Sustainable Electric Energy Systems in the Non-Interconnected Zones of Colombia

SUSTAINABLE ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES OF COLOMBIA

J.C. Ramírez Arjona Delft University of Technology

SUSTAINABLE ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES OF COLOMBIA

J.C. Ramírez Arjona

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Sustainable Energy Technology

at the Delft University of Technology, to be defended publicly on the 23th of April 2014.

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ir. L.M Kamp 2nd Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ir. W. Revesteijn Thesis committee: Prof. Dr. Ir. L.M Kamp Prof. Dr. Ir. W. Revesteijn Prof. Dr. Ir. K. Blok

An electronic version of this thesis is available at http://repository.tudelft.nl/

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank firstly to God who was my rock and fortress during this process. A special mention goes to Leonie Boortman who was my guide and angel; thank you for helping me and encouraging me always to find the light. To my supervisor Linda Kamp I’m very grateful for your academic insight, but mostly for bearing with me during this process. It wasn’t easy for you and I know it. You’re are great mentor and person.

Pr. Dr. Wim Ravesteijn thank you very much for your rich contribution to this work. It was not only through your valuable feedback, but also in the hours spent in the classroom learning from you and our discussions. Professor Blok, for accepting being part of my evaluation committee. I appreciate the time you kindly dedicated to the assessment of my work.

Igor Rodriguez, Carolina Ribon, Felipe Gómez and Fanny Rodríguez thank you for contributing selflessly with your valuable knowledge and time to this research.

To my family I have no words to describe how blessed I feel to have your support and unconditional love. Without you I couldn’t have made it through; I love you with all my heart Dad, Mom, Carlos, Gloria, Julieta and Lucas.

My brother from life Angel: thank you for being someone beyond a friend. You’re a true brother and thanks to your family for also making me part of it. I feel you as my own.

To all my SET friends who were always supportive till the end. Juan Oritz: you are one of a kind friend and you’re an immensely talented human being. I admire and love you with outmost respect.

Hillsong Amsterdam family!! Thank you for helping me find identity and purpose. I love walking this journey with you.

Brabantse Turfmarkt 68, thank you for having me there even when I had not even a nickel to afford the rent. I truly appreciate it.

Thijsie thanks for always opening your house for me and for being an amazing friend. Thanks for your encouragement in this and also for the amazing designs. You’re great!

To anyone who contributed in this journey to help me become a better person and professional my gratitude goes also to you.

3 4 PREFACE

J. C. Ramírez Arjona Amsterdam, 2015

“…Lo que hay es otra cosa; es la hermosura de vivir al tope…Porque la vida no es sólo recibir, es antes que nada dar algo de lo que tenemos, y por jodido que estés siempre tenés algo para darle a los demás.” José “Pepe” Mujica

SERENDIPITY I came to the Netherlands looking for a degree in Sustainable Energy Technology, with the idea of studying the different technologies, the artifacts and how they worked. My goal was to learn how to implement sustainable energy technologies to bring development to the most needed people and to create a significant difference in the world. Instead, I found myself immersed in a journey of self-awareness, of rediscovery and reinvention. I learned that technology has no purpose, power or importance when it doesn’t meet any societal needs. I got to appreciate culture, history and heritage above a phony sense development and automation. I found a new dimension of what humanity and purpose meant to me.

But, there was a time I felt upset, disappointed and frustrated. We all dream about becoming meaningful, important and to have an impact in the world around us, it’s human nature. For a moment during this entire journey I felt meaningless, and purposeless. A failure, some may think. I could see everybody else, but me, using their enormous talents, having their breakthroughs and achieving all they could think about. Everyone was constantly portraying their perfect lives, and it ironically some came back to me thinking I had one as well. Then, I realized that we are all in our battles, our struggles, and that big or small, we’ve all felt lonely and felt aside at some point. We’ve all felt disappointed about ourselves and defeated. It’s easy choosing to dive into sadness, anger and frustration and blame the whole universe of your disgrace. Nonetheless, trials and burdens are not something made to condemn or punish us, but to build character. “Consider it a sheer gift, friends, when tests and challenges come at you from all sides. You know that under pressure, your faith-life is forced into the open and shows its true colors. So don’t try to get out of anything prematurely. Let it do its work so you become mature and well-developed, not deficient in any way.” James 1:2-4 (MSG)

So, this thesis is not really about the theories, or how good, or how brilliant I can attempt to be. It’s all about the journey that made me who I am today. It stands up for the path and process that reshaped and redefined my mindset. This work here represents that I made it through; I surpassed my barriers and conquered my inner demons. That’s the real value of it, nothing more and nothing less. I have found myself loved, valued, and significant regardless of my rights and wrongs. My major concern isn’t that you agree with or understand what is written in this thesis work from now on. It will be much more meaningful if this small preface can serve as a word of encouragement for you to find your real purpose and your true identity. Please, never let whatever you achieve or fail at, whatever you do for living or what everyone speaks about you or the labels set over you define who you are. Instead, let who you really are, your true colors and whoever you’re aiming to be paint whatever you achieve, whatever you choose to do and whatever is spoken about you. Rejoice in your trials, stand up and be brave and keep on going because in the middle of it you’ll find your true value, which you may not fathom during your crisis. Might not be easy, but when the work inside is finished you’ll see that a whole new layer of thick skin has grown over you. And only then, you’ll be taken to places you’ve never imagined and you’ll achieve what seemed impossible. It is when you realize who you really are and get hold of your identity, that you get awareness of your true potential. That’s more valuable than any distinction or diploma and at the end you’ll know it was all worth it, it was all about personal growth, about becoming more human.

5 I can now really tell who I am, and it is defined by the amazing grace and love I received in the cross. I was created to love, to serve, to give and to live life to the fullest in response. What is written ahead is just a small piece of that calling, of that God given purpose.

Now to him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us, to Him be glory in the church and in Christ Jesus throughout all generations, forever and ever! Amen. Ephesians 3:20-21 (NIV)

6 ABSTRACT

Colombia has recently been recognized as one of the rising economies in the world, and has been changing the marginal image of a failed state it has had during decades all around the world. Part of the strategies to continue this path towards development is to satisfy the basic needs of those in the country who are still unreached. Electricity is one of those needs that people in vulnerable areas must satisfy in the so called, non-interconnected zones (NIZ) where the national electricity grid cannot reach. Sustainable energy technologies (SETs) show up as an alternative to the 1,200 settlements with a population of around 2,000,000 people to provide a reliable, affordable and sustainable electric energy solution.

This situation raises the main question this thesis project addresses: What are the main barriers and drivers for the development of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for electric energy supply in the NIZ? For this purpose a combined framework has been created using the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) approach and Functions of In- novation Systems (FIS) as by Van Alphen. The FIS van Alphen framework is used to assess the performance of the innovation system posed by the SETs in the non-interconnected zones. It is more systemic framework that helps to evaluate punctually through indicators what are the drivers and barriers within a niche around a certain technological innovation. The MLP helps to identify the drivers and barriers for the new innovation within the market that the innovation has to compete with and within the country as a whole. These two frameworks are combined into one framework that allows a more comprehensive study and analysis of the use of sustainable energy technologies as a solution to provide the electrical energy service in the NIZ.

