1 Introduction to Conflicts, Religion and Culture in Tourism

Razaq Raj1* and Kevin Griffin2 1Leeds Business School, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK; 2School of Hospitality Management and Tourism, Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland

Introduction come in to play when one considers themes such as conflict, religion and culture in relation to It has been interesting putting together this book tourism. The book seeks to illustrate the many entitled Conflicts, Religion and Culture in efforts being made to sustain networks of reli- Tourism, which provides a timely assessment of gious principles, to promote the enhancement of the increasing linkages and interconnections ties between religious followers and their sacred between religious tourism and secular spaces on sites. The development of ties between the faith- a global stage. The book explores key learning ful and their commanding figures and principles points from a range of contemporary case studies helps to maintain networks of religious pilgrim- dealing with religious and pilgrimage activity, age for individuals. While much of this activity linked to ancient, sacred and emerging tourist develops in safe, secure, uncontested and support- destinations and new forms of pilgrimage, faith ive environments, in many instances activity oc- systems and quasi-religious activities. curs in liminal, challenged or conflict situations. Religious tourism has increased in the 21st Thus, while Catholics can travel to visit Knock, century, while at same time, looking at world af- Lough Derg or Croagh Patrick (Griffin and Raj, fairs, it would appear that religion and freedom 2015), Muslims can visit Madinah and Makkah of expression are frequently in tremendous con- (Raj and Raja, 2016), Buddhists can visit holy flict. Balancing these two rights is particularly sites in Sri Lanka (de Silva, 2016), all with im- crucial for academic scholars and international punity, many worshippers cannot access their bodies, particularly since this battle of rights chosen sites without experiencing conflict, chal- often results in undesirable violence. Religion, lenges and extreme difficulties. belief systems and faith practices can be conten- Over the past decade or two, due to the ubi- tious issues between host communities and visit- quitous availability of social media and instant ors travelling to sacred sites. Personal belief and news feeds, we have become acutely aware of faith are difficult for individual visitors to com- wars, conflicts and terror attacks, many of which promise, particularly since religion plays such have caused great damage to the physical envir- an important part of many individuals’ identity. onment of holy places. The destruction of reli- The principle behind this book is to demon- gious heritage disrupts the network of religious strate to the reader the range of elements that capital related to places, which thus impacts on

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

the degree of attachment to a particular religious discuss the work of Hinnells (1984), who cau- practice/culture (see Al-Marashi, 2016). Un- tions about making generalist statements en- doubtedly, the religious tourism and pilgrimage compassing cultures such as those of the Abori- industry has suffered over the past 15 years due gines of Australia and Amerindians, who have to the relationship between religion and conflict. some of the oldest living religions that have been Conversely, religiously motivated visitors have subsumed and influenced by Western religious played significant roles in addressing many con- narratives. Violent and destructive historical flicts around the world. In fact, the positive inter- conflicts between religious traditions, nowadays action of visitors, goods and information in holy seen as unfortunate impacts of global coloniza- places has helped develop the vitality and vi- tion, set a poignant backdrop to many of the brancy of religious culture in certain spaces. challenges and conflicts highlighted in this vol- A particular case in point is Syria, where ume (see Albanese, 1999). contemporary conflict has destroyed Shi’ite reli- The study of religion encompasses a diverse gious heritage sites as well as other cultural range of academic disciplines, and traditionally elements in the country. In particular, the delib- it has attracted the attention of historians, erate act of sabotage by IS (Islamic State) has orientalists, classicists, archaeologists, sociolo- made a huge impact on the Shi’ite people and the gists, anthropologists, linguistics, art historians, world as a whole. The destruction of Shi’ite reli- philosophers and theologians (Hinnells, 1984). gious heritage disrupts the network of Shi’ite Increasingly, the study of religion is combined religious capital because it results in a decline of with other emerging academic disciplines to ex- interactions between visitors and such religious plore new insights into the significance of reli- places. However, the people of these holy places gion within the contemporary sociocultural mi- have facilitated the sustenance of their net- lieu. Sociological discourses include functionalist works, to enhance their degree of engagement perspectives applied to the study of the science with their faith, without direct interaction in the of religion, with a sense that this functionality places that they would normally visit. creates societal solidarity (Hinnells, 1984: p. 128). A postmodern discourse of religion would not position the concept within one academic discipline, and would ‘question any possibility of Theory of Religious Tourism rigid disciplinary boundaries’ (Rosenau, 1992: p. 6). Within Religionswissenschaft (the science Despite the ever-changing global political, social of religion) are a group of disciplines that in- and economic landscapes, religion has retained clude the phenomenology of religion – this in- a significant place as a social movement with cludes a classification of ideas, actions and sym- complexity of structures and functions, and still bols and is a study or method of describing and pervades cultures and traditions. Raj and Griffin, gaining an empathetic understanding of reli- in the introduction to their 2015 volume, sug- gious phenomena without offering an explan- gest that religion is an: ation of truth or falsity of religious beliefs (Hin- nells, 1984: p. 250). age-old and dynamic concept which embraces a breadth of activity such as ancient, living/ Dealing with the idea of religion and con- current and emerging new religious and flict, Said and Funk suggest that: quasi-religious movements, also including traditional living religions of primal societies Religion is a perennial and perhaps inevitable and modern secular alternatives to religion. factor in both conflict and conflict resolution. Whilst there are common elements to the Religion, after all, is a powerful constituent of concept of religion which include transcendent cultural norms and values, and because it deities, heavenly beings, demons, and divin- addresses the most profound existential issues of ations, there are defining elements which human life (e.g., freedom and inevitability, fear characterise distinct religious movements. and faith, security and insecurity, right and (Raj and Griffin, 2015: p. 3) wrong, sacred and profane), religion is deeply implicated in individual and social conceptions In highlighting the tendency to adopt Western- of peace. focused conceptualizations of religions, they (Said and Funk, 2002: pp. 37–38) Introduction 3

