it is a crop that ha been promoted by donor projects specifically for its potential to generate employment for women (and to counter the production of illicit crops). Women’s participation in the saffron production and processing has been significant to the development of the saffron business in Afghanistan, particularly during recent years. Women prepare saffron bulbs for planning, help men prepare the land, help planning the bulbs, and maintain the plants by weeding, watering, and breaking of the soil crust. At harvest time, women collect the flowers, process the flowers by separating the saffron stigmas, and dry and package the saffron which is a huge contribution in the whole process. It shows that women are present throughout the value chain, but their presence is mostly visible in the lower levels of the chain. Saffron is labour intensive at the cultivation, harvesting, and processing stages. Prior

14 Minoia, Giulia and Pain, Adam. 2016. “Saffron: The social relations of production Researching livelihoods” Working Paper 48. 15

to planning, bulbs need to be sifted to separate out the damaged bulbs, cleaned, and then planted following specific guidelines. This is a joint task performed by both men and women. While men are responsible for physically heavier duties, women carry out the tedious and time-consuming parts of the process. Women’s work is limited largely to planting on their own or their families’ farms. Women’s highest contribution in the saffron value chain is provided during the harvesting and processing stages. All women of the family and most of the female relatives and neighbours are likely to be needed to help at the peak of flower harvesting season. This includes younger male and female family members. Flower harvesting begins before sunrise for a few hours. Pickers collect thousands of flowers which then have to be processed by having their stigmas removed. Saffron trading companies in recent years have favoured hiring women as opposed to men for processing the flowers because women were better workers and cost less.

64. Livestock. Traditionally in Afghanistan, women feed animals, do the milking, collect fodder, care for young animals, and sometimes treat sick ones. However, as with horticultural practices, women are often confined to activities which can be conducted in the household vicinity and have little or no access to the wider market. This means that the activities women perform are often considered to be of low value. However, there are some areas of decision making in which women appear to take larger roles for example, in selling milk, eggs, and wool. Women have greater responsibility for the maintenance and care related components of animal husbandry, while men have greater responsibility for purchasing and selling livestock at the market. Similar to horticultural practices, baseline social assessments by MAIL demonstrate provincial variations.

6. Education

65. Progress in human development outcomes was an important achievement in post-2001 Afghanistan, supported by significant levels of aid, literacy, school enrolment, and access to basic services such as water, sanitation, and electricity. All of these improved at a fast pace during the pre-transition period during 2007–2008 and 2011–2012. However, declining aid and increasing conflict during the transition period during 2011–2012 and 2013–2014, slowed progress, especially in education and health.

66. Education is one of the most important aspects of human development. The Convention on the Rights of the Child—the most widely ratified human rights treaty—enshrines the right of all children to a primary education that will give them the skills they need to continue learning throughout life. Yet, a large majority of Afghan people have been denied this right, most of them women and girls. Consequently, they are bereft of many opportunities for personal development and contributions to society.

67. Afghanistan is faced with a huge challenge to recover from thirty years of conflict and political unrest that resulted in the destruction of the Afghan education system in terms of staffing, premises, curricula, and student attendance. During the Taliban rule, girls were even prohibited from attending schools. Since 2001, a nationwide reconstruction process is being implemented with large support from the international community. This has resulted in an increase in the literacy rates of children (both girls and boys).

68. The Ministry of Education data shows that 9,423,293 students were enrolled in primary and secondary education (elementary school, high schools, vocational high schools, religious

16

schools, technical institutes) in 2016–2017. The higher education data indicates that in 2016– 2017, the total number of students enrolled in higher education institutions (both public and private) was 341,273.

69. A worrying trend. Despite improvements over the past decade, Afghanistan, sadly, continues to lag behind in average educational attainment compared to other low-income and fragile countries. Despite ample margins for improvement, the pace of progress in education outcomes declined markedly during the last few years.

70. It is likely that easy progress could be made in reaching more students in the first stage of rebuilding the education system after 2001, when very few children attended school. Progress is harder when attendance levels have increased, especially if it concerns less accessible areas of the country and populations that resist formal education, particularly education for girls. In addition, it is hard to keep the rate of extension of education facilities in line with the high level of population growth, and even harder to increase coverage.