Colombia has had an internal armed conflict for more than 50 years, creating a climate of political instability. Political instability and bad governance is the main and major factor that constitutes a barrier for any development process in Colombia, including technological transitions. Paradoxically, Colombia is now counted as a rising star in economy and during the last lustrum has been one of the best performing economies of the region. Also, its geographical position allows the country to have great wealth of natural resources including wind energy potential, abundant rivers and water basins and solar irradiating all around the territory all year round. These are key factors for the development and implementation of SETs. Cultural differences is an aspect this research gives a high regard because in a country like Colombia with a heavy colonial background and large cultural diversity, segregation, rejection and exclusion have added to the effects of bad governance and political instability. These barriers have led to failures in technological innovation systems in which lack of a democratic access to education is reflected in poor technological and industrial development. Thus, creation of new markets is hampered by the absence of entrepreneurs and lack of research and development. This has left the non-interconnected zones in a lock-in situation because more than 95% of the electricity production in such areas is provided by diesel engine systems. Even though the service is poor, intermittent and expensive, it is the only option the inhabitants of the NIZ have had for many years. These aspects can work in favor of SETs where they can offer a more reliable and affordable service to these communities. The communities in NIZ are composed by diverse cultural groups which all have different values, customs, perceptions, world views, cosmogony and cosmology; among them and also when compared to western values imposed in the centralized part of Co- lombia. These cultural differences also affect adaptation capacity, learning processes and creation of legitimacy. Efforts from the Colombian government to regulate sustainable energy technologies and the right to prior consultation for ethnic minorities take us a step closer to make SETs a viable solution for the non-interconnected zones. Though many efforts have been made in the policy and legislation, the reality of insecurity, armed conflict in rural areas and political instability should be addressed first before these legislative measures can take full enforcement.

Sustainable energy technology in the non-interconnected zones presents a weak innovation system which fails to establish a robust market. As a result few or none entrepreneurial activities in the field are found. Some technology distributors are starting, but no real technology producers are entering into the scene. Also, the actors that are

7 relevant in supplying technology come from foreign countries. Not only the technology suppliers are foreign, but the main financing actors, besides the Colombian government, are also international governments and agencies. The network of actors for the SETs in the NIZ of Colombia hinges around one single actor, the IPSE. Having the whole network and interaction between actors revolving around one single institution can also be an element that hampers a more dynamic development of such innovation system.

As part of the solution, this thesis proposes community and volunteered actions to promote the deployment of SETs in Colombia. Programs such as Un Techo Para Mi Pais are examples of initiatives from local members of vulnerable communities that work hand in hand with volunteers from schools and universities to bring solutions to such communities. A similar action is proposed for bringing electricity to the NIZ, where volunteering students work with the benefited communities to raise funds, acquire equipment, install and train on maintenance skills to inhabitants of the community. This helps to alleviate reliance on official government bodies, give autonomy to the communities, but at the same time create a bond of inclusion with the vulnerable people of the NIZ, covering the shortcomings of a failing innovation system.

8 ABBREVIATIONS

CCEP Colombia Clean Energy Program CIVETS Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt and South Africa CREG Energy and Gas Regulatory Commission FAZNI Fund of Financial Support for the Energization of the Non-Interconnected Zones FIS Functions Innovation System FNR National Fund of Royalties FOES Fund for Social Energy FTA Free Trade Agreement GHG Green House Gas IADB Inter-American Development Bank IPSE Institute of Planning and Promotion of Energy Solutions for Non-interconnected Zones LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas MDG Millennium Development Goals MLP Multi-Level Perspective MME Ministry of Mines and Energy NIS National Interconnected System NIZ Non Interconnected Zones NPD National Plan of Development PRONE Program for Electrical Grid Normalization RET Renewable Energy Technology SENA National Vocational Training Service SET Sustainable Energy Technology ST-systems Socio-technical Systems TIC Technological Innovation Centers UN United Nations UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UPME Mining and Energy Planning Unit USAID United States Agency for International Development

9 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map of non-interconnected zones (Ministry of Mines and Enegry, 2012) 19 Figure 2. Combined Framework to Identify Barriers and Drivers of SETs as Electrical Solutions in the NIZs. 23 Figure 3. Basic Elements and Resources of Socio-Technical Systems (Geels F. W., 2004) 31 Figure 4. Specific Map of actors and social groups that compose the ST-systems (Geels F. W., 2004) 31 Figure 5. Dynamics of the Multi-level Perspective Framework (Geels F. W., 2002b) 33 Figure 6. Paths and Dynamics of the ST-regime (Geels F. W., 2004) 34 Figure 7. Location of the Technologic Innovation Centers. (Source:Author) 48 Figure 8. Energy Demand in the NIZ (IPSE, 2014f) 49 Figure 9. Electric Energy Supply Status in the NIZ 50 Figure 10. ADES Single-bladed Wind Turbine as Installed in Nazareth (ADES) 52 Figure 11. PV Modules with Solar Trackers Installed in Nazareth 54 Figure 12. Hybrid System in Nazareth and Puerto Estrella Electrical Line Diagram 56 Figure 13. Hybrid System Diagram Connected to the National Monitoring Center 57 Figure 14. Necoclí Beach Filled with Wood Coming From the Sea (Delgado, 2011) 58 Figure 15. Bonfire in Necocli Beach (Delgado, 2011) 59 Figure 16. Distribution os illumination elements in El Totumo (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) 59 Figure 17. Wood Gathering and Cutting into Planks for Transportation (Delgado, 2011) 60 Figure 18. Worker Getting the Wood Planks Ready for Carriage Transportation (Delgado, 2011) - 60 Figure 19. Wood Being Prepared for Pre-Drying Process. 61 Figure 20. Wood Cut and Processing (Delgado, 2011) 61 Figure 21. Open Air Sun Drying of Biomass (Delgado, 2011) 62 Figure 22. Fixed Bed Gasifier and Filters in Necoclí (Delgado, 2011) 62 Figure 23. Typical Fixed Bed Gasifier with Coolers and Filters (Hasler & Nussbaumer, 1999) 63 Figure 24. 40 kW Gas Engine Generator Set (Delgado, 2011) 63 Figure 25. Biomass Technological Innovation Center Connected to the National Monitoring Center 64 Figure 26. Battery Banks at Titumane (IPSE, 2011b) 67 Figure 27. Photovoltaic Panels Installed in Titumane 67 Figure 28. Hybrid System with Solar Energy Connected to the NMC (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) 67 Figure 29. Water Intake at La Encarnación (IPSE, 2009) 69 Figure 30. Construction of the Conduction Channel (IPSE, 2009) 69 Figure 31. Pressure Piping at La Encarnación (IPSE, 2009) 70 Figure 32. La Encarnación Powerhouse (IPSE, 2009) 70 Figure 33. Hydraulic Turbines and Generators Used in La Encarnacion (IPSE, 2009) 70 Figure 34. Map of non-interconnected zones (taken from IPSE modified by author) 72 Figure 35. Regions of Colombia (IDEAM, 2010) 73 Figure 36. Annual Average of Mean Wind Surface Speed (IDEAM, 2006) 74 Figure 37. Military Distention Zone (United Nations Human Rights, Colombia, 2002) 75 Figure 38. Map of Actors of Electricity with SETs in the NIZ in Colombia (Author) 97 Figure 39. Prior Consultation Meeting for Jepirachi Project (EPM, 2010) 100 Figure 40. SENA students being trained on PV systems. (SENA, 2013a) 101 Figure 41. Energy Sentinel Kids from La Macarena (IPSE, 2011) 102 Figure 42. Energy Wednesday training for IPSE personnel. (IPSE, 2010) 103 Figure 43. Volunteers and locals buildeing houses under the TECHO initiative 115

10 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Indicators of FIS van Alphen Functions 45 Table 2. Technologies used in the Hybrid System installed in Nazareth (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) 52 Table 3. Technical Specifications of 100kW Single-bladed ADES Wind Turbines Installed in Nazareth 53 Table 4. MS TRACKER10+ Technical Specifications (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) 54 Table 5. Technical Specifications of the 225 kW Caterpillar Diesel Generator Installed in Nazareth 55 Table 6. Diesel Engine Generator Technical Specifications (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) 65 Table 7. Solar Irradiation per Region in Colombia (IDEAM, 2006) 73 Table 8. Barriers and Drivers from the Landscape 86 Table 9. Projects planned by the CCEP with its scopes and benefited communities. 104 Table 10. Amount and Sources of Funding for the Most Important SET projects in the NIZ 106 Table 11. List of Companies that have commercial activity with SETs 109 Table 12. Barriers and Drivers derived from the performance of the IS of the SETs in Colombia 110