In cataloguing the emergence of religions of the when Muslims visit pilgrimage sites in Madinah Near East and the West (Judaism, Christianity and Makkah, they should show great respect by and Islam), Sherratt and Hawkins (1972) de- being aware that Prophet Muhammad’s pre- scribe the association of these religions with the cious steps have trodden in every place around worship of a God with polytheist beliefs in many Madinah; thus, the pilgrim ought to walk with gods and monotheist belief in one God. Added to dignity and caution, recalling the Messenger’s this, they identify the major religions of India humility and graceful gait. and southern Asia (Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoro- Therefore, it is accepted among religious vis- astrianism and Sikhism) and the religions of the itors that shrine, sanctuary, cathedral, mosque, Far East (Confucianism, Taoism, Shinto and synagogue and temple are sacralized, confined Mahayana Buddhism). In light of these diverse and restricted spaces for individuals to practice religions and religious practices (and acknow- their belief during their visits to religious sites. ledging that these are simply the main religious This sensitivity cannot be overlooked if one seeks affiliations), the potential for divergence, and to avoid conflict with the host community. Raj indeed conflict, between varying forms of reli- and Griffin (2015: p. 108) comment that conflict gious practice is enormous in terms of: worship; over clothing conventions, in particular, are a engagement with landscape; ethical, moral and frequent cause of struggle: it is not uncommon social norms; and economic elements, owner- to see people wearing shorts and vests at reli- ship and access to sites, etc. gious sites where prominently placed signs ask Religious tourism and pilgrimage has be- visitors to cover their heads, shoulders and legs. come a provocative issue in sacred sites, particu- Likewise, taking photographs of religious rites is larly for host communities that receive large forbidden in certain areas of the world, yet sev- numbers of visitors. When travellers arrive for eral incidents of conflict have been reported reasons other than religious belief and practice, where local custom has been flouted (see Raj or when the host community believes they are et al., 2013: p. 45, for the successful engagement not coming for issues of religious belief and of local stakeholders in the management of sa- practice, ‘locals’ become very protective of their cred sites at Uluru in Australia). shrines and sacred spaces. Shackley (2001) sug- There has been the lack of a coordinated gests that sacredness does not readily cross cul- approach by religious management sites to meet tural boundaries. What is viewed as sacred by the needs of visitors attending these sacred sites one group, such as congregants, may be seen as and to provide a safe and secure environment for culturally interesting by an ‘outside’ group of religious travellers. To meet the high demand of visitors. Given that some visitors may wish to en- visitation around the world is the responsibility gage in worship, church authorities need to de- of both the public and the private sector, and termine when a request to participate in a ser- across government organizations to build global vice should be accepted as an expression of standards and recognition of mechanisms for genuine interest and/or intention. In the cases visitors to follow the guidelines. Therefore, es- of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome and Notre Dame tablishing global standards would help to avoid Cathedral in Paris, signs of sacrilege are moni- conflict at religious sites, as the tourism author- tored closely. In the Vatican, during the summer, ities in each country could provide visitors with stalls near St Peters do a brisk business in the necessary information in advance. scarves. These are used by young female travellers to fashion makeshift skirts and shawls, which will comply with the strictly enforced dress code for entry into the Basilica. Religious Pilgrimage Muslim pilgrimage to mosques and histor- in a Conflict Region ical sites in Makkah and Madinah must also be sensitive to the religiosity of the site. The Prophet Religious belief functions at both a conscious and Muhammad (PBUM) migrated to, and lived in, a subconscious level in society. For years, people Madinah before building his Mosque (Mas- have travelled to visit sacred sites as part of their jid-e-Nabwi), which became the central focal beliefs, which have acted as a powerful motive in point of the Islamic State. Raj (2012) states that undertaking a pilgrimage. Over the centuries, 4 Introduction