71. For instance, the number of children that will be of primary-school age in six years time will be 18% larger than the number that is of primary-school age now. Where the education system to achieve universal primary education for this next generation in six years time, primary education needs to expand by this additional 18%, on top of 38% increase that is required to accommodate the share of primary-school age children that is currently not attending any education.15

72. The average years of education of an Afghan individual above the age of 18 is only 2.8 and only 37% of pupils attend secondary school. More concerning, the progress in primary school attendance reversed. As a result, a lower share of primary school-aged children in Afghanistan (54.4%) attended primary school in 2016–2017 compared to 2011–2012 (55.8%).

73. Additionally, girls are falling further behind in educational outcomes. The decrease in primary school attendance rates duringn 2011–2012 and 2013–2014 was largely driven by decline of girls' outcomes. In fact, while attendance for both boys and girls fell in that period, primary school attendance for girls decreased by 2.2% annually against a smaller 0.6% annual decline for boys. With already much lower attendance rates for girls (45.4%) compared to boys (62.4%), girls are falling further behind as the trend in the pace of progress reversed; during 2007– 2008 and 2011–2012, girls' primary attendance grew faster than boys', but during 2011–2012 and 2013–2014, boys' attendance fell at a slower pace, leading to an increase in the gender gap (footnote 5).

74. The years during 2011–2012 and 2013–2014 marked a decline in primary school attendance in rural areas, and an increase in the gap in primary attendance between children living in urban and rural areas. During 2013–2014, about eight out of ten children attended primary school in urban areas, against five out of ten children in rural areas. As previously discussed, most of the decrease in attendance in rural areas stems from girls not going to school. Attendance rates for girls in rural areas decreased from 41.0% in 2011–2012 to 37.3% in 2013–2014; while rural attendance for boys decreased by a smaller extent, from 58.9% to 57.4%. Moreover, gaps in attendance between urban and rural areas are much smaller for boys than for girls (footnote 5).

15 Data from Afganistan Living Conditions Surveys: 2012–13; 2013–14; 2016–17. 17

75. Adult and youth literacy rate. The cumulative result of the history of education in Afghanistan is that 82% of the adult population aged 25 and over has not completed any level of education and only 4% completed any level beyond secondary education.

Figure 5: Adult and youth literacy rate, by survey year (in percentages)

Source: Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–2017.

76. The adult literacy rate—referring to the population aged 25 and over—is another indicator that measures the accumulated achievement of the education system. During 2016–2017, the adult literacy rate was found to be 35%. The youth literacy rate (the literacy rate in the population aged 15–24) reflects the outcomes of primary education over roughly the previous 10 years and can be seen as a measure of recent educational progress. For Afghanistan, the youth literacy rate was found to be 54%, indicating considerable progress.

18

7. Health

77. The health system of Afghanistan is recovering from its collapse in the recent decades of conflict, especially after the adoption of new health policies and a strategy of delivering a basic package of health services since 2005. Although remaining low in international comparison, many of Afghanistan’s main health indicators are rapidly improving. Whereas the food security situation in the country remains fragile and adequate sanitation remains poorly available, significant advance has been achieved with respect to access to safe drinking water. Other progress has been made with regard to the availability, access, and quality of health care services.

78. Access to health services is a multidimensional concept. It not only relates to the physical distance to health facilities or the travel time involved, but also involves the costs of travel and services, as well as opportunity costs, cultural responsiveness to clients’ needs, mobility of women, and even the ‘value’ attached to the health and survival of specific household members, such as children and women.

7.1. Children Health

79. The country has some of the world’s highest infant and child mortality rates, and many thousands of children die needlessly each year because they lack access to adequate food and nutrition. Around 41% of Afghan children under the age of five are stunted, with low height for their age, while 10% are acutely malnourished.16

80. Women and girls, typically responsible for domestic labour, are often the most affected by poor basic services such as water, sanitation, and healthcare.

7.2. Maternal Health

81. Maternal health outcomes in Afghanistan have improved. The expansion in primary healthcare services has significantly improved maternal health outcomes over time: the percentage of women receiving skilled antenatal care and delivering with skilled assistance doubled during 2007–2008 and 2013–2014.17

82. However, large urban-rural discrepancies in maternal health outcomes persist. Afghan women in urban areas are more than twice as likely to deliver with skilled assistance as women in rural areas. The gap between skilled birth assistance in urban and rural areas widened, from 43.5% points in 2011–2012, to 45.8% points in 2013–2014 (footnote 5). In line with the trends observed for educational outcomes, the pace of progress deteriorated in rural areas, suggesting ongoing service delivery challenges due to conflict and deteriorating security.