11 12 CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS 9 LIST OF FIGURES 10 LIST OF TABLES 11

1. INTRODUCTION 16 1.1. Problem Definition 17 1.2 Research Questions 18 1.3 Practical Relevance 19 1.4 Scientific Relevance 20 1.5 Combined Framework 22 1.6 Methodology 24

2. COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 28 2.1 Multi-Level Perspective 32 2.1.1 Socio-technical Regime 34 2.1.2 Socio-Technical Niches 35 2.1.3 Socio-technical Landscape 36 2.1.4 Remarks Over the Multi-Level Perspective Framework 39 2.2 Functions of Innovation Systems 40 2.2.1 Creating Adaptative Capacity 42 2.2.2 Knowledge Diffusion 42 2.2.3 Demand Articulation 43 2.2.4 Creation of Legitimacy 43 2.2.5 Resource Mobilization 43 2.2.6 Market Formation 44 2.2.7 Entrepreneurial Activities 44 2.2.8 Remarks over the FIS van Alphen Framework 44

3. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 46 3.1 Current State of Sustainable Electricity Energy Supply in the NIZ 47 3.1.1 Energy Demand in the NIZ and Sustainable Energy Technologies 49 3.1.2 Polygeneration Technologic Innovation Center; Wind Energy, Solar Energy and Diesel Engines. 51 3.1.3 Gasification Technologic Innovation Center 58 3.1.4 Solar Energy Technologic Innovation Center 64 3.1.5 Hydro Innovation Center 68 3.2 Landscape Analysis 71 3.2.1 Geography and Population 71 3.2.2 Political Environment 75 3.2.3 Cultural Differences 77 3.2.4. Barriers and Drivers from the Landscape 86 3.3 Electrical Energy Socio- Technical Regime in the NIZ 88 3.3.1 Electric Energy Policy Regime in the NIZ Dynamics 89 3.3.2 Drivers and Barriers from the Electricity Regime in the NIZ 92 3.4 Interaction Between Actors 93 3.4.1 IPSE: Historical and Organizational Context 93

13 3.4.2 International Organizations 95 3.4.3 Final Users and Local Institutions 96 3.4.4 Remarks over Actors Interactions 97 3.5 Functions of Innovation Systems Analysis 98 3.5.1 Creating Adaptative Capacity 98 3.5.2 Knowledge Diffusion 101 3.5.3 Demand Articulation 103 3.5.4 Creation of Legitimacy 104 3.5.5 Resource Mobilization 105 3.5.6 Market Formation 107 3.5.7 Entrepreneurial Activities 108 3.5.8 Barriers and Drivers from the Innovation System 110 3.6 Social Entrepreneurship for Electricity in the NIZ 113 3.6.1 TECHO: A Model Case of Social Entrepreneurship in Colombia 114 3.6.2 Relevance of the TECHO Model for Electricity in the NIZ 116

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 118 4.1 Conclusions 119 4.2 Recommendations for Actors and Stakeholders 124 4.3 Recommendations of Further Research 125 4.4 Reflections on Work 126

BIBLIOGRAPHY 129

14 15 CHAPTER 1 1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the energy industry has been impacted by the introduction of Renewable Energy Technologies in order to search alternative ways to produce energy coping with environmental sustainability. Using new technologies that reduce green house gas emissions and pollute less has become a priority. (Hernandez, Velasco, & Trujillo, 2011) This search of sustainable energy production has also risen initiatives as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the development of systems of Cap ‘n trade or emission permits, which all search a global solution for climate change and pursue sustainable development. Even one of the Millennium Development Goals deals with this issue which makes it a problem of global concern which requires also global cooperation solutions as the well-known economist Jeffrey Sachs professes and investigates in his Earth Institute in Columbia University. Sachs states that sustainable energy technology plays a fundamental roll in achieving sustainable development, and will allow to achieve global prosperity because it offers the opportunity of prosperity for all while being environmentally friendly. (Sachs, 2008) Although, this thesis work goes along with the line that climate change is a global problem that concerns humanity as a whole, it pulls towards the search of more local solutions to add up to the global solution of climate change mitigation and adaptation. William Easterly calls this a searchers approach. The searchers approach is when local entrepreneurs look for a solution to local problems of extreme poverty, climate change or other problems that first world countries have tried to address without a definite or complete success. This is because only insiders have the complete knowledge and awareness of the problems and therefore can reach their solution with a greater success. (Easterly, 2006) In this work, only a problem will be deeply addressed which is the electric energy supply in the non-interconnected zones in Colombia. Right now in Colombia government institutions and other foreign agencies are starting to develop projects with sustainable energy technologies (SETs) as an electric energy supply solution for the Non-interconnected Zones (NIZs) which are some of the most vulnerable areas of Colombia. SETs are initially a solution to bring energy supply to remote zones where the service is lacking or very poor. The scope of this thesis project is to analyze the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia as an electricity solution and determine if they are actually empowering these communities towards development. The implementation of renewable energy technologies (RETs) is based on the needs and the characteristics of the region with an inside-out approach where the community participates in every step and decision of the SET implementation. Mostly wind, micro-hydro, solar energy and hybrid systems are implemented in communities in the NIZs to provide electrical energy solutions to the societal needs of these communities. (Rodriguez, 2014) It makes part of the efforts of Colombia to close the inequality gap between urban and rural areas, making Colombia a more inclusive society.

1.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Colombia is now in verge of development and recently considered one of the remarkable emerging economies form- ing part of the CIVETS (Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt and South Africa) group. (Hsu, 2010) After 50 years of internal conflict and many other social burdens, a light for sustainable development shines in the future of the country. Sustainable development has the goal of bringing prosperity to all the actors of society while being environmentally sustainable. For this purpose, sustainable energy technologies play a very important role because they allow us to combine high prosperity levels with low environmental risks. (Sachs, 2008)

Since the beginning of this new millennium the Colombian government started its efforts to begin a transformation towards energetic development in the rural areas without access to a proper electrical energy supply service. These areas were denominated as non-interconnected zones, and in 1999 the IPSE (Institute of Planning and Promotion of Energy Solutions for Non-Interconnected Zones) was created to boost energy projects in these vulnerable areas. In 2004 the IPSE was restructured, with the objective of identifying, promoting, developing and implementing energetic

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 17 solutions through efficient business schemes, financially viable and long term sustainable, always attempting to satisfy the energy needs in the non-interconnected zones. (IPSE, 2013a) This shows that plans to bring electric energy solutions to the NIZ are something relatively new and renewable energy technologies weren’t the first pick as a solution. Mostly, all attended necessities in the non-interconnected zones were supplied with the use of diesel engines. (UPME, 2014a) The use of sustainable energy technologies in these areas is something very recent and started a couple of years ago with efforts like the opening of a 19,5 MW wind farm installed in La Guajira in 2004, the opening of the Technological Innovation Centers (TIC) created by the IPSE, and followed up by other initiatives like the current Co- lombia Clean Energy Program (CCEP) developed by USAID from 2012 to 2017 with a budget of $18,5 million. (EPM, 2014) (USAID, 2014) The Technological Innovation Centers are pilot projects developed in different parts of the NIZs to evaluate if certain renewable energy technology could be and effective and feasible technological solution to the electric energy supply.The CCEP has as a goal to use sustainable energy technologies as part of the solution to supply electrical energy services; mostly PV systems, micro-hydro and hybrid systems. On May 2014 the congress finally passed the law 1715 which gives the framework under which renewable energy technologies can be regulated. This is huge step towards the development and implementation of sustainable energy technologies as a solution to the electricity demand in Colombia. The problem here is that since all the development of renewable energy technologies in NIZ is very recent, there is no relevant insight to determine success or failure of sustainable energy technologies as a relevant solution in these areas. To give this insight, the current projects and the new legislation have to be analyzed to identify barriers and drivers.

