Engineering Professional Affiliate of the Engineering Council UK

40th Anniversary Journal Awards Results Page 4 Effect of end shape on blast from cylindrical charges Page 28

THE JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF EXPLOSIVES ENGINEERS March 2014

Contents Contents

Features Regulars Best practice for Commercial Ordnance 8 Disposal (EOD) in Great Britain Institute News 2 Ken Cross MBE CEng MSc BSc(Hons) FIExpE Tech Spec 34 Critical review of novel detection 12 methods for buried explosives The Bennett file 36 Holli Kimbl e MEng MSc MIExpE Sidney Alford column 37 A cost effective method for preliminary 16 explosive characterisation Industry News 38 Andrew Envy BEng AIExpE Conference/Exhibition Diary 40 D10 dozer recovered from a 21 In a flash - Ben Hoge BA (Criminal 40 high wall using blasting Justice) I.A.A.I CFI CFEI MIExpE Tristan Worsey BSc MSc MISEE

A history of explosives: as they 26 Front cover picture: Images through SEM (scanning electron relate to the UK microscope) of blackpowder Ian McKay CEng MPhil BSc DipH&S FIMM FIExp E (left) and SEM of spherical agglomerate of gun propellant grade n-guanylurea dinitramide (GuDN/Fox-12) (Centre for Defence Effect of end shape on blast from cylindrical charges 28 Chemistry, Cranfield Scott Bradley BEng MSc(EOE) University).

The Institute of Explosives Engineers Editor Suite 3, 7–8 Mill Street, Stafford ST16 2AJ Diane Hall Telephone and fax: 01785 240154 Telephone: +44 (0)1729 840765 Email: [email protected] Mobile: +44 (0)7778 063373 www.iexpe.org Email: [email protected] [email protected] Institute of Explosives Engineers Design and Print/Production and Registered Office: Advertising Manager 141 Victoria Road, Swindon SN1 3BU Gordon Hunt Company No. 07905911 Company limited by guarantee Gordon Hunt Design Telephone: +44 (0)1726 832594 Email: [email protected] The Institute of Explosives Engineering Explosives Engineers Distributed quarterly to all members of the Institute of Explosives Engineers. The IExpE logo is a UK registered To non-members or for additional copies to members, including p&p. trade mark owned by IExpE Single copies:- UK £8.80, EU £11.20, World £12.40. Annual subscription:- UK £34.50, EU £44.10, World £48.90 To obtain copies, contact Explosives Engineering Subscriptions at the Institute address above. Cheques should be made payable in sterling to the Institute of Explosives Engineers. Papers, articles and letters to the Editor are welcome and should be sent to the Editor at her email address, or by post to the Institute address. Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors concerned. Professional Affiliate of ECUK They do not necessarily represent the views of the Institute 01 Institute News

categories and so thank you to all those who always available on the web. The Institute entered. The winning articles from each holds a range of documents which have The category are elsewhere in the journal as are now been catalogued by Dr Ian Barnes and President details of the Awards presentation. we intend to put that list on the website so members can see what we hold. We are At the end of January we hosted a visit of speaks considering exactly which documents to our counterparts from EUExcert Sweden. retain and where they will be held. It is a sad The last EUExcert project ended with 8 out fact of life that as establishments have of 10 partner nations agreeing to adopt and closed libraries have too often been closed adapt the UK National Occupational and their contents destroyed. If any I hope that when you opened this edition of Standards (NOS) as the basis for certification members have documents they think would the journal you noticed that it was slightly of explosives workers. As there have been be worth keeping please let the Secretariat different. Our Journal Committee have many changes in people and structures in know and we will consider finding a home updated the design, typeface and paper to Sweden, it was agreed that the aim of the for them. mark our 40 years as an Institute and to week was to provide an introduction to the modernise the style we launched for the NOS and their implementation as the basis Looking forward to the AGM and after the 30th Anniversary. The Institute was formed of qualifications and also as management request at last year’s you will have seen that in 1974 and this is included in a history of tools. The week was a great success and we we have moved the venue to Scotland this explosives in this journal. Since our formation look forward to the next phase of year and we hope that those in Scotland and we have come a long way and we must be collaboration across Europe in this area. the North of England will take the very grateful to our founding fathers for opportunity of a shorter journey to support Members of the Institute have also been setting up the Institute. We should be very both functions. Details are to be found on involved with the GEMS meeting. GEMS proud that we are now a Professional page 7 and if you have not yet booked in, do stands for Group of Experts in Mitigation Affiliate of the Engineering Council and not delay and I look forward to seeing you Systems. It was formed in December 1999 those members who wish to do so can seek all in Scotland. professional registration with the and held its inaugural meeting at COTEC Engineering Council. (Cranfield Ordnance Test and Evaluation Finally to Council matters, first it is with Centre). The group is managed by CPNI sadness that I have to inform you that Peter I recently represented the Institute at a (Centre for the Protection of National Norton has had to resign from Council professional engineering forum at the MOD Infrastructure) and has expanded over the because of his other commitments and site at Abbey Wood and I was approached years to include embedded members across through the pages of the Journal I would by several graduates and apprentices who Government departments and agencies. like to thank him on your behalf for the work were interested in professional registration Individual members are encouraged to he has done as Technical Officer and for the but were unsure where to start. We need to network, communicate challenges and articles he has written. As I step down from keep pushing the message to those starting present their findings and questions to the the Presidency at the AGM, the President for off in their careers that if they are interested wider Group. The Group meets each January next year will be John Wolstenholme and in professional registration then join an in a different location; this year AWE hosted the two Vice Presidents will be Mike Bolland Institute and start recording their CPD the meeting and next year DSTL will be and Paul Harris. We are looking for new activities. inviting GEMS members along to one of members of Council and I encourage you all To commemorate our forty years we held their establishments. to vote for those you would like to see on Council. Thank you for your support over the 40th Anniversary Journal Awards In an industry as diverse as explosives, the last two years, it has been a great competition to encourage those interested networking is very important and so I draw privilege to have been the President of such to write and submit a paper on aspects of your attention to the Linkedin group we run. a vibrant and growing Institute. explosives engineering. There were four It is also very important to have the ability to categories, Fellows, Members, Associates find information that you need and it is not and Non-members. We had responses in all A J Morley MSc BSc MIExpE

Professional Registration update Professional Registration statistics as at February 1st 2014: to maintaining a high quality of working, continuous professional CEng IEng EngTech development, and compliance with a professional code of ethics, QUALIFIED 16 43 environmental and safety standards. It is not an onerous task and IN PROGRESS 710 those who are already registered will testify to its value in their professional lives. PRI Assessor training: on 27th February 2014, Col Gareth Collett and Dr Chris Owen will attend the Society of Environmental Engineers PRI To apply for professional registration call or email the Institute office: Assessor training to be held at Lockheed Martin's facility in Ampthill. Tel +44 (0)1785 240154; Email [email protected] Professional Registration. All Members and Fellows of the Institute For more information, contact Ken Cross: Tel +44 (0)7805 053791 should give serious consideration to professional registration in one Email: [email protected] of the grades available (EngTech, IEng, CEng). Professional registration is your personal quality mark that demonstrates to others in the Ken Cross MBE CEng MSc BSc(Hons) FIExpE profession and potential employers or clients that you are committed

02 Institute News EUExcert UK report Certifying Expertise in European Explosives Sector Swedish (SWE) mobility visit hoped that it will include partner EUExcert type of project. The Key Actions of 27th to 31st January 2014 participation in implementing the NOS to a Erasmus+ are described in full on the IExpE The long-awaited visit of our counterparts certain (to be determined) level such as at website. Key Action 1 of Erasmus+ is to from EUExcert SWE took place from 27th to least one explosives worker in one or two support mobility visits for learners and staff 31st January 2014. The last EUExcert project companies in the partner nation having from programme nations, of which both UK ended with 8 out of 10 partner nations qualified in a vocational qualification, with and SWE are part. Key Action 2 is to foster agreeing to adopt and adapt the UK the partner nation and supporting co-operation and innovation for good National Occupational Standards (NOS) as company(ies) having created and practices, which is clearly at the core of the the basis for certification of explosives implemented policies and processes, used EUExcert aims. It is important to note that all workers and, as there have been many the NOS to create Role Profiles and created organisations will need to be registered on changes in people and structures in Sweden, and used supporting information systems. the European Commission’s online it was agreed that the aim of the week was registration facility in order to apply for The Chairman of the Board of KCEM to provide an introduction to the NOS and funds. The Council of IExpE has agreed out discussed the leadership of the next project their implementation as the basis of of committee that they will register in their with his board in the week beginning 3rd qualifications and also as management tools. capacity as the National Node for EUExcert. February 2014, with the fallback option Members of EUExcert UK who might wish to Seven members of EUExcert SWE and seven being that they should lead a virtual project draw down EC funds through this scheme from EUExcert UK participated over the team made up from the partners. At the will also need to register. week. My thanks go to all those from same time, the Chairman of the EUExcert EUExcert UK who put so much time and Association, Chairman of EUExcert SWE and International Conference on effort into providing a well-structured members of EUExcert UK considered the Explosive Education and Certification programme that was pitched at exactly the practicalities of writing the bid for funding of Skills 2014 level our guests wanted. the project in line with the strategy that was This year’s ICEECS is likely to take place on proposed at the final meeting of the 11-12 June in Karlskoga, Sweden and the Next EUExcert project EUExcert SWE visit: to bid for funds to call for papers will be published soon. The final sessions provided the opportunity enable staff and learner mobility visits to discuss the next EUExcert project. We between UK and SWE, and other partner EUExcert UK Actions outlined our position, that although we nations within the constraints of Erasmus+ 1. Maintain a link to the UK National Agency have resisted taking the leadership role for Key Action 1 and to bid for funds for the for Erasmus+. the next project in the EUExcert Programme, next EUExcert project within the terms of 2. Members wishing to draw down expecting (in concert with other EUExcert Erasmus+ Key Action 2. Erasmus+ funds for Key Action 1 mobility partners) that KCEM will continue to do so visits should register with Erasmus +. and in order that the programme is not seen Erasmus+ 3. Prepare to support the creation of a as UK-centric, we must consider the The Chairman of EUExcert UK and DOES PM project team to write the bid for the next possibility that the benefits for sustainability (IExpE) attended the Erasmus+ briefing EUExcert project. of skills in the UK explosives sector and session in London on 10th December 2013. 4. Prepare to support the organisation of mobility of UK explosives workers require The UK National Agency for Erasmus+ will the 2014 International Conference on EUExcert UK to form a project team to either be a consortium led by the British Council Explosives Education and Certification of lead or support the next phase. All members with Ecorys UK as a key partner. In outline, Skills. are invited to suggest options/models for Erasmus+ has some 14.7 Billion EURO to K A Cross MBE CEng MSc BSc(Hons) FIExpE setting up this team. The topic of the next support projects over the period 2014-2020, Chairman EUExcert UK project was discussed in outline and it is some 75%+ of which is available for the

presenting backgrounds, along with Please get in touch, through the Institute professional firework experience, to engage Secretariat, if you wish to attend any of the Branch audiences of all ages in the applications of meetings or to be added to the email reports science. Matthew explained why he hates distribution list bangs for the sake of bangs and some of the Rob Hart CEng AIEMA MIExpE Branch Secretary challenges he's encountered so far. The South (Central and West) Branch presentation also raised interesting Matthew Tosh Matthew Tosh presented to the branch on reminders about why procurement presenting to the Branch 10th December 2013 in Bristol. This was an managers and safety managers of explosive meeting. informative and enjoyable presentation articles should take care when applying including some pyrotechnic demonstrations ‘read across’ from one system to another, as for good measure. Matthew provided an the smallest of changes can create interesting insight into the chemistry and significantly different explosive results. To physics of pyrotechnic effects. He talked find out more about Matthew, visit about how he has used his teaching and www.matthewtosh.com.

03 Institute News Development office Award Winners for explosives skills Congratulations At the time of writing this update I have been fully involved to the winners in with the EUExcert Swedish explosives employers mobility visit to the UK to share best practice and find out how the UK the Journal explosives sector has taken forward the use of Explosives Awards Substances and Articles (ESA) National Occupational Standards (NOS). The trip has included visits to QinetiQ, Cranfield Competition - University, ISSEE with presentation by employers, HSQ, AVCTS, 2014 Cogent, MPQC and myself, including the use of an excellent presentation by Air Cdre Mike Quigley to the PARARI conference in Australia. This explained how the UK and DE&S are tackling the ‘Sustaining WOME Sector Skills’ and the SQEP issue (Suitability Qualified Experienced Personnel) and was well received. As a means of celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Institute, the Editorial team created a new competition calling for original technical The Sector Skills Strategy Group (SSSG) board will be reviewing papers/articles for publication in the journal. The competition was the achievement and outcomes of the DOES project at their publicised widely both in our journal and others and through leaflets next board meeting in February 2014 and will be deciding on distributed to selected universities and industries; international how they will take the project forward in the future and keep entries were received over an eight month period. The competition the momentum, we will keep you informed. I continue to assist was open to all members and to non-members. The prize for each the SSSG employers via the Expert Working Groups (EWG) to winner is a glass tankard and a cheque for £500. It had been intended sign-post training opportunities and collaboration of training, to award two prizes for the Member’s category but as the entries as well as my other priority areas. came it became apparent that only one was required. I have been involved in the HSE EIDAS database workshops We selected a judging panel of people who have been involved in the looking at ‘Trials’ and ‘Disposal’ sub-sectors, which have been led explosives sector for a long time and, to maintain the independence by SSSG Expert Working Groups (EWG) members and will of the panel, the judges were not allowed to enter the competition. provide industry with a ‘Lessons Learnt’ database of past The judges were asked to grade the articles according to their quality, accidents and incidents, which will be held on the SSSG portal the technical application, explosives content, layout and interest page. generated by the paper. I can report that the Explosives Apprenticeship frameworks for The judges wish to commend all the entries but in particular singled Level 2 and 3 are now published and available for use with early out the entries from the Associate Members for the high quality and indications that some employers will start using these from depth of the articles. The winning entries in each category are: April 2014 and others with their September intake. Fellows – Ken Cross I would like to remind members about the next Ordnance, “Best practice for Commercial Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) in Munitions and Explosives Symposium at Cranfield University, Great Britain ” Shrivenham - ‘Design for Safety’ which will be held from 30th September to 1st October 2014 and a call for abstracts/papers is Members – Holli Kimble being made now. “Critical review of novel detection methods for buried explosives” If any IExpE member has any questions, please feel free to Associate Members - Andrew Envy contact me for details. “A cost effective method for preliminary explosive characterisation” Allan Hinton FinstLM MCMI MCILT AIExpE DOES Non Members – Tristan Worsey Programme Manager “D10 dozer recovered from a high wall using blasting” Email: [email protected] or [email protected] The winning entries from each category are published in this journal Mobile: 07866 429559 Tel: 01785 240154 and the remaining entries will be used in future journals at the Editor’s discretion. Papers are published as entered with minor typographical changes. Institute Awards 2013-2014 A call for nominations for the following awards: It is hoped that all the prize winners will be able to attend the dinner • MSc Award after the AGM on 1st May to be presented with their prizes. • Nobel Lecture Award We are now considering whether to run another journal competition • Harold Swinnerton Award or to run one in a slightly different form. The subjects for this • Rosenthal Salver Award competition were left fairly open; should we tighten the selection of • Examination Award subjects, for instance? If anyone has views about this please let the • Journal Award Editor know. • Student Award Nominations to [email protected] (See page 38). Details of any future competition, if it is decided to run one, will be notified in the journal. 04 Institute News Marking the 40th Anniversary of the Institute

We thank the Past Presidents and Members for their contribution to the success and growth of the Institute and look forward to 2012. Alan Morley MSc BSc continued expansion and professionalism. MIExpE

2010. Ken Cross MBE CEng MSc BSc(Hons) FIExpE

1979. Bill Fowler TD FIExpE.

1985. Fred Ogden FIExpE. 1984. R P Hughes BSc CEng 2008. Malcolm Ingry MIExpE AMIMinE MIExpE.

2006. Richard Vann MIExpE

2002. Jim Hackett MIQ MIExpE. 2004. Charles Moran FiExpE

Ken Broadhurst, MBIM FIExpE, (1987 1989. Terry Digges FIExpE. President) congratulates Terry White, BSc CEng MIMinE FIExpE, on becoming Vice President. Terry went 1996. Peter McGoff MIMine CEng on to be President in 1991. MIExpE.

1998. Ian McKay CEng MPhil 2000. Andy Pettit BSc MSc BSc DipH&S FIMM FIExpE MIMinE FIExpE

1994. Mark Hatt MIPE FIExpE. 1993. Mike Groves MIExpE. Note: Not all photographs of Past Presidents were available. Inaugural gathering of Past Presidents A lunch will be held on 26th March at the Special Forces Club in London to reaquaint old colleagues and Presidents. Further details : [email protected]. Picture taken at an IExpE Council Meeting in January 1985 includes the Please note Ken Cross is hoping to arrange a similar event following Members: Dr Sidney Alford, Brook Foster, Nick Daniels, Mark Hatt, Fred Ogden, Jeffrey Rosenthal, Roger Hughs, Bill Fowler, Dr Gour for Fellows of the Institute Sen, not identified, John Butterworth, John Mackenzie, Terry White, Barry Lawe, Terry Digges. 05 Institute News

06 Institute News IExpE AGM and Conference 2014 The 2014 AGM and Conference will be taking place on 1st and 2nd May 2014 at the Westerwood Hotel and Golf Resort (Cumbernauld, Nr. Glasgow, G68 0EW) with the AGM and dinner on 1st May and the Conference on 2nd May. The theme for the 2014 Conference is “Developing Competence in Explosives Skills”, with various provisional industry speakers already selected. Should you wish to be considered to present at All Members of the Institute are entitled to attend the AGM and the Conference, please contact Dave Welch or Hannah Mellish Conference at no cost, other than travel expense and overnight by calling: 01329 226 156 or emailing [email protected]. accommodation. Non-members will find the associated event costs on the AGM and Conference Booking Form, which should be It is proposed that the 2014 programme will remain the same as completed by all attendees (including Members) and returned to for 2013, following a positive response, with a shorter day and [email protected] or via post to Chairman for IExpE AGM and an extended open forum after the symposium to allow for Conference, Shogun House, Fielder Drive, Fareham, PO14 1JE, at the delegate participation. However the conference will commence earliest convenience. If you require a new copy of the form, please slightly later this year at 09.30 to allow consideration for contact Dave Welch or Hannah Mellish on 01239 226 156 or attendees' and presenters' travel constraints. [email protected]. Accommodation should be booked directly Thus, outline timings for the programme are below: through the hotel by calling: 01236 457 171, quoting “IExpE” as a 1st May 2014 13:30 – 15:30 Council reference to obtain the associated discount. As always, partners are Meeting encouraged to attend the Dinner and Conference and their 1st May 2014 16:00 – 18:00 AGM attendance should be detailed on the Booking Form also. 1st May 2014 19:30 – 20:00 Drinks A number of sponsors have already been confirmed, however, there Reception are packages still available due to the new restructured and tiered 1st May 2014 20:00 – 23:00 AGM Dinner levels allowing for further sponsorship opportunities. All 2nd May 2014 09:30 – 15:45 Conference sponsorship packages are detailed in the Sponsorship Booking 2nd May 2014 15:45 onwards Open Forum/ Networking Form which can be obtained through Dave Welch or Hannah Mellish by calling: 01329 226 156 or emailing [email protected].