16 Government of Afghanistan, Central Statistics Organization. 2018. Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–17. Kabul. 17 Government of Afghanistan, Central Statistics Organization. 2015. Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2013–14. Kabul. 19

83. Despite some progress, poorest women have less access to maternal health care compared to their rich counterparts. During 2013–2014, seven out of ten women in the richest 20% received skilled antenatal care, but only one in two of the poorest 20% of women received such care (footnote 17). While some progress was achieved in narrowing poor women's access gap in antenatal care, differences in access to delivery with skilled assistance remained constant over time.

8. Employment

84. Poverty reduction in Afghanistan hinges on improving labor market opportunities, both internally and internationally. The dramatic increase in unemployment in the last few years exposed the challenge of creating enough jobs to absorb a fast growing labor force, which is estimated to rise by 400,000 Afghans annually. Given the population dynamics, more jobs are needed, especially for Afghan youth. Restoring growth, particularly labor-intensive growth, will play a critical role moving forward. In the short run, given current economic and security constraints, relying on growth alone might not be sufficient to ease labor market pressure; greater attention should be devoted to promoting legal channels for international labor migration.

85. Migration has long been a core risk management strategy for Afghan households to cope with conflict and few economic opportunities. As in many low-income countries, labor migrants and their remittances contribute to domestic income and consumption,18 reducing poverty and bolstering foreign exchange receipts. Promoting channels for safe and legal migration can help manage likely destabilizing effects including increased secondary displacement, unemployment, and poverty-caused as other Afghans return from Pakistan, Iran, and Europe.

86. Afghanistan labour market is under considerable stress. About 24% of the country’s labour force is unemployed. It would be a serious misunderstanding to think that unemployment is the only, perhaps even the main, problem of the labour market. At least as important is the generally poor quality of work that is available, as it often involves low-productivity and low-paid jobs. Of the total employed population, 20% are underemployed. Moreover, 80% of all jobs are classified as vulnerable employment, characterised by job insecurity and poor working conditions, and 67% of jobs in non-agricultural employment is informal employment. Only 13% of the working population of Afghanistan can be considered to have decent employment (footnote 5).

87. The low quality of work is also evidenced by the finding that the poverty rate of fully- employed people is hardly lower than that of the unemployed and that poverty among the underemployed is even higher than that of the unemployed. Next to the need of jobs for a large number of unemployed, an even far larger number of working people is in need of decent jobs in order to escape poverty.

18 On average, remittances are approximately 8,600 Afs per month, in line with the average monthly income of a male worker below age 35 in Afghanistan. However, the median value of remittances is 20% lower, confirming the prevalence of low-skilled workers among migrants. Nevertheless, the contribution to households from remittances is important; on average, 70% of the total income from labor of households that rely on migration comes from remittances (The World Bank. 2018. Afghanistan Poverty Status Update Report 2017. Washington, DC). 20

Table 1: Employment related indicators Indicator Value (%)

Labour force participation rate (percent) 53.9

Employment-to-population ratio (percent) 41.0

Unemployment rate (percent) 23.9

Youth unemployment rate (percent) 30.7

Share of youth (aged 15-24 years) not in 42.0 education, employment or training (NEET) (percent)

Source: Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–2017.

8.1. Economic sectors and socio-economic development

88. The recent slowing of economic growth is primarily due to declining output in construction, manufacturing, and services sectors. In 2012, services and industry performed extremely well with an annual growth rate of 16% and 8%, respectively. However, in 2013 their growth rate fell drastically to just 6% and 5%, respectively.

89. Afghanistan’s agricultural sector is extremely volatile and vulnerable to changes in climatic conditions. The sector is not modernized to the extent where technology can provide some safety net to mitigate external factors. However, agriculture, particularly peri-urban agriculture, is likely to be an important ‘shock absorber’ over the coming years as international funds become less significant.

8.2. Formal and informal employment

90. Despite improvements in education indicators over the last decade, a significant proportion of the workforce remains unskilled. Data from the World Bank indicates that more than 40% of the workforce is unskilled.19 As an example, access to adequately skilled labor is considered to be a major constraint for approximately half of the firms in Kabul. There is also a risk that the shortage of skilled labor is further exacerbated by the brain drain with a significant proportion of youth joining the labor market each year migrating to Iran and Pakistan in the absence of formal work and in the face of increasing economic and security instability.

91. Nonetheless, employment data has several gaps including (footnote 3):

19 This World Bank data is rural urban aggregated data. 21

• The majority of women are not included in the labor force and are thus excluded; • More than 90% of the jobs that do exist should be classified as “vulnerable employment” as they do not offer stable employment and income. These jobs include the self-employed, unpaid family workers, and day laborers; • Youth unemployment is significantly higher than overall unemployment at 30.7%.