The success of sustainable electricity systems in the non-interconnected zones could well mean the breakthrough point for such technologies in Colombia. This is because right now, Colombia has just begun considering renewable energy technologies as an important element for National sustainable development. SETs started to be considered as an energetic solution only in rural areas. Before this, its only use was in telecommunications. (Ruiz & Rodriguez- Pradilla, 2005) So, if there is a true success in the non-interconnected zones, this could well mean that renewable energy technologies will have a true chance to start a real competition in the national scenario as an energetic solution and the opening of new markets. The new law 1715 has also intentions of leading to future co-generation and implementation of grid connected systems in urban areas to become a solution in big cities and urbanizations. Thus, this justifies the need for an insight and the identification of barriers and drivers for the deployment of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ as an electric energy solution which are the few places in which these technologies have been implemented in the Colombian territory.

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION

Having a real need for an insight of the renewable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones, our main research question emerges:

What are the barriers and drivers of the Sustainable Energy Technologies as an electric energy supply solution in the Non-Interconnected Zones?

To help solve the main research question of this project, some sub-questions have been formulated:

1. Which is the best framework for the analysis of barriers and drivers of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for the non-interconnected zones?

2. What actors and factors present in the national general context can have a strong influence in the current electricity regime in the NIZ in order to give SETs a chance to be a relevant electricity supply solution in these areas?

3. In the current state of electrical energy systems used in the NIZs, which are the key socio-technical and socio-

18 economic actors and factors that are sensible to change and give a window of opportunity to sustainable energy technologies?

4. How are the innovation processes of sustainable energy technologies developed in Colombia functioning or performing?

1.3 PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

An insight of the implementation and deployment of renewable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia has quite a relevant importance for the actors that are trying to introduce the use of such technologies as part of the solution to the lack of coverage in the electricity supply while contributing to the goals of adaptation a mitigation of climate change. Analyzing and studying the bottlenecks and drivers for the implementation of RETs to the non-interconnected zones can change the whole scenario for these vulnerable populations. Also, the concept of non-interconnected zones is relatively new and had not been clearly defined until recent years. In the beginning, 52% of the national territory was considered NIZ, then in 2007 they claimed that 66% of the Colombian territory was considered part of the NIZ. (Florez Acosta et. al, 2009) In the following figure a map shows in green the areas to be considered part of the non-interconnected zones.

This may seem harrowing, but Colombia is a very centralized country having 95% of its population living in the interconnected zones. This means there is still a 5% of the 48 million inhabitants of Colombia without a proper access to the service of electrical energy. In these areas, in 2009, 99% of the population had service for 6 or less hours and 93% of that energy was produced with diesel engines making it expensive and pollutant. People would be paying prices of between €0,17 to €0,28per kWh in a country where the minimum wage of the time was around €166. (Banco de la República de Colombia, 2014) (Florez Acosta et. Al, 2009)

The introduction of sustainable energy technologies as an alternative solution to the problem of electric energy acces in the non-interconnected zones could change the whole scenario for these communities. Programs like the Technological Centers of Innovation and CCEP of USAID have been starting to give their first fruits and are proving that sustainable energy technologies can be part of a much better solution. Until now there were no policies or laws

Figure 1. Map of non-interconnected zones (Ministry of Mines and Enegry, 2012)

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 19 to give any incentives to boost sustainable energy technologies, even some laws threatened their development. The main problem for the development of these kinds of projects is that private investors didn’t perceive any profitable possibility in the NIZs. (Ruiz & Rodriguez-Pradilla, 2005) Now, with the new legistation giving benefits and incentives, and with the aid of agencies like USAID and programs like CCEP, RETs are becoming a real and important solution for the non-interconnected zones in Colombia. The importance of identifying barriers and drivers and having a clearer insight of the development of renewable energy technologies, as an electricity solution, will help the agencies and institutions to replicate the good practices that made certain projects more successful than others, avoiding or giving solution to the bottlenecks. This will save time and resources by helping identify which are the best practices to make a successful project through efficient and effective planning, while making projects more effective in their goal of bringing more prosperity to the communities.

The novelty of these iniciatives and the new approach of the Colombian government towards this problem has made necessary to have a new and more profound insight of the role of renewable energy technologies as part of the solution to the non-interconnected zones. This project aims to do this new insight while identifying barriers and drivers now that the scenario of policies and regulations, claimed by previous studies as a main barrier, has started a whole new stage. In addition, cultutral and ethical values of the particular communities are going to be studied and taken into account with a greater importance than how it is usually done in technology assessment frameworks to identify barriers and drivers. Most studies of technology assessment, analysis or feasibility just care about the whole socio- technical scenarios without going deep enough into important elements such as user practices and the acceptance of a technological transition derived from cultural and ethical values. This will be a relevant and innovative concept when compared to previous studies and publications regarding this topic. It is of extreme importance to identify the barriers and drivers for SETs in these areas to bolster the deployment of such technologies as a feasible and relevant energetic solution. This will help to, further, open new markets for the renewable energy technologies in Colombia.

1.4 SCIENTIFIC RELEVANCE

In Colombia the scientific assessment done over SETs has been done in an analytical sense and all aim towards the same conclusion that is that in Colombia the lack of policies that incentive the use of SETs has delayed a meaningful impact of SETs in the country. Both, Hernandez et al. and Ruiz & Rodriguez-Padilla agree that Colombia lacks those policies that give a special condition and an advantage to SETs so they can be developed. SETs are only considered as a solution for NIZ and started as a solution for telecommunication companies for their stations located in remote off-grid areas. (Ruiz & Rodriguez-Pradilla, 2005) (Hernandez et al., 2011) On the other hand, Florez et al. did a clear study in the non-interconnected zones concluding that even though the country had been trying to give a solution to this problem in 1994, it was only until recent years and the changes done in 2007 that things started to change. Rennewable energy technologies had always been ignored having, by 2007, 96,3% of the energy produced in the NIZ by diesel enegines. (Florez et. al, 2009). With the introduction the introduction of law 1715 for regulating renewable energy technologies and programs and initiatives like the Colombia Clean Energy program, things are about to change for sustainable energy technologies.

Regarding the methodology framework, the use of combined frameworks joining MLP and FIS in a combined framework and has been used for some time already as proposed by Markard & Truffer. Markard and Truffer stablish that multi-level perspective and FIS are closely related concepts that can be merged in generation of an integrated framework for technoligical changes. (Markard & Truffer, 2008) In this thesis work, the aim is to use a significant factor of the landscape of the MLP, such as cultural difference, natural resources or political instability in the analysis of FIS. Using these factors of the higher level of MLP also as an element to help the analysis of certain functions allows a better interaction between both framework and makes the resulting combined framework more robust. In this thesis special attention will be given to cultural differences as an aspect of the landscape. A framework that includes the cultural differences aspect also into the analysis of the functions of the innovation system will add an extra dimension to the

20 study and assessment of technological transitions. Regarding culture and technology, some other scientific publications have shown “that cultural values have a role in shaping the structural characteristics of horizontal networks such as accessibility and decentralization, and that these features of horizontal networks are positively related to institutional and effective democracy as well as to economic competitiveness of nations.” (Skoric & Park, 2014) In this case Skoric and Park show how information technology and communication platforms help cultural expressions and value to be more widely spread across horizontal networks shaping politics. In the particular case of Colombia, cultural diversity is a factor that since the foundation of the country has shaped all of its solcial and political development, including today’s political instability. In a country so culturally diverse as Colombia, the aspect of cultural differences is key for policy making and should be addressed deeper when studying technological transitions.

