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Predictors of Domestic Abuse in Essex Ruth Margaret Weir Doctor of Philosophy in Crim

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Predictors of Domestic Abuse in Essex Ruth Margaret Weir Doctor of Philosophy in Crim Individuals, Families and Neighbourhoods: Predictors of Domestic Abuse in Essex Ruth Margaret Weir Doctor of Philosophy in Criminology Department of Sociology University of Essex March 2019 i Abstract The human and economic cost of domestic abuse is enormous. In the UK two women a week are dying as a result of their abuse and the cost to society and the economy is estimated to be in the region of £66 billion pounds a year. Having the ability to predict those most at risk is essential in identifying victims’ earlier, reducing harm and improving access to support and justice. Domestic abuse is also one of the most under-reported crimes, with the Crime Survey in England and Wales (CSEW) estimating that only 21 per cent of abuse is reported to the police. One of the implications of this is that current service responses are broadly designed around the needs of these known victims, even though they only account for one fifth of the likely total. This quantitative research adopts a multi-facated approach, using statistical analysis and geographical information systems, combined with social and geographical theory, to identify the risk factors and predictors of domestic abuse at the individual, family and neighbourhood level. The research finds that taking an intersectional approach to analysis at the individual and family level adds particular value, with the risk factors for repeat victimisation varying according to the gender, age and class of the victim and the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. At the neighbourhood level, this thesis makes a significant and unique contribution to theory and practice, discovering that the predictors of domestic abuse are not stationary over space. By combining the findings from each of the empirical chapters an overall causal pathway is proposed. ii Acknowledgements There are several people that have made this PhD possible. Firstly, I particularly want to thank my supervisors, Professor Jackie Turton and Professor Nick Allum. Jackie, you have always been very supportive and have given excellent guidance, particularly on the research subject and qualitative research. You have also offered kindness and compassion, for which I am particularly grateful. Thank you also for inviting me to publish my work with colleagues in your co-edited book, Women in the Criminal Justice System. Nick, thank you for all your help, particularly with the statistical analysis and giving me the confidence to try more advanced methodology. Thank you also to Dr Neli Demireva for acting as chair and for your input on my quantitative analysis. In Neli’s absence I must also thank Professor Pam Cox for acting as interim chair, but I want to also thank you for your friendship and support and for giving me the opportunities to teach crime mapping and GIS on your module and to work and publish with you on other projects. Thank you to Michele and everyone in the Sociology Office for all your help and support too. I would like to thank the ESRC and Essex County Council for collaboratively funding this research. I have also really benefited from the training that has been funded as part of this doctorate. Thank you to Janice for encouraging and supporting me with my initial application. I have met many wonderful people on this journey. Particular thanks to PhD friends and colleagues Andreea, Angie, Aviah, Emma and Pierre. Also, to the brilliant people I have met through the Women and Criminal Justice Network iii and Criminology conferences, with a special mention to Kelly, we will set up our centre one day! To my great friends Harriet and Bernice for all your support and keeping me sane and to the lovely Sarah for making me laugh and providing light hearted entertainment on a daily basis. I am also very grateful to my brilliant sister-in- law, Sofia, for her help and expertise with Stata. Thank you to all the Community Asset Mapping volunteers who gave up their time to show me around your areas. Thank you, Nicola, for taking me around your local area twice and for putting me in touch with other volunteers. I was so pleased that the food bank visit established a new relationship with the community centre. Thank you also to Essex Police for allowing me access to your data. I am very grateful to the Office for Students funded Catalyst Project for enabling me to generate impact from this research, by funding me to work with Essex County Council to input my findings into their live risk model for identifying escalating abuse. Thank you also to my colleagues in the ImpacTeam for your advice and support, particularly Jim and Kakia. And finally, I want to thank my family for putting up with me while I have undertaken this endeavour. To my husband, Simon for supporting me emotionally and financially, to my children, William and Charlotte, for bearing with me and to my parents for all their support, especially for looking after the children, reading my work and supporting me financially in my final year. iv Foreword I am an interdisciplinary researcher and whilst my PhD is in Criminology, my background in Geography is also very apparent. After finishing my undergraduate degree in Geography, I went to work as a researcher for Suffolk County Council in the Community Safety Unit. It was during my time in this job that I discovered a love and passion for crime mapping. Realising the value of visualising and analysing crime data using a Geographical Information System (GIS) I returned to UCL to undertake an MSc in GIS. Following this I have held several research, policy and intelligence positions at the Home Office and in local government. During my last role at Essex County Council I was seconded on to the Whole Essex Community Budget Project as a subject matter expert. Here I began to question whether we can rely on police data to commission services, knowing that only around a fifth of victims report to the police. With the support of Essex County Council, I applied to the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and was successful in getting collaborative funding to take my work forward into this PhD. I dedicate this work to the victims of domestic abuse. I hope that this research will enable those experiencing abuse to be identified earlier and to receive the most relevant support. v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... ii Foreword ........................................................................................................ iv Figures .......................................................................................................... xiii Appendices ................................................................................................... xvi Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................... 1 Context and significance .............................................................................. 1 Research aims and objectives ...................................................................... 2 Research questions .................................................................................. 3 Why Essex? ................................................................................................. 3 Demography.............................................................................................. 8 Context ....................................................................................................... 10 History of domestic abuse ....................................................................... 10 Feminism................................................................................................. 13 Patriarchy ............................................................................................. 14 Domestic abuse as an offence ................................................................ 19 Legislation ............................................................................................ 19 Definition .............................................................................................. 22 Measurement and disclosure .................................................................. 25 Surveys ................................................................................................ 27 Local crime surveys ............................................................................. 32 vi Why do people not report? ................................................................... 34 Multi agency responsibility ...................................................................... 39 Family Courts ....................................................................................... 40 Housing ................................................................................................ 42 Health .................................................................................................. 43 Other agencies .................................................................................... 45 Partnership response ........................................................................... 45 Context summary .................................................................................... 46 Structure and outline of the thesis .............................................................. 47 Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................
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