92. Formal wage employment is the exception with up to 90% of economic activity in the informal sector. Most of the labor force is employed by the informal economy working in petty trade, construction (as day workers), brick making, etc. Paid by the day and seasonal, many workers make considerably less money in the winter than in the summer with a significant proportion of the population vulnerable to seasonality and income shocks. Most recently it has become more difficult to find even casual jobs in construction and manufacturing sectors, as a result of dwindling private investment, and the significant influx of displaced populations and other migrants into the cities increasing competition, particularly at the bottom end of the labor market.

8.3. Unemployment and economic migrants

93. Reflecting the bottom-heavy, youthful age distribution of the population discussed above, more than 400,000 Afghans are expected to enter the labor market every year for the foreseeable future with expectations highest amongst young men. Focusing on adult male employment alone, four of five jobs created during 2007–2008 and 2011–2012 were lost by 2013–2014.20

94. Effects are not evenly distributed, with the young, rural areas, and illiterate workers bearing the heaviest losses: half of Afghans unemployed during 2013–2014 were below the age of 25, nine of ten jobs destroyed during the transition period were in rural areas, and four of five jobs destroyed were previously held by illiterate workers. Human capital used to be an antidote against unemployment before 2012—it had also been a catalyst for poverty reduction as better educated workers were able to take advantage of better paying jobs (footnote 5).

95. Conflict and limited socio-economic opportunities are familiar to Afghan households who often migrate to manage risk. As a response to the poverty, socio-economic and security crisis, more Afghans left rural villages either due to forced displacement or as a choice to diversify risk and support families left behind. While displaced households moving to urban areas (largely Kabul) suffer more vulnerability and poverty, families with members who migrate and find employment outside of Afghanistan find the remittances to be a critical source of income.

8.4. Agriculture and employment

96. Despite the challenging insecure situation, agriculture plays an important role in the economy and addressing poverty in Afghanistan. Afghanistan is primarily an agrarian country with nearly 76% of the population living in rural areas and work in agriculture. About 55% of the Afghan households are engaged in farming, and 68% have some type of livestock livestock (APPRO

20 Data from Afganistan Living Conditions Surveys: 2012–13; 2013–14. 22

Report. 2010; MAIL National Strategy on Women in Agriculture, 2015–2020). So, agriculture is a critical source of livelihoods in Afghanistan and considered to be a key pathway out of poverty. More importantly, and as mentioned in more detail in section Error! Reference source not f ound., Afghan women play a distinct role in agriculture and in the rural economy accounting for nearly 43% of the sector’s labor. Despite being major players of economic growth, Afghan women still remain in the periphery with limited access to productive resources (MAIL National Strategy on Women in Agriculture, 2015–2020).

9. Access to Services

97. Improvements in access to basic services such as water and electricity remain an important success story in Afghanistan. Despite challenges of increasing conflict and declining aid, access to water and electricity continued to improve across Afghanistan, at even faster rates than previously observed.

98. The percentage of Afghans with access to safe drinking water more than doubled from 26.6% in 2007–2008 to 62.0% in 2016–2017. Furthermore, 53.0% of Afghans had access to improved sanitation in 2016–2017.

Figure 6: Percentage of population with access to improved drinking water and improved sanitation

Source: Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016–2107.

99. Similarly, access to electricity improved from 41.6% in 2007–2008 to almost 98% in 2016– 2017. However, the World Bank Competitiveness Study in 2017 found that inconsistent electricity supply was among the highest priority constraints facing agribusinesses. Thus, having a constant access to electricity is likely to still be low, requiring agribusiness to invest in expensive diesel generators.

23

100. As progress in access to services continues, closer attention should be devoted to narrowing the gap between urban and rural areas. During 2013–2014, nine out of ten urban households in Afghanistan had access to safe drinking water, but this was the case for only six out of ten rural households. This increase in the gap is due to strong progress in urban areas while rural areas remained constant.

101. The urban-rural divide in access to safe drinking water is mirrored by a strong gap in access between the poor and the non-poor. The expansion in delivery of drinking water benefitted the relatively better-off segments of the population more. On the other hand, improvement in access to electricity in rural areas contributed to narrowing the gap for the poor. Consistent with past trends, the poor were able to catch up to the non-poor in terms of accessing electricity thanks to the expansion of off-grid access in rural areas.