On the other hand, more closely related to current state of SETs in Colombia and to the scope of this document, Kaba and Osei-Bryson explain how culture influences user practices and perceptions over technology. Kaba and Osei-Bryson findings suggest that usefulnees and ease of use are sensitive to cultural influence. This study was run in a cross-cultural methodology through different African countries and North America. (Kaba & Osei-Bryson, 2013) Steers et al. deals also with a question that is very relevant: “To what extent can differences in national cultures systematically influence whether and for what reasons nations adopt – or fail to adopt – available emerging technologies?” The answer question is basically the premise under which we consider that culture is a determinant factor when studying technological transitions. Their study was done over cases between Brazil and South Korea. Unfortunately, as stated by the findings of Steer et al, too little has been done regarding this topic and no systematic research has been done. There is a lack of grounded modeling that may help explaining the relationship between culture and technology adoption. Also, there is an absence of solid case studies expliring the impact of culture on technology adoption. In their findings, they suggest the need for more research and theory building in this area. (Steers, Meyer, & Sanchez- Runde, 2008) This thesis document aims to be part of that suggestion, and be a starting point to create systematic frameworks for culture and technology adoption. Also, this thesis aims to start an interest to perform national cross- cultural studies. All cross-cultural studies are done between nations, but not inside particular nations, like Colombia, which have a vast array of ethnic minorities.

On further research, Lee et al, examine the impact of culture in the use of technology taking US and South Korea as their two different countries for a case study. Using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions Lee et al. reached some interesting findings that show how culture can actually affect technology perception and adoption. In their case, findings were particular to the countries of the case study and countries with similar cultural traits. (Lee, Trimi, & Kim, 2013) This Hofstede approach was intended for this thesis work, but the data available made it not viable. Still some of Hofst- ede’s cultural dimensions are used to describe certain cultural traits that can be compared among Colombia’s ethnic minorities and what is considered the dominant culture.

The addition to science is on the line of combining the MLP and the FIS more closely using elements of the MLP landscape into the direct analysis of functions of innovation. Also, it concludes to suggest a need to study the relationship between culture and technology. Also, poses the query of conceiving national culture as an absolute value for a whole nation ignoring the fact that inside national culture many ethnic and diverse cultures may reside. In Colombia, there are 102 different Indian communities and three main afro-descendent groups: negros, raizales and palenqueros. In 1999 gypsies were also added as a recognized minority in Colombia. Each of these groups are very different from one another in their culture; values, worldview, cosmogony among other traits. Among the 102 different native Indian communities, there are 62 different languages all representing 62 completely different cultures. (Ribon, 2014) Thus, creating policies and expecting that technology perception and adoption to be the same for all based only in the no- tion of “national culture” may lead to failure of the technology implementation, as many other processes have failed in Colombian policy making throughout history. This research aims to conciliate the idea that policy making within a country with a very marked and vast cultural diversity needs more mechanisms that may ensure the implementation and deployment of technology as a democratic process.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 21 Also, it aims to explain how factors from the different levels of the MLP can affect and interfere with the different functions of innovation systems. In this particular case the focus is on cultural diversity, which may also lead to failure of a technology innovation system.

For the particular case of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia, this work will be one of the first ones to be done after the publication of the new regulations and legislation that already solves the main barriers of lack of incentives and the absence of regulatory norms over renewable energy technologies found by the previous scientific assessments. (Florez Acosta, Tobón Orzoco, & Castillo Quintero, 2009) (Hernandez, Velasco, & Trujillo, 2011) (Ruiz & Rodriguez-Pradilla, 2005).

1.5 COMBINED FRAMEWORK

A combined framework was selected to analyze the barriers and drivers of the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. Initially an MLP framework will be combined and complemented by a FIS van Alphen framework. The MLP framework has been used many times to complement and study technological transitions and innovation systems. Even Geels, the father of Multi-Level Perspective approach, has used the innovation systems approach to help refine the MLP framework. Societal functions, which are the purpose of technology, produce changes and transitions. These transitions and changes can be well explained and analyzed with the MLP framework. In this research the technological transition to renewable energy technologies to solve the problem of electricity supply in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia is going to be assessed. The MLP will be used to study the socio-technical systems and it is described in section 2.1. These ST- systems contain a set of elements such as the technology itself, regulation and policy, infrastructure, markets, networks, user practices and cultural meanings. (Geels F. , 2005)

In the upper level or landscape of the MLP, cultural factors will have a broad analysis because cultural differences play a very important role in Colombia regarding policy making and development. A historical context will explain how cultural and ethnic differences have divided the country since its foundation creating environments of violence and segregation over the centuries resulting in the current failed state. It will be analyzed under the landscape analysis with close detail using the social theories of Hosftede to identify specific cultural traits to be observed. Although Hofstede is used as a cultural trait guideline, it can not be completely relevant for our study since the actual available data is not suitable to go into a deeper systematic approach. Still, it will help to establish clear cultural differences that may enable to identify barriers and drivers in the general context; this is regarding the first subquestion.

The regime to be analyzed will be strictly the regime of electrical energy supply in the Non-interconnected zones and its particular regimes that conform it. This regime has several elements as the dominant technology, which is fossil fuels represented by diesel in a 93% of the NIZs. This regime is also composed by a network of actors and stakeholders and regulatory and policy aspects. All of this is suffering a rapid transition due to pressures from the landscape derived from high political dynamism and expressed through the creation of new laws and regulations to promote renewable energy technologies. Also, new ventures and successful cases of renewable energy technology technologies as a niche are presenting pressures and dynamics that are changing the regime in an accelerated way.

The functions of innovation systems by van Alphen was selected because it has been used in developing countries like Colombia and it punctually helps to assess the performance of innnovation systems. It is a version of the FIS framework used primarily in developed countries, but addapted to be applied

22 in developing countries. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) Innovation systems can also be defined in several levels like national, regional and sectorial systems of innovation. The important element of this approach is the emphasis of the links between actors and elements in co-evolutionary processes. The focus of innovation systems is to understand how those systems function rather than their dynamics and change. (Geels F. , 2005) This is why MLP is the perfect complement of the FIS van Alphen framework; the MLP helps to understand the dynamics and changes in the innovation system renewable energies in the non-interconnected zones propose. The FIS van Alphen framework will exclusively help the assessment of the innovation processes that are being held in the electricity supply of non-interconnected zones. Most specifically, the technology innovation centers built and promoted by the IPSE will be analyzed through the functions of the FIS van Alphen framework.

Both MLP and FIS frameworks share common theoretical roots and have been applied to study technological transitions and the transformations in socio-technical configurations. (Markard & Truffer, 2008) The FIS van Alphen framework was also chosen to complement the MLP framework over other frameworks like strategic niche management, because the intention of this research is to analyze the innovation system at a macro or national level. When thinking about non-interconnected zones, it is easy to have a tendency of thinking about specific niches and regions. The truth is that the non-interconnected zones are so spread all around the colombian territory as explained in section 3.1.1 and the differences between all the regions is so vast, that a particular analysis at the niche or bottom level with probably

Figure 2: Combined Framework to Identify Barriers and Drivers of SETs as Electrical Supply Solutions in the NIZs.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 23 be shortsighted taking into account only characteristics of a particular area within the non-interconnected zones. This would be unpractical because the analysis done in the bottom level could well only apply to the specific region or area where information was taken from. It is more pragmatic to study this phenomenum on a national scale finding common ground across all the communities, regions and societies and stablish general parameters to find global and common barriers and drivers. Also, the whole scenario for renewable energy technologies for electricity supply are no longer just a premature small niche which requires a strong impulse in matters of legislation and incentives as previous studies done over the topic suggested. (Florez Acosta, Tobón Orzoco, & Castillo Quintero, 2009) (Hernandez, Velasco, & Trujillo, 2011) The renewable energy technolgies are now are taking an important place in the future electric energetic scenario of Colombia. The passing of a law to regulate and give incentives to promote renewable energy technologies with the joint aid of international institutions brings airs of change and has set an environment of expectation in the regime. Though, innovation systems involve simultaneous processess in multiple dimensions and levels and this will be taken into account since there are no simple drivers or barriers. (Geels F. , 2005) Drivers and barriers are complex and require the analysis of these multiple dimensions to be indentified.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

The methodology to follow in this research will be explained for each sub-question in this section. For each question it will be explained which framework was used, which method of data collection and what is it expected to be achieved to give an answer to the sub-question proposed in section 1.2. For the general research purpose the combined framework previously presented will be used and data collection will be done from scientific research papers, government and official institutions data bases, and other relevant and reliable literature and media resources. A series of interviews to actors and experts in the topic was also performed in Colombia.