07 Institute News Award Winner Category: Fellows of IExpE

Best practice for Commercial Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) in Great Britain

By Ken Cross MBE CEng MSc BSc(Hons) FIExpE PICRITE Ltd, UK

Abstract This paper outlines the background to, and development of, a new guidance document for contracting and delivering commercial EOD operations in Great Britain. It describes the changing framework for provision of EOD support from MOD-only to a blend of Defence and commercial operators. The booklet ‘Guidance Notes for Commercial EOD Operations’ is described as providing guidance on best working practices for dealing with potentially unexploded munitions discovered on the landmass of Great Britain or in its territorial waters. The Guidance Note is not a substitute for officially recognised training and qualifications but is intended to assist all involved in fulfilling their responsibilities for the safety of employees, contractors and service personnel, as well as the safety of people living or working in the vicinity of the EOD Operation. It is intended as a reference document for regulators, local authorities, engineering/construction contractors and commercial EOD organisations, to ensure that each understands the roles and responsibilities of the others.

Summary The changing framework of EOD operations In short, best practice for commercial published an article in the journal of the in Great Britain, especially in the latter part explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) in Great Institute of Explosives Engineers entitled of the ‘noughties’, prompted the HSE to ask Britain comes down to EOD organisations “Legal Requirements for Commercial EOD the IExpE to write a guidance note on being demonstrably competent across all Operations”. The intention of his paper was to commercial EOD operations to inform EOD the requisite skills at all levels of the flag up the issues that commercial EOD contractors, their clients, the regulators and organisation, identification of UXO and operators must address with respect to the authorities on best practice in the field. therefore the hazards and risks associated explosives licensing, preventing In 2009, the HSE published an article with them, compliance with regulations unauthorised access to explosives, and how outlining the challenges that needed to be wherever possible and offering timely explosives may be transported, including addressed. The “Guidance Notes for ALARP solutions to the regulators when both the explosives to be used in disposal Commercial Explosive Ordnance Disposal circumstances are not covered in the and the less well characterised explosives to Operations“ is due to be published in regulations. be disposed of. The paper addressed the December 2013 and this paper shows that background to the issue, identified the key each of the challenges is properly addressed Background legal duties and raised some questions about and that the final version of the GN achieves In 2009, Paul Rushton of the UK Health and how the UK might take the issues forward. In its aims. Safety Executive’s Explosives Inspectorate doing this it highlighted four particular

08 Award Winner challenges that UK EOD companies face in under Military Aid to the Civil Authorities measures that need to be considered. meeting their legal obligations. principles 2. The geographical dispersal of • To enable a contracting organisation to and response time for military EOD teams is specify EOD Operations as a means to The particular challenges identified were: formally agreed between the Home Office achieving their overall intent. • Can the UXO be destroyed on-site? and the Ministry of Defence in a Service • To enable a commercial EOD company • On-site licensed storage. Level Agreement. Defence will respond at to meet the various operational and • Is the UXO safe to move or transport? short notice where there is deemed to be a legislative requirements demanded of it • Carriage to disposal site. threat to life or potential for unacceptable in conducting EOD operations within economic damage. Outside these criteria, the United Kingdom. Having presented the paper at the IExpE AGM Defence will clear unexploded ordnance and • To assure the regulator that commercial and published it in the journal, HSE and IExpE consider requests for assisting in the EOD companies working within the UK observed that the number of commercial clearance of other types of explosive. know the framework of explosives EOD companies was growing to fill the gaps However, should there be a realistic legislation within which they must left as the Ministry of Defence (MOD) was expectation of encountering munitions operate and that implementation of pulling back from its hitherto ubiquitous during a commercial operation or private commercial EOD Operations comply presence in all disciplines of EOD across the working, a competent commercial EOD with that legislation and best practice. UK due to its increasing commitments in contractor should be employed. The • To outline the procedures to be followed Afghanistan and its reducing budget. It was Metropolitan Police Service and a number of when suspected munitions are felt that it was only right and proper to UK commercial companies maintain a range encountered. enable the burgeoning companies to have of EOD capabilities. The latter may also be • To remind companies, individuals and the best chance of staying on the right side of engaged to support civil authorities.” organisation that the risks from their the multi-faceted regulatory requirements by operations should be As Low as providing a single guidance note that should It was also around this time that the MOD, Reasonably Practicable 3 (ALARP). at least ensure that the directors and along with all other government employees of these companies, as well as departments, began to implement austerity The GN does not relieve individuals, potential clients were aware of the relevant measures to reduce the UK’s financial deficit. companies or organisation from their duty to laws and processes involved in conducting The austerity measures included making meet the legislative requirements of the Law. EOD in a commercial environment. many service personnel redundant and, of It provides guidance on best working course, that was expected to include EOD practices for dealing with potentially The changing EOD framework operators who would look to make use of unexploded munitions discovered on the in GB their skills in the commercial marketplace. landmass of Great Britain or in its territorial Since before the Second World War, the waters. The GN is not a substitute for MOD provided all EOD services for This prompted the HSE’s concern that such officially recognised training and government and police forces across the UK. new entries to the commercial EOD space qualifications but is intended to assist all For some types of clearance, MOD was should not fall foul of the law, having involved in fulfilling their responsibilities for: entitled to charge the recipient of the worked within a highly regulated and service directly, for example the EOD controlled environment within the MOD • The safety of employees, contractors and clearance of a scrap yard and in the 1990s it that enshrined the multiple complex service personnel. became common practice to cross-charge regulatory requirements within one or two • The safety of people living or working in police authorities for the provision of pre- Joint Service Publications, or as they are the vicinity of the EOD Operation. emptive EOD cover at major events. seen by the HSE - ‘Safe Systems of Work’. Meeting the challenges The combination of changes to civil What was needed was a guide for Challenge 1 - Can the UXO be destroyed engineering standards and regulations, Commercial EOD Operations that would on-site? requiring detailed risk assessments and inform newcomers to EOD provision, those From a risk-reduction perspective, i.e. not environmental assessments, with organisations wishing to employ exposing more people and property to the consequent mitigation policies and commercial EOD companies, those working hazard than is absolutely necessary, this processes incorporated in the project plan, within EOD companies and the authorities. must always be the preferred option. The with reducing availability of MOD EOD simple answer to the challenge is that it will support, provided opportunities for Guidance notes for commercial depend on the location of the site, proximity commercial EOD organisations to offer their explosive ordnanace disposal of surrounding buildings and the nature of services. In the maritime environment, the operations the UXO. These then are the ‘so what?’ MOD moved away from providing regular questions – what are the hazards associated The aims of the Guidance Notes (GN) are: EOD support to aggregate yards that would with the destruction of the UXO and is the frequently find unexploded ordnance (UXO) • To provide practical advice to local site safe and suitable for the destruction in the loads brought ashore by their authorities, the emergency services, operation? dredgers. This resulted in the publication in possible contracting organisations and, The GN provides guidance on the conduct March 2010 of a Guidance Note “Dealing EOD contractors on the measures to be 1 of site surveys, UXO Risk Assessments, noise with munitions in marine sediments” . taken to reduce the risk to people and and vibration monitoring and the overall property when suspected munitions are The current MOD policy on the provision of conduct of an EOD operation from planning discovered. EOD support is that “Defence provides EOD through to remediation. support to the civil authorities within the UK • To outline the potential risks and safety

09 Award Winner

• EOD Level 2. Level Two operators are Challenge 3 - Is the UXO safe to move or competent to locate, identify, move, transport? transport and destroy multiple items on This is the most critical question in the EOD which they have been specifically operation. As Paul Rushton noted in his trained. original article “This is only an issue if it is unsafe to undertake the disposal on site. But • EOD Level 3 7. Level Three operators are it is potentially a very big one”. In actual fact, competent to conduct render-safe there are two elements to this: is the UXO procedures and final disposal of any safe to move within the site, i.e. to the on- type of explosive ordnance with the site disposal area; is the UXO safe to move to exception of specialisations listed under an off-site disposal area? level four. The emphasis in the GN on the competence • EOD Level 4. Level Four operators are of individuals at all levels in the EOD competent to carry out specialist tasks in organisation, regular validation of the following categories provided that competence and an insistence on they have the relevant training 8: identification of the UXO all contribute to - Disposal of specific Guided Weapons; providing the level of assurance required by - Demilitarisation of Explosives the regulators. This particular issue was the Ordnance; most debated in all the development of the - Chemical, Biological, Radiological and GN but an agreement was reached such that Nuclear weapons; HSE Explosives Inspectorate (HSE XI) expects As the subject matter expert (SME), the EOD - Improvised Explosive Device Disposal; UXO to be destroyed in-situ whenever organisation is expected to be able to - Disposal of weapons with specific fuel possible and when safe to do so; occasions demonstrate competency (that combination hazards; when UXO are moved from the site of of knowledge, experience, skills and - Logistic disposal. attitude) at all levels of the organisation to discovery should only be considered where the risks of on-site disposal cannot be undertake all the relevant processes and Challenge 2 – On-site licensed storage. mitigated to an acceptable level. The procedures: site survey, identification of On a pre-planned EOD operation, there are movement of any explosive comes with its UXO, siting of disposal area, advising and two reasons why an explosives store might own risks and therefore the overriding implementing mitigation, movement, be required: to store the serviceable constraint is that the UXO has been assessed storage and use of explosives, advising and explosives required for the destruction of and is considered safe to transport, this will implementing remediation. UXO on-site or for the temporary storage of be largely dictated by the condition in which UXO if they cannot be destroyed on the day Training and maintenance of competence is the UXO is found. essential to the business and safe conduct of they are found. When UXO are disposed of on the day they are found, no storage EOD operations. In order to operate in the Challenge 4 – Carriage to disposal site. licence is required, however the potential for UK, all EOD Operators must hold The challenge was originally articulated as unforeseen delays should be considered. qualifications that are mapped against the “Contractors cannot classify the UXO Delays could be due to finding a large National Occupational Standards for themselves, and HSE would not classify UXO quantity that cannot be disposed of quickly Explosive Substances and Articles (NOS for without test evidence. Classification is 45 enough or due to weather conditions or ESA), Key Role 12 at the level appropriate therefore not appropriate. However HSE has availability of explosives or perhaps other to the task in hand. It is expected that the the power to authorise carriage of factors external to the site. It is therefore senior EOD operator on site will be explosives that is contrary to the sensible to have a licensed store on the site technically qualified and, in order to provide prohibitions or requirements of the Carriage where UXO may be temporarily kept until it assurance to local authorities and clients of Regulations. Authorisations must be time can be disposed of. his capability to conduct dynamic risk limited, specify the purpose for which they assessments, must hold a recognised The GN provides an outline of the GB are issued, and set out the conditions of qualification in the management of an EOD explosives licensing regime – HSE, Police or carriage. or Munitions Clearance operation. Local Authority, depending on the “Authorisations have most often been used organisation’s required holdings. It is EOD can be carried out at many levels - from to permit the carriage of unclassified incumbent on the EOD contractor to identify the neutralisation of large bombs and fireworks from an unlicensed location to a a suitable location on the site for an missiles to the destruction of grenades and licensed store. Before authorising such explosives store in their Method Statement sub-munitions. EOD qualifications should be carriage, HSE needs to be convinced that the and to arrange proper licensing. appropriate to the hazard and the munitions carriage is safe, i.e. that there is no risk of most likely to be found. As a guide the ignition during the transport operation. For 6 following levels are appropriate : undamaged explosives that are similar to • EOD Level 1. Level One operators are explosives that have already been classified, competent to locate, identify and this can be relatively straightforward, but for destroy under appropriate supervision, unexploded ordnance of unknown single items in-situ on which they have condition and unknown provenance it could been specifically trained. be very difficult.”

10 Award Winner

Annex D of the GN describes the approval process for packaging and movement of EOD arisings with the aim of providing EOD organisations the process for applying for either an annual permit to Editorial Programme – package and move EOD arisings from the site of discovery of an 2014-2015 item of UXO to an off-site disposal area in a pre-planned EOD task, or for a one-off move of UXO in a reactive EOD scenario. June Quarrying & mining The GN requires that outer packaging must be of wooden or other non-metallic construction and must display a UN Packaging Code Major Majendie and the that shows the package can be accepted for transport. Where this is Explosives Act of 1875 not practicable a justification as to the suitability of the proposed packaging will need to be made. Outer packaging must carry appropriate markings: September Pyrotechnics, special effects • UN Ser 0354, Articles Explosive N.O.S. • Hazard Classification Symbol – 1.1L and forensics • Gross Weight • NEQ (Estimate) • Quantity • Name – “Unexploded Ordnance for Disposal by Open December EOD/IEDD and area clearance Detonation” • Date packaged Given the non-standard nature of the UXO, inner packaging must be March SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) safe and suitable, i.e. it must prevent the UXO from movement equipment within the outer package and must neither add to the effects of an unexpected explosion nor the initiation of such an event e.g. by Explosives used in increasing the risk of electrostatic discharge. Suitable materials safety equipment include, but are not limited to: anti-static bubble-wrap, corrugated card, polystyrene chips no smaller than combined outer dimensions of 5cm. Normal ADR/CDG regulations apply with regard to approved vehicle type, placarding, training of drivers and escorts etc. UXO are not to be carried in the same vehicle as the serviceable explosives required EXPLOSIVES STORAGE for their destruction, hence the use of the hazard classification code 1.1L. It is recognised that this requirement adds to the logistic SOLUTIONS burden on the EOD organisation but it is imperative that the hazard OVER 95 YEARS LEADING THE FIELD of the unclassified, packaged UXO is isolated from other explosive STILL THE FRONT RUNNER IN QUALITY, hazards that could add to the overall hazard in the event of an DESIGN INNOVATION AND RELIABILITY unplanned explosion or fire. EXPLOSIVES - DETONATOR - ARMOURY & AMMUNITION STORES OFF-SHORE STORES (DNV 2.7-1 CERTIFIED), SECURITY DOOR SETS 1. ISBN 978-1-906410-14-8 ALL PRODUCTS SUPPLIED TO CURRENT HSE SECURITY STANDARDS 2. Joint Doctrine Publication 02 (2nd Edition) - Addendum: Operations in the UK: A Guide ACPO & MoD JSP440/482 SEAP 3 (ENHANCED) for Civil Responders, published February 2010 & 4 (HIGH) SECURITY SPECIFICATIONS 3. Defined by Judge Asquith in Edward v. the National Coal Board (1949) as “ ‘Reasonably practicable’ is a narrower term than ‘physically possible’, and seems to me to imply that computation must be made by the owner in which the quantum of risk is placed on one scale and the sacrifice involved in the measures necessary for averting the risk (whether in time, money or trouble) is placed in the other, and that, if it be shown that there is a gross disproportion between them – the risk being insignificant in relation to the sacrifice – the defendants discharge the onus on them.” 4. http://www.cogent-ssc.com/education_and_qualifications/NOS.php 5 http://www.homelandsecurityqualifications.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/ESA- NOS-KR-12-Munition-Clearance-Search-interactive-version.pdf 6 CWA 15464-1, Humanitarian Mine Action - EOD Competency Standards - Part 1: General requirements 7 CWA 15464-5, Humanitarian Mine Action - EOD Competency Standards - Part 5: l SINGLE OR MULTIPLE COMPARTMENTS l SECURITy DOOR SETS Competency for EOD level 3 8 CWA 15464-4, Humanitarian Mine Action - EOD Competency Standards - Part 4: l INTEGRAL DETONATOR STORAGE l SECURITy ALARMS, LIGHTING, Competency for EOD level 4 HEATING, AIR COOLING, AND l BESPOKE DESIGNS AT NO EXTRA COST DELUGE SySTEMS AVAILABLE

l STORES FROM 0.5 m3 TO 200 m3 l COMMISSIONS WORLDWIDE Further information: [email protected] OUR PRODUCTS LIKE OUR COMPANY ARE PROVEN TO LAST OFFICE T el/Fax: +44 (0)1652 688678 Michael Goodwin mobile 07977 012934 e-mail: [email protected] www.handgexplosives.co.uk

11 Award Winner Category: Members of IExpE

Critical review of novel detection methods for buried explosives By Holli Kimble MEng MSc MIExpE, Ministry of Defence.

Abstract Introduction A critical review of different optical and The detection of emplaced explosives is substances, so if an object or a surface has olfactory methods for the detection of buried becoming increasingly important to ensure been in contact with the explosive, it can be explosive devices shows that none of the novel the security of the British population, civilian detected for longer. 2 methods examined are likely to yield a golden and military, at home and abroad. solution. The combination of honeybee Technology is being developed in a number Taggants are added to compounds to allow passive sampling and bioreporting bacteria of different branches to identify the threats them to be detected and identified – they could be used to detect a range of devices faced in specific areas such as in airports, old tend to be volatile and very difficult to containing different explosives. It is often minefields or the improvised explosives manufacture. They are only associated with easier to detect by-products of manufacture, devices (IEDs) faced in-Theatre. explosive compounds, making them as decomposition products or taggants added good, if not better, for detecting military This critical review focuses on developing during manufacture, and many of the novel explosives than the low vapour pressure technologies that could be used to detect techniques search for these chemical clues. explosive. Taggants can also be added to buried devices (mines and IEDs). Detection make explosives difficult to replicate, technologies will be broken into two main showing that they have been made outside areas: optical methods and olfactory a qualified laboratory. They are added methods. Of particular interest are during manufacture and as they are an techniques that indirectly detect explosives intended additive, the detection method by searching for compounds that are only can be developed alongside the taggant to found in the presence of explosives (and are ensure adequate detection. 3 generally easier to detect). Explosive compounds have a tendency to Background decompose over time. Often the One major issue with the detection of most decomposition products have higher vapour military explosives is that they have low pressures than the explosive, so searching vapour pressures (meaning that a low for these products is a common method of amount of gaseous emissions are released in detecting the presence of an explosive. normal atmospheric conditions), making Conventional explosives detection requires them hard to detect outright. Despite the either direct contact or the ability to closely low vapour pressure of explosives, there are approach the target being sampled. 4 Some often by-products of manufacture that have of the novel methods examined have the a significant vapour pressure. 1 This means advantage that they have been developed, that the best way to detect a given explosive or have the potential, for stand-off may be to search instead for a more easily detection, thereby reducing the risk to detectable compound related only to the personnel and equipment. particular explosive (manufacture by- product, decomposition product or Optical methods taggant). This is possible for trinitrotoluene Luminescence-based methods of explosive (TNT), where a by-product dinitrotoluene detection cover a range of novel optical (DNT) has a higher vapour pressure and is methods. Explosive compounds are not much easier to detect. Explosives with a low naturally fluorescent and in order to detect vapour pressure tend to linger for longer explosives using , one can make periods of time than high vapour pressure an explosive compound fluoresce; induce a

12 Award Winner chemical reaction causing fluorescence; quench the fluorescence of other fluorophores or cause fluorescent excitation in other species. 5,6 While explosive compounds are not inherently fluorescent, it is possible to excite them with high-energy x-rays or gamma rays. High energy X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a technique which can be used to identify TNT, RDX, PETN, CE, C4, Comp B, black powder, smokeless powder, flash powder and ANFO.[7] Blair and Poteet also claim that the method is not affected by wind or vegetation and that it is currently possible to detect these explosives from a 2m stand-off. Nitrated explosives can be used in a redox reaction with other compounds to produce highly fluorescent species. 3 The major drawback to this method is that it is a laboratory-based experiment – the amine products of the redox reaction must be Figure 1: Procedure for explosive detection using bioreporter bacteria 6. combined with a solution containing a buried devices before attempting to detect bacteria suited for different explosives. Rubidium compound (there are numerous them. Future developments could lead to a Currently, it is also not possible to use methods) which must then be reduced to usable detection method if the quenching genetically modified bacteria without very form the fluorophore. This is impractical in can occur with vapour-phase explosives. A strict control, making it unlikely that such the field as it requires handling of the general idea of the location for the device technology would be readily embraced. explosive and therefore knowledge of where would be needed before this short-range the devices can be found. It could be a technique could be used. One major implication with the use of this useful identification tool, however, it is time- technology is that the rough location of consuming and the chemicals involved are A crossover between optical and olfactory numerous devices (i.e. a minefield) is known; expensive. methods is the use of bioreporter bacteria: it would not be appropriate to begin coating the genetically engineered bacteria detect Another direct luminescence method is to the entire countryside with bioreporter cues from the presence of an explosive and induce the decomposition of an explosive bacteria and then sending out an army to translate this in a visual way (as do dogs) resulting in the formation of NO that search the area by night. This method also which humans can detect. Two different fluoresces under UV stimulation, this has limitations in detection based on the types of glowing response have been fluorescence can then be measured to probability of slow release of the chemicals created: bioluminescence, the production of determine the explosive. Detection is to the surface from buried devices – this visible by the bacterium; and reported to be possible in the laboratory makes it useful for humanitarian de-mining, fluorescence, a green glow in response to setting, 5 but is not sensitive enough for use but may reduce the tempo of military UV stimulation. 6 The mechanisms are very in the field. It is also difficult to detect RDX operations. different and the bioluminescence is and PETN using this method, as they both relatively weak and requires sensitive The novel optical methods examined are preferentially decompose to NO2 rather detection equipment. The fluorescence is largely at the laboratory testing stage, and than NO. At present, this technique does not created using a protein found in a species of the majority would be unsuitable for the have the versatility to detect buried jellyfish which fluoresces under UV light, the detection of unknown buried explosives as explosives. glowing response turns on and off with UV they are only able to detect specific An indirect method of detecting the exposure, allowing the distinction between explosive compounds. Another severe presence of explosives is a fluorescence the glow of the bacteria and ambient light. limitation in their use would be the lack of quenching method, where the fluorescence As shown in Figure 1, the bacteria can be stand-off detection; only the XRF and of a fluorophore is reduced by the presence grown in large drums and then sprayed over bioreporter bacteria techniques have a of an explosive. It has been noted that the a suspected buried explosives site, once stand-off which may be of use. The use of decrease in fluorescence is proportional to night falls, a UV light can be used to induce electromagnetic waves in the detection of the concentration of the explosive. This regions of fluorescence which correspond to explosives avoids disturbance by technique is not of practical use at this stage a buried device. The UV lamp can only be environmental factors such as wind, – there are currently requirements for used at night, or the glow will not be however, detection is only possible for a solution or solid phase explosives and detectable by eye, it may also be necessary bare charge at the surface as although the x- fluorophores, making this unsuitable for to use an electronic detector to see the ray may penetrate to a depth, the response detecting buried explosives and this glow. The bacteria only fluoresce in the is not likely to be visible from a buried, cased method is limited to the detection of presence of one explosive, however, it is not device. The bioreporting bacteria show most nitrated explosives, so it would be necessary inconceivable that a batch could be grown promise of the optical methods examined, to know the type of explosive used in the which contains several different types of but the sensitivity of such bacteria would

13 Award Winner

require testing to see how long it takes after burial before the bacteria can detect the explosive. In the longer term, a brighter glow or variety of colours to indicate different explosives may increase the utility of this technique.