religion has played a significant part in the devel- tourism and pilgrimage. It is the home of three opment of religious buildings, rituals, festivals major monotheistic faiths, Muslims, Jews and and ceremonial events to attract visitors. Christians. Jerusalem is a sacred city for all three Over the past 12 months, the demand for Abrahamic religions, and is full of captivating international tourism has been healthy, regardless holy sites. For centuries, it has been the centre of of the number of conflicts in the world. Tourism both conflict and spiritual inspiration for the destinations around the world are showing inspir- Abrahamic faiths. History shows that Jerusalem ing results and continue to develop, regardless of has been involved in a number of conflicts, but it the conflicts that are taking place around their re- still attracts visitors from all around the world, gion. According to UNWTO Secretary-General, due to its sacredness. In the 12th year of his mis- Taleb Rifai: sion, the Prophet made his night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem, and thence to heaven. His Tourism is one of the most resilient and journey, known in history as Miraj (Rise), was a fastest-growing economic sectors but it is also real physical journey and not just a vision. very sensitive to risks, both actual and perceived. For Muslims, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and As such, the sector must continue to work together with governments and stakeholders to Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is the third holi- minimize risks, respond effectively and build est site in Islam, after Makkah and Madinah in confidence among travellers. Saudi Arabia. It was also the direction of Islamic (http://media.unwto.org/press-release/ prayer before God allowed Prophet Muhammad 2016-11-07/) to pray towards Makkah instead. For Jews, the Temple Mount in Jerusalem is Therefore, it is important for tourism destin- the most sacred site and is the location of the Wail- ations in the world to safeguard their religious ing Wall. The motivations of Jewish pilgrims are sacred sites from conflict. Religious pilgrimage is based on their desire for an emotional experience. common in many religions and is one of the The Wailing Wall is an ancient stone retaining more formalized methods of visiting sacred sites wall built for the Second Temple, which surrounds to fulfil people’s religious motivation. Where the whole Temple Mount plaza. The Wailing Wall there is a diversity of motivations for visits to re- is a place where Jewish prayer is directed. ligious sacred sites, there is a potential for con- For Christians, the Temple Mount is signifi- flict between the host community and visitors. cant because the Jewish temple located here was Therefore, it is important to remember that where Jesus prayed daily and later preached to religion is a contentious issue which political lead- his believers and delivered the holy message of ers from around the world can use to divide a com- God. Therefore, it is regarded as the holiest loca- munity. Over the past 10 years, both political and tion for Christians to visit in the old city. religious leaders have been using religion to justify the wars in the Middle East that have created enormous damage to sacred sites in Iraq and Syria. Structure of the Book Over the past two decades, major sacred religious and heritage sites have been destroyed This section outlines the overall structure of the around the world, because current govern- book, explaining the three main sections that ments, organizations and religious establish- form the substance of this edited volume. In add- ments are managed by those lacking under- ition to the chapters, the book contains a brief standing for anyone impacted by the behaviours biography of the authors, and also a set of dis- and policies being developed to control global cussion questions at the end of the volume. markets. Militants in Iraq and Syria continue their war on the region’s religious sacred, cultural heritage and archaeological sites with bull- dozers and explosives. Destruction is part of the Part I: Conflict, Religion, political agenda of the militants’ drive to destroy Culture and Tourism centuries-old Christian and Muslim shrines. Moreover, Jerusalem is one of the oldest and The book is presented in three main parts, the most sacred cities in the world for religious first section, Part I, is comprised of four theoretical Introduction 5

