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Buffalo and Blackfoot Tenure On BEYOND THE BORDER: BUFFALO AND BLACKFOOT TENURE ON TRADITIONAL TERRITORIES SHOUKIA VAN BEEK A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN GEOGRAPHY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO December 2019 © Shoukia van Beek, 2019 ABSTRACT The international US-Canada border divides and dissects the ancestral territory of the Siksikaitsitapi Indigenous nations. This thesis examines Siksikaitsitapi experiences of the border as a settler-colonial method of containment and their resistance to these processes through the reintroduction of the buffalo. The reintroduction of the buffalo to Siksikaitsitapi territory represents Siksikaitsitapi worldviews and relationship to the lands which extend across and beyond the imposed border. The buffalo are powerful within Siksikaitsitapi ways of knowing, and their return signifies a resilience in a host of sacred, social, cultural, and traditional principles that underpin Siksikaitsitapi life. This study shows that through the cross-border movement of the free-roaming buffalo, the Siksikaitsitapi are asserting their ongoing presence, relationship to the land, and sovereignty by using Indigenous-led conservation to challenge the divisive nature of the border. This research highlights how Siksikaitsitapi thought and worldviews are continuous and offer a sustainable and meaningful practice for conservation governance. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to acknowledge that the land on which I learned and lived, and from where this thesis and research is rooted and belongs, is the ancestral and traditional territory of the Siksikaitsitapi, Niitsitapi, or the Blackfoot Confederacy. Today, as it has been since time immemorial, this traditional territory—the land, water, air, animals, and plants are all interconnected and hold significant meaning to the Blackfoot Confederacy. The central themes of this thesis, including sense of place, movement, ecology, relationships, community, and geography have been important to and practiced by the Siksikaitsitapi for tens of thousands of years before I began thinking or writing about them. I am forever grateful for and humbled by my time on Siksikaitsitapi lands, and from these experiences I will continue to grow, learn, and interrogate my relationships to the places and spaces I take up as a settler. I want to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Libby Lunstrum for her continuous support of my M.A. study and research, for her patience, motivation, enthusiasm, guidance, and endless knowledge. As my supervisor, she has taught me more than I could ever give her credit for here. She has shown me, by her example, who a good researcher and academic should be. I wish to express deep gratitude to my committee member: Dr. Peter Vandergeest, for his encouragement, substantial intellectual support, insightful comments, and hard questions. To my external examiner Dr. Carolyn Podruchny, for her enthusiasm, sincere engagement, and thoughtful contributions. My warm thanks also extends to Dr. Robin Roth whose many discussions, valuable suggestions, and expert advice have been invaluable throughout all stages of my work. I am grateful to all of those whom I have had the pleasure of working with during this project. To Mike Bruised Head, Jaron Weaselbear, Ira Provost, Michael iii DesRosier, Joycelyn DesRosier, Robert DesRosier, Kim DesRosier, Terry Tatsey, Wilton Goodstriker, Darlene Munro, Harry Barnes, Joyce Spoonhunter, Ervin Carlson, Kirby Smith, Penny Fox, Tim Davis, John Murray, Keith Heavyrunner, James McNeely, Marie Weasel, and the A.R.M.P. team. For the sake of anonymity, I will not name everyone involved but I trust you know who you are. My sincere thanks especially go to Sierra Shade, Kimmy Shade, Deanna Shade, Zane Chief Moon, and Riel Houle for their unending warmth, welcome, kindness, and support. The thesis also benefitted from comments and feedback made by my friends and colleagues who read through the manuscript. I take this opportunity to thank them. Thank you for your time, comments, and conversation. Each of you have taught me a great deal. Special thanks to my family, and specifically my parents—whose love and guidance are with me in whatever I pursue. They have taught me my love of learning, and I am forever grateful for their constant encouragement. This research would not be possible without the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, including the Canadian Conservation in a Global Context (CCGC) project, and York University. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... v List of Photos .............................................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1 – Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 1.1 Research Question and Methods ......................................................................... 4 1.2 Contribution ........................................................................................................ 5 1.2.1 Border Studies .................................................................................................. 5 1.2.2 Political Ecology and Conservation .............................................................. 6 1.2.3 Indigenous Theory and Sovereignty ............................................................ 7 1.3 Structure of Chapters ............................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2 – Research Design and Methodology ....................................................................10 2.1 Data Sources .......................................................................................................... 10 2.1.1 Fieldwork ........................................................................................................ 12 2.1.2 Interviews ....................................................................................................... 13 2.1.3 Observation .................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 18 2.2.1 Oral Knowledge ............................................................................................. 18 2.2.2 Textual Analysis ............................................................................................ 19 2.3 Power and Positionality ...................................................................................... 20 2.3.1 Ongoing Learning .......................................................................................... 22 2.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 3 – Creating Containment ...........................................................................................27 3.1 The Colonial Dream: Containment .................................................................... 29 3.2 The Elimination of the Buffalo ........................................................................... 31 3.3 Building the Border .............................................................................................. 40 3.4 Reserves and Reservations .................................................................................. 51 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 57 Chapter 4 – Maintaining Immobility, Controlling Movement .............................................59 4.1 Buffalo – Monitoring Movement........................................................................ 59 4.1.1 Iinnii Initiative ................................................................................................ 59 4.1.2 Obstacles: Destruction .................................................................................. 61 v 4.1.3 Obstacles: Disease .......................................................................................... 65 4.1.4 Obstacles: Tagging and Tracking ................................................................ 68 4.1.5 Analysis ........................................................................................................... 69 4.2 Border – Monitoring Movement ........................................................................ 72 4.2.1 Obstacles ......................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2 Analysis ........................................................................................................... 80 4.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 5 – Freedom: Refusing Colonial Containment ........................................................83 5.1 Politics of Refusal ................................................................................................. 84
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