1. Which is the best framework for the analysis of barriers and drivers of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for the non-interconnected zones?

As explained in section 1.5., a combined framework using MLP and FIS approaches was selected to be used to analyze and study the technological transition of using sustainable energy technologies as electric energy solutions in the NIZs in Colombia. The problem of a lack of access to electricity in the NIZ in Colombia is a very comprehensive one involving elements from the general historical, geographical and social context to the more specific issues of the development of an innovation to address this problem.

The lack of access to main basic needs in the non-interconnected zones have its origin in the historical process of developing more the central and eastern part of the country where the creoles or descendants of Spanish who achieved independence were established. The areas populated by native Indians, African descendants and others were left unattended. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Also, such a culture and climate of segregation, classism and polarization led to constant political instability and periods of great violence all through the history of Colombia till today. The status of failed state that Colombia has had has been since its declaration of independence. This obviously had a influence to the current lack of a proper service of electric supply in the non-interconnected areas, and with few innovative ideas to change the horizon in those regions. Now, sustainable energy technologies have risen as an opportunity to change this situation in the technological side of things.

24 The whole problem embraces a huge amount of all sorts of variables in all levels which calls for the use of a Multi-Level Perspective approach. The MLP helps to analyze all the actors and factors in all levels and their interactions to identify and trace dynamics that explain problems and situations like the one described previously. This is a large scale complex problem and process which involves technology, production and social changes, which is what the MLP helps to conceptualize and understand. (Papachristos, Sofianos, & Adamides, 2013) On the other hand, sustainable energy technologies as an innovative alternative are trying to make its way to a larger scale implementation to be a relevant solution for the NIZ. The Functions of Innovation Systems by Van Alphen helps to evaluate this innovation system systematically and it has been adapted to be used in developing such as Colombia. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) Both theoretical backgrounds will be used in combined framework which will help to understand the problem and systematically assess the current state of a possible solution. The combination of such frameworks has been proven successful in previous studies and it will be very useful for studying the case of SETs in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. (Markard & Truffer, 2008)

For developing this combined framework a series of scientific papers and publications will be used. Scientific papers by Geels, developer of the Multi-Level Perspective and others that have followed his work will be used to address the MLP side of the framework. The FIS part of the framework will be based on the work of Van Alphen et al. because they adapt the framework to be used in developing countries such as Colombia. Other FIS literature will be used to complement such idea.

2. What actors and factors present in the national general context can have a strong influence in the current electricity regime in the NIZ in order to give SETs a chance to be a relevant electricity supply solution in these areas?

After selecting a combined framework of MLP and FIS van Alphen the different levels of information have to be classified. In socio-technical, socio-economic and cultural aspects, there are also different levels of hierarchy among elements. This sub-question is meant to identify the elements that are relevant in the study of the general context, or landscape speaking in multi-level perspective terms.

Addressing the general context or the ‘big picture’ of a nation, only general elements about the country were taken into account. Intentionally, the elements of geography, population, climate, natural resources, political environment and culture were selected as the elements to be studied in the landscape. In section 3.1 the whole analysis of these elements is given. While analyzing these topics, renewable energy technologies, or electrical energy solutions are not mentioned because in this level only general are mentioned and analyzed. This means that a general context picture about what the country is like and what resources it offers that affect directly or indirectly the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones will be address. Although, these factors don’t have to do directly with technology of electrical energy per se, are the ones that affect more heavily the development of technological transitions because such factors determine policy and feasibility conditions to make possible or not a technological transition. In this case a special attention is given to cultural differences because it is the factor that is the main root of the problem addressed in this research. The whole historical context and explanation leading to the underdevelopment of such areas is also given in section 3.1.3.

Each element will be analyzed thoroughly to give the clear ‘big picture’ about what the non-interconnected

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 25 zones are, which are their geographical, demographic and climate conditions in comparison of the general context of the country. First, the whole concept of non-interconnected zones will be clarified and also a map of these regions will be given. Then, a demographic and climate analysis will be made to give a view of the population density in these areas and also the available natural resources that may be used to implement SETs. Under the political environment, a short contextualization over recent history and political events will be given to understand the social and political situation in those areas that heavily influences the process of SET deployment in the non-interconnected zones. Finally the cultural difference section will give a better insight in how this aspect not only caused the initial problem of the NIZ, but also how political instability and other factors are also a result of such. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions definitions will help to do this analysis in a more systematic way.

Official data from Colombian institutions will be used as well as studies over such pertinent factors that may affect the development of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia. As well, interviews to people involved in institutions that are active actors of the development of programs to deploy sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ of Colombia. Such factors for evaluation and research are given in the following chapters.

3. In the current state of electrical energy systems used in the NIZs, which are the key socio- technical and socio-economic actors and factors that are sensible to change and give a window of opportunity to sustainable energy technologies?

As explained in section 2.1.1 a socio-technical regime is constantly changing and having a special dynamic that is being shaped by the new paths and directions taken by the different (sub) regimes that are contained within the whole socio-technical regime. In this case some regimes have had stronger changes or more radical dynamics than others forcing the socio-technical regime to open windows of opportunity for the innovations of sustainable energy technologies to take place in the electricity regime in non-interconnected zones.

The different regimes that compose the whole electricity regime in the non-interconnected zones were analyzed giving a major focus to two main regimes: the technological regime and the policy regime. It was found that changes in these two regimes will have a chain reaction in the other complementary regimes of user and market, science and socio-culture.

The technological regime was analyzed in the sense of giving an over view of the current state of the electricity regime in the non-interconnected zones. Statistics of technologies used; traditional fuels versus sustainable energy technologies. The quality and availability of the service, and the regulations under which that service is operating are also studied. Further, an analysis over law 1715 is done to point which are the changes in the policy regime. This introduction of law 1715 can be seen as the first positioning of sustainable energy technologies in the regime. The policy regime has taken a radical shift with the introduction of new regulations and policies described in section 3.2.1. This shift of the policy regime certainly sets new paths for the other regimes of science, user and market and culture as well as the current technological regime. The policy regime already has been affected by the innovations found in the niche through pressures that came from the landscape and now opens big and new windows for the innovations of SETs to reshape and establish in the regime.

26 4. How are the innovation processes of sustainable energy technologies developed in Colombia functioning or performing?

Innovation processes are a vital element of technological transitions and are categorized as niches under the framework that has been selected. The concept of a socio-technical niche has been given in section 2.1.2. In the case of this research study, it is the innovation processes regarding the use of sustainable energy technologies as a solution to electrical energy supply in the NIZ.

The initial step to answer this sub-question was to identify the innovation processes dedicated to sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones. Fortunately, the IPSE has a very clear vision and has developed what they call Technological Innovation Centers. These are pilot projects of centers in which a specific technology is being developed and studied. Four key innovation centers were identified and studied in section 3.3. The four innovation centers studied develop a different sustainable energy technology each. There is a poligeneration innovation center which mixes wind, solar and conventional fossil fuel systems. The three remaining centers focus on just one particular technology; biogas or gasification technologies, micro-hydro power and solar energy.

