Educational Research and Reviews Vol. 7(19), pp. 401-409, 11 July, 2012 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR DOI: 10.5897/ERR11.164 ISSN 1990-3839 ©2012 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Motivation and career aspirations of female students studying science at School in ,

Paul K. ANDOH1*, Thomas ANTWI BOSIAKOH2 and Stephen AFRANIE2

1Centre for Social Policy Studies (CSPS), , Accra, Ghana. 2Department of Sociology, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.

Accepted 1 June, 2012

This paper examines science education for girls in Achimota School, a second cycle institution in Accra, in terms of their motivations for pursuing science and future aspirations. It explores parental backgrounds and how they impacted on the motivations and aspirations of the girls. The survey method was adopted in this study, which involved a sample of 65 girls in the first and second years. The analysis of data revealed among others, that most of the respondents had educated parent(s), some of whom had science background. However, whereas, parents and for that matter family relations provided a source of motivation to pursue science at Senior High School (SHS), other important sources of motivation are self and teachers. The study however found that girls who intend to pursue science beyond SHS are not necessarily those whose parents studied science and that given the opportunity girls can pursue science to realize their career goals. To this extent, the paper recommends among others, that there should be provision of adequate facilities for the teaching of science in Senior High Schools. This will ensure that Science Teachers are better able to make the teaching of science as practical as possible in order to sustain the interest of students in general and female students in particular.

Key words: Motivation, aspiration, science education, girls’ education, Achimota School.

INTRODUCTION

Education is an important ingredient in the development quality of its manpower, and that, manpower develop- of any nation. This is because education enlarges ment is heavily dependent on the provision of education people’s choices in life thereby, enabling them to have from the basic to the highest level”. access to essential resources for a decent standard of To this end, Ghana’s development blueprints in recent living. Kwapong (1995) and Anamuah–Mensah (1995) years (the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2002 – note that there can be no meaningful development of a 2005 and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy, nation without emphasis on education. The World Bank 2006 - 2009) identified human resource development as (1990) estimates that, an increase of one year in the a key growth pillar, particularly improvement in science average years of education could possibly result in a 3% and technology education, an emphasis which is in line increase in Gross National Development. In the view of with recent education reform policies at the basic and Addae-Mensah (2000:3) the greatest need of a country’s second cycle levels. Anamuah–Mensah (2004) has socio-economic development is the right type of observed that science and technology education is the manpower and not just the availability of natural engine that propels the journey towards development. resources. He further notes that, “… a country’s greatest Thus, effort to encourage science and technology asset is not the gold or oil or diamonds in its soil. It is the education is an indispensable component of education and therefore an important factor in Ghana’s bid to develop. In view of the importance of science and technology *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. education to the socio–economic development of Ghana, 402 Educ. Res. Rev.