10. Provinces

102. The sections below provide a socio-economic description of the provinces where the Horticulture Value Chains Development Project will be implemented: Bamyan, Ghazni, Kabul, Khost, Kunar, Laghman, Logar, Nangahar, Paktya, Paktika, and Wardak.

103. The data provided in the sections below come from United Nations Population Fund reports (2011), province factsheets and reports produced by the National Horticulture and Livestock Project (2012), and the Naval Postgraduate School reports. Unfortunately, more updated and detailed information is extremely difficult to obtain from secondary data.

Table 2: Summary of key socio-economic data per province Province Population Poverty % % births School Literacy % % rural % rural Rate households attended Enrolment Rate households households households with clean to by a with deriving deriving drinking skilled agriculture income from income from water birth as main trade or non-farm attendant source of services related labor revenue

Bamyan 462,144 55.8% 58% 20.2% 86% 8% 47%

Ghazni 1,270,192 18% 11% 22.7% 70%

Kabul 4,679,648 23.1% 56% 73% 65% 46.8% 41% 53% 27%

Khost 593,691 35% 32% 37% 15%

Kunar 465,706 55% 13% 44% 20%

Laghman 460,352 66.8% 34% 36% 52% 25.6% 29% 36% 39%

Logar 405,109 75% 14% 73% 45.3% 30.3% 39% 30% 46%

Nangahar 1,573,973 33% 8% 60% 49% 22.8% 55% 28% 40%

24

Paktya 570,534 36% 3% 24% 27%

Paktika 449,116 40-44%

Wardak 615,992 25% 43% 25% 50%

10.1. Bamyan

104. Bamyan is located in central highland of Afghanistan. Bamyan is one of the most mountainous provinces with a cold climate. The cultivated areas are concentrated mostly along the Bamyan River basin where the soil is the most fertile. Bamyan has a total of 2,403 villages with an estimated population of 462,144.

105. Bamyan has 7 districts: Punjab, Waras, Bamyan Center, Kohmard, Shebar, Yakawlang, and Saighan.

Figure 7: Location of Bamyan province

106. The poverty rate is at 55.8%. Child labour is at 11.3%, school enrollment at 58.0%, and literacy rate at 20.2%, with a very low female literacy (6.0%).

107. The main ethnic groups are the Hazaras and then the Tajiks, with minority groups of Tatars and Pashtuns. The main language is Dari.

108. Agriculture is the major source of revenue for 86% of households in Bamyan province. Ninety two percent of rural households own or manage agricultural land or garden plots in the province. However, just under one tenth of households in rural areas (8%) derive some income from trade and services. Around half of households (47%) in rural areas earn income through non-farm related labor. Livestock accounts for income for more than one third of rural households (36%).

25

109. The province’s cultivated area is concentrated mostly along the Bamyan River basin where the soil is the most fertile. Sixty five percent of the province’s cultivated land is concentrated in five of its seven districts and livestock raising is equally distributed throughout the province’s districts.

Table 3: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, barley

Fruit Apples, apricots

Vegetable Potatoes

110. Both women and men are active in raising livestock and poultry in Bamyan. Children share the responsibility of raising livestock and poultry with their older family members. While they are typically not involved in the sale of livestock, it is common for them to sell eggs and milk.

10.2. Ghazni

111. Ghazni is located in central Afghanistan. Due to the Sarde Dam and Ghazni River, cultivated land is concentrated in the southern and eastern districts. Ghazni has a total of 3,109 villages with an estimated population of 1,270,192.

112. Ghazni has 19 districts: Ab-Band, Ajrestan, Ander, Dehyak, Qarabagh, Maqur, Malistan, Jaghatoo, Jaghori, Khogiani, Khojaomari, Gelan, Gero, Nawa, Nawar, Rasheda, Waghaz, Ghazni center, Zanakhan.

Figure 8: Location of Ghazni province

26

113. The percentage of households with clean drinking water fell from 35% in 2005 to 18% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 7% in 2005 to 11% in 2011.

114. Ghazni is one of the most ethnically diverse provinces in Afghanistan. The population is divided into 49% Pashtun, 45% Hazara, 4% Tajik, and around 1% Hindu/Sikh, with other varying minorities. The literacy rate is at 23%.

115. There are no major developments going on in Ghazni possibly due to the worsening security situation. Before the war, agriculture and livestock were the main sectors providing livelihoods to majority of the population, but these sectors were badly hit by war as the majority of populations migrated to neighboring countries.