The first step was to identify the characteristics of these innovation centers, analyze their operation and results so far. Then under the functions of innovation systems approach a general assessment and evaluation is made through the seven different functions with the different indicators for each function as established in section 2.2. After evaluating with the seven different functions of the FIS van Alphen approach, a general overall assessment is given to the innovation processes of SETs as electricity supply solutions in the NIZs depending on the results given to the indicators proposed in section 2.2.8.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 27 CHAPTER 2 2. COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK

It is clear that technology by itself isn’t a solution, but is has to be assessed and directed by a methodological framework that in this case will be a combined framework. (Geels F. W., 2002a) This chapter will give a thorough insight to the framework and methodologies used for research to help answer the research questions formulated in section 1.2. First, a multi-level perspective (MLP) will analyze all the actors involved in the implementation of renewable energy technologies in non-interconnected zones in Colombia. An analysis through all levels was done, beginning with the broad national context to the specific and detailed context of sustainable energy technologies as innovation systems in the non-interconnected zones. Following this idea, a Functions Innovation System (FIS) as proposed by van Alphen will give a more refined approach through a series of functions that will help us evaluate and analyze the different aspects of the technologic innovations of sustainable energy technologies carried out in these areas. This chapter will also proceed to answer the first research sub-question regarding the selection of the best framework to address the main question of this research. The ultimate goal is to do an analysis of the implementation of RETs in the non- interconnected zones in Colombia to determine the barriers and drivers for the deployment of SETs as an electricity supply solution in NIZs covering a wide arrange of elements including socioeconomic, cultural and technical aspects. The higher hope is that these technologies at the end can reach their final goal of giving the communities the possibility of a more effective transition to a low-carbon economy and all of the potential benefits it brings for their social and economic development. The ultimate goal of technology is to satisfy societal functions and enhance the quality of life of their users.

Socio-technical system frameworks, such as MLP, are developed to conceptualize and understand large scale complex processes of technology, production, and social change. (Papachristos, Sofianos, & Adamides, 2013) When combined with a FIS approach it commonly derives in a framework to assess the implementation, development or deployment of a specific technology in a region. When you apply to that assessment framework the analysis of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions it gives birth to a more democratic framework comprehending technical, socio-economic elements and truly recognizing the weight of particular social traits that define user practices and acceptance. This thesis work focuses on using this combined methodology framework to help understand those complex socio-technical processes to further identify bottlenecks and drivers that allow or hinder the good development of renewable energy technologies in the NIZ in Colombia as a solution to supply electricity. On a first instance, this framework helps to understand the whole set of elements around the socio-technical aspects of technology, production and social change to set a clear view on which elements and actors are having an impact in the whole technology transfer process. After identifying these elements and actors, indicators will allow the identification of drivers and barriers for sustainable energy technologies implementation in NIZ in Colombia for electric supply. Regarding the cultural aspects, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions will be applied on the landscape level of the MLP (further explained in the MLP) to define how cultural traits and cultural differences between the ‘dominant’ Colombian culture of actors developing and planning projects and the communities that will benefit from the technologies impact the technology transition. Hofstede sets a series of cultural dimensions that reflect particular cultural traits of societies. With these dimensions and particular traits a comparative analysis will be made to identify cultural barriers and drivers as part of the general context or landscape.

Right now, projects promoting the deployment of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ are in a stage of early development and still proving to be an effective solution for the necessities found in these communities. The principal actor involved in this is the Institute of Planning and Promotion of Energy Solutions for non-interconnected areas – IPSE, who has what they called technology innovation centers where they are running and testing projects of various SETs that are suitable for the NIZs. There are also other agencies and NGOs interested in these initiatives and developing projects such as the ones done by USAID (United States Agency for International Development) through

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 29 the Colombia Clean Energy Program (CCEP). In the case of the CCEP, projects study three key aspects of the communities before accepting the planning of a project. Initially, they pay a first visit to show the program to the potential community to be benefited to explain why, how and what the program of CCEP does through these renewable energy projects in non-interconnected zones. Then, a social chart is projected with the three different aspects of the community: socio-economical, technical and environmental. Also the most urgent needs of that particular community are taking into account to see if they need schools, healthcare buildings or expand their economic production. The energy produced by these systems is not only meant to be used just to light up houses and streets. It is meant to meet bigger needs that will certainly produce a drastic change in the course of that society. (Rodriguez, 2014a) This gives an added value to the insertion of sustainable energy technologies to these areas. The whole conception of sustainability and sustainable development calls for these kind of solutions. Sustainable development encloses the whole concept of prosperity, fairness and inclusion while being environmentally friendly. (Sachs, 2013) The old fashion solutions with fossil fuels and diesel engines didn’t offer this since they demand high prices for energy, high maintenance while having a high amount of GHG emissions. The implementation of renewable energy technologies as a solution for electric supply in the NIZ is a bottom up solution when there is a strong inclusion of the communities; in terms of William Easterly if could be seen as a searcher approach solution. Easterly claims that solutions for the problems of climate change, equality and poverty reduction have to be found inside the same communities through entrepreneurial activities and innovation coming from the same society that needs a solution. (Easterly, 2006) In the recent projects of sustainable energy implementations such as the Technological Innovation Centers and the Colombia Clean Energy Program, a searchers solution can be perfectly seen joined with the help from organizations from the first world or rich countries. In the CCEP, at the moment of planning everything is done with the consent of the community through an agreement with their community leader(s) and representatives. The community has to accept and ap- prove every single step of the project starting from the initial studies, the scope of the project, passing through the technology selection according to the available natural resources and the priority needs to be satisfied. (Rodriguez, 2014a) This shows that the ultimate goal is not to just implement renewable energy technologies just for the sake of ‘progress’ implementing a new generation technologies, but to fulfill the real purpose of technology which is to solve societal needs and problems. That’s why sustainable energy technologies enter the stage as a real alternative to the conventional approach to solve the problem of the lack of electric energy service in the non-interconnected zones.

The ultimate goal of these technologies is to give a democratic tool to bring prosperity to the communities by giving them access to electric energy while boosting their educational, cultural and economic activities. (Rodriguez, 2014a) Thus, in this case the scenario is being looked through the perspective of sociology which is the ultimate goal of technology and it is resumed in two very eloquent phrases written by Frank Geels in one of his MLP publications, “In this perspective technology, of itself, has no power, does nothing. Only in association with human agency, social structures and organizations does technology fulfill functions.” (Geels F. W., 2002a)

The multi-level perspective will be the tool that will initially help to understand the socio-technical elements and structures in the society or community where the technology must be implemented, and its transformations during the process. MLP when used as a tool to analyze socio-technical systems bring to the central stage the fulfillment of societal functions. (Geels F. W., 2004) This is done first by understanding how that specific society is composed and how its main actors can be involved in the technology transfer from the broad big picture of national context to the specific and punctual context of an innovation. The following figure shows the basic elements and resources of socio-technical systems which is what basically helps us to understand the composition of a socio-technical system.

As shown in the previous figure, it is a complex composition of actors and elements which will allow the development of these kind of solutions. As NIZs are located in remote rural areas and composed by small communities, some of the elements or resources presented in the figure above might not be involved or present. The key aspect is to look at the MLP as a tool that helps to understand the socio-technical systems to then analyze which elements and actors of the society are determinant in the deployment of SETs as solutions to provide electricity in the NIZs.

30 Figure 3: Basic Elements and Resources of Socio-Technical Systems (Geels F. W., 2004)

Inside those socio-technical systems (ST-systems), some social groups can be recognized and are the ones that reproduce the ST-systems that compose the network of actors involved in the projects. The MLP is usually a helpful tool to identify and construct the network of diverse stakeholders that influence the community. (Whitmarsh, 2012) To be more specific, Geels created a map to identify more clearly those social groups and which will be used in this project to identify the key actors in the NIZs. This is helpful in the extent that helps to identify the real game changers, or the actors that have a big influence in the success or fail of a project with proper names. Then, it could help identify those actors which have a certain influence in the barriers and drivers of sustainable energy technology development. Also, like with the previous chart, since the communities are small and located in rural remote areas, some of the actors or social groups could not be present or irrelevant in this case.