the entire human resource potential of the country should of the girls in science education influences their be vigorously tapped, including the feminine citizenry, aspirations as far as career choices are concerned, using which constitutes about fifty–one percent (51%) of the the Achimita School in Accra. Four main research Ghanaian population. Females have, and continue to questions underlie this study, avis: play key roles in the application of science and technology in Ghana. For this reason, Anamuah–Mensah 1. Is the choice of science education by females at (2000) argues that, it is expedient to include the feminine Achimota School influenced by their family backgrounds? citizenry into the science and technology education drive 2. Are female participants in science education at in the country. For instance, between 1995 and 2000, Achimota School motivated by factors related to their participation of girls in science education at Senior High career aspirations? School level increased by 111% in four sampled schools 3. How far do females studying science at Achimota (Andam et al., 2005). School intend to go with the study of science? 4. What kind of career choices have female science students at Achimota School made for themselves? Educational policies and gender gaps in Ghana since 1980 Wading through the literature: an exploration into In the early part of the last century, an argument against female participation in science education the involvement of girls in science was put forward by Felter (1906) that girls should not be taught science at In 2000, Anamuah-Mensah imputed that science and the basic or elementary level because the expenditure of technology education is important in the drive towards nervous energy in the mastery of analytic concepts is development, especially, in developing countries. This is harmful to their health. This position has been found because science and technology information enable untenable and today, it is generally recognized across the nations to adequately cope with global issues and to be globe that the participation of females in science competitive players in the global market (Anamuah- education is beneficial not only to females themselves but Mensah, 2000). Recognizing this, Ghana accepted to the society as a whole. For this reason, many countries recommendations of the first conference of African including Ghana have embarked on the promotion of governments in Senegal Dakar in 1974 (CASTAFRICA I) females’ participation in science education. in which African countries were encouraged to give Since the 1980s, Ghana has pursued policies aimed at priority to the training of scientists and technologists to bridging the gap between boys’ and girls’ participation in spearhead the wheel of development in Africa. The science and technology education. At the senior high recommendations also called for the revision of curricula school level, there is some mainstreaming that allows at all levels to prioritize science and technology. students to specialize in science, technology, visual arts, Subsequently, the study of science was introduced in general arts, home economics or business (Anamuah– primary schools through to secondary schools in Ghana Mensah, 2000). Currently, boys and girls do the same as a subject to be taken by all students, while technology subjects at the Junior High School (JHS) level, science, is taken in the form of vocational or technical subject at mathematics, pre–technical skills, etc. At the Senior High junior high and senior high schools. School (SHS) level, core science and mathematics are In the particular area of female participation in science taken by all students in addition to their elective subjects. education, Foster (2005) has observed that an enabling The cumulative effect is that girls’ participation in science environment, gender role models, self efficacy and has improved over the last few decades, especially at the socialization are important factors that attract females SHS level. Despite the improvement, females are still into the study of science and engineering. The family under-represented in science disciplines in Ghana. While members, female role models and confidence in mathe- there is no policy in Ghana restricting girls from opting for matics and science are factors that influence females in science related subjects, only a few do so. the engineering group to choose it as a career, indicating In 1987, the Ghana Education Service started Science that, the study of science provides career opportunities Clinic, a programme that sought to bring change in the for females. Elaborating further, Foster notes that gender perception, performance and participation of girls in stereotype is a key factor in the choice of science related Science. Through the concerted effort of parents and careers. Boys are exposed more to outdoor activities like teachers this clinic had a great impact on girls. The aim mechanical tasks, sports, etc. than girls. Moreover, verbal was to create awareness and to increase and sustain persuasion from people like parents, teachers and peers girls’ participation in science and technology education. encourage males and females in their career pursuits and Against this background, the present study seeks to apparently males are more encouraged than females understand the motivation and aspirations of girls in the because of societal beliefs on achievements. This goes study of science at the second cycle level of education in to say that, society generally expects more males than Ghana. The idea is to investigate how the participation females to get involved in science, thus unconsciously Andoh et al. 403