Olfactory methods Sniffer dogs are certainly the best known olfactory method of explosives detection and have been used in a military setting since 1971 by the US Air Force. 2 It is still not fully understood how dogs sense the presence of explosives, and the performance of dogs against modern sensing equipment has not been fully tested. There are pros and cons to the use of dogs compared to Figure 2: Detection of explosive using passive detection by honeybees. equipment in detection, including: which type of explosive they are sampling making thousands of foraging trips each for before setting out – this is a major day, covering around 2km 2,4 the bees come Training – the dog requires long and drawback to most portable detection into contact with anything in that region expensive training to detect explosives. A equipment. and return to a fixed hive location. Sampling human must be trained for many years to at the hive allows a snapshot to be taken of develop the technology required to detect The use of dogs is well established, but there any explosives present in the vicinity of the explosives, an operator must then be trained are questions over the accuracy of canine hive. The method behind locating an who must take the equipment to the front olfactory detection. The development of explosive device relative to a number of line (if possible). electronic noses known as “sniffers” is trying hives is shown in Figure 2, where the closer Mobility – dogs are highly mobile; to harness the power of detection in a hives become most contaminated. specialised vehicles exist to transport the scientific measurement device. It is held dog and handler to the required location, back, however, by a lack of clear Active – bees can be trained to search for the dog can move on its own once it reaches understanding of exactly how a dog is able explosives (liquid, solid, vapour, particulate). the site, it can follow plumes of vapour to to detect the presence of an explosive – we Bees could be effective in the detection of the source with its nose without delay. Most just know that it can. Much research is going landmines 4 as 90% of landmines have TNT detection systems are not man-portable, on to establish the mechanism for detection. as the main filling, a decomposition product many require samples, and others are only of which is the more easily detectable DNT. able to detect a single explosive without A downside to the use of dogs is that this Training a bee uses similar methods to lengthy recalibration. Some detection valuable asset must be within the danger training a dog – conditional training, where systems are more accurately identification zone of an explosive device in order to bees learn to associate a particular odour systems which give a negative result unless communicate its location; this leads to a with a reward. With a dog it may take many the target explosive is present; dogs can be high risk to an asset that is difficult to months to train, whereas bees can be trained to detect many explosives. replace. trained on-site and sent out to search in the Calibration – machines and dogs both same day. require recalibration. In both cases, effort The immediacy of feedback for canine must be made to ensure that the calibration detection is a huge advantage over the use A nectar feeder is set up close to the colony samples do not become contaminated with of electronic equipment which can take and a sample of the explosive to be other substances, explosive stocks are minutes to process data to determine detected in placed within 6 inches of the normally replaced yearly for this reason. 2 whether an explosive is in the vicinity. This reward. The bees then associate the scent of Reliability – dogs are limited to working for makes real-time use of sensing equipment a the explosive with the reward of nectar. Due brief durations, as they may have attention problem, as sensing equipment for stand-off to the foraging nature of bees, they will and sensitivity issues after longer shifts. detection could potentially be flown begin to search for other locations with that Dogs are also unable to communicate the through the area of interest, but this is not a odour and will gather at areas where they type of explosive they have detected. likely solution for systems with slow detect that odour. Experiments performed Detection equipment may have other processing. by Sandia National Laboratories discovered reliability issues, likely to involve sensitivity. that if bees from a trained hive find Sensitivity – difficult to compare, as dogs Another olfactory method of detection untrained bees from a different hive, they and machinery may not be detecting the being developed involves the training and will teach them to associate the explosive same substance, but dogs are able to detect use of honeybees. There are passive and odour with the reward and thereby recruit certain explosives in the parts per trillion active methods with honeybee detection. other bees to search for the explosives. Field range in a laboratory setting 2 and detector trials have been performed which show that equipment ranges from similar detection Passive – based on the principle that there the bees prefer to visit nectar targets that limits to a requirement for higher are 45,000 to 60,000 bees in a colony have the explosive residue nearby rather concentration. Dogs do not have to decide

14 Award Winner than ordinary nectar. The concentration for trained bees may amass in an area and draw slow equipment on offer. The instant the targets was between 0.74 and 0.8 ppb. 4 attention to themselves and this method of processing, sensitivity at range and mobility detection, leading to spoofing attempts. of dogs are their greatest advantages, so Detection of explosives using honeybees efforts focussed on fast, lightweight stand- shows promise – compared to dogs they are Conclusion off detection would close the gap. cheaper to train or replace, do not require a The detection of buried explosive devices is highly trained handler and are effective at key. In order to improve on current Bibliography detecting explosives at low concentrations. capabilities, it may be necessary to embrace [1] Guill, J., 2009. The Nose Knows: Developing They are only sensitive to the explosive that some of the novel technologies that are Advanced Chemical Sensors for the Remote they have been trained to detect, and it is emerging in this sector. As can be seen from Detection of Improvised Explosive Devices in unlikely that bees could be trained to detect this review, none of the methods examined 2030. US Air Command Staff College, Maxwell Air numerous explosives (including taggants or would be suitable on their own, but a Force Base, Alabama. by-products), so there would be limitations combination of techniques may yield an [2] Beveridge, A., ed. 1998. Forensic Investigation of to their detection capability in a real-world improvement. Explosions. London: Taylor & Francis. scenario involving unknown explosives in [3] Leahy-Hoppa, M., Fitch, M. and Osiander, R., unknown locations. Bees do not fly at night, The passive detection using honeybees 2009. Terahertz spectroscopy techniques for in the rain or in cold weather, 1 they must could be combined with specific detection explosives detection. Analytical and also be taken to the area of interest. With using bioreporter bacteria. This combination Bioanalytical Chemistry, 395(2), 227-257. this in mind, honeybees could not be used could improve the accuracy and the [4] Rodacy, P. et al, 2002. The Training and on their own as an effective method of efficiency of resource usage when compared Deployment of Honeybees to Detect Explosives detection. Another drawback to the use of to either of these techniques alone. It would and Other Agents of Harm, Detection and bees is tracking them – it has been proposed allow a sweep of a wide area and would Remediation Technologies for Mines and that tiny radio transmitters could be provide a more focussed region to target Minelike Targets VII, Orlando, Florida, USA, April attached to bees to report where they with the bacteria – thus reducing bacteria 2002. SPIE Vol 4742. landed (Figure 3). 1 The utility of radio and manpower detection requirements. [5] Meaney M. and McGuffin V., 2008. transmitters seems unrealistic, as there are Luminescence-based methods for sensing and thousands of bees in a colony and any one In general, the examined optical techniques detection of explosives. Analytical and of those bees is disposable as this detection are slow, bulky and unsuitable for military Bioanalytical Chemistry, 391(7), 2557-2576. technique is based on foraging behaviour. use in the detection of explosives, however, [6] Kercel, S.W. et al, 2007. Novel Methods for Another limitation to this technique is as the sensing technology improves, many Detecting Buried Explosive Devices, (CONF – similar to many others – the time taken for a optical methods could be used to detect 970465 - - 8). Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Office of buried explosive device to leak detectable explosives at a greater stand-off, reducing Scientific and Technical Information. traces to the surface, though the sensitivity the risk to personnel. These methods are [7] Blair, H.M. and Poteet, W.M., 2000. Proc SPIE Int and mobility of bees is an advantage in this also expensive, meaning that they are Soc Opt Eng 4129:494-502 case. generally out of reach for both civilian and [8] Layton, J., 2007. How can you train honeybees to military applications at this point. sniff for bombs?, Although cheaper and easier to train than http://science.howstuffworks.com/bomb- dogs, bees are limited to the detection of The olfactory techniques include the use of sniffing-bees.htm one explosive at present and it is not dogs, which are currently the best method Further information: [email protected] possible to direct them to a suspected for the detection of explosives. It is source as it is with a dog. The passive important to note that there may come a monitoring of an area could be useful to time when the benefits of using novel detect changes in the chemicals present and sensing equipment outweigh the detect explosives in an area. It is also limitations, but at this point in time, the possible that bees passing to and fro in an flexibility of canine detection is superior to area would go unnoticed, whereas the the expensive, bulky and (comparatively)

Figure 3: Honeybees ready to be fitted with radio transmitters 8.

15 Award Winner Category: Associate Members of IExpE A cost effective method for preliminary explosive characterisation By Andrew Envy BEng AIExpE, AWE Aldermaston

Introduction developed is essentially a small scale, cost using a micrometer. Due to availability of Explosives safety and performance effective combination of the cylinder test material only enough pellets for two shots testing and flyer plate test. An array of diagnostics of the 97% and 95% TMDs were pressed but When an explosive formulation is being will be used to measure the velocity-time it was decided that this would still provide developed for whatever purpose the history of the expanding cylinder wall and of enough data for a comparison with the formulation is required to undergo a large the flyer plate, positioned at the opposite 98.5% TMD pellets. end of the tube to the detonator, and the variety of testing to establish the explosive After the pressing and metrology stage of velocity of detonation of the explosive. The safety and performance characteristics of the explosive pressing were complete the data recorded from these outputs can then that particular formulation. A performance pellets density was measured accurately be manipulated to give a good indication of test is required to bridge the gap between using the Archimedes method. Table 1 the explosive performance properties of an the safety and performance testing on shows the statistical analysis of the pellet explosive. This report will look at the effect explosive to provide approximate density measurements. performance data prior to upscale in that variations in the density, with respect to production. It is important that performance the percentage of the maximum theoretical testing is carried out on new explosive density of the explosive that is achieved, and Nominal Average Range Standard deviation formulations and even on new batches of standoff between the outer diameter of the 95% 95.39% 94.57-95.95% 0.5% old material manufactured to a new explosive cylinder and the inner diameter of 97% 97.35% 96.57-97.75% 0.32% specification. The tests carried out for this the copper tube have on the results 98.5% 98.44% 98.12-98.71% 0.12% paper are a combination of two tests, the achieved by this type of test. These two tests Table 1. Statistical analysis of the pellet density measurements . cylinder test, and the flyer plate test, from are carried out in an attempt to understand how a small assembly or manufacturing these tests several performance properties The pellets were then cooled and inserted error can affect the results during this type that can be measured including velocity of into the hollow copper cylinders, seven per of test. detonation (VoD), brisance, detonation cylinder. Cooling of the pellets was done pressure and the JWL equation of state due to the interference fit between the values. Experimental methods pellet and the cylinder wall, the cooling The cylinder test, as described by Suceska Explosive formulation shrinks the pellet and allows for insertion 1995 1, consists of a hollow copper cylinder The explosive composition that was used into the cylinder. during the development of the Mini cylinder filled with an explosive down its entire Figure 1 shows how a gap is introduced length detonated at one end and the test was a HMX based explosive that will be named Composition A for the purposes of between the copper cylinder and the detonation wave runs down the cylinder explosive pellet. forcing the copper wall outwards. The this report. The composition is made up of 90% HMX, with energetic plasticiser. This displacement or velocity of the expanding No Gap copper wall is recorded with respect to time. explosive has been well characterised in the past using standard cylinder tests making Pellet The flyer plate test, as described by Suceska this the ideal explosive to use to develop 1 1995 , consists of a explosive material being these tests as this will give some indication detonated while in contact with a metal as to whether the Mini Cylinder Test is Cylinder wall plate. The velocity of the metal plate is then producing comparable data. CJ recorded and the detonation pressure, P , Gap The cylinders were filled with seven 10mm can be calculated. Pellet (nominal) diameter and length pressed This is a report about the development of a pellets of three different densities of 98.5%, Gap one-shot test to determine the performance 97% and 95% (densities are given with properties of an explosive at a smaller scale respect to the theoretical maximum density, Cylinder wall of production, which will highlight if the TMD, of the explosive composition). explosive being tested has the desired Following the pressing of each pellet performance properties before a costly up dimensions of the pellets were measured Figure 1 Image of gap between pellet and cylinder scale in manufacture. The test being

16 Award Winner

The cylinders that were made for the gap The prefilled copper cylinders then aligned tests had the internal diameter increased to with the laser diagnostics and the velocity of 10.1mm and 10.2mm for 0.05mm and detonation probes and initiated in the firing 0.1mm gap respectively. To ensure that chamber by a Number 8 detonator and there is a consistent gap between the pellets tetryl booster added to the set up directly and the cylinder the pellets were inserted prior to firing. along with 3 equally spaced 2mm wide strips of shim. Each test was designated a number from 1 to 13, Table 3 shows the number Experimental set up designations. The experimental rig was made from laser sintered rapid prototype material. This Test Number Test Type 1-3 98.5% TMD, close wall material was chosen for its high strength Figure 4. Velocity of Detonation probes prior to firing. and low weight properties, while also being 4-6 98.5% TMD with 0.05mm gap cost effective. Figure 2 shows a picture of 7-9 98.5% TMD with 0.1mm gap detonation of the explosive being tested is the engineering model of the experimental 10-11 97%, close wall already known therefore the results rig while Figure 3 shows a picture of the 12-13 95% TMD, close wall gathered by the probes can be compared to experimental rig in position in the firing the known V.o.D. giving an idea of the Table 3. Test numbers. chamber. accuracy of the results. Diagnostics Space for booster Results Det holder Heterodyne velocimetry Det holder The primary diagnostic that was Copper wall expansion used during these experiments was the Figure 5. Spectrogram of shot 2 radial velocity.

Copper cylinder Heterodyne Velocimetry (HetV) filled with HE laser diagnostic. HetV is a laser diagnostic that directly measures the velocity of a moving reflective surface. This is achieved using a control signal along with the reflected signal from the moving target, the change in frequency from the reflected signal, due to the Flyer plate Doppler shift, is mixed with the HetV Probe position control signal causing a ‘beat frequency’. This beat frequency is recorded and used to determine the velocity of the moving surface, as Figure 2. Engineering model of experimental rig. described by Bowden 2007 2.

For these tests the two channels of HetV Figure 5 shows a spectrogram of velocity were used, one channel was used to plotted against time for the data taken from measure the radial expansion of the copper shot 2, due to the programming constraints cylinder and the other was used to measure the axis label cannot be increased in size. the free surface velocity of the brass flyer located at the bottom of the cylinder. Figure 6 (over page), is a graphical representation of the spectrogram, the Velocity of detonation probes following are key points taken from the To accurately measure velocity of detonation results. (VoD) down the copper cylinder a line of ionisation type probes, spaced approximately • It can be seen that the velocity rises 1mm from the cylinder wall, was positioned sharply at the initial point of movement, down the length of the cylinder wall. A 32 climbing to a velocity of approximately pin ribbon cable was used to perform this 700-800m/s almost instantaneously as the task, as shown in Figure 4. shock front from the detonating explosive Figure 3. Photograph of experimental rig. impacts the inner wall of the cylinder. By knowing that each probe was spaced • At this point a characteristic of the 1.5mm to the next probe and the time at cylinder test radially expanding cylinder which the probe was impacted the results occurs where the velocity of the cylinder can be plotted on a position-time graph and decreased sharply for a short time before the gradient of the line of results produced rapidly increasing again. This is called pull is the velocity of detonation. The velocity of back and occurs 5-7 times while the shock

17 Award Winner

) Velocity 1 - s µ 1 - s m (

) n m o i t m ( a

r t e n l e e c m c e A c

, a ) l 1 - p s s i m D (

y t i c o l e

V Acceleration

Displacement

Time (µs) Figure 6. Digitised results for shot 2 radial velocities. Figure 7. Spectrogram for shot 3 flyer plate velocity.

wave reverberates through the cylinder as calculate show a value higher than that even It has been found that the pedigree material the cylinder accelerates. This effect of pure HMX (2970m/s). The Gurney for the shims of 5mm and 10mm thickness diminishes as the shock reflections lose constant therefore cannot be used reliably could not be guaranteed and it could be their energy. calculated when there is a gap between copper, this will affect the calculation of the • Once the cylinder has accelerated rapidly explosive and cylinder wall. detonation pressure. Below the detonation for approximately 2µs the velocity begins pressure is calculated for both materials. to rise less steeply and plateaus to its Flyer plate velocity maximum speed. The maximum velocity is Only the peak (free surface) velocity was dependent on a number of factors needed for the analysis of the flyer plate including the gurney constant of the results, seen in Figure 7 at the top of the

velocity spike. ) explosive and the confinement of the s / m

explosive within the copper material. ( Shot ID Thickness Peak Free y t i

(mm) Surface Velocity (m/s) c o l

Gurney constant e 221945 V 3 Equation 1 shows the Gurney equation for 351478 a thin walled hollow cylinder filled with 421927 explosives. Flyer thickness (mm) 5 10 839 Figure 8. Free surface velocity graph thickness of shim 621678 versus velocity. (1) 721784 By extrapolating the polynomial curve fitted 821924 to the data back to zero it is found that the 921951 free surface velocity of the explosive is Gurney equation for a cylinder. 10 2 1875 found to be approximately 2274m/s. The particle velocity is known to be half of the 12 2 1784 The final peak velocity of the cylinder can be free surface velocity of the flyer, this can used to calculate the Gurney constant of the Table 5. Shows the peak velocities read from the then be inputted into equation 2 below. digitisation of the spectrograms. explosive. Table 4 shows the Gurney The equation for shock hugoniot for brass is constants calculated from the data. Figure 8 is a plot of velocity and shim given below [4]: thickness. The value taken for the 2mm shim The Gurney constants show that for the high (2) is the average of the values recorded for TMD, close wall tests the Gurney constant is shots 2, 4, 8 and 9. The values for these shots The equation for shock hugoniot for copper consistent with PBX 9404, an explosive were used because the quality of the data is given below [4]: similar to that of composition A. However for recorded was superior. the tests with gaps the Gurney constants (3)

Table 4. Gurney constants calculated from experimental data. The shock velocity can then be used with remainder of the known variables for Shot 234567 equation 4 5 below is known and the √2E (m/s) 2813.47 2866.92 2911.84 3096.79 2802.29 3032.15 detonation pressure can be calculated. Shot 8910 12 13 PBX 9404 √2E (m/s) 2813.47 2866.92 2969.39 2750.58 2940.62 2900 (4)

18 Award Winner

Where:

Brass Copper

up 1.137km/s 1.137km/s

ρm 8.3g/cc 8.96g/cc

Us 5.34317km/s 5.62687km/s

ρ0 1.84 g/cc 1.84g/cc D 8.75km/s 8.75km/s

Pcj 34.35GPa 37.81GPa

Table 6. Detonation pressure calculation.