116. Around 70% of the population is involved in agriculture. The province has vast irrigation and rain fed farming land. The majority of the land is irrigated through the dams and water streams.

117. Trade in apples, grapes, plum, walnut, apricot, and almond is very common in Ghazni. Almost half of the shops on the main road in the provincial centre are dealing in the dry fruits business. Onion and potato are sold to Kabul markets and sometimes to Pakistan.

Table 4: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, barley

Fruit & nuts Almonds, walnuts, apples, apricots, grapes, plums

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

118. In the last 20–30 years there is a shift from growing cereal crops to vegetables and orchards growing. Now the improved seed, fertilizer and farm implements are available to majority of the farmers through different organizations.

10.3. Kabul

119. Kabul is an agricultural and industrial province of Afghanistan which is located in eastern part of the country. The cultivated area is concentrated in the northwestern districts of the province because of the fertile land fof the Panjshir River watershed. Kabul has a total of 939 villages with an estimated population of 4,679,648.

120. Kabul has 14 districts: Dehsabz, Charasia, Paghman, Musahi, Qarabagh, Estalif, Farza, Kalakan, Guldara, Mirbachakot, Sarobi, Bagrami, Khaki Jabar, and Shakardara.

121. About 71% of Kabul’s cultivated land is concentrated in seven northern and northwestern districts owing to the fertility caused by the Panjshir river basin. The larger three eastern districts have terrain (hills and mountains) that is more suitable for raising livestock.

27

Figure 9: Location of Kabul province

122. The poverty rate is at 23.1%. Child labour is at 21.2%, school enrollment at 65.0% and literacy rate at 46.8%, with female liretacy at 30.0%. The percentage of households with clean drinking water fell from 65.0% in 2005 to 56.0% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 46.0% in 2005 to 73.0% in 2011. Kabul is Afghanistan's center for education. People from all provinces in the country come to Kabul for education. There are many schools and universities that have opened doors for men and women.

123. Kabul province is very ethnically mixed, with Pashtuns, Tadjiks, and Hazaras and minority groups of Uzbeks, Turkmens, Baluchs, Sikhs, and Hindus. The main languages of the province are Dari and Pashtu.

124. More than half of all households (53%) in the province derive income from trade and services. Around a quarter of households (27%) earn some income through nonfarm related labor, including two in five (40%) rural households. Agriculture is a major source of revenue for 41% of rural households. Livestock also accounts for 8% of rural households’ income.

Table 5: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, rice, maize

Fruit Almonds, apples, grapes, peaches

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

28

10.4. Khost

125. Khost is located in the southeast region of Afghanistan. Around 63% of the province is mountainous. Khost has a population of 593,691 people. Khost also hosts Kuchi people (nomadic herdsmen) in different season.

126. Khost has 13 districts; Khost, Bak, Jaji Maidan, Sabari, Musa Khel, Qalandar, Nadir Shah Kot, Mandoazi, Shamal, Spera, Tani, Tere Zayi, and Gurbuz.

127. The province is dominated by the Khost Valley and the mountains that surround it. Rangelands run from Gorbuz district in the south to Jaji Maydan district in the north. Khost Valley and Bak areas sustain rain fed and intensively irrigated crops. Natural forests run along the border with Pakistan and Paktia.

Figure 10: Location of Khost province

128. The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 34% in 2005 to 35% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 18% in 2005 to 32% in 2011. The overall literacy rate fell from 28% in 2005 to 15% in 2011. The overall net enrollment rate fell from 38% in 2005 to 37% in 2011.

129. The population is primarily Pashtun, with 1% Tajik, and other various minorities.

130. The following are the major crops cultivated in the province.

Table 6: Main agricultural crops Grain & pulses Wheat, beans, peas Fruit & nuts Pomegranate, walnuts, melons, watermelons Vegetable Tomatoes, onions

29

10.5. Kunar

131. The Kunar province has a population of 465,706. Around 96% of the population of Kunar lives in rural districts while 4% lives in urban areas.

132. The province is composed of 15 districts: Asadabad, Bar Kunar, Chapa Dara, Dangam, Dara-I-Pech, Ghaziabad, Khas Kunar, Marawara, Narang Aw Badil, Nari, Nurgal, Sawkai, Shaigal, Sirkani, and Wata Our.