motivating females less. In a similar vein, Foster (2005) They also contend that girls from co-educational mentions that few females choose careers in science schools choose science and technology less compared because such careers are less accessible to them. She with those in single sex schools. Engineering and further argues that low self-esteem, lack of role models, mathematics were found to be potential programmes for low parental expectations, stereotypes of scientists and girls when aptitudes are developed in the early lack of hands on experience in science, contribute to the educational levels. It is in high school where girls may be development of negative attitudes to mathematics and further encouraged to take the science and technology science in girls. Sharf (1997) also holds the view that path by possibly providing affirmative bursary to girls who women in general show more interest in artistic, clerical show aptitudes to succeed. and social occupations than men and have less interest Dlamini et al. (2004) further indicate that, participation in scientific and technical education. Sharf points out that of girls in science and technology subjects at primary this situation reflects values held in society that women school level (grades 1 to 7) and secondary level (grades should enter occupations such as teaching, nursing, and 8 to 12) is similar to that of boys mainly because both are social work. Thus female career choices reflect the compelled to take these subjects. However, participation values of the society they are part of. These social values of girls in science in post secondary and tertiary levels continue to exist and therefore there is the need for (colleges or university) was low and this was due to counselors to help women develop occupational interests stereotyping the participation of girls and boys in in science and mathematics. secondary school science and technical subjects. Home In a study on female participation in science and Economics was for girls and woodwork, metalwork and technology and mathematics education in and technical drawing for boys. The study further observed national development, Aguele and Agwa (2007) note that that there were inherent problems that hindered the the interest of female students in pursuing science involvement of girls in science education. These include education diminishes towards the university level due to girls’ negative attitude towards their intellectual capacity variety of factors that are primarily rooted in religious and to do science and the perceived irrelevance of science in cultural beliefs about the role of women in society. They their lives after school as well as special constraints and also observe inequality at the primary and secondary difficulties faced by girls and the greater involvement of levels, on arguments about biological build up of women, girls in house hold chores. These difficulties were linked birth order, as well as marriage and attitudes of teachers to “personal convictions”. Among their recommendations to girls. Aguele and Agwa suggest that in order to were that career guidance teachers play a major role in improve upon the participation of women in Science, showing girls how to choose subject combinations in high Technology and mathematics and to empower them school which suites their aptitudes whilst family members economically and integrate them into the mainstream of encourage girls to take up scientific programmes. national development, there should be restructuring of In another study, Stromquist (1989) observed that in undergraduate curricular to include more investigative Botswana, girls attend significantly fewer hours of class learning, technology, laboratory experience and per day than boys, which is the result of the demanding collaborative work and they should be provided an household and other economic roles that women and opportunity to engage in hands on real life projects. Also, girls undertake and which distracts girls from their programmes that socialize students into science, studies. The study also states that the financial well being technology and mathematics should be instituted. Female of the family greatly affects the participation of female graduates in science courses should be provided students. In a survey of 1,700 husbands and wives in automatic employment opportunities in order to create urban and rural areas in Egypt, the two most consistent more opportunities for them to contribute to national factors that affected students’ enrollment were the development and serve as further incentives and role educational aspirations of the father and those of the models for young girls. mother (Cochrane et al., 1986). Another survey by Dlamini et al. (2004) have also observed in Swaziland Yeoman (1985) of a sample of 346 female dropouts that economic, personal, educational, family and social found that 83% of them felt that parental interest and reasons account for the choice of science education at encouragement was a major factor in the retention of girls high school and tertiary levels among females. The in school. Thus the role of parents in the participation of choice is further rooted in factors like place of birth, girls in science education can not be over emphasized. location of high school attended and the type of school Parents have unique advantage over anyone else (not attended (Government or Private). In elaborating on the even teachers can be compared) because of the position place of birth of female as a factor influencing their choice they find themselves. They can provide a more stable, of science and technology programmes, they note that convenient and continuously positive influence that could girls born in rural areas are less likely to choose science augment and complement what the school fosters on and technology as compared to their urban counterparts their children (Makgato and Mji, 2006; Steinberg et al., due to the varying environment and availability of facilities 1992). Makgato and Mji (2006) further argue that, in schools. parents are very important stakeholders who affect and 404 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 1. Sample distribution.

Category Form Size Female Population Sample Percentage Form One 180 52 29 44 Form Two 203 65 36 56 Total 384 117 65 100

play critical roles in improving learners' performance at The school is a , typical of many second-cycle school. institutions in Ghana. The campus facilities comprise two chapels, Stromquist (1989) also cited a survey on higher three dining halls, two gymnasia, very extensive sports playing fields, a cricket oval, basketball court, tennis and squash courts, education in 13 Asian countries that found that women and an arboretum. Located close to the campus are the Achimota accounted for more than 50% of enrollment in the fields Golf Course, a post office, a police station, a village for the School's of education and humanities in 6 countries, in the fields of employees, a large farm, and a 45-bed hospital that serves the law and social sciences in 4 countries and in the field of School's students, employees and their families, as well as the medicine in 3 countries. What this means is that, very few communities surrounding the school. With its well laid-out grounds and about 4.4 miles of private roads, the school is surrounded by a females study science and technology. To further forest reserve and boasts of several architecturally interesting elaborate, Stromquist stated that in Sudan, 43% of colonial buildings. There are 14 single-sex halls of residence (called graduating females over a decade ago were in liberal houses) located on either the East campus or West campus. The arts, in contrast to 14% in medicine and 14% in sciences. School offers academic programmes in the Arts, Sciences, Visual It is in very few circumstances that, women select Arts and Home Economics. It has an Art School, a Music School, agriculture or engineering fields. A study based on 551 and a Home Science department. At present, the school has over 1,600 students, 1:1 gender ratio. university students and graduates in Tanzania in 1979 found that only 1% of the female students compared with