The results recorded from these tests although not without error have proved that this method works. The literature value for the detonation pressure of this explosive is 38GPa 6 putting the detonation pressures calculated above within 10% of the actual value.

Velocity of detonation The data from the velocity of detonation probes were recorded using a logic analyser Figure 10. Variable time visualisation of the radial Discussion that detected the completion of the circuit velocities for all shots. for each probe as the copper impacted the Radial expansion probes. The time of arrival of each signal can In order to compare the early expansion result is that this means that the explosives then be plotted as shown below in Figure 9. time of the different types of test the for this type of test do not need to be digitised cylinder expansion data is plotted pressed to as high a TMD as possible using on Figure 10 with separated time bases. higher temperatures and isostatic pressure techniques reducing cost and time The first thing that can be seen from the constraints. results that have been recorded is that the data from these tests are very consistent and Shots 7-9 are the results of the intended reproducible. All of the results from each 0.1mm gap test. The main differences test show a sharp instantaneous rise to the between the 0.1mm gap shots and no gap first ‘pull back’ with a consistent number of shots are: ‘pull backs’ of diminishing strength before 1. The already discussed stronger the copper wall velocity levels to a constant reverberations , especially on the first velocity of between approximately 1650 and three ‘pull backs’. The velocity of the initial 1850m/s. With the exception of the 0.05mm rise in velocity prior to ‘pull back’ is also gap shots the traces from each of the higher for the 0.1mm gap shots. Figure 9 Velocity of detonation results for shot 1 different types of shot almost overlay each other showing very good reproducibility. 2. The cylinder wall appears to level off at a The velocity of the advancing detonation The results for shot 2 show that there were higher velocity for the gap tests. This wave as it accelerates the copper cylinder is weaker reverberations between this shot happens for all three of the gap tests and the slope of the curve fitted to the data, as and that of the gap type tests. Although seems to be higher than the no gap tests shown in Figure 9. Table 7, below, shows the there does seem to be some enhancement by approximately 50-75m/s. values of the velocity of detonation of the reverberation for the gap shots the obtained using the gradient of the curve. most likely reason for apparent lack of ‘pull There are two reasons why the cylinder wall back’ is lack of resolution due a small velocity has increased for the gap tests. The Shot Velocity of detonation (km/s) misalignment of the laser during set up. first theory involves the gurney constant The effects of small density variations in the equation for explosively driven cylinders, 1 8.496 explosives observed by these tests are small. Equation 1. The cylinder wall thickness was 3 8.952 The rise to similar peak velocities with the reduced as the outer diameter of the 9 8.595 traces for the lower densities being shown cylinder will have remained the same for all on the same time base show very little tests while the inner diameter was increased 10 9.798 notable difference. The significance of this to allow for the gap. This decrease in wall 11 9.115 thickness would increase the velocity of the 12 7.701 Table 7. Velocity of detonation cylinder wall according to the Gurney results for all tests. equation. Known V.o.D. ~8.7-8.8 19 Award Winner

The second theory is that as the air gap test. The release of the pressure at an earlier batches of the same explosive material or between the explosive and cylinder wall point means that the copper is being driven to directly compare with other explosive allows the detonation wave to straighten harder for longer in the standard cylinder materials. radially decreasing the vertical component test. • The effects of a gap and of lower of the velocity and therefore increasing the densities were studied and compared radial velocity. Velocity of detonation with data for no gap at a maximum The results from the V.o.D. probes were not velocity. It was found that for the Comparison with standard cylinder completely accurate but the method for differences in density that the explosive test results obtaining the V.o.D. used on these tests is material was pressed to be negligible An important test as to whether it truly gives sound and with some refinement in the meaning that the method of pressing can a rough reflection of the standard cylinder method in future tests better data will be be relaxed reducing the costs. The gap test is to directly compare the radial recorded. produced interesting data that warrants expansion history recorded by the mini more research to be carried out, the cylinder with that of the standard cylinder Considerations for future work increased ringing of the cylinder during test for the same material. Figure 11 shows The tests carried out for this paper are a expansion and the higher velocity are the radial expansion history from shot 2 of good start for the ‘A Cost Effective Method two effects of note. the mini cylinder tests plotted on the data for Preliminary Explosive Characterisation’. • The loss of control over some of the test from a standard cylinder test for the same The methods used in the tests are sound but components lead to some inaccuracies in material. The data provided for Figure 11 could be improved on in the following ways: the results. These included the material was taken following a private choice of the flyer shim. communication with Dr Ferguson, the data • The method used for measuring the was presented at A.P.S. Conference in 2013 velocity of detonation of the explosive References by Ferguson et al 7,8 . material needs to be improved upon. 1. Suceska, M. (1995), Test Methods for Explosives , Springer-Verlag New york. The graph shows radial velocity on the y axis • The explosive rig needs to be 2. Bowden, M.D. And Maisey, M.P. (2007) and displacement of the cylinder along the x reengineered to aid in the positioning Development of a Heterdyne Velocimeter System axis. As can be seen there is good and alignment of the HetV diagnostic, a for use in the Sub-Microsecond Time Regimes , comparison between the two results, the lot of time was spent carrying out this Proceedings SPIE – The International Society for two don’t completely overlay but there are operation and at times still provided less Optical Engineering, 7162. reasons for the discrepancies seen. These are than perfect results. 3. Cooper, P. (1997) Introduction to Detonation in the main part due to the thicker wall of Physics, Contained within Explosive Effects and the copper in the standard cylinder test as Conclusions Applications , Edited by Zukas , J. A. And Walters, the material properties of the copper have a This work has shown: P. Springer-Verlag New york. more prominent affect on the results. A • That scaling down or miniaturising the 4. March, S.P. (1980), LASL Shock Hugoniot Data , higher peak velocity is observed from the cylinder test can be used as a ‘A Cost University of California Press. standard cylinder test. The most likely Effective Method for Preliminary 5. Stennett, C. And Goldsmith, M. (2011), reason for the higher velocity is that the Explosive Characterisation’. The data Diagnostic Methods for Detonator thinner copper wall will break up earlier produced has proved to be repeatable Characterisation, Cranfield University Defence than the thicker standard cylinder test wall and in good agreement with the results Academy Project Report , Reference: allowing the pressure to escape from the seen on standard cylinder tests. Although DEAS/CS/1608/11-v1.1. cylinder earlier than the standard cylinder the results are not 100% accurate the 6. Merchant, P.W., White, S.J. And Collyer, A.M. mini cylinder test could be used as a 2002. A WBL-consistent JWL equation of state for the HMX-based explosive EDC37 from Figure 11 Comparison of mini cylinder test with standard screening test as a comparison to cylinder tests, AWE Aldermaston Technical cylinder test radial velocities 6. previous data recorded for previous Report. 7. J. W. Ferguson, Internal communication, July 2013 8. Ferguson, J.W. And Taylor, P. 2013 Application of Heterodyne Velocimetry and pyrometry as diagnostics for explosive characterisation , American Physical Society conference on Shock Compression of Condensed Matter (APS SCCM) Seattle 2013.

Further information: [email protected]

20 Award Winner Award Winner Category: Non Members of IExpE D10 dozer recovered from a high wall using blasting By Tristan Worsey BSc MSc MISEE , Newmont Mining Corporation, Nevada, USA Abstract A dozer operator at a surface gold mine accidentally drove a D10 off the side of a high wall. The blade of the dozer caught on the lip of a catch bench 18.3 m (60 ft), down, stopping its descent. The operator scrambled to safety in fear that the dozer would not hold. Engineering and management looked at multiple dozer recovery options, with safety the overriding consideration. The initial plan was to rent a crane to lift the dozer out. However, Caterpillar would not sanction tying off on the tool bar. This meant that personnel would Figure 1. The day after the dozer drove off the high wall. have to remove the tool bar on the high wall, which was deemed unsafe. For work to be done at the dozer level an access bench was Introduction necessary. Mechanical excavation was initially attempted, but only A dozer operator during night shift drove a D10 had success several feet down before the rock was no longer digable. dozer up a berm and off the edge of the high wall. The only option other than abandoning the dozer was blasting the The dozer fell down the high wall 18.3 m (60 ft) access bench down to the elevation of the dozer blade. before the front blade dug into a catch bench. The dozer operator high tailed it out of the dozer and The drill and blast team had discussed blasting solutions and came climbed to safety after the dozer came to a stop on up with a sound approach that was presented when mechanical the catch bench. The high wall the dozer drove off excavation failed. Normal mine production blasts use 200 mm (7 was at a 65 degree angle but the dozer sat on the 7/8th in.) holes drilled 7.0 m (23 ft) and loaded with 2.1 m (7 ft) of catch bench at a 40 degree angle. Figure 1 shows a powder, with 30 to 40% hole utilization and a PF of 0.2 Kg/tonne (0.4 photograph of the dozer caught on the catch lbs\ton). Down the hole detcord and surface delays are used and bench. blasts can be violent. The problem was three fold: damaging the dozer with flying rock, knocking the dozer down the high wall, and At first hooking onto the dozer’s tool bar and vibrations causing cascading material to bury and damage the dragging it out was suggested, but this was deemed dozer. Fortunately the ground was mostly waste rock, which meant unsafe and damaging to the dozer. Bringing in a there were few constraints on blasting. The plan involved increasing crane to lift the dozer was also suggested but in both powder factor and hole utilization to send more of the energy order to access a sufficient tie off point the tool bar into breaking the rock and casting it away from the dozer whilst would have to be removed. It was deemed unsafe eliminating flyrock and minimizing ground vibrations. Blasts as near for personnel to do any work on the dozer in the as 24 m (80 ft) away from the dozer were designed using one of the middle of the high wall. The decision was made to highest powder factors ever used at the mine of 0.4 kg/tonne excavate down to the bench elevation in order for (0.8lbs/ton) or 0.9 kg/m3 (1.6lbs/yd3) and a 63% hole utilization personnel to be able to work on the dozer from the using the timing precision of electronic detonators with the process, safety of bench elevation. philosophy and designs described in detail in the paper. The process At first they tried to free dig the material but it soon was documented using video, seismograph and laser profiling turned too hard to dig. The blast tech team knew movement monitoring. that blasting would be an option if we changed our The D10 dozer was successfully extracted with none of the windows normal blast design. When excavation was no damaged and no damage from the blasting. It was back in longer possible the idea of specialized blasting was operation at the mine after a thorough inspection and maintenance. casted out and management took the bait.

21 Award Winner

Methodology The whole idea of the design was to put as much of the explosive energy into breaking and casting the rock as possible to reduce the amount of vibrations escaping the blast pattern. Explosive energy likes to take the path of least resistant. The less contained a blast is the more energy goes into breaking and casting the rock in the direction of the free face than goes into the material behind the blast. The bigger the bench height to burden ratio is the more tensile stress is exerted onto the rock. Rock tends to break best under tensile stress. This is like trying to break a tall skinny pencil in half and a short fat pencil in half. The tall skinny pencil is a lot easier to break. The plan was to increase Figure 2. 5700 bench shot map. the powder factor by decreasing burden and spacing and increasing face height. This in theory would increase movement of the material, increase fragmentation, and decrease ground vibrations.

Design The bench elevation that the dozer drove off was on the 1750 m (5740 ft) elevation. The front dozer blade caught on the 1731 m (5680 ft) catch bench below. This meant the blast would have to fragment 18.3 m (60 ft) of material to be excavated to create a pad to work on the dozer. Two types of blasting were designed for creating the pad, one being for the initial drop and the other for removing the material closest to the dozer. Since we had to drop down 18.3 m (60 ft), the drop cut was made by shooting two Figure 3. 5680 shot map. levels. The first level was drilled to 1736 m came up with 33 ms hole to hole and 62 ms double the powder factor to 0.4 kg/tonne (5697 ft) and the second was drilled to the row to row for the 12.2 m (40 ft) bench and (0.8 lbs/ton) for the special panel shots by 1730 m (5677 ft). This was because we used 25 ms hole to hole and 53 ms row to row for decreasing the burden and spacing to 4 x normal production design for the drop the 18.3 m (60 ft) bench. These situations 4.6 m (13 x 15 ft) and increasing depth to because it was far enough away to not be as simulated well at 30.5 m (100 ft) and 61.0 m 19.2 m (63 ft). The weight of explosives was concerned with moving or hurting the (200 ft) locations from the blast hole. limited in the 19.2 m (63 ft) face by using a dozer. This helped out the speed of the 171 mm (6.75 in.) hole instead of normal 200 mining cycle. Normal production patterns used at the mm (7.875 in.) hole. A buffered blend with a mine site are 4.9 x 5.5 x 7.0 m (16 x 18 x 23 ft) Signature hole analysis was done on a 12.2 density of 1.15 g/cc was used due to reactive (Burden x Spacing x Depth) in ore and 5.5 x m (40 ft) bench using normal production ground potential. Unfortunately getting 5.5 x 13.4 m (18 x 18 x 44 ft) in overburden. practice of down hole cord and on a 18.3 m nice crushed stone wasn’t an option for The average powder factor on site is around (60 ft) bench using a down hole electronic stemming so drill cuttings were used for 0.2 kg of explosives per tonne of material detonator. An explosives supplier was used stemming the holes. The quality of the drill (0.4 lbs/ton). The decision was made to to analyze the signature hole data and they cuttings for stemming was decent due to Table 1. Pattern designs. Shot type Burden (ft) spacing (ft) hole Hole bench PF lbs/ton PF lbs/cyd Stemming lbs/hole Blend depth (ft) diameter (in) height (ft) (ft) (% emulsion) 40 ft drop 17 18 43 7.875 40 0.54 1.10 24 500 15 20 ft drop 16 18 23 7.875 20 0.34 0.84 16 180 15 60 ft panel 13 15 63 6.75 60 0.8 1.62 23 700 15 Metric (m) (m) (m) (mm) (m) Kg/tonne Kg/m^3 (m) Kg/hole % 40 ft drop 5.2 5.5 13.1 200 12.2 0.27 0.61 7.3 227 15 20 ft drop 4.9 5.5 7.0 200 6 0.17 0.43 4.9 82 15 60 ft panel 4 4.6 19.2 171 18.3 0.4 0.90 7.0 318 15

22 Award Winner the damp conditions of winter and stemming ejection was minimal. The panel shots were limited to three rows to minimize constipation of the shot. After three rows, relief caused by the row timing and material moving, starts to decrease. This causes an increase in vibrations going back into the wall. The pattern designs of the drop cuts and panel shots are shown in Table 1. Figures 2 and 3 show a plane view of the pattern designs. Results

Unfortunately there are no regulations on the Figure 4. First dozer shot. maximum vibrations for a D10 dozer sitting on the edge of a high wall. The engineers Figure 5. Second had no starting place besides trial and error. dozer shot. Since the material with the dozer didn’t fail due to weather conditions changing, it was assumed that the dozer could take quite a bit more than the regulation for structures of 50.8 mm/s (2 in/s). Table 2 shows the distances away from the blast of the seismographs and seismograph data. Notice that the last three blasts had significantly more ground vibrations. This was due to the Figure 6. Third proximity of the blasts. From data collected dozer shot. vs. what was estimated, vibrations near the dozer were significantly reduced by using signature hole data and increasing powder factor by decreasing burden and spacing and increasing hole length. Now in a perfect world the hole diameter would have been drastically reduced. This would have decreased weight per hole to be less than production and still doubled the powder factor. With this operation going lower than had 127, 13.1 m (43 ft) holes, and 227 kg The next two blasts were on the same bench 171 mm (6.75 in.) diameter this was not an (500 lbs) of explosives per hole. The as the first with the same design and timing. option. seismograph reading next to the dozer had These blasts are outlined in pink (5-12-2013) a peak reading of 53.848 mm/s (2.120 in/s) and teal (6-12-2012) in Figure 2. The second The first blast went well. Laser profile scans at 26.9 Hz with the lowest frequency of 21.3 shot had 161 holes (8 dead) and was 161 m were taken before and after the blast and Hz at 46.736 mm/s (1.840 in/s). It was noted (529 ft) away from the dozer. This shot had a showed minimal movement. Figure 4 shows that normal blasting practices did send peak particle velocity of 5.334 mm/s (0.210 a picture of the blast. Notice the dozer in quite a bit of material down the high wall. If in/s) at 9.3 Hz with the lowest frequency the lower right hand corner. The dozer was this design was shot by the dozer it would being 8.9 Hz at 4.572 mm/s (0.180 in/s). 50.6 m (166 ft) away from the blast. We did have covered the dozer with material and Little to no movement was reported from not decide to bring the next pattern back potentially dislodged the dozer. See Figure the scans for the material around the dozer from the crest edge because the scans didn’t 2 for the location of the blast on 4-12-2012. and the dozer itself. In Figure 5 the blast show any movement in the material It is the blast bordered in red. shows a little stemming ejection. This is very between the dozer and the blast. The blast common when using detcord down the hole as an initiator. The stemming ejection Table 2. Seismograph distance from blast and data. causes quite a bit of fly material that is Blast Seis Seis PPV (ips) PPV (mm/s) Frequency Calculated PPV Calculated unwanted once we get closer to the dozer. distance(ft) distance(m) (Hz) (ips) (k factor PPV (mm/s) The third shot had 102 holes (6 dead) and of 1140) 1st (12-4-12) 157 48 2.12 53.85 26.9 47.23 1199.64 was 77m (251 ft) away from the dozer. This 2nd(12-5-12) 493 150 0.21 5.33 9.3 7.57 192.28 shot had a PPV of 34.544 mm/s (1.360 in/s) 3rd(12-6-12) 220 67 1.36 35.54 17 27.53 699.26 at 17.0 Hz with the lowest frequency being 4th(1-2-13) 153 47 1.52 38.61 22.2 22.14 562.36 10.2 Hz at 34.544 mm/s (1.360 in/s). The 5th(1-24-13) 170 52 1.88 47.75 13.4 58.95 1483.23 scans reported little to no movement of the 6th(2-1-13) 72 22 ips>5 mm/s>127 N/A 233.05 5919.47 dozer from before the blast. In Figure 6 the 7th(2-14-13) 92 28 N/A N/A N/A 157.44 3998.98 blast shows a little more violent stemming 8th(2-27-13) 84 26 8.8 223.52 28.4 182.11 4625.59 ejection. 23 Award Winner

Figure 7. Fourth dozer shot. Figure 8. Before and after scan of the first panel shot.