Figure 11: Location of Kunar province

133. The population is primarily Pashtun, with 5% Nuristani, and other minorities.

134. The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 24% in 2005 to 55% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 3% in 2005 to 13% in 2011. The overall literacy rate fell from 32% in 2005 to 20% in 2011. The overall net enrollment rate increased from 43% in 2005 to 44% in 2011.

135. The population almost entirely lives on agriculture and animal husbandry. Walnuts, mulberry (often dried), and grapes are the most important crops in Kunar. Sheep and goats are the dominant household livestock.

10.6. Laghman

136. Laghman is located in the eastern region of Afghanistan. More than half of the province is mountainous (55%). Laghman has a total population of 460,352 people. Laghman is also a Kuchi pastoral destination.

137. Laghman has five districts; Mihtarlam, Qarghayi, Alingar, Alishang, and Dawlat Shah.

30

138. The ethnic groups of the province are as follows: 51% Pashtun, 21% Tajik, 27% Pashai, and Nuristani (Kata). The people of Laghman are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim.

Figure 12: Location of Laghman province

139. The poverty rate is at 66.8%. Child labour is at 32.2%, school enrollment at 52.0%, and literacy rate at 25.6%, with female liretacy at 7.3%.

140. The percentage of households with clean drinking water fell from 39% in 2005 to 34% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 3% in 2005 to 36% in 2011.

141. More than half of the province is mountainous (55%) and rich in natural resources like minerals. There are natural coniferous forests in the side valleys of the province especially in Alingar and Alishang districts. The major sources of irrigation are three rivers (Alishang, Alingar, and Kabul) in the province. Laghman was once famous for producing quality rice which was supplied to both local and international markets, but rice production has gone down significantly.

142. Non-farm labor provides a source of revenue for 39% of households in Laghman province and 36% of households derive income from trade and services. Agriculture accounts for income of nearly one in three households (29%), and livestock for 17% of the households. The main cultivated crops are detailed below.

Table 7: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, maize

Fruit & nuts Pomegranate, walnuts, grapes, mulberries

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

31

10.7. Logar

143. Logar is located in the eastern zone of Afghanistan. Cultivated land is concentrated in the western half of the province along the fertile land beside the Wardak and Maidan Rivers. Kunduz has a total of 655 villages with an estimated population of 405,109 people.

144. Logar has seven districts (Barakibarak, Charkh, Khoshi, Kharwar, M. Agha, Azroo, and Puli Alam).

145. Sixty percent of the cultivated land is located in five of the seven districts, mostly in the western half of the province along the fertile land beside the Wardak and Maidan Rivers.

Figure 13: Location of Logar province

146. The main ethnic group is Pashtuns and the main languages spoken are both Dari and Pashto.

147. The poverty rate is at 75.0%. Child labour is at 9.2%, school enrollment at 45.3%, and literacy rate at 30.3%, with female liretacy at 3.1%. The percentage of households without clean drinking water fell from 45% in 2005 to 14% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 9% in 2005 to 73% in 2011.

148. Around 39% of rural households rely on agriculture as their major source of revenue. Forty three percent of rural households own or manage agricultural land or garden plots in the province. However, around 30% of households in rural areas derive income from trade and services. Around half of households in rural areas (46%) earn some income through non-farm related labor. Livestock also accounts for income for 16% of rural households. The table below shows the main cultivated crops in the province.

32

Table 8: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, maize

Fruit & nuts Grapes, apples, apricots, pinenuts

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

10.8. Nangahar

149. Nangarhar is located in eastern side of Afghanistan. More than half of province is mountainous while the rest is made up of flat or semi mountainous land. Nangarhar has a total population of 1,573,973 people. Nangarhar is also one of the Kuchi destinations during different season.

150. Nangarhar has 21 districts: Jalalabad, Bihsud, Surkh Rod, Chaparhar, Rodat, Kuz Kunar, Dara-I-Nur, Sherzad, Hisarak, Khogyani, Pachir Wa Agam, Dih Bala, Kot, Achin, Nazyan, Dih Bala, Shinwar, Bati Kot, Momand Dara, Goshta, and Lal Pur.

Figure 14: Location of Nangarhar province

151. The ethnic groups are mainly Pashtuns, Pashayee, and minority groups of Tajiks and Gujjars. The main language is Pashtu.

152. The poverty rate is at 33.0%. Child labour is at 19.6%, school enrollment at 49.0%, and literacy rate at 22.8%, with female liretacy at 6.9%. The percentage of households with clean drinking water fell from 43% in 2005 to 8% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 22% in 2005 to 60% in 2011.