16% of the males were enrolled in higher technical- Methodological issues related colleges. According to Abbe and Momodu (1999), women’s The population for this study was all female science students in education positively correlates with several national and Achimota School at the time of the field work (April/May 2009). This international goals and aspirations, some of which included females in Forms one and two who were offering science. include economic productivity, social development, social At the time of collecting the data, there were no Form three equity and sustainable development. Low participation of students on the school compound because they had completed their final examinations and had left for home. Only Form one and women in education generally and science in particular two students were available in the school. The total population of therefore hinders the rapid actualization of these goals female science students in Forms one and two was 117. These and aspirations. Women who are excluded from science were spread over ten science classes, five each for Form one and education limit their earning power and employment Form two. The study adopted the survey method and a sample size prospects and therefore have adverse effects on national of sixty-five (65) female science students was taken for the study. The sample size of 65 represented about 42% of the study development. population and therefore was sufficiently a representative of the population. Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample, which was done to ensure proportional representation of students in Form one MATERIALS AND METHODS and Form two. The list of females in the various science classes was used as a Brief profile of the study area sample frame and respondents/samples selected randomly before the questionnaires were administered. Between 4–6 respondents The Achimota School is an elite Senior High School in Ghana. It were selected from each of the five Form one classes and between was established in 1927 by Sir Frederick Gordon Guggisberg, the 6–9 respondents selected from each of the five Form two classes. then Governor of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Dr. James Kwegyir The selections were also based on the number of females in the Aggrey and Rev. Alexander Gordon Fraser. The school has classes. A structured questionnaire with mainly closed-ended changed names from Prince of Wales College, Achimota College questions was used in collecting data from the selected respon- and now Achimota School. An alumnus/alumna of Achimota is dents. Each respondent was given a questionnaire to respond to, known as an AKORA. Over the years, Achimota School emerged thus the questionnaires were self administered. as one of the most prestigious academic institutions in Ghana, producing many notable African personalities including several Heads of State, politicians, academics, scientists, doctors, lawyers, artistes and industrialists. The school’s Hall of Fame boasts such RESULTS AND DISCUSSION dignitaries as Dr. , Pan-African leader and First President of The Republic of Ghana, Jerry John Rawlings, also a Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents former Head of State of Ghana, Prof. John Evans Atta Mills, former Vice President and current President of Ghana, Alhaji Sir Dauda Jhawarra, first Head of State of and , Majority (67.7%) of the respondents were between the president of . ages16 - 17 years, followed by 24.6% between ages 14 - Andoh et al. 405