chapters that lay the foundation of the book and other chapters in this volume. One difficulty is identify many of the core themes that weave in that these elusive freedoms (speech and religion) and out of the book. The first contribution are often not mutually synchronous, and thus (Chapter 2), by Rukeya Suleman and Balal Qa- defamation of religion, while from one perspective yum, titled Consciousness in Conflict, deals can be seen to be an assault on one’s freedom of with the topical issue of public consciousness religious expression, can be an expression of free and awareness of conflict. Beginning with a dis- speech from another perspective. In certain cussion of theoretical thoughts on the area of cases, defamation of religion can be used by ex- tourism theory, the chapter focuses on issues of tremists as a justification for terrorist-style at- identity, perception and representation, and tacks; however, the term ‘religious terrorism’ is how these are (re)presented and embedded not uncontested, and this is also discussed in the within diverse touristic activities and experi- chapter. The chapter concludes with a reflection ences. The authors are vociferous in their call for on the idea that while intolerance can result from the rise of intellectual openness and the need for conflict between the freedoms discussed earlier greater plural knowability within tourism stud- in the chapter, allowing unlimited freedom is ies: because tourism encapsulates expressions of also not desirable, as society needs protection the world around us, they believe that tourism from forces of extremism. must cease being seen as an apolitical act of This leads nicely on to Chapter 4 (Im- moving from place to place, but should be seen agining the Contours of Culture: Is Reli- instead as a lens through which to understand gious Tourism a Precondition for Conflict?) the world. In illustrating this need, Suleman and by Maximiliano Korstanje, Maité Echarri Chavéz Qayum present their ideas on ‘darklight tourism’, and Lourdes Cisneros Mustelier, which presents which they say is inappropriately conceptual- a challenging discussion on the relationship be- ized, inadequately knowledged and insufficiently tween culture and religion and asks many ques- connected with local cultures or indigenous cos- tions about how religion acts and can act as a mologies. Thus, as a worldmaking force, tourism force for conflict or peace. Weaving a reflective must take cognizance of issues such as indoctrit- discussion that blends thoughts about globaliza- ainment, the differences between orthodoxy and tion, terrorism and hospitality, the chapter chal- orthopraxy mythopolitics. The chapter con- lenges the recent trend of blaming religion for cludes with a discussion about the importance terrorism. The authors look back to medieval of tourism as a force that creates opportunities times and suggest that we now live in the most to experience peoples and places; however, if peaceful period of world history, and question demonstrably misleading representations are how modern authors can at once propose that presented, to the tourist, this can be a cause of religiosity is dying out, while simultaneously misunderstandings, and even lead to issues of suggesting that religion is the root of all terror- conflict. ism. While the chapter is somewhat circumspect While not specifically dealing with religious about the value of religious tourism as a tool for tourism and pilgrimage, Chapter 3, by Chowd- peace, a compelling argument is made that chal- hury and Raj, picks up the discussion on identity lenges much of the material currently being pre- and focuses on how a person’s identity can be in- sented in certain spheres. fluenced by limitations imposed on him or her by The final chapter in this section takes a dif- others. Their chapter, entitled Defamation of ferent approach and suggests (by illustrating its Religion and Freedom of Speech, deals with thesis with historical examples) ways in which the complex topic of freedom – freedom of religions can work together to develop a more speech and freedom of religion. Both of these harmonious society. The Essence of Commu- fundamental human rights have major signifi- nity Cohesion through Religious Tolerance cance for society, and their restriction can result (Chapter 5) by Irfan Raja and Razaq Raj pri- in serious conflict. Both direct conflict and the marily presents an historical perspective on Is- related social responses (intolerance, anti-religious lamic teachings, and demonstrates the way in actions, etc.) have major significance for reli- which historical leaders throughout the world gious tourism and pilgrimage, and the themes have developed peaceful multicultural societies, dealt with in this chapter resonate throughout based on mutual respect and the understanding 6 Introduction