Blast number four next to the dozer was a Shot number five next to the dozer was the front of the blast. One thing to note from 6m (20ft) drop pattern to get the 1737 m first panel shot. There was a failure in the this scan is that the material next to where (5700 ft) down to the 1731 m (5680 ft) wall that split the pattern up into two shots. the blast was located is unaffected. This elevation to fully free face the panel shot. In Figure 3 there is a gap in-between the means that this is a safe distance (43m/140 Since this shot had less than half the pink and teal shots that was the area that ft) from the high wall to put the blast once explosives per hole than the 12 m (40 ft) failed. The pink pattern (24-1-13) was the we get to patterns directly behind the dozer. drop it was decided to shoot all 402 holes panel shot we shot first. The blast had 53, 19 Figure 9 shows a photograph of the blast. (11 dead) in one shot. This is the blast shot m (63 ft) holes, and 318 kg (700 lbs) of This blast had the least amount of fly on 2-1-13 outlined in red in Figure 3. The explosives per hole. The closest hole to the material and only one stemming ejection closest hole to the dozer was 48 m (158 ft) dozer was 67 m (219 ft). This shot gave a that was from a hole plugging during and gave a seismic reading of 38.608 mm/s PPV of 47.752 mm/s (1.880 in/s) at 13.4 Hz, stemming. (1.520 in/s) max at 22.2 Hz and the lowest which was the lowest frequency. The before Shot number six was the second panel shot frequency 13.0 Hz at 32.512 mm/s (1.280 and after dozer scans came back negative next to the dozer. The blast had 12, 19 m (63 in/s). The dozer scans did not show any for significant movement. Figure 8 shows a ft) holes (0 dead), and 318 kg (700 lbs) of significant movement near or around the picture of what the before and after scans explosives per hole. The teal pattern (1-2- dozer. This blast (2-1-13) is outlined in red in looked like. All of the scans looked very 13) in Figure 3 shows shot number six. This Figure 3. This blast had less ground similar except for one so only two scans will pattern was only 33 m (108 ft) away from the vibrations than the first shot that was similar be shown in the paper. In the scan anything dozer and had more burden than designed in distance but this shot had less than half that is in blue is up to 0.3 m (1 ft) of material due to the failure. This pattern also had the kgs per delay. This blast had a lot of gain, grey is zero movement, and orange is some short holes in the middle of the stemming ejection and was also quite up to 0.3 m (1 ft) of lost material. The green pattern. This shot gave a PPV greater than violent as can be seen in Figure 7. Quite a color means it went out of the range of -0.3 127 mm/s (5 in/s). Unfortunately the bit of material was cascaded down the side m (-1 ft) to 0.3 m (1 ft). The scan shows that seismograph was set to a max of 127 mm/s of the high wall and there was some fly the material near the dozer was basically (5 in/s) so data was not received. The scan material that could have hit the dozer if it unaffected. The material that is right next to showed little to no movement on and had been closer. There was a little bit of the free face shows a little bit of loss but it around the dozer. This was a good sign that snow that fell down the high wall in front of was right in front of the blast and it was the dozer was pretty well set in the catch the dozer but no actual material fell. expected to see a little bit of movement in

Figure 10. Dozer scan of the sixth shot.

Figure 9. Fifth dozer shot.

24 Award Winner

Figure 11. Sixth dozer shot.

Figure 12. Eighth dozer shot. bench and as long as the material in the frequency of 4.7 Hz at 152.4 mm/s (6.00 significantly more at the dozer with the catch bench didn’t get casted the dozer in/s). The scans showed little to no panel shots than the drop cuts, using regular would be fine. One thing from this blast that movement of the dozer or the material production blasting design would have was noticed was the material in-between around it. Figure12 shows a photograph of caused even more vibrations in the same the dozer and the blast did show a little bit the eighth dozer blast. This shot had some location and would have cast material onto of movement, as seen in Figure 10 below. It stemming ejection that was caused by using the dozer and disturbed the catch bench was then decided to pull the rest of the drill cuttings and holes plugging. material that the dozer was sitting on, panels 15 m (50 ft) back. Figure 11 shows a resulting in dozer loss. Using the technique After the eighth shot the bench was down photo of the shot. This shot had no fly of increasing the powder factor by to the dozer blade elevation and there was material and no stemming ejection. decreasing burden and spacing and enough room for equipment to operate. increasing face height, while casting the Shots 7 (14-2-13) and 8 (27-2-13) were The 15 m (50 ft) buffer zone ended up being rock away from the dozer, did significantly similar in design to the first panel shot and easy to dig. This was due to the shock wave reduce the impact of blasting near the can be seen in Figure 3 in green and yellow from the blast creating micro fractures in the dozer. respectively. Shot 7 was 39 m (128 ft) away rock. This was expected, but wasn’t from the dozer. This blast was done while expected to work as well as it did. Figure 13 the blasting engineers were at the 2012 ISEE shows the dozer after final excavation of the References Unknown. (2012). Service Manual for a Cat D10 conference and the seismograph monitors buffer zone. The removal of the dozer was Dozer . Peroria, IL, United States of America: were improperly set up and a valid reading done by strapping onto the tool bar with the Caterpillar Inc. was not obtained. The video was also shovel and digging the material out from missed, but the before and after dozer scans under it with a backhoe then dragging it to Unknown. (2012). Orica Pocket Blast Guide. showed little to no movement of the dozer more stable ground. The dozer had no blast Melbourne, VIC, Australia: Orica Mining Services. and the surrounding material. This shot was damage and all of the glass was intact. Once Walker, J. (2010). AutoCAD Civil 3D . San Rafael, CA, slightly north behind the dozer. Shot 8 was the fluids were changed this dozer was out United States of America: Autodesk. the last dozer shot needed for equipment in the pit again working. space to retrieve the dozer and was slightly Conclusion Further information: south behind the dozer. This shot had 53, 19 The dozer rescue using blasting to excavate [email protected] m (63 ft) holes (0 dead), and 318 kg (700 lbs) the bench to the level of the dozer was a of explosives. This shot gave a PPV of 223.52 success. Although vibrations were mm/s (8.80 in/s) at 28.4 Hz with the lowest

Figure 13. Dozer after final excavation.

25 Feature

Berthold Schwartz.

r A history of y e b e d d . p w . re D o o t. y e A r p i c v u n t re o ry ? E . u c C sc u m o tz g te f i t al t r r o o d n p in a fo r n ce a d w p le explosives: e t n . e h n o tt © e s f le c c io t 6 a b r o t u S t r B e fi t © d d 2 la e t v e m a o l u h 4 a 1 a h r b r o 4 p h t 8 o n 3 t h rm y 3 d as they relate to the UK g f i in rt o c se to n 6 a d 1 r e 2 f in u s ri - e e B a t 1 r u ” s d y 1 s i n By Ian McKay CEng MPhil BSc Dip H&S FIMM FIExpE a d 6 re u w b ls o e fi - o w a n p e k o e n p s e p n c a a e e n k n C r in r u n o e h G G o c d C " c d w a o e B an p th r n e u g G o R Roger Bacon. W G Armstrong. Ascanio Sobrero.

Ja n N G s u o u u W sh a b n c G F r e p c ir o y l p a e A s o 2 d o G r rt ss r a t ti 1 e w u o il f m b " o n s v d n je le u s y F to il g t i e m p c r l t A i r w b - se A r o t y b ro rs p e y fi s c a a w ile t re n sc t e l rs t n 1 ki s h e a s d l 1 R t 1 th 1 c d n d 1 a c g 1 n y 1 o p o u e o F 8 g e th t h p i n " e b s ve i a r 8 r fi - e 8 o th 8 u rf 8 e e 8 fi 8 r re n a s o re lo r S e s o rt o rs s w 6 d n te u d a fe i o s e ra 6 s f 6 t 6 c d 6 e g d c 5 n b is 4 d t i e r a o k F l h e i t T r i in n x e r rk 1 e ir 0 b a lo n s 9 u e o n 6 P p 5 lia 5 ri s e e a n g t r ro f 6 1867 U g e l b a ( p w r p g s h in n c n o l g A in o re o a y e . in it S h n si e e m g l ly t s w ro Dynamite invented by Nobel. A a s v d . . rk . g e te a . r y e e e s r d m o l g g lv s t n A o , r a ly e a in o d c o fu o ld b c Produced in UK at Ardeer from 1871. , n n m t v s f 's o e i o a e c e e fi ra ri a il t n o r d e fi t n . w o v ifl l rs o e r. t) e e d t r e r d y 1867 ll s Ammonium nitrate added to dynamite by Swedish chemists Vivian Dering Majendie. Ohlsson and Norrbein. , y . . t ry a e o s e g to e s rs e e th t n b b n n h ve fi l ll it g o d lo i d i t i e a ti r d n ti e ry n e d s s iv o r w e ti s ll g r , a e lo a . s c A ss a e e e a e m t p d s o n f 1860s l to e l g d h c n a n x e ie l i o a r re g o t , ri c i E t r p s h y d d u d g e It o f in o x re t A series of serious explosions, killing o n d w s m n in c . p o o t e e r . R a a a s u ll y e p , p c r h o n e s h L th a o e l s a r p Fa fo N many, mainly in the Midlands o h n c e i w r s G u is to a f sp e ti t o i h w t a , - t c o K o h a ti h t s c s g ro o ie e e U t t in a w f e t. A e in it d p v r e m y munitions trade, raise public r r g o v c ci p n n s ra to t o o ti te t si A is e N t e n 8 g c th a b d d 9 p j s a n 5 h n e r, u j I d e 8 e n n e concerns about the 4 a e t e lo w T e k e b a f e p in l r a s 6 im M v S p e . d , d s ie 7 s 8 b u g u s 7 n f m x n 7 d n g e . M h R n ry a b n r , a i o d E e e n w c 6 C 8 r I e m b i d explosives industry 8 e e e y n r a s p ri o n 7 r e f 8 ll e in n s v 8 i k r e e r 8 s e u p ta 8 e d ie a m H a e 1 o d a ta h fo a d t n s 1 t 1 n h 1 g a t M rs v in UK. c 1 n m e m t p d c u b y la xa C g fl a f e si ct je r A o 1 t n fa G u r r, e n o e le a o c e d c a u s a l M in i d e n lo b A t e h n A s g e u to A H st y te t i p a e M d S t a s e an in v n c e t c u g x n g e e r r e i rt i a e t fe u it n E m ri n n h fo e iv n m o s J p t a tr st E . m s e ri o t d s lo d lo 1 s rs s s l 6 a re y e si o y o e p p In r n In a 9 fl e . l s t it w l co r m x n fi fo o ic 8 h d g D i t ss o p e i e o M e c d n 1 in p e ro n m r e p x n v d r e h g s n a - s v it a o c n E w o n e c H T in e la h 8 ty o e vi m p e u e o c a h r st t n g c 8 e i N i o e G h r It t fo r s i n e 8 f m h V c R N T C o fi te m E M 1 sa at ac Alexander Redgrave.

w m Ju su R c se Th Fi A o l L d e e i re il a y o cc a c r a z is w ra " u rk li b . T r e n G o ti n u i c d h n m in o o h d E d g o m F fi d re s o o i a u n u i R u i e o ir c p a r n ca p in c g w t s o r m n ro d m st a o w n ks s l h t h d 1 R o a g u s e v te w h A o o a e a e 0 e b p t e s . n e s e c A li v z ll la y re 0 p e e e x T d r f e r t c d e a ig w s 0 o n a ri p g h s o rs e t t a r rd i l h r s n a l o is at io r t d o c te h " b . o u p t d C 1 ls o o i n 1 e o a c o 1 d a a le ... st rt e w e 1 o l si d se o x n o m u n ." i a a rs a li m e v s t n o 9 p d g n e 9 A l d t n t o s v 9 9 g e a s s f lo e e f s c is th is n w n d e m is s n u o th s te r e i t p "a e b u s e rs u 7 t a d p n e 5 a i r o r n 5 c r a a o d m h 7 n la n t re ve m u p to o o m e d l rk t d is th h U 6 s i s o v p a x l ly ie a is it 2 io h t e e N m n fi w fo 1 e o s is y . in d n r 2 ie n a h T a fa e r e r ri s s ti s It e d e s . z e s r "O d c o e r c n e o n t th a e p A a c ys a e t r w s e g d f g ru sa e c d o c r o t n ra . o a o o . 1974 h . i l c y h r t d r e s n ri m r f e T n e t s U as t . o n m p g e k Institute of Explosives Engineers a h tr g u t K y to u e o e s e s l e ic is re h , e it s rs fo rt w n a th re a l d a w ar w P t r o B h d re t at . t i a o c o e l holds its inaugural meeting in a w e i .. " th an as rl n o f o r ic fo n a d o ,. th ia e d D k e e u d s e n (a e 2 d fo m o i a " fi n n Birmingham on 22 May at which s t t w n r 3 h u f fy n - r c d a o a a d e m a n e m i g th e e , f b il s ) i lf d n n e w s e e ". s il a t u g ro e o o fifty persons attend and formally ty to io th in c u r r . a n h k establish the Institute. o at s s Example of a Hazard diamond.

1974 . t n e s . o i k s h r . d n ts c a . ic e e tc Health and Safety at Work etc. e f o e d ff h b k e p d n o h r e o , h T m r , o n e n s c . d 2 w . u m o s Act drafted and enacted. The l a m o y in e sh l r e m u n ve d e ti b l s li so ry a m i N , w e e e v c s ia u b a w o in s. g re Explosives Inspectorate, long d is ro u d t d a re u f R r n c s it p d o n n st a n o f m e ti s e s o h te a e K a s o t rk if y part of the Home Office is v n im tr t o g J n y se o l a l , si e f n e lly U n o . t h l a s s -s o i p lin a e o ti 0 a o w it p n lo lf e m t h c i 4 re t f is io Q transferred to become part of p e e h n n d m t l n 6 T d o w d t V 0 x s g t o ca n 5 r 5 n p u 1 6 s e y g , 6 a N e n h ti fi a fo i e n r t n g c d newly formed Health and Safety 7 n n a it a i , h 7 s c m i 8 d e fe li n 8 o e o r it n t e 8 ie n f n n w a a li V c io n a w n g r iv r a o u e o s e d r u e 9 ls e h d i si o 9 t 9 o n l g 9 m p d n 9 fo d h Executive and ceases formally to u b it n e p u t d ro e a d , a l o t 1 a l a s 1 c ac r t b 1 t m n e h 1 ci r o m to w b t n xe 1 f O n c e a u l n t t exist as a separate entity after 31 e g n ia n ra E e l o as A w h s a u in ly d e n ig l se t c a c lt n u t p n d o s re e n ty n y e w n o a e n o s . December 1974. a a l e r i e a o t a n e s a l C r ap r s m A d d p y f n R ta e y h e a fi to e . r n e t a d e S p it r iv , m n s) h c ri e e o a r fe S r ro n o t t o n ic e r b iv t d e a d O m e u u f c n i o h s u n t a e s s n l o th E s re e at ti s sl a si n c e n a a c m rd i a w e , c n to n th i y e g le m a D m (N c f iv O e e e a , th o b in g o d f ip fi o s F s s d v e l R o d n C o u Q li e o e d b a e t n i an q V a l N h p a u e h e S t e C u m p A T ca t H T s N Q so ex

26 Feature

Guy Fawkes.

. , r. p y y. n r a f e u el in e o f d . jo W o h rd o t e v ), b d o n m a s t a r u s ti 0 ). b e n , a l . r rd o o G o u . d c 3 9 s i s a lls m a a t B y b o r n e 6 8 A as g rt e i g a e o n e t a H e a p 1 6 m p in a R m n s y B io c fe b s . s s ( 1 a g P is r li i d e it n a se e m e d re re l ( h is n n h e l e. is re h n a S u th e k e d , i l lt s ri g t n ro r h d t n e v w t r n h a a e i n t u T d u d c o p o a u i s w iv b re i n n t r. n e m r n t u F c a d rd n W s e o r ru o c e u O a s N xe e o r t o e F e c fa b H sh m e n d w 5 d e w s o a l fr d e t u o e li a h d n lo n n u aff C s p e m w g a n t h b d t r te b a d n g t n n x h o o d d a c t a n e O n o ls n o n S i i e t fr p e e 5 O n st a 5 i to n i a i n d 0 g 1 o r n s m i e s im ce ) r o fa d e i n e t o re u n im s 1 5 h n t 0 6 e d t e d b s a 4 b 4 g f t G 2 a a e 2 c V u f n 0 d n p r n s e ) n n t e f b iv n n y g o fe 6 o u a n 3 o ti c p o t te s 4 o e r s e 6 1 w L m rt a i 8 6 ti 6 la A t- 7 c u o t Fr n ly s D - o e o ed m 6 c e n l g A t l 1 r e p e 0 p in tt t r 1 1 u 1 r A a in r a p u e H p ln e 1 7 n t a e rd e ( e s S k 7 e st x o h , u l th 5 u n r 0 o p s d t i d a d t e c t is s fu 1 g e e a c p ip ro u is n 1 s n in st h e ( th s e o d p a a m w r i g n t to e m s f m , r 3 r c n r st Th r e o fi s A i g e th o e o ia d e r e e . e e p e n f a n c c k ls rl e th 6 e n d K st d fr n h io o g i n In e w e a y d o M U w u t it a w a . b a r P a o w d e w t u o e G s le y lo n y F r f tr 1 o n h o rs g th i d tt r l d v ld y a o e p E t p fi u p r e is n a to o r a u u b B n e n A n o h h co B ic F O N o 6 u h u e 3 u f T T v w G 3 G t G Th G 1800 Fulminates discovered.