15 years and 6.2% between ages 18 - 19 years. Only Academic performance in private basic schools in 1.5% was between 12 - 13 years. This means most of the Ghana is better than in the public basic schools because respondents were within the expected age for SHS parents are able to provide adequately for their children’s education. Since Form three students were not included education and ensure that they performed well. Some- in the sample, those above the age bracket of 18 - 19 times, parents pay for extra tuition in the school or at years were older than expected. This, we suspect, may home to adequately prepare their children for their final have been due to repetition or inability to commence examinations, which enables them gain admission to a class one at age six. The 1.5% respondent aged between grade A school like Achimota School. 12 - 13 years also means that, such students were younger than the expected age for SHS education. This, we explain, to be due to early commencement of school Parental backgrounds or promotion and therefore getting to SHS earlier than expected. To appreciate the motivation for the study of science As far as religious background was concerned, the data among female students, we explored the parental show that majority of the respondents (95.4%) were of background of the students. Majority of the respondents the Christian faith with only 4.6% of the Islamic faith. (93.8%) had both parents being alive; and 6.2% having Since data on the entire students’ population of Achimota only the mother alive. The implication here is that, was not available for this study, we are unable to majority of the females pursuing science education in conclusively say that this is a reflection of the situation in Achimota School may have sufficient parental support the entire school. Neither are we able to say that it from home and may also explain why majority of them reflects the situation in the Accra Metropolitan Area attended private primary/JHS before proceeding to the (AMA) where the school is located. SHS. Having both parents alive may also provide The data on the ethnic background of the respondents emotional, psychological and financial stability for the indicate that, the Akan are in the majority, constituting students because as is commonly said, ‘two heads are 46.2%, followed by the Ewe who constitute 26.2% and better than one’. Majority (67.7%) of the students also the Ga-Dangbe who constitute 10.8%. Others are Guan lives with both parents; those living with their mothers (7.7%), Mole-Dagbon (6.2%) and other ethnic groups alone constitute 23.1% and those living with their fathers (3.1%). In Ghana, the population of the Akan is higher alone also constitute 7.7%. Only 1.5% of the respondents than all other ethnic groups and therefore it is not did not live with any of the parents. surprising that they are in the majority in the sample. The The educational background of respondents’ parents Ewe is more than the indigenous group (Ga-Dangbe). It shows that fathers were generally more educated than may be argued that since Accra is the capital of Ghana mothers even though the gap is not so wide. What this and has attracted people from all over the country, it is means is that the respondents have parents who were cosmopolitan and therefore the indigenes have been themselves educated and therefore understood the crowded by other ethnic groups. importance of educating their children, particularly We explored the basic schools respondents attended females. In Table 2, we show that, 76.9% of fathers before enrolling into senior high school. The data indicate compared to 58.5% of mothers had attained tertiary that, 73.8% of the respondents attended private schools education. One (1.5%) father had attained a doctoral and 26.2% attended public schools. Senior high schools (PhD) level education and one (1.5%) mother had also in Ghana are categorized into grades A, B, C, etc with attained masters (MBA) level. While no father had grade A being well endowed, and hence perform better educational level below Secondary/Commercial/ academically. Achimota School is a grade ‘A’ school and Technical School, there were 7.7% mothers with Middle/ therefore entrance requirement is high. For this reason, JHS 3.1% of mothers with Primary education and 15% of students who get admission to the school must have mothers with no formal education. attended good primary and Junior High Schools to enable As shown in Table 2, majority of the respondents’ them attain higher grades in order to secure admission to parents (both fathers and mothers) have higher level Achimota School. Moreover, the type of primary/JHS education. Thus these educated parents are expected to attended reflects not only the socio-economic be better placed economically and intellectually to background of the students, but also the motivation to support their daughters to pursue science education. But study science at the SHS level. In Ghana, there are what were the specific fields of education pursued by public schools and private schools. Public schools are respondents’ parents? An understanding of this was state sponsored and have no profit motive, but private considered necessary because of its possible influence schools are individually or institutionally owned and are on the children’s decision to pursue science education. mostly profit oriented. Thus, it is mostly the middle and A total of 55.4% of the students (Table 3) had parents upper income earners who are able to send their children (father or mother or both) who had science-related to private schools, leaving the public schools for the low education. This may have influenced the respondents to income earners mainly. pursue science education. In the next section we 406 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 2. Educational background of respondents’ parents.

Category Fathers Mothers Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage None 0 0.0 1 1.5 Primary 0 0.0 2 3.1 Middle/JHS 0 0.0 5 7.7 Sec/Com/Tech School 13 20.0 18 27.7 Tertiary 50 76.9 38 58.5 MBA 0 0.0 1 1.5 PhD 1 1.5 0 0.0 No response 1 1.5 0 0.0 Total 65 100 65 100