of ‘other’. While many of these leaders were not suppression of all religion, the Czech Republic necessarily peaceful regarding the building and still contains sites of pilgrimage and religious defence of their empires, within the framework tourism. These sites are now being considered by of their administrations, and between the com- the tourism authorities as potential sources of munities within their empires, motivated by the religious tourism and pilgrimage, and while the teachings of Islam, they practised tolerance and vast majority of such activity is domestic and the acceptance of racial, religious and ethnic diver- vast majority of the population do not identify sity. The authors propose that a mature under- with formal religions, there is optimism regard- standing of Islamic teachings would demon- ing the potential for growth in this area. strate that modern Muslims, in the Western In Chapter 7 (Pilgrimage, Cultural world, seek collegial community tolerance and Landscape, and Tourism in the Heritization crave the acceptance and understanding of the of Churches and Christian Sites in Naga- media and polity. By fostering such a balanced saki), Tinka Delakorda Kawashima presents a view, travel and coexistence between different fascinating case study of Christians in Japan. Be- ‘others’ would lead to a more peaceful and har- cause of oppression by the state in the 17th and monious world. 18th centuries, followers of Christianity had to continue their faith in secrecy. Now, the authorities (secular and religious) are moving to have this heritage recognized by the UNESCO World Part II: (Re)Claiming Space – Heritage organization. This process has been a Modern Reinstatements of Religion complex one, particularly since the Inter- and Pilgrimage national Council on Monuments and Sites (ICO- MOS) has suggested that the focus, rather than The second section of the book provides four being on the built heritage of this group, should chapters where religion either is being reintro- focus on the intangible heritage and landscape duced or restrictions are being relaxed, such that of the ‘Hidden Christians’. The selection of par- followers of particular faiths can once again ticular sites, and thus the omission of others, the celebrate their beliefs after restrictions and laws interplay of secular and religious priorities and have been relaxed or removed. Thus, while all of the overall heritization of this ‘product’ are all the chapters discuss historical situations whereby challenges being faced. Interestingly, the com- religious and pilgrimage activities were in con- modification of this religious landscape/product flict with the status quo, nowadays, these loca- has led to more constructive relations between tions are developing burgeoning religious tour- religious and secular authorities and, somewhat ism products. Including chapters from the Czech ironically, has also resulted in re-sacralization, Republic, Japan, Sweden and Cuba, all are fo- with the development of a new pilgrimage route cused on the reinvigoration of Christian faiths; including churches, martyrdom sites, graves and however, the key principles and observations are museums related to these Hidden Christians. intended to be universal, and could be applied to Chapter 8, by Pierre Wiktorin, is entitled all faith communities. Claiming Territory: The Role of Pilgrimage In Chapter 6, Jan Rája presents an intri- in the Struggle for a Re-Christianization of guing insight into the recent development of re- Sweden. The chapter outlines the overall decline ligious tourism in one of Europe’s most secular- of religious observance in Sweden, with falling ized countries – the Czech Republic. In a chapter participation rates in the various rituals of the entitled Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Evangelical Lutheran Church, and the subse- in a Non-religious Country: The Czech Re- quent secularization of the landscape. At the public, the author outlines the complex phases time of the Reformation, pilgrimage was aban- of secularization that have resulted in the Czech doned by the Church of Sweden, but after 400 lands having such low levels of religiosity. Despite years of its absence, it is now being embraced en- a range of historical conflicts, such as rejecting thusiastically as a tool for increasing participa- the imposed religion of a dictatorial aristocracy, tion in the faith community of the Lutheran aligning national fervour against religion, the Church. Using a number of cases to illustrate ejection of entire faith groups and communist this dynamic, the chapter highlights the manner Introduction 7