F B T In t a t i h 1802 A s h c h En c p to e p e to U P e kf e fi lf th e fi r n e L ac o r F sh r The Health and Morals of re a c r y i rs a t r cu u o s N d t to st A te o b e d s l t t r A c d n o d d s m tfi f Apprentices Act is the first statute it N h s t s u , e io i r at ro o e o c s K i r “A v n in a d b f t . F in n o n e n a g li aimed specifically at control of e ce e p F u u M f l c te t v l l ro a n n g C A o a fu y 1 e lu b v c d d d il h c 1 p p o m in lo l 1 o 1 i t e o ls i t s f f working conditions. It becomes p o r e si o r am m a ld t a 1 o m 1 e c 8 e s n n o ri w ” n r o 8 s r e s o d e 8 8 f n e e – d e R a 8 u r , a 0 law on 22 June. d 2 o s s h n n e f s c 8 re l a i 3 3 r o c ic t th F a g 3 e e u c m s sc 4 O ce f o h a e a n u ty 3 b r 0 o i 4 a o d t u ll c l 3 y y r n n v 5 ct 3 h ld th y fi to d a fu u d in e o . e e a r r y te s 1 th s 7 e g e r b A b n st ie o e e e d xp e e e a d o s u . d b k l d r ct m p c f o n a i y n o a . c p r a g rm n o s n o a o u f t D w iv d u d in c se th e h e n e l e t ia r e d e s . d i m l ie f fi g to b n ly s o r ra o e , r s n b e r n t o ce t e d t h f s g d e o is . e. u r f is e

Alfred Nobel. William Bickford. , e e l to e to ry re e . o g th l an n e. s e e h 0 s t d e f ar to t t v t 7 m a i h h e u u E w y 1 iu r n R c S o l b c c n " e B d g a io s n e t a a a t e. r e l s f t r e h n t s e . r e r o la e Fr T a a m w e n th K fi B o Coal mines s e b “ w f o o h to U d r t n . . " r u n s e a r n c e 7 e a o a i K il s n 8 A h a s f s e c 1 h h e n y U r. r e i f o w Th a e a rs a 9 t c to il explosives test e p s " o J s “ w d w o o 1 n e n e r d b A ra le 1 e ir i s a , h t n i n a d a n h s. tl S h a s d t n I s lo r m a gallery. m 4 p ab n t T , ve , m a c i ". ll a F y ri y 6 e 2 c o 9 a y s. s i e o e t y e y it s la p n c s 1 e ti i B b ll e s it r ll n r h h e , a e 8 ie th c is 1 e d e m lo d b o e t s m d d 9 D d 1 a v e h i p r a c m n f r h 0 e rm 9 s r o th t s T x o r u o a ic le p e 8 th ie se p r f u f e e c m to fe o s h h b o G 0 d 9 u s p o o ib o h f o c e is 3 a l 1 8 n a y r k t h o fr d o e n it w li e 1 e 1 t r t t re tt c y ig e te t h n r f e v d j c a fe u a a h e r e t o B o 9 R e ie 1 a A f a il s l b f ag m o c o t e st d d M s o s 4 a a a d o t a h ffi t 0 h o 1 1935 l e s f o e r c x e 0 t e n n " e w t rt ly o e O s 0 , m b ia i d 1 h 5 , o p h ch r u , ar , Massive explosion of ammonium o v M n T 1 C p p S i n a f 3 ls i l a 9 I. 9 - e u " h re W o 8 w l N V a " r 1 in r s s. w d s 1 e e nitrate and other ammonium salts d ir o e a , - ," s f il y i d h h e S C l 1 9 C l d e h b t e t s fr ib W y h a te c o c d u c f n l e s d a s d i c st l e n u o io takes place on 21 October in A h s rl ti n m u o o s st d ll T o o M ri a li s o u e o d i p n B c n r m h e h r n m Oppau, Germany. Something W o S u u c b c p e WW I. o S approaching 5000 tonnes of One of the first 10 ton bombs, material explodes, killing over 500 photographed in 2009. persons. Workmen were using th It II U 1 W e e m a s t n 9 l ( i o ve m n s o it d 2 4 a fi m r A w r is u d ta r e ia 0 3 te rs p ld c O dynamite to loosen the material o y s l t t ep d m , / r t r e r i io ti o e N 0 1 , i d o W ty in ld n n p p d la a e 2 9 n e v a l which had caked in a silo. te s le r a c t te 3 4 c s e r e C ex r . s o i e io c r n 4 o c d l 1 n N c n T u v m t n w h a a , t u ri - l. e C e a h b id s h s 3 a r a m v h n b t M u a o i p ti e s e w e o 0 n o r a e t e y a 9 n s . 3 ty t o re id r o rk 5 0 d u g m l g p le d p n d a 0 1 . in n a i a e a rg f m t 2 n es u u e s in ic y 3 e n g a r a p re th a 1 o h 1 d , n n a s a e r e to ll e ry la e n rc il o , s 7 i k o 1 l x c x 9 th y 1 t to r i 9 e li u 5 o 0 t s, a i 7 o p 9 e p th e r 9 o f d sa o , o s 8 f 3 io 1 n l 9 f l r l 3 e 3 rg o st i t f w n a 4 s 9 n 0 n w 2 w o ta o e V co a rm o sc io 4 m e p n ,0 m t , .2 u e ) a si t i s 1 at g M n p r n r e d 0 a o 2 a ll u r v n iv 8 7 i n e i f w e 5 u e r t 0 l rp 3 m l p se ti e o c e 7 ca m s o d fo n e so o g l d e 3 i U e d m s o a 5 n is at r a it u it m n n r i d ,2 lli K r e d n n A e b io d rs e n io p s s e a o 0 o fo in . e 1 d d c d e n ia b d d n , o n m e 6 n o r t T v i t s r s lo e L e s lo o f a e s m r u a h h ic ti p C o St g t e d y v e d t , o tp ti e e e 9 o ro l v a to w a o e e xp e e 3 in u u n B M s n a e t u g a f d r s r ,0 e n t g a d s h s re e c e ee u ft w i 1 lo in a 4 s d h c z u e 4 . ib se Oppau. i s ar . I n e e a n 6 s m 6 a s a h o n v i s g in r t o r r p % iv a m ,0 n o d a o ro e 5 ts n c y c c f W . r e d 0 d f r k e lo s l o o o N o o o s d u 0 l re g a p it t u u n u r d f . it n , d ar a e e e at d t ta n a l u th A io it 0 e g c s. a ff d e in i i t ti d c e b n io 0 p e h B n e i g ts n ri o W ti o n 0 th e y d c a n s e n o u to - d , t n UN logo. s, s. ar n t , d

t s ) l a n d L s in a s y re S n n . 5 re n . ce r ill t io i H e io d s 7 u ). o ly e k n e is u r h r t l l e ie 8 t si u ffi g S i af v q e w o a a a lv it 1 c ER s J O a r ls S o re . t e f p n n o v fa S e 4 t n o il r la t ) u o io v ti e u f 2 n a t k . d p n w ( u . B c ti t n c h (M ro e M c s ) n e e la s it r S c a a i a t an P n ) e A a h h K e t e (S O N e f s o m S S K S h t w ri s b h N s h o M n a l p E e U (E lt e , U o In m y c p d o rc ts e io s i o h g s a t 1 o t e d r o n h a n h t a c l O t n e a f . e a 9 t a e v o a l a t e e t la d n e D t i l g o ry r 3 in r th o B e e s r s 5 y u e u v ( r in ic in s e a H o / , o f 0 g S v d fo d m g is o 1 e e o a rt d a t u 2 f rp 9 k 4 b o N n d e r n e b e 8 n C D p t 2 a d a n o o 8 is a r 6 i n d a s a 0 ir y R g e m p s A tr e c a 9 t c e r 9 L e 1 0 tt a o d n u a 0 g n 1 h u su d r ifi J n n iv l n b n e s t n io e q w s co i t am s n 1 a te t 1 e i t ro o 0 S d ta t c 0 e a e e r 0 s r o in a e is r 1 9 m s c t 9 t m o s n e S a n r t iv 0 r e a g t ) s b g e e n e n x e s d io h l c ra 2 g p s y e o s e 0 e C d g o ir o u in 2 r it s a ifi a n e lo ll in 2 d r e G c to r e e 1 a ti D c 1 B M o a n li n al e i p 2 a g te P ti S n 2 s s h t n l E h j d u b o cl in sw x n n ls li S a e i T a a a rk to S t e n a ti u a E m E i il i (S t s d . d u o s 0 h a M st a Q s re f r o k ib s a n y is M g r H 0 s t s, e p l n m a o fo e p S s p b e a n e w e f 0 S e u a io e s th p n u u c a n R e y o 1 e v s c n it r ct e i f a s o ro S e n p io k m o r e h i a c io e g e o n ve p s t io t r a l te h T s w t n h A ra t i s G e u t m a o r p a t lo O a u t s o u e to s e y iv it ia o r f m l s p c m f e t it t n lo r g s t c C o W e e S e x o o iv S st ia i p e e o s o d rp h r E V y s l H x h t l In s e o t e m n lo d In ffi E t ra p s it c f th o a n e A an r h t x e a n o a c xp a h ll o it S E h im I e e M E T A f T L H b w Further information: [email protected] 27 Feature Effect of end shape on blast from cylindrical charges By Scott Bradley BEng MSc (EOE), System Design Evaluation Ltd Project Supervisors: Dr N. Davies, Dr C. Knock, Cranfield University

Introduction “minor changes in the shape of the end have The concept of "TNT Equivalence" is used a seemingly disproportionate effect on the extensively throughout the explosives properties of the end effect”. Research by industry to compare the specific output Wisotski and Snyer [14] examined blast from characteristics of an energetic material to plane and hemispherical ended charges, that of TNT. It is a fundamental parameter also concluding that "it is interesting to note used in evaluating the damaging effect of a how unquestionably the slope of the particular charge on buildings, structures and pressure-distance curve changes with only personnel and forms the basis for several minor changes to the end contour of the government regulatory criteria including the cylinder". storage and transportation of explosives. Still, despite these early findings and the potential significance to current quantity- However, the data used in the determination Figure 1: Schematic of the Blast Field around a of TNT Equivalence is based mainly on Cylindrical Charge [14]. distance based safety standards and low experimental results from detonation of collateral warhead development, little spherical charges, despite that most military recent research has been directed charges are more nearly cylindrical. A specifically at comparatively assessing the number of studies have shown that the near- effect of changes in end geometry of field blast effects from plane-ended cylindrical charges on the resulting blast cylindrical charges 1 exhibit quite different field generated. characteristics from those of spherical charges of similar mass [4; 6; 7; 8; 9; 11; 14]. Scope Free-air detonation of cylindrical charges A programme of work was undertaken to results in a complex blast field comprising of investigate the near-field blast effects primary, secondary and bridge shock waves produced from detonation of six cylindrical [5] which is "obviously far from spherical" Figure 2: Near Field P-T Gauge History from a 400g PE4 charges of Length/Diameter Cylindrical Charge. [10]. A number of fundamental studies have (L/D)≈2 with varying end profiles (see Figure investigated the blast field generated from A variety of factors may necessitate that the 3). A combination of hydrocode modelling the detonation of plane-ended cylindrical end geometry of an explosive charge and experimental firings were conducted to high explosive charges [3; 6; 10; 12; 14; 15]. deviates from that of a simple plane ended provide Pressure-Time data at distances of These have illustrated that Mach interaction cylinder. The incorporation of a cavity in the 1m to 3m from the end of the charge and at of the blast waves produced from the sides end of an explosive charge (hollow charge) angles varying from 0° to 90° from the and ends of the charge produces bridge in order to increase axial blast effectiveness central axis. In addition, High Speed Video waves off the corners, and that secondary or was noted as early as 1792 [13]. Later (HSV) of experimental firings was employed reflected waves are generated from the ends studies, documented by Bawn [2], used to augment modelling results and enable of the bridge wave due to reflection of the Schlieren imagery to examine the shock visualisation of the shock wave system primary waves (see Figure 1). This results in a wave system around cylindrical charges with produced. multiple shock phenomenon which is varying end geometries, confirming that Figure 3. Cylindrical Charge Geometries. evident in blast gauge histories in the near field (see Figure 2).

As the blast wave propagates away from the charge, the reflected waves tend to overtake the primary and bridge waves such that, after some distance, the blast wave resembles that produced by a spherical charge and is said to be 'healed'. This is because the velocity of the shock wave is related to the local ambient temperature, pressure and density of the medium. Hence, the reflected waves travel more quickly through the pre-shocked air.

28 Feature

Only the findings from the Intrusive and Protuberant Cone Ended charges (Type II and Type V) are discussed here.

Experimental A series of experiments were conducted to investigate the blast field produced from a total of 18 charges with 6 different end geometries. Trials were conducted at the Explosive Research and Demonstration Area (ERDA) of the Defence College of Management and Technology (DCMT), Shrivenham, UK, December 2011.

Figure 5. ERDA General Charge design arrangement of HSV, Geometry for the explosive charges was blast gauges and determined using Computer-Aided-Design explosive charge. software based on a target charge mass of 400g and L/D of 2. The charges were Figure 6. Mounted explosive charge and blast gauges. prepared by hand pressing of PE4, using a purpose designed moulding system, into a determine the key characteristics of the blast light cardboard tube casing with a 3mm SX2 wave recorded at each gauge, namely Time booster. An L2 Electrical Detonator was of Arrival, Peak Overpressure and Positive inserted into the end of the charge and Impulse. Positive Impulse was calculated by located centrally by a low density pinewood integration of the pressure trace, from the Detonator Support. Figure 4 illustrates a arrival of the shock front to the time at which cross-section of a fully assembled charge. the curve crossed the x-axis.

mounted atop a steel post, at a height of 2m HSV from the trial was found to be unreliable. from the ground to prevent interference Problems with triggering of the camera from reflected waves. prevented capture of the initial firings and later efforts were hampered by inclement Computer modelling weather. Overall the quality of the HSV data Hydrocode modelling of each charge type that was gathered was poor, predominately was conducted using ANSyS Autodyn. For due to difficulties associated with providing comparison purposes, further modelling sufficient natural light to the camera. was later conducted by MSC Software using Pressure contour plots were created from the MSC Dytran and found to correlate well with simulation results, at various intervals, to the Autodyn results. provide a visualisation of the development of Where possible, models were simplified the shock wave system around each charge. using 2D axial symmetry. An Euler solver Figure 7 illustrates the shock wave system Figure 4. Cross-Section of a Fully Assembled Charge. was used to model the explosive charge and predicted from MSC Dytran simulations Experimental setup surrounding air medium. The main charge around the Intrusive Cone Ended Charge To capture the near field blast waves explosive was represented by C4, but the (Type II) after 0.32µs. generated, an array of blast gauges were detonator and booster charges were not Figure 7. MSC Dytran Pressure Contour Plot for Intrusive positioned around the charge. HSV (High modelled. The Euler domain was graded to Cone Ended Charge at 0.32µs. Speed Video)was also used to provide a give a cell size of 1mm in proximity to the visual indication of the shape of the blast charge, increasing to 3.5mm at the field. Figure 5 shows the general extremities. Flow-out boundary conditions arrangement of the HSV, blast gauges and were applied to all off-axis edges of the charge at the ERDA range. Euler domain and a gauge array, similar to that used in the experimental firings, was Each charge was mounted on a steel post added around the charge including five with an ionisation probe attached to the additional gauges (see Figure 5). All charge casing to provide a trigger pulse for simulations were solved to a time of 10ms. the data acquisition systems (see Figure 6). Blast gauges were mounted within circular Results baffle plates to ensure that only the side-on Experimental and modelling P-T gauge pressure component of the blast wave was history data was collated and plotted. A measured. Each gauge/baffle assembly was preliminary analysis was conducted to

29 Feature

Figure 8. Development of shock wave system around Intrusive cone ended charge (Type II).

Figure 9. Development of shock wave system around protuberant cone ended charge (Type V).

30 Feature

Analysis and discussion Shock wave system Since the quality of the experimental HSV data was found to be poor, analysis of the shock wave system around each charge is based primarily on the review of modelling results.

Figure 8 illustrates the predicted development of the shock wave system around the Intrusive Cone Ended Charge. Shortly after initiation, primary blast waves are produced from the end and curved surfaces of the charge. A projectile-like disturbance is evident, emerging from the axial primary wave, with an associated bow shock wave.

Sometime later, a bridge wave can be seen Figure 10. Intrusive Cone developing at the intersection between the Ended Charge Shock Wave two primary waves, similar to that for plane Funnel Plot. ended charges. The axial bow shock wave becomes more pronounced and a secondary shock wave can be seen travelling behind. This may be as a result of Mach interaction between the axial primary shock wave and bow wave although, since no additional bridge wave is apparent, it is likely that it is simply a continuation of the primary axial wave which has been overtaken by the bow shock.

As the shock system continues to propagate, reflected waves form from the triple point. Along the axis, three regions of high pressure are apparent, corresponding to the bow, secondary and reflected shock waves.

Eventually the lateral primary and bridge wave ‘heal’ to form a smooth, almost spherical shock front. The axial primary and Figure 11. Protuberant Cone bow wave also become superimposed at the Ended Charge Shock Wave shock front to form a single disturbance, as Funnel Plot. noted by Bailey and Murray [1]. bridge waves become less pronounced until phenomenon which is responsible for a For the Protuberant Cone Ended Charge eventually the blast wave ‘heals’ and the double peak in the blast wave, the general (Type V), the shock wave system produced is shock front resembles that from a spherical form of the predicted shock wave funnel found to be more complex than that from a charge. was verified by comparison with the plane ended cylindrical charge (see Figure experimental P-T gauge data. 9). In accordance with the findings of Bawn Similar to those presented by Bawn [2], the [2] and Bailey and Murray [1], modelling predicted shock wave systems around each For example, for the intrusive cone ended results show that primary waves are charge can be summarised as shock wave charge, Gauges 5 and 9 are located outside generated from the plane surfaces of the funnel diagrams; produced by tracing the of the bridge and bow wave funnels, in the charge and that these are connected by a locus of the intersection of the bow/bridge 90° direction. As expected, the experimental bridge wave which forms at the intersection. waves with the primary shock waves 2, based data for these gauges shows only a single Also evident, is that an additional bridge on the hydrocode modelling results (see peak. Gauges 6 and 10 also lie outside, but wave forms along the axis of the charge, due Figure 10 and Figure 11). are in close proximity to, the upper to Mach interaction of the primary waves bounding surface of the bridge wave funnel. generated from opposing surfaces of the Since, as stated, a reflected wave is The experimental results show that a double conical end. As the blast wave propagates generated at the point of intersection of the peak occurs at Gauge 6 but not at Gauge 10. the separate identities of the primary and primary and bridge wave and it is this This is because, as indicated on the shock

31 Feature

funnel plot by the transition from a solid to broken line, prior to reaching Gauge 10 the primary lateral and bridge wave shock fronts merge, meaning that no reflected shock wave is generated. Gauge 7 lies just below the lower boundary of the bridge wave funnel, within the path of the merged primary axial and bridge wave, and does exhibit a double peak response. Whereas Figure 12. Relative Gauge 11 is exposed to only the merged positive impulse for primary lateral and bridge shock waves and intrusive cone shows only a single peak. The form of the P-T ended charge. curve for the axial gauges is more complex, with both Gauges 8 and 12 showing multiple peaks corresponding to the passage of a bow, secondary and reflected shock wave, as discussed previously.