153. More than half of province is mountainous (55%) while the rest is made up of flat or semi mountainous land. The climate is conducive for various crops during different seasons. Nangarhar has been called the food basket of Afghanistan. Farmers in Nangarhar produce different crops,

33

especially fruits and vegetables such as grape, olive, orange, watermelon, okra, tomato, spinach, etc.

154. Fifty-five percent of rural households rely on agriculture as their major source of revenue. Fifty nine percent of rural households own or manage agricultural land or garden; 28% of households in rural areas derive some income from trade and services and 40% of households in rural areas earn some income through non-farm related labor. Livestock also accounts for income for 14% of rural households.

155. The table below shows the main cultivated crops in the province.

Table 9: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, maize

Fruit & nuts Grapes, oranges, watermelons, walnuts, mulberries, etc

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

10.9. Paktya

156. Paktya province is located in the south east of Afghanistan. Nearly the entire province is mountainous and covered by forest. Paktya has a total population of 570,534 people. Around 95% of the population in Paktya lives in rural areas. Paktya has a population of Kuchi which varies depending on the season.

157. Paktya has 11 districts: Gardez, Sayyid Karam, Zurmat, Shwak, Wuza Jadran, Ahmad Khel, Jani Khel, Dand Wa Patan, Camkanay, Jaji, and Ahmadabad.

Figure 15: Location of Paktya province

34

158. The population is mostly a tribal society living in rural areas. Pashtun tribes make up the majority of the population (91%) but a smaller number of Tajiks are also found.

159. The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 30% in 2005 to 36% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant fell from 9% in 2005 to 3% in 2011. The overall literacy rate fell from 35% in 2005 to 27% in 2011. The overall net enrollment rate fell from 65% in 2005 to 24% in 2011.

160. The economy of the population is based on the following: wood cutting, agriculture, remittances, animal husbandry, and day labor. In regard to agriculture, the table below shows the main agricultural crops produced in the province.

Table 10: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, maize, rice Fruit & nuts Grapes, apples, apricots Vegetable Potatoes, onions

10.10. Paktika

161. Paktika province is located in the south east of Afghanistan. More than half of the province is covered by mountains (51%) while the rest made up of flat land. The province has a total population of 449,116 people. The Kuchi population varies with season. The Southern districts are intermittently irrigated and cultivated, the center and north are used primarily for rangeland. There are natural forests in Ziruk, Nika, Gayan, and Bermal districts.

162. Paktika has 19 districts: Sharn, Matakhan, Yosof Kahlil, Yahia Kheil, Omane, Sar Roaze, Zarghon Shahr, Jani Kheil, Gomal, Sarobi, Argon, Zirook, Nike, Dile va Khoshamand, Vaze Khah, Tarvoo, Varmami, Barmal, and Gian.

Figure 16: Location of Paktica province

35

163. Pashtuns make up around 96% of Paktika's population. The overwhelming majority of Paktika's population (around 99%) live in rural districts. The literacy rate of the province is between 40%–44%.

164. The following are the main crops produced in the province:

Table 11: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, maize

Fruit Grapes, watermelons, melons

Vegetable Potatoes, onions

10.11. Wardak

165. Wardak is located in central part of Afghanistan. The province’s cultivated area is concentrated mostly in the southeastern districts along the low and fertile basin of the Maidan River and its tributaries. Wardak has a total of 2,143 villages with an estimated population of 615,992 people.

166. Wardak has nine districts (Behsud center, Behsud Hesa II, Chak Wardak, Dimerdad, Jaghato, Jalrez, Nerkh, Maidan Shsr, Said Abad).

Figure 17: Location of Wardak province

167. The population is composed of Hazara, Tajik, Pashtun, Kuchi, Qizilbash, and other minority ethnicities.

168. The overall literacy rate in Wardak province is 25%. There are around 251 primary and secondary schools in the province catering for 105,358 students. There are 2,909 teachers teaching in these schools.

36

169. The majority of commercial activity in Wardak is related to trade in agricultural and livestock products, although stone quarrying is also a growing business in the area. Agriculture is a major source of revenue for 43% of households in Maidan Wardak province. Eighty percent of rural households own or manage agricultural land or garden plots in the province. However, nearly a quarter of households in the province derive income from trade and services, and around half of households earn some income through non-farm related labor.

170. The table below shows the main cultivated crops in the province.

Table 12: Main agricultural crops Grain Wheat, barley Fruit & nuts Apples, apricots, peaches, almonds Vegetable Potatoes, onions

37