in which trail development, via maps, markers the interesting challenges that can emerge due and narrative emplacement, acts as a tool for the to varying interpretations of religious texts. In a (re)Christianization of the landscape. As the au- chapter called Visiting Graves, Tombs and thor notes, this process is somewhat similar to Shrines in Islamic Law, the author highlights the way in which King Olav originally brought a millennium-old debate between different Christianity to these lands. schools of Islamic law regarding the visiting of The final chapter (Chapter 9) in Part II, by graves, tombs and shrines. The crux of the de- Maité Echarri Chavéz, Lourdes Cisneros Mustel- bate hinges on subtle analyses of Quranic verses, ier and Maximiliano Korstanje, is called Cuba and whether guidance and principles provided and Its Christian Roots: A Case for Under- by the Prophet are to be taken literally or inter- standing Religious Tourism. The chapter preted in the context of other guiding principles. presents a more theoretical discussion than While there is much agreement regarding be- others in this section, developing ideas about pil- haviour at family graves, tombs and shrines, grimage, religion and society from a sociological broader practices around the visitation of burial perspective. Based primarily on the work of Mac- places of saints and holy people are more con- Cannell (1976), but also referring to the likes of flictual. This divergence in Islamic acceptance of Goffman (1990), this contribution highlights such practices has serious implications for reli- the linkages between religion, tourism and polit- gious tourism and pilgrimage in the Islamic ics. The authors suggest that religion and tour- world. ism are not indisputably opposed to each other Chapter 11, Religious Spaces as Discrete and, with appropriate political actions, religious Systems: The Case of Ayodhya, India, by San- tourism could even be cultivated in the likes of jeev Singh, Nayan Srivastava, Karitikeya Sonker Cuba, which is now emerging from its previous and Manas Ranjan, reflects on an important state of anti-religious sentiment. event in the history of India. However, rather than outline the conflict at Ram Janambhumi in Ayodhya chronologically, this fascinating chapter frames a contested sequence of events in the- Part III: Understanding ‘Other’: Conflicts, oretical constructs such as space, meaning, time Challenges and Issues and socio-spatial phenomena. In so doing, the authors investigate a value-changing process The third section of the book presents an eclectic whereby an important historical Hindu site set of five chapters, outlining various conflicts evolved into a site shared by Muslims and was related to religious tourism and pilgrimage, all then reappropriated by enthusiastic Hindus. The with an interesting connection to the concept of resultant conflict concerning site ownership ‘other’. The section begins with two conflictual continues to the present day, with third-genera- cases: one discussing theological divergence in tion participants in the legal disagreements. Islam regarding pilgrimage, the other a While the impact of this event has influenced long-term legal case of religious site ownership political leaders and governments in India, and in India (Ayodhya). In both of these cases, the indeed it has been suggested that this episode recognition of ‘other’ is virtually absent, and has impacted on Indian democratic thought, the thus the conflicts are difficult to manage. The core of this chapter focuses on theoretical issues next two chapters discuss the importance of around the interplay of spatial networks and understanding ‘other’, framed in the general collective identities. context of religious regulations, and in particu- Yasin Bilim and Özgür Özer in their chapter lar focusing on the needs and requirements of (Chapter 12), Halal Tourism: The Case of halal and kosher tourism. The fifth and final Turkey, present an overview of halal tourism, chapter examines a very challenging aspect of which they suggest is one of the fastest growing ‘other’ and the deliberate practice of eliminating areas of tourism at the global scale. Incorporat- evidence of ‘other’ through the appropriation or ing many aspects of Islamic guidelines, tourism destruction of religious sites and their contents. that follows halal parameters incorporates much Chapter 10, by Necmeddin Güney, reflects more than just the Western-known food aspects on a particular aspect of Islamic law and illustrates of a Muslim’s daily life. Halal considerations 8 Introduction

include all aspects of life that are permissible by from France that visited Greece and highlights sharia law and range from the ethical approach the challenges faced by an individual property of the businesses involved, to the conservative and staff in catering for the religious require- dress of staff and guests, appropriate television ments of Orthodox Jews. It also discusses the at- shows, absence of alcohol and drugs, correct titude of these Orthodox travellers, who see their washing and prayer facilities, and many more dietary observances as a significant motivator in aspects. As a growing market, halal tourism has destination selection. enormous potential, with the largest markets A book on conflict would not be complete currently being those destinations that have a without a chapter dealing with war and the history of tourism and are recognized as Islamic. interplay between religion, culture, identity and However, the authors are keen to indicate that armed conflict. In their contribution (Chapter non-Muslim countries have major potential for 14, War and Cultural Heritage: The Case of the development of this market. Religious Monuments), Dimitrios Mylonopou- In a somewhat related contribution, Chap- los, Polyxeni Moira and Katerina Kikilia outline ter 13, Kosher Tourism: A Case Study from the various international agreements, treaties Greece, by Polyxeni Moira, Dimitrios Mylonopo- and legal frameworks governing the treatment ulos and Panagiota Vasilopoulou, discusses the of cultural sites in general, and religious sites in importance for certain religions of adhering to particular, during times of war. They note the particular regulations and guidelines regarding importance of protecting sites, shielding them food and lifestyle. Focusing in particular on dis- from the destructive processes of war, and the cussing Muslim and Jewish requirements, the various sanctions available to agencies, govern- chapter also comments on Hindu guidelines re- ments and organizations in this regard. The garding diet and daily activity. The chapter authors highlight cases where the destruction points out the importance for tourism and hospi- of religious sites has been punished by inter- tality professionals to understand such regula- national war tribunals, but equally they note tions and highlights the fact that destinations systematic international weaknesses in site which are in a position to offer halal or kosher protection; for example, whereby internal dis- certified experiences could benefit greatly from putes in countries do not involve international tourism of this nature. The chapter concludes conflict and thus are not in violation of agreed with a case study of a strictly kosher tour group regulations.

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