Positive impulse Figure 13. Relative A quantitative examination of the positive impulse for experimental and modelling P-T data for protuberant cone each charge was undertaken. For the ended charge. following reasons, the analysis was confined to the positive impulse of the blast wave only:

Firstly, the positive impulse “is generally a Modelling more useful indicator of blast damage axial effect. However, previous analysis of At 1m from the charge, modelling results potential” [10]. It is a function of both the the predicted shock wave system illustrates show greatly enhanced positive impulse overpressure and the positive phase that along the axis the blast wave comprises along the axis (166% in comparison to the duration and thus better characterises the of a series of multiple shocks. Inspection of plane ended charge). However, what is blast wave than peak overpressure alone, the P-T data collected shows that, despite particularly interesting is that in the 30° to particularly when multiple peaks are the peak overpressure remaining similar to 90° directions, positive impulse is also found observed; that of the plane ended charge, each of the to have increased by 16.1%, 18.3% and Secondly, whilst consistency of the individual shocks is of relatively short 28.2%, respectively. In fact, it was experimental data for the key blast duration and hence the positive impulse of consistently the greatest of all cylindrical parameters was generally good, giving the wave is reduced. charge types investigated. relative standard deviations 3 of below 10%. In the 30° and 60° directions, small increases Contrary to the experimental data, at 2m, Modelling results for first and second peak over the plane ended charge are found modelling results continue to show overpressure were found to give errors (1.8% and 7.2%, respectively). In the 30° significantly increased positive impulse averaging 20% and 50%, respectively, and direction this may be attributed to the fact along the axis (128% greater than for the could therefore not be used to reliably that Gauge 7 was located just below the plane ended charge). It is thought that the support the analysis. However, correlation of lower boundary of the bridge wave funnel, lack of correlation with trial results can be both time of arrival and positive impulse was whereas for the plane ended charge it was attributed to the complex axial shock wave much improved, being generally below 10%. contained within it. As such, the P-T trace for system which exists and accumulation of Figure 12 and Figure 13 illustrate the the intrusive cone ended charge shows a errors in the prediction of peak overpressure experimental and modelling positive double shock phenomenon which increases for the bow, secondary and reflected impulse data for the intrusive and the positive phase duration and, hence, the shockwave components. In the 30° to 90° protuberant cone ended charges relative to positive impulse of the blast wave. directions, results also appear to the plane ended charge. overestimate the positive impulse showing At 3m, the axial positive impulse appears to increases of 22.5%, 18.2% and 17.9% Intrusive cone ended charge have recovered, then showing a 2.6% respectively, when compared to the (Type ll) increase over the plane ended charge. This experimental data; albeit by a lesser extent. may be due to the ‘feeding-in’ of energy Experimental It is most likely that this is due to energy fed from higher pressure regions of the blast in from the high impulse, axial region of the At 2m from the charge, experimental results wave, as proposed by Wisotski and Snyer blast wave. With this in mind, it is considered for the intrusive cone ended charge show a [14], or due to an increase in the positive that the predictions for positive impulse at noticeable reduction in positive impulse phase duration, owing to the secondary and 1m may also be exaggerated. along the charge axis (approximately 18%). reflected waves receding from the primary At 3m, results show that the axial impulse This decrease in axial impulse is perhaps shock front. However, at all angles a general has decayed somewhat, then only giving a somewhat surprising, considering that increase of between 0.7% and 2.8 is found. 26.4% improvement over the plane ended hollow charges are often used to increase charge. However, at greater angles similar 32 Feature increases as at 2m are observed. some discrepancies in the predicted trend, perpendicular impulse shows small Comparison with experimental data does despite that absolute errors in the positive enhancements, but at the intermediate illustrate that the model continues to impulse predictions remain within 10%. angles the impulse remains suppressed in overestimate the magnitude of the positive Whilst the axial increase, and 30° and 60° comparison to a plane ended charge of impulse at all angles; although, there is decreases in positive impulse are observed in similar dimensions. general agreement that an increase in blast the experimental results, in all cases the effectiveness occurs at all angles. model tends to marginally underestimate References the magnitude of these effects. However, the 1. Bailey, A. and Murray, S. G. (1989), Explosives, Protuberant cone ended Propellants and Pyrotechnics, 1st ed, Brassey's, relative increase in perpendicular positive UK. charge (Type V) impulse is not captured at all by the model. 2. Bawn, C. E. H. and Rotter, G. (1956), Science of Experimental Explosives, 1st ed, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, UK. At 2m, experimental results show an Conclusion The effect of varying end shape on the blast 3. Cybulski. (Safety in Mines Research and Testing increasing, approximately linear relationship Branch), (1943), Unpublished Work Buxton, UK. between the magnitude of the positive produced from 400g cylindrical charges of 4. Das, J. (2009), Blast Effects and Equivalency of impulse and angular displacement from the PE4, with L/D=2, has been investigated Hollow Cylindrical Charges (Masters of Science charge axis. At all angles between 0° and using a combination of experimental and in Explosive Ordnance Engineering thesis) hydrocode modelling methods. The results Cranfield University, Shrivenham, UK. 60°, the positive impulse is reduced 5. Held, M. (1983), "TNT - Equivalent", Propellants, have clearly supported the findings of compared to the plane ended charge, with Explosives, Pyrotechnics, vol. 8, pp. 158-167. the greatest reductions occurring in the 0° previous authors, showing that relatively 6. Ismail, M. M. and Murray, S. G. (1993), "Study of and 30° directions (13% and 14%, minor changes to the end shape of the the Blast Wave Parameters from Small Scale Explosions", Propellants, Explosives, respectively). The presented area theory [10; charge can have a significant effect on both the shock wave system produced and the Pyrotechnics, vol. 18. 14] may explain the reductions in impulse 7. Knock, C. and Davies, N. (2011), "Predicting the compared to the plane ended charge, and positive impulse of the blast wave at varying Impulse from the Curved Surface of Detonating ‘feeding-in’ of energy could account for angles around the charge. Cylindrical Charges", Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, vol. 36, pp. 105-109. greater positive impulse in the 60° direction. The presence of an intrusive conical end 8. Knock, C. and Davies, N. (2011), "Predicting the At 3m, positive impulse along the axis profile produces an axial projectile effect Peak Pressure from the Curved Surface of appears to have recovered; showing an which results in a complex shockwave Detonating Cylindrical Charges", Propellants, increase of 6% at both 0° and 90°, whilst system consisting of a bow, secondary and Explosives, Pyrotechnics, vol. 35. remaining suppressed in the 30° and 60° 9. Plooster, M. N. (1978), Blast Front Pressures from reflected shock wave. In other directions the Cylindrical Charges of High Explosives, NWC TM directions by 3% and 5%, respectively. In components of the blast wave are similar to 3631, Naval Weapons Center, US. fact, in the 60° direction the positive impulse that from a plane ended cylindrical charge. 10. Plooster, M. N. (1982), Blast Effects from was found to be the lowest of all six charge At small scaled distances, significantly Cylindrical Explosive Charges: Experimental types investigated. Measurements, NWC TP 8382, Naval Weapons enhanced positive impulse is generated Center, US. along the axis. This phenomenon is well 11. Reeves, T. (2010), Determination of Blast Modelling documented and is used commonly in a Parameters - Along the Axis of a Cylindrical At 1m, modelling results for the protuberant variety of applications (breeching charges, Charge (L:D of 4:1) (Masters of Science in Explosive Ordnance Engineering thesis) cone ended charge show a 30% reduction in rock blasting, etc.) to increase near-field axial axial positive impulse, compared to the Cranfield University, Shrivenham, UK. effect. What is most interesting is that, whilst 12. Titman. (Safety in Mines Research and Testing plane ended charge. At 30° the impulse this axial increase tends to decay quite Branch), (1947), S.M.R.T.B Annual Report remains marginally reduced (7%), but at 60° quickly, both experimental and modelling London, UK. an increase of 14% is observed. In the results agree that a general increase in the 13. Walters. (US Military Academy), (2003), An perpendicular direction, positive impulse is Overview of the Shaped Charge Concept blast effectiveness of the charge, at all other (unpublished Report), Westpoint, US. almost identical to the plane ended charge. angles and stand-off distances, is achieved 14. Wisotski, J. and Snyer, W. H. (1965), At 2m, axial, 30° and 90° positive impulse is by incorporation of the conical cavity. Characteristics of Blast Waves Obtained from reduced, in comparison to the plane ended Cylindrical High Explosive Charges, Denver charge, by 5%, 2% and 3%, respectively; A protuberant cone ended charge generates Research Institute, US. whilst in the 60° direction an increase of 1% primary waves which propagate in a 15. Woodhead. (Safety in Mines Research and perpendicular direction from the surfaces of Testing Branch), (1947), Unpublished Work is found. Correlation of the modelling and Buxton, UK. experimental data was reasonable with the cylinder and conical profile, and are connected by a bridge wave. However, in 1 A plane-ended cylindrical charge is a solid explosive errors across all angles not exceeding 10%. bounded by two parallel planes and such a surface However, the increase in positive impulse common with the findings of previous having a circle as its directrix. noted in the 60° direction is not observed in authors, a further bridge wave is formed 2 At the point where the intersection of the primary and along the charge axis due to Mach interaction bow/bridge waves was no longer clear, the boundary the experimental results, and in the other has been extended by use of a polynomial directions the model tends generally to of the primary waves produced from the extrapolation, as indicated by the transition from a predict lower attenuation of the blast effect. opposing surfaces of the conical end. solid to broken line. 3 Relative Standard Deviation (%) = (Standard Deviation At 3m, the axial positive impulse has A protuberant cone ended charge generates / Mean) x 100 recovered to give a 1% increase over the a definite near-field attenuating effect along plane ended charge but remains identical in Further information: and in proximity to the axis at small scaled [email protected] the 30° direction. At greater angles a distances, without materially affecting blast reduction of 2% is apparent. Comparison effects in the perpendicular direction. At with the experimental results does reveal greater distances, the axial and

33 Tech Spec

“The exploder was in a formidable locked Dynamo exploders white box, very heavy. We split it open, Dynamo types are the oldest and do not Tech Spec found a ratchet handle, and pushed it down require any form of stored energy, such as Bruce Cochrane MPhil MIExpE without harming the ship. The wire was a batteries. They work by converting heavy rubber insulated cable. We cut it in mechanical energy into electrical energy. 8 half, fastened the ends to screw terminals on The operator either twists a handle or the box and transmitted shocks to one depresses a rack bar – that T handle plunger another convincingly. It worked.” 6 of my cartoon based ambitions - which in turn operates a dynamo comprising copper Not knowing that special electric detonators brushes and a commutator. were needed, he initially tried to insert his firing leads into the open end of a plain Most are designed so that the contacts to the detonator and was puzzled by its apparent firing circuit close at the end of the stroke. failure to explode. 7 This is to ensure that current is released when the electric energy generated is at its peak. 9 One of my greatest disappointments on However, some simple generators do not joining the explosives fraternity was Exploders have this feature, comprising simply a It is a New year and a new, but somewhat discovering that the initiation of electric generator and a rotating handle. 10 less aesthetically pleasing, face peers out detonators was no longer achieved by from the header on the Tech Spec page. On plunging an imposing T shaped handle into Rack bar machines could typically fire behalf of everyone who has enjoyed his the bowels of a great wooden box. I should between 20 and 200 detonators in series, column, I would like to thank Pete Norton say that, at that point, most of my explosives while a twist handle machine might be 11 for the splendid work he has done over the knowledge had been gleaned from cartoons. expected to fire up to 20 in a series. The output of a machine depends on its condition , last three years. I know Pete well from our When I took over as Troop Warrant Officer at which deteriorates over time, and the effort former careers as Ammunition Technicians Northolt Troop, 11 EOD Regiment RLC. I was expended by the firer. Because most in the Royal Logistic Corps (RLC) and this is most gratified to find in the Troop museum exploders are designed to only fire at the end not the first time that I have found myself an exploder of the sort that Lawrence of of the stroke, it is important to vigorously gazing upon the absurdly high standards he Arabia and Wiley Coyote had used, complete operate the handle through its full range of has set and wondering how I am ever to with an impressive T handle plunger. approach them, let alone meet them. movement in order to reliably fire the series. Alongside it was a twist handle exploder, The rack bar exploder illustrated is a British Back in the June 2012 Journal, Pete wrote a and next to that sat an Exploder Dynamo Exploder Dynamo Mk V, made in 1918. It is fascinating piece on the various types of Condenser. Along with the Shrike Exploder 1 housed in a sturdy wooden box, measuring detonators and this article follows on from on the EOD van, these provided a pretty 13 x 8 x 6 inches which was usually painted that by looking at the means of initiating good representative sample of the types of white. The top is fitted with two brass output electric detonators. Here I am referring to exploder available and offered a potted terminals for the firing leads. It was probably low voltage detonators of the type that, I history of exploder development. suspect, most of us are familiar with, and not one of these machines that Lawrence was the high voltage varieties such as Electric The role of the exploder (or blasting machine, referring to and it is entirely typical of early Bridgewire, Exploding Foil or Slapper as they are called in some sectors of industry dynamo exploders. To operate it, the rack detonators. As Pete noted, Henry Julius and in some overseas countries) is to provide was fully withdrawn, the leads were Smith patented the electric detonator in sufficient current over a distance to initiate connected to the terminal, then the handle 1868 and they were in use by the 1880s 2. In one or more detonators or other electrical was smoothly and swiftly pushed down, the Saar mining region, between 1907 and initiator. which operated the dynamo and, when the end of the stroke was reached, closed the 1909, it was found that the cost per Exploders must be portable enough to be contacts and released the charge. 12 What electrical shot was higher than those using carried to remote locations, robust enough could be simpler or more satisfying? igniferous means, but the overall blasting to survive the journey and the conditions costs per ton of coal extracted were encountered, and safe. The standard military exploder of the Second considerably lower. 3 World War was the Exploder Dynamo Mk 7 They can be divided into two groups, which was also a rack bar machine. This Despite the benefits of electrical initiation, according to their method of operation. continued in British service well into the the British army was slow to adopt it. No These are dynamo types (also referred to as 1950s alongside more modern condenser mention was made of it in the demolitions generator or magneto types) and condenser types. The Mk 7 was a more compact version section of the Manual of Field Engineering, types (also known as capacitor types). The 4 of the Mk V and was capable of firing 42 published in 1911. This all changed during difference between the two is that a shots in series over a cable length of 880 the First World War. Writing in The Seven dynamo exploder creates an electric charge yards 13 and through a resistance of 150 Pillars of Wisdom, TE Lawrence ‘of Arabia’ and releases it immediately, while a ohms. 14 discussed using electric detonators in condenser exploder stores an electric sabotage attacks on the Hejaz railway, charge in a capacitor before discharging into Twist handle machines are smaller and beginning in 1915. 5 Describing the the firing circuit. lighter than their rack bar counterparts, exploder he used, Lawrence said: although they operate along the same principles. The example pictured is a Drake,

34 Tech Spec

to a resistor and is fully discharged. 17 An example of an old, but very simple, battery powered machine is the Femco Multi Shot Condenser Exploder. In this, the operator inserts and holds down a key, which causes the batteries to charge the capacitor. A lamp indicates when they are fully charged. When the operator removes the key, the capacitors discharge into the external firing circuit. 18

More typical of a modern battery powered exploder is the Exploder, DC, Electronic Handheld. This is more familiar to soldiers and engineers the world over as the Shrike exploder and has found widespread military and civilian applications. Exploder Dynamo Mk V, 1918. ICI Drake Dynamo Exploder, 1960s. Exploder Dynamo Condensor I started this article with a thanks and I Mk ll, 1950s. should like to end with some as well. I am made by ICI. This was a capable of firing six The exploder illustrated is the Mk II version. indebted to Harry Lewis and Dave Parkes at 15 shots in series. It is housed in a moulded synthetic resin EODTIC, and to Malcolm Holden at the case and has a plastic window on top which The dynamo has given – and still gives - Defence Explosives Munitions and Search covered a neon lamp. The exploder was reliable service the world over, especially in School for supplying much of the technical fitted with two output terminals at one end places where batteries and/or recharging information which informed this piece. and a firing button and safety switch flap at facilities are not available. I worked with the other. I hope to look at commercial explosives in Greek army EOD teams in 2011 and was my next few pieces, so if you work in the surprised to see them using a 1950s vintage Inside there is a generator which supplies explosives industry, please do not be too twist handle dynamo exploder to fire their alternating current to an auto-transformer, surprised if I contact you, begging for recently purchased and cutting edge EOD an 0.5 microfarad condenser and two metal information. Alternatively, if you have ideas weapons. It worked perfectly. However, in rectifiers which are arranged in a voltage- or information on a subject that could most applications, the generator has been doubler circuit and convert the AC current benefit from the Tech Spec treatment, replaced by condenser machines, thus to DC. This then charges a 6 microfarad please do not hesitate to contact me consigning the satisfying twist or plunge to capacitor to between 1100 and 1500 volts. through the Institute or via email at history and the tender care of Warner The neon lamp is connected between taps [email protected]. Brothers. on the auto-transformer and limits the 1 Norton P, Explosives Engineering , June 2012 pp 26-27. Condenser exploders voltage to which the capacitor can be 2 Ibid. In condenser exploders, a charge is stored in charged. It also indicates when the 3 Marshall A, Explosives: Their Manufacture, Properties, capacitor is fully charged. Tests and History , J & A Churchill, London, 1915, p 445. one or more capacitors and then released by 4 Manual of Field Engineering , HMSO, 1911, pp 84 – 96. the operator pressing a button or carrying To operate the exploder, the firing leads are 5 Lawrence TE, Seven Pillars of Wisdom , Jonathan Cape, out some other action. There are two groups London, 1935, p351. connected to the output terminals. The 6 Ibid . of condenser machines: those with batteries safety switch flap is moved to expose the 7 Ibid. and those with a manually operated dynamo armature spindle. This also 8 Manual of Field Works (All Arms) 1921 (Provisional) , dynamo. In some cases the low voltage HMSO, 1921, p 183. removes a resistor shunt across the 9 Blasters’ Handbook, Canadian Industries Limited, energy provided by the batteries or dynamo capacitor. The dynamo handle is crewed Montreal, 1964. p 63. is converted to high voltage by a converter onto the spindle and briskly rotated 10 For example, the dynamo exploder included in the or transformer, before being passed to the Kit, Rapid Cratering L16A1. clockwise to produce AC current, which is 11 Blasters’ Handbook, Canadian Industries Limited, capacitors. In others, the batteries or converted to DC and passed to the Montreal, 1964. pp 63 – 65 and Marshall, generator charge the capacitors directly. In capacitor. The neon lamp flashes Op Cit, p 446. 12 Manual of Field Works (All Arms) 1921 (Provisional) , most cases, when the capacitors are fully continuously when the capacitor is fully 16 HMSO, 1921, p 183. charged a lamp illuminates. charged. 13 AP.1661G. Vol. 1 (2nd Edn.) , Sect 6, Chap 1, para 98, EODTIC Bicester. The Exploder Dynamo Condenser was the With the dynamo handle left in position, the 14 DWS Notes on Ammunition , Issue 6A, sect II, 1942, standard British military exploder from the firing button is pressed. This switches the para 26. 1940s to the 1970s. It is typical of a 15 Email H Lewis, EODTIC, 21 Jan 2014. capacitor connections from the charging 16 Blasters’ Handbook , Canadian Industries Limited, condenser machine in which the capacitors circuit to the output terminals. Current is Montreal, 1964. p 63. were charged by the manual operation of a released into the external circuit and the 17 AP.1661G. Vol. 1 (2nd Edn.) , Sect 6, Chap 1, EODTIC dynamo and is similar in concept to Bicester. series is fired. 18 Blasters’ Handbook , Canadian Industries Limited, commercial machines such as the Montreal, 1964. p 65. Beethoven exploder, which is still available. If the handle is removed before the firing button is pressed, the capacitor is connected

35 The Bennett file The Bennett file Our columnist John Bennett reflects on the fireworks references in our language

Having previously confessed in these pages to the guilty secrets of a mis-spent youth, I am about to open wider the door to the cupboard in which the skeletons are kept. yes, I searched the streets after Guy Fawkes’ Night to try to find those delightfully smelly remnants – mostly rockets and aeroplanes but, if on adjacent fields and allotments, fireworks not normally prone to leaving the ground. Now, of course, I know that, far from being alone in this activity, there were fellow aficionados all over the country hiding in shadowy corners ready to leap out when the coast was clear to secure another artefact for the collection. It is a practice of which I am, the door when another find was made by a If we get ejected we ‘get a rocket’. yes, it now, rather proud since it resulted in a diligent child working on ‘our’ behalf. Well could be an allusion to a space craft but the collection of labels still extant. Should I say trained children (and my daughter was expression has been around for a long time others are envious that certain items (albeit happy to retrieve fireworks and indeed – long before space travel was an everyday possibly dirty) are in my collection (and eagerly awaited the following day’s topic. An old car which emits explosive those of other seekers after unconsidered excursions) are a god-send. you can walk noises as it jumps along is called ‘an old trifles) and not in theirs? along whistling while exhibiting a smile banger’. A good looking lady is a ‘firecracker’; which tells all who pass by – ‘I do like to a bouncing object is like a ‘jumping jack’. No, that can be admitted and few reading indulge my children – don’t you?’ and Literary references to Roman candles are this publication and none reading Fireworks another rocket is secured. many and we are delighted to have a will turn a hair. But what of using your ‘cracker’ of a party. children as an excuse for such searches in While fireworks are not universally loved (it’s difficult to locate corners? I can remember a funny world) many use expressions which Fireworks are used in advertising – in the rockets from our own Guy Fawkes’ party have them as their theme. I wonder how anything that presages an exciting event. which landed in the industrial estate many who describe a disappointing They give meaning to important scenes – compound behind our house and which outcome as a ‘damp squib’ really know what are used as a background to a love scene. would have, otherwise, been difficult to a squib is. While readers will doubt this, it is While the lovers kiss at the end of a film, retrieve: ‘I am sorry; my daughter likes to many years since that particular firework shells fill the background. was available in this country, or indeed have the rockets that we fired. Would you While no longer acceptable subject matter anywhere. There is even disagreement on just let us in to…?’ It worked every time. ‘Of for comic stories and children’s magazines, how they should be fired. Our squibs were course she can come in; now where exactly exploding shells and cakes illustrate used like stickless rockets: they would act was it? literature for the young. While Beano would like a saucisson, a firework which worms its no longer tell the story of our hero’s use of Given that, while perfectly acceptable, way round the garden before (unlike a fireworks, books for children – like Firework firework hunting is not a normal activity saucisson) emitting what was always known Maker’s Daughter – are still in vogue. I well among the uninitiated, such methods were as a ‘report’. The curious thing is that I never remember cartoon strips where fireworks useful to get back fireworks which landed in saw a squib with instructions on it. Others were used to foil a burglary or do all manner other gardens – in fact I often had knocks on inserted them in the ground so that the of good deeds, while misbehaviour with effect was one of a gerbe emitting a finale them was also a topic. Now it is all a bit more bang. responsible. Ron Lancaster recalled, in an early edition of But, like it or not, fireworks are part of life – Fireworks the use of squibs in Huddersfield: acceptable in the main. And thoroughly ‘Squibs were sold when I was a boy in enjoyable! Huddersfield for removing soot in the tops of ovens in old cast iron kitchen ranges. The John Bennett is editor of Fireworks, a magazine for soot collected over the top of the oven and enthusiasts and the trade. It is obtainable, by credit card on the website www.fireworks-mag.org or, by there was a little door where you could post, from Fireworks, PO Box 40, Bexhill TN40 1GX insert a flue brush or a squib. It was a hand Telephone: 01424 733050; rolled tube funnel and wired with a email: [email protected]. gunpowder charcoal mix and had a grain £10 annual subscription payable to Fireworks bounce at the bottom.’ Few would know that Magazine. now.