Table 3. Parents with science background. of them (49.2%) indicated that they chose to study science because they were more comfortable with Category Frequency Percentage science subjects. This is in contrast with the long held None 29 44.6 perception that science is difficult to comprehend and Father only 30 46.2 therefore girls normally shy away from studying science. Mother only 2 3.1 This also suggests that with the right kind of motivation, Both parents 4 6.2 girls could be comfortable with the study of science as Total 65 100 much as their male counterparts. Thus, for girls who do not show interest in the study of science, it is not due to inherent difficulty in the studying of science but perhaps due to the manner in which science is presented and the examine the motivation of the students to pursue science way girls were socialized to perceive science education in education. the past. The second important reason why the girls chose to study science was the opportunities that science education offers. This is tied to what the respondents Motivation of female students to pursue science aspire to do in future. The review of literature suggests education that science education is critical to the development of any society, especially developing ones. Thus, those who Since the respondents in this study are teenagers under study science at the SHS level have a wide range of the care and guidance of parents and guardians, it is very career options and can easily secure jobs. Moreover, probable that apart from their personal interest and because there are more people in the arts than the intellectual acumen, which may predispose them to the sciences, not the least in Ghana, there is less competition study of science, other factors may have influenced their in the sciences as far as job opportunities are concerned. course of study at the SHS level. Their motivation for Two (3.1%) respondents observed that they were studying science is therefore discussed in this section. forced to study science, most likely by their parents/family First we examined whether or not they have siblings who members because of the perceived opportunities science studied or are studying science. This, we thought, was offers. Clearly, majority of the female students have good necessary because having siblings pursuing science reasons for studying science at the SHS level. When. we education may be a source of motivation for the decision inquired into who actually motivated them to study to pursue science education. science, parents had the most counts (43.1%), followed Significantly, majority of the respondents (55.4%) had by self (23.1%), teachers (13.8%), role models (9.2%), siblings who studied or were studying science. As noted and siblings (7.7%). This shows that the girls generally in the previous section, majority of the respondents have have good guidance from family and teachers, which in parents with back-ground in science education. It is the long run will have a positive effect on the future of the therefore not surprising that majority of respondents’ girls and also on the nation as a whole. siblings have or are pursuing science education. What Parents and by extension family members therefore this means is that the educational backgrounds of family played key roles in the decision of the girls to study members can serve as a major source of motivation for science at the SHS level. The fact that most of the females in the choice of course of study at the SHS level. parents were themselves educated (most of them in Specifically, respondents were asked to indicate why science) might have added impetus to the inspiration the they chose to study science at SHS (Table 4). Almost half girls received to study science. And though parents came Andoh et al. 407

Table 4. Why studying science.

Category Frequency Percentage Comfortable with science subjects 32 49.2 Offers more opportunities 28 43.1 Forced into it 2 3.1 Prestige 1 1.5 Thought it was easy 1 1.5 Don't really know why 1 1.5 Total 65 100

Table 5. Career path of female science students.

Category Frequency Percentage Not applicable 13 20.0 Medicine 27 41.6 Nursing 5 7.7 Pharmacy 3 4.6 Civil engineering 3 4.6 Biology 3 4.6 Petrol chemical engineering 2 3.1 Chemical Engineering 2 3.1 Animal Science 2 3.1 Architecture 2 3.1 Electrical Engineering 1 1.5 Astrophysics 1 1.5 Dentistry 1 1.5 Total 65 100