36 Sidney Alford Column

I then corresponded with the Legal Services In the recent case I accepted the request to The views expressed Commission, which classified me as an act an Expert Witness for the Defence not are those of the author: “Explosives Expert”, and informed me that I for the paltry payment but in the hope of could charge for no more than twenty two seeing justice done. Suffice it to note that, Our columnist Sidney Alford MSc PhD hours of preparation - apparently when I had driven three quarters of the way reflects on mercenary matters and the regardless of the weight of prosecution to the Crown Court with the intention of dearth of competent people evidence - at £90 an hour, giving a total of disabusing the Prosecuting Council of £1,980. Thus my efforts were rated at only certain misunderstandings from the dock, a On trying to be an expert 47% of those of an accountant, 57% of message informed me that the Prosecution Readers may recall my comments on the those of a builder and 67% of those of a had dropped all related charges. The duty Prosecution’s case in which my services as “scientist”. of an Expert Witness is to the Court, not the Defendant, but I saw no reason to quarrel an Expert Witness for the Defence had been They presumably considered an “explosives 1 with their Expert's eventual wise requested and in which the seriousness of expert” to be any one of the thousands of judgement. They and the police would still the evidence was indicated by a remarkable people who have been taught the correct have found that the case was a nice little weight of about 2.7kgs of printed paper way to label boxes of safety fuse, to blow up earne r. which, rumour had it, had generated a bill of unwanted munitions in situ or to pour about £3,000,000. More recently I was ammonium nitrate slurries from a tanker In his Reflections 5, marking his retirement contacted by another firm of Instructing down a shot-hole. They paid no heed to the as HSE Chief Inspector of Explosives, Neil Solicitors about another case and, after fact that this case related to the alleged Morton commented that, “ When I first hearing the bones of the allegations, and preparation and properties of home made encountered HSE in 1977, it was a new feeling that another injustice might be explosives (HMEs), and devices organisation, bringing together inspectors hovering, I agreed to cast an eye over the incorporating them -- subjects in which the from different backgrounds, with an Prosecution evidence. This weighed in at acquisition of practical experience is Explosives Inspectorate staffed by people with just under 8.7kgs, corresponding forbidden in most places in which significant hands-on explosives experience ”. proportionally to a hypothetical rumour of chemistry may be otherwise lawfully As he left, however, “ the Explosives £9,666,666. After a couple of days of perusal, practiced and conventional explosives Inspectorate can no longer rely solely on I was asked what fees I would charge for my lawfully handled or used. This means that recruiting experienced people from the services. "home made" explosives are almost explosives sector ”. 2 exclusively the domain of criminals and of In April of last year I had read of the If the HSE finds it difficult to recruit the DSTL (Defence Science & Technology government’s intention to save money (and informed experts then so will lawyers. Laboratory) Forensics Laboratory which, it get tough on susceptible alleged criminals?) Moreover, there may well be a dearth of so happens, provides the Experts who by denying a defendant the right to choose competent people willing to argue for the compile the Prosecution’s evidence. Thus their own lawyer but, instead, to be Defence: those who have the expertise the evidence is heavily loaded with allocated a representative, thereby tend, inevitably, to feel loyalty to the allusions to “explosives” even when one contributing to a cut of £220,000,000 from military or civil services whence they characteristic of the compositions involved the billion pound annual budget for criminal acquired their expertise. legal aid and, incidentally but more is to emit hot gas very fast but, for example, sinisterly, no doubt augmenting the as a rocket fuel, definitely not to explode. It And what does it take to be an “expert”? conviction rate. On 6th January of this year may be that DSTL’s care for its employees’ Why, keeping outwardly calm when 6 courts fell silent around the country as welfare is such that they are permitted very confronted by such legal statements as barristers, for the first time ever, stayed away little practical acquaintance with the actual “The following explosives, together with and demonstrated publicly their profound behaviour of these naughty, naughty smokeless powder, do not require an disapproval. substances. explosives certificate” and “Explosive articles which ... are intended to be used for the One most regrettable aspect of such Being somewhat out of touch with such propulsion of model rockets”. 7 mercenary matters, and wondering what prosecutions is that, from the original might constitute a reasonable charge for my Explosives Act of 1875 onwards, the use of services, I corresponded on the subject with the word “explosive” was extended from 1 vide JIExpE, December, 2011 Dr Chris Pamplin, Editor of the UK Register of gunpowder and dynamite to include “ every 2 The Law Society Gazette, 8th April 2013 other substance ... used ... to produce ... a 3 A year earlier accountants had headed the list at Expert Witnesses , who kindly gave £220 an hour: bankers were, alas, not listed. permission for the reproduction of data pyrotechnic effect ”, but which no genuine 4 See ref. 1 from a table from its Expert Witness Survey expert would dream of describing in real 5 vide JIExpE, September, 2013 life as an explosive. Consequently, without 6 Control of Explosives Regulations 1991 (as 2013 which presented average charging amended) rates for report writing and court any malicious intent, any device capable of 7 In reality, smokeless powders, if treated like high appearances according to speciality. This fizzing until it goes pop is likely to be explosives, usually behave like high explosives and described as an IED (Improvised explosive rocket motors, believe it or not, are designed not to listed a series of professions and the average explode. hourly rates for the writing of reports by his Device) – a term properly applied to bombs responders. These ranged from experts in – and introduced into Prosecution medicine (£207), accountancy (£193) 3, statements related to pyrotechnic building (£157), surveying (£152), compositions in contexts quite unrelated to 4 engineering (£145) and science (£134). harmful intent.

37 Industry News Educational charity seeks Industry one hundred 12-14 year News olds for engineering Camborne experience School of The independent educational charity The Smallpeice Trust Mines has launched a new course timetable for 2014 and is seeking hundreds of 12 to 17 year old students to sample their celebrates engineering taster courses. Any student can apply to attend 125 year a wide range of subsidised residential courses which take anniversary place at universities nationwide. These are designed for students with an interest in or natural flair for Science, A centre of mining Maths, Design or Technology with a view to encouraging excellence which has them to consider a career in engineering. pioneered the very best in industry-led teaching, research and technological advances has The Smallpeice Trust will be running an Engineering been celebrating a truly special landmark. 2013 marked the 125th Experience course at the University of Nottingham from anniversary of the Camborne School of Mines (CSM) one of the world’s 14th to 16th April 2014. The course offers one hundred foremost mining and minerals engineering institutions, with events students aged 12 to 14 (years 8 and 9) an opportunity to throughout the year. explore the subject of engineering through a series of real- life challenges. Competing in teams, students will also work To celebrate, CSM organised a series of events to help share the passion, on design-and-build projects with young role model enthusiasm and excellence that has become the hallmark over the engineers from companies such as Babcock, Jaguar Land years. These included a distinctive Live Wall, an interactive forum Rover, Rolls-Royce and the Royal Navy, who will guide them designed to showcase the highlights, milestones and achievements since through every stage of product development, from initial its inception in 1888. The Live Wall features memories and anecdotes concepts to final testing. from alumni based across the globe, interesting facts and figures about the industry and its relevance and importance to today’s society, and Throughout the process, students will be confronted with fascinating insights into the history of CSM. It brings together real-life issues including the need to work within a budget to contributions from the CSM community, with regular updates and make the project commercially viable. All Smallpiece courses additions. are linked to the National Curriculum and are designed to improve core skills such as team building, financial Professor Frances Wall, Head of CSM, said: “We are all very excited about management, communication and problem solving. celebrating this landmark occasion with the most important part of our history: our staff, students, alumni, collaborators and supporters. CSM Further information: has grown from fairly humble beginnings to now be regarded, quite www.smallpeicetrust.org.uk rightly, as one of the best mulitdisciplinary mining schools anywhere in the world. Our achievements over the past 125 years are a source of pride, inspiration and motivation for everyone who is part of the CSM community, past and present. We are sure that the celebrations “Major Miner” highlighted just what we have achieved together so far, and also our Professor Gour Sen’s book in new edition plans for the future.” Engineers Australia have published a new and enlarged edition of Professor Sen’s book “Major Miner” Camborne School of Mines has developed an enviable reputation of in an e-book format at a cost of A$20 per copy. producing pioneering research, focusing on the key challenges of (See review Explosives Engineering March 2013). resource sustainability, environmental production and mine health and safety. Further information: [email protected] CSM is recognised as having had a global impact on the mining and minerals industry, by training graduates who are now leading the sector in new and exciting ways. It has also built close relationships The Institute of with local, national and international business, and these collaborations Explosives Engineers have helped to promote advances in sustainable mining, geological exploration and renewable energy. Awards 2013-2014 2013 was the 20th anniversary of CSM’s association with the University A timely reminder to you all to think about those you have of Exeter. It is now located in purpose-built facilities on the Penryn come into contact with in the explosive-related world. Here Campus. Anyone associated with CSM who would like to share any is the opportunity for those individuals to be recognised by videos of their work, or messages for the celebrations can upload them their peers and receive one of the following awards, which to youTube using the hashtag #CSM125. will be presented at the annual AGM and Conference held Further information:www.exeter.ac.uk in Glasgow 1st to 2nd May.

38 Industry News

supporting British business across the world Conman hired soldiers and is aiming to help 50,000 businesses next in bomb detector scam year. UKTI cannot undertake a test or assessment of all products and services for The government accepted thousands every business it supports." of pounds from a fraudster to assist a global trade in fake bomb detectors despite a Giles Paxman, who is now retired, said there Whitehall-wide warning that such devices One of the devices sold by the fraudster Gary Bolton. had been no reason "to suspect that were "no better than guessing" and could be Photograph: PA [Bolton's] activities were in any way deadly. The government's role has caused untoward", but questioned whether the diplomatic embarrassment and as recently government had the right procedures to The Kent businessman Gary Bolton paid the as late last year British embassies were alert embassies about dubious products. "I government to enlist serving soldiers and a instructed to warn host governments that am sure that I would have very careful not to British ambassador in what turned out to be "these systems are not effective … have provide any specific endorsement of Mr the fraudulent sale of bomb detectors based either no working parts or no power source" Bolton's products," he said. on novelty golf ball finders. Bolton, 48, and to "exercise extreme caution if these was sentenced to seven years in jail last Campaigners against the trade have called devices are in use to protect life". year for fraud after claims that use of his for officials to be held responsible for their handheld devices cost lives and resulted in The devices are known to have been sold in support for Bolton's equipment. Human wrongful convictions. Thailand, Mexico, Lebanon, the Philippines rights activists in Thailand have identified and several African countries. In 2001 a two bombings that killed four people after The ability of UK firms to hire top diplomats warning was circulated across government the device was used to check suspicious to arrange introductions for as little as £250 a by a senior Home Office scientist who tested vehicles. In Mexico where an estimated time, and serving soldiers to act as salesmen an early version of Bolton's bomb detector. 1,000 of the devices were sold, campaigners for £109 a day plus VAT, without checks on Tim Sheldon, of the Defence Science and say they have resulted in convictions of the authenticity of products, is revealed in Technology Laboratory, said the results were innocent people. Whitehall documents about Bolton's dealings circulated to about 1,000 officials. with the UK government released to the In 2009, Bolton paid UKTI's Mexico branch to Guardian under the Freedom of Information His warning concluded: "Although the idea arrange for Paxman to send introductory Act. The government accepted more than of security forces forking out thousands of letters on his behalf to officials in states £5,000 in payments from the fraudster to pounds for a useless lump of plastic seems fighting drug cartels. Diplomats set up sales supply uniformed Royal Engineers to incredible or even funny, a surprising meetings, offered to take officials out for promote the bogus kit at international trade number of people have been taken in. If they lunch as part of Bolton's sales drive, and fairs in the Middle East and Europe, and to are relying on such devices to detect terrorist suggested using the imprimatur of the secure the backing of Giles Paxman, the bombs, the implications are deadly serious." embassy for a public relations drive for brother of the BBC presenter Jeremy Paxman Bolton's equipment. The government has denied any knowledge and then UK ambassador to Mexico, who set that the equipment was useless and, despite At arms fairs in Kuwait and Bahrain, up sales meetings for Bolton's firm with its own trials, has argued it could not have corporals in the Royal Engineers were hired senior Mexican officials engaged in the known it was backing a scam. “It is right that by Bolton to promote the GT200 device, as country's bloody drugs war. The British in some circumstances UK Trade & well as at security and weapons shows in embassy in Manila also helped, and Whitehall Investment will seek reimbursement for Europe. Bolton paid the Royal Engineers trade bodies took money to support Global promotional and advisory services," a Export Support Team and UKTI £5,631.93, Technical at least 13 times from 2003 to 2009 government spokesman said. "When UKTI the trade minister Lord Green has admitted. as Bolton made up to £3m a year. Sentencing becomes aware that a company has acted Bolton last year, an Old Bailey judge said the Further information: The Guardian, 26th fraudulently it will withdraw its support and scam "materially increased the risk of January 2014, refer matters to the appropriate authorities. personal injury and death". UKTI has an important job to do in www.theguardian.com/politics.2014

Nobel Lecturer Award: member or non member who is recognised Appreciation awards: In recognition of support of the Institute to have done exemplary work in the field of explosives. or Branch. Harold Swinnerton Award: member or non member who has Further details are available on the website. done the most for services to the industry. I would really appreciate a flurry of nomination. There are well- Rosenthal Silver Salver Award: member who has committed an deserving people out there that should be congratulated for a outstanding service to the Institute. job well done. Please email the secretariat with your nominations at [email protected] and Vicki will forward those for our Examination Award: for the best student in the Entrance consideration.' Examination. Fiona Smith AIExpE, IExpE Awards Committee Journal award: For the best article in the calendar year published in Explosives Engineering .

39 Conference / Exhibition Diary

like to describe as "The speed of energy". As Members, we are all involved in the business Conferences In a flash: of using explosives energy to accomplish Ben Hoge work in some form, and currently my job Exhibition Diary entails examining explosion scenes to BA (Criminal Justice) I.A.A.I CFI CFEI MIExpE determine what happened. Understanding GAS, VAPOUR AND DUST EXPLOSION explosives energy and the speed at which it HAZARDS your age: 51 functions is critical for both our analysis of Faculty of Engineering, University of Leeds, how to use explosives for good purpose in Occupation: 24th to 28th March 2014 addition to evaluating that energy when I am employed by ProNet Group, Inc., a Protection, mitigation and prediction. something goes wrong. Further information: leading forensic engineering firm. www.engineering.leeds.ac.uk, What alternative career might you Email: [email protected] Current position: I am the lead Fire and Explosion Investigator have followed? COUNTER TERROR EXPO 2014 for the firm's United States Western Region. My friends know I am a cowboy at heart. I Olympia, London, 29th to 30th April 2014 grew up in the western state of Nevada. The premier international event for the Responsibilities in job/work activities: Given the opportunity, I would have majored entire security sector, Government, military, I determine the origin, cause and in agriculture instead of criminal justice and law enforcement, emergency services, responsibility of fires and explosions. I advise probably developed a large cow ranch private sector and security services. and participate in the collection of forensic operation. Further information: evidence at fire and explosion scenes, and www.counterterrorexpo.com Who do you most admire on the email: [email protected] provide expert testimony regarding fire investigation and explosion analysis. current world stage and why? IExpE AGM AND CONFERENCE 2014 Christine Lagarde, Managing Director of the Westerwood Hotel and Golf Resort, Why are you involved in IExpE? International Monetary Fund (IMF). She took Cumbernauld, Nr.Glasgow, The Institute of Explosive Engineers allows the helm of an international organization in 1st to 2nd May 2014 me to associate with many explosives 2011 amid a crisis with vision and strong The theme of the conference is “Developing professionals from diverse backgrounds and leadership acumen. I am always an admirer competence in explosives skills”. disciplines. In my former public safety fire of those who believe in themselves and Further information: email:[email protected] career, I was assigned to the department's See details on page 7. ultimately triumph in the face of adversity as arson bomb squad for 18 of my 24 years’ they make the best leaders. XVlll SAFEX CONGRESS service. Prior to retiring as the Chief Warsaw Marriott Hotel, Warsaw, Poland, Investigator and Bomb Squad Commander, I Who would you most like to meet 19th to 24th May, 2014 was certified as a bomb technician for 17 from any century and why? Further information: years performing basic and advanced Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, also known as [email protected] techniques in improvised explosive device Raphael. He was an artist and painter during INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON defeat while specializing in explosives safety, the Renaissance. I studied his works in EXPLOSIVE EDUCATION AND explosives disposal and explosives storage college. My favorite work of his is The School CERTIFICATION OF SKILLS 2014 operations. My current position, when called of Athens, a fresco. He lived during an Karlskoga, Sweden, 11th to 12th June 2014 for, allows me to consult and provide an array enlightening time, and although he is known Further information: of explosive related analysis. primarily for his sketches and paintings, his www.euexcert.org work in architecture and engineering was HILLHEAD 2014 What are the benefits for you of the extraordinary for that era. Lafarge Tarmac’s Hillhead Quarry, near IExpE? Buxton, 24th to 26th June 2014 The ability to participate and network with What are your favourite www.hillhead.com numerous explosives professionals in a activities/hobbies? ORDNANCE MUNITIONS AND manner that provides education about all Spending time with my family, western EXPLOSIVES SYMPOSIUM explosives disciplines while being updated horsemanship trail riding, camping in the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, about current explosives technological mountains and leather craft, which is my Shrivenham, 30th September to 1st October, trends. I am proud to be a Member of an personal form of art expression. 2014 organization which does a superb job of On behalf of the Sector Skills Strategy communicating the needs and benefits for What is your ideal holiday? Group (SSSSG) of the explosives Industry the safe and professional use of explosives in My wife finally convinced me to take a 10 day and Cranfield Defence and Security, the today’s modern society. cruise to the Caribbean for our 20th wedding theme will be “Design for safety of anniversary 4 years ago. I have come to ordnance, munitions and explosives and What are your main goals in the next enjoy the cruise vacations as there are so their associated facilities”. There will be 10 years? many different destinations to choose from four strands to this theme: equipment, I am not a scientist, but as a former and the food is just incredible. facilities, people and policy. explosives handling practitioner, my goal is What is your favourite type of food? Further information: to continue to read and study applied www.symposiaatshrivenham.com Enjoying a great cut of beef at a good Steak research that documents the physics of See details on page 7. House. explosive properties, or, a term I personally

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IExpE Journal calls for papers Deadline for June 2014 issue is April 30th. 1500 - 3000 word articles and papers will be considered for publication and should be accompanied by digital illustrations eg. photographs, drawings and tables. E mail the Editor: [email protected]