out as the most important motivators, a significant Civil Engineering and Biology (4.6% each). Petroleum number of the girls were self-motivated. Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Animal Science and Architecture followed with 3.1% each and 1.5% each indicated Electrical Engineering, Astrophysics and Career aspirations of female science students Dentistry (see Table 5). The data therefore show that respondents who inten- According to Anamuah-Mensah (2000:7), the partici- ded to pursue science after SHS have high aspirations as pation of females in education in general decreases far as the study of science is concerned and they need to sharply as one climbs the educational ladder. Based on be encouraged. Some of them intend to venture into male this assertion therefore, the study explored whether or dominated areas and this will go a long way to bridge the not the respondents would continue studying science gap between males and females in terms of gender after SHS. For every five female science students, we stereotyping. To ascertain the seriousness of the found four of them with the intention to study science respondents with regards to their pursuit of science beyond SHS. Thus, majority of the respondents (80.0%) education, we asked whether they would change their continue to be comfortable with science and look forward course of study should they have the option to do so. to studying science at a higher level. A few students Though majority (67.7%) said they would not change, a (20.0%) did not have any intention to continue studying significant number of them (32.3%) intimated that, they science at a higher level. A number of reasons were would change if they had the option. advanced including the fact that science education was The study hypothesized that girls who have at least one complex or difficult. parent with science background are more likely to study For those who indicated that they intend to study science beyond SHS than girls who did not. To test this science after SHS, most of them want to study medicine hypothesis, we regrouped the background of respon- (41.6%), followed by Nursing (7.7%), and Pharmacy, dents’ parents in terms of their area of study (Table 3) 408 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 6. Observed frequencies for cross-tabulation of parent(s) with science background and respondents’ intention to continue studying science after SHS.

Would you continue studying science after SHS? Total Background of parent(s) Yes No Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % No parent with science background 26 40.0 3 4.6 29 44.6 At least one parent with science background 26 40.0 10 15.4 36 55.4 Total 52 80.0 13 20.0 65 100.0

Table 7. 2-Test Statistics for Hypothesis Testing.

Cell No. Observed Frequency (O) Expected Frequency (O) O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E 1-1 26 23.2 2.8 7.84 0.338 1-2 26 28.8 -2.8 7.84 0.272 2-1 3 5.8 -2.8 7.84 1.352 2-1 10 7.2 2.8 7.84 1.089 Total 65 65 0 3.051

into girls with at least one parent with science parents, have the capability to pursue science in SHS background and those who have parents with non- and beyond. science background. This was cross-tabulated with responses to the question on whether the girls would want to pursue science after SHS. The observed SUMMARY frequencies from this cross-tabulation are presented in 2 Female science students in the study are largely within Table 6. Chi-square ( ) was used to test the likelihood the expected age range for Senior High School. There for girls to study science beyond SHS with the focus on are more Christians among the respondents than those who have at least one parent with science Muslims. And though Achimota Senior High School is background and those who did not have any of their located in the where Ga-Dangbe is parents having science background. the indigenous people, there are more Akan and Ewe A degree of freedom (df) of 1 was derived with the than Ga-Dangbe in the school. Most of the respondents formulae k-1, where k means the number of outcomes (2 attended private primary/JHS compared to public in this instance) and a 2-critical value of 3.841 was Primary/JHS. Majority of parents of females who study derived from 2-statistical table. The test statistics for the science at SHS have themselves been educated, observed frequencies produced a 2-obtained value of especially their fathers in science related fields. The 3.051 (see Table 7), which is lower than the 2-critical educated parents serve as a source of inspiration or value of 3.841. We employed the decision rule that if the motivation for their daughters in pursuing science at the obtained value is less than the critical value, we would fail SHS level. to reject the null hypothesis. Given the data available Hypothesis testing to establish the relationship between from this study, and at a significant level 0.05 (5%) and a parental science background and daughters’ pursuit of degree of freedom of 1, we find the 2 obtained (3.051) to science education did not show a significant relationship be less than the 2-critical value (3.841). There is between the two variables. This suggests that irres- therefore no evidence from this study to support the pective of the educational backgrounds of parents with hypothesis that girls who have at least one parent regards to science education, all girls could pursue studying science are more likely to study science beyond science education at SHS level provided they are given SHS What this suggests is that, whereas parents and for the opportunity and the right conditions created for the that matter family members may play key roles in pursuit of science education in terms of teachers and motivating girls to pursue science education, there is no resources needed for science education. relationship between girls’ pursuit of science beyond SHS Since majority of the respondents have both parents and the background of their parents as far as science being alive and living with them, we explained that, they education was concerned. In effect, where the opportunity continue to motivate the girls to study science because to pursue science education is given to girls in SHS, all of almost all of them are educated. Majority of the girls them, irrespective of the science background of their intend to study science at higher level in order to attain Andoh et al. 409

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