Figure 4: Specific Map of actors and social groups that compose the ST-systems (Geels F. W., 2004)

The MLP is usually used and helpful to understand technological transitions highlighting the regular actors or precur- sors and the dynamics of change and innovation. Through the understanding of these technological transitions it al-

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 31 lows to indentify the drivers and barriers for the implementation or deployment of a certain technology. (Whitmarsh, 2012) A technology is not only successful when it presents innovative concepts, functions and features, but when the public finds in its innovative concepts, functions and features an affordable and accessible solution to their existing problems enhancing their living standards.

The complementary use of a FIS van Alphen framework will be very helpful to assess the state of innovations and give and insight on the answer to sub-question 4. While the MLP gives an understanding of the whole socio-technical system scenario, the FIS van Alphen will link more specifically through determined functions the relation between the technological innovation itself and the societal needs. These key activities or functions are what compose the Functions of Innovation Systems framework and will allow a closer examination of the technology and the barriers and drivers that lead to the impacts it has had in the communities. (Negro & Hekkert, 2009) The FIS van Alphen framework gives the close link between innovation through sustainable energy technologies and the factors which have lead to an improvement in the community’s living standards. Also, it will set a path to determine if the implementation of the selected technology was properly done identifying clearly drivers and barriers. The FIS van Alphen framework actually acknowledges that technological implementations are severely influenced by social, institutional and political factors, and that the feasibility of a technology by itself matters much less. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) This means, the functions will be used to evaluate and examine how the innovation systems can help the development of new activities that bolster the development of a community. The challenge is to find which elements from the functions can help to identify key activities that bolster or hinder the development of renewable energy technologies as an electricity solution.

Climate change and poverty are problems such as other ecological, economical, political, military, hygienic and me- teorological problems that are of global concern and demand global cooperation, but many times solutions have failed and don’t work because the differences in thinking among partners and actors have been ignored. (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) Understanding those differences in the ways of thinking, feeling and acting between the different leaders, followers and other actors can bring these solutions at work.

In summary, the MLP will give the general insight of all the socio-technical system under which sustainable energy technologies are being developed in the NIZ. The MLP helps to identify and recognize the principle actors and stakeholders involved in the projects and all the key elements and resources related to these stakeholders. The FIS van Alphen methodology will allow establishing the links between the technology and social transformation through its seven functions. These links found through the seven functions will allow identifying the main activities that lead to the success or failure of the technological innovation process. All this falls under the idea of identifying the key factors, actors and resources that ultimately bring a greater level of development and welfare to the benefited communities. As these drivers and barriers are identified, it will not only allow the evaluation of current projects, but also it can enable a better planning and deployment of future projects by prioritizing positive key factors and good practices bringing more benefits to the communities, while saving time and resources for the project developers.

2.1 MULTI-LEVEL PERSPECTIVE

The multi-level perspective framework is used to understand system innovations, socio-technical systems and technological transitions. (Geels F. W., 2004) For the scope of this research, the main focus will remain in the socio-technical systems (ST-systems) approach. It is called multi-level because it studies three different conceptual levels in ST-systems: niche, socio-technical regime and socio-technical landscape. It derives from the sociology of technology which is central in the scope of this project. It helps to understand three vital dimensions in sociology of technology such as the socio-technical systems, social groups that maintain and reproduce elements of the socio-technical systems and the rules or established regimes. (Geels F. W., 2005) The socio-technical systems are more specifically the elements necessary to fulfill a societal function. (Papachristos, Sofianos, & Adamides, 2013) The social groups are those in charge of

32 providing and reproducing these technological transfers. This document will focus mainly in the first two dimensions, having a deeper study in how the socio-technical systems interact with the social groups and their societal needs. The third dimension will be examined to understand the guidelines and rules under which the actions performed by the stakeholders. The aim is to identify the socio-technical and socio-economic factors that hinder or bolster SET project development in the NIZ. Even though the socio-technical system is understood as the elements necessary to fulfill a societal function and the technology itself pops up as the first thought, there are more elements around the technologies which compose the whole ST-system. The structure of these ST-systems can be understood by the composition of three interrelated elements: The network of actors and social groups, the formal, cognitive and normative rules that guide their activities, and the material and technical elements such as artifacts and infrastructure. (Geels F. W., 2004) (Kamp, 2008) These elements are of vital importance to understand the whole context under which the development of renewable energy technologies in the electrical sector of non-interconnected zones is being done.

Now, referring specifically to the three levels of the MLP framework, the dynamically stable state of these elements of the ST-systems constitute a regime. (Papachristos, Sofianos, & Adamides, 2013) A regime could also be understood as the mainstream or established state of the elements in a ST-system, but it’s always changing and rearranging depending on the ongoing processes in each element, hence dynamically stable. It is often called the meso-level since it receives upper pressures from the landscape and transformations due to the innovative processes coming from the niches. (Kamp, 2008)

The processes that bring innovation and novelties on various dimensions are called technological niches. (Geels F. W., 2002a) These technological niches have their own socio-technical configuration, but are not dominant towards the regime. When new configurations or changes are given in the ST-system of the regime, a ‘window of opportunity’ is opened to the niche to establish its elements in the regime or mainstream level. These windows of opportunity are

Figure 5. Dynamics of the Multi-level Perspective Framework (Geels F. W., 2002b)

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 33 subject to two different kinds of pressures: the ones emitted by the niche from the bottom or a heavier influence from the landscape above that sets a pressure on the regime forcing a reconfiguration of the ST-system. (Burns & Flam, 1987)

The landscape is the slow changing exogenous environment around a technological transition. (Kamp, 2008) To understand the landscape, an example is climate change setting a pressure in the energy industry in its policies and practices. A landscape can also be understood as broad cultural changes in ideologies and values, the development and mass production of smartphones could well be a landscape as well. Political coalitions can also constitute a landscape. (Geels F. W., 2004) Figure 5 shows how the three levels interact among each other.

After understanding how the MLP Framework is used in the general level, a closer attention will be given to the elements that constitute the ST-systems through socio-technical regimes. The dynamics and transformations inside those ST-regimes will evidence the paths followed, pressures from the lower and upper levels and how each element of the ST-system is transformed by a technological transition. Understanding how certain activities and actions have a determined influence over a particular element, will help to identify which activities and elements are key to the success or failure of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones.

2.1.1 Socio-technical Regime

In previous research, many socio-technical studies done over the introduction of new technologies have shown that the success of a certain technology implementation is not only influenced by the technical aspects but also by the social system that develops and accepts or rejects that new technology. (Kamp, 2008) ST-systems and the analysis of their transformations are key to identify drivers and barriers in the socio-economic and socio-technical levels. A socio-technical regime (ST-regime) as mentioned in the MLP explanation could well be understood as the deep- structure that enables to understand ST-systems. A ST-regime is the set of rules under which the actions of the actors and stakeholders inside the ST-system are performed. (Geels F. W., 2004) The important element of the ST-regime, is that it is dynamically stable. These dynamics that occur inside the ST-regime and that are constantly re-shaping and configuring a new regime, are the best way to understand the whole process of technological transformation. Every element and component of the whole ST-regime has its own path and thus shapes the dynamic ST-regime according to those changes. Though this shows how the ST-regime is autonomous, but at the same time interdependent within other regimes.

Figure 6. Paths and Dynamics of the ST-regime (Geels F. W., 2004)

34 In this work the specific policy regime, user regime and technological regime will be analyzed and examined. In the policy regime a thorough study of the change in policy brought by the new legislation will be done. In the user regime the data about consumption and prices and energy sources used will be the indicators to be analyzed. Finally in the technological regime, the indicator to be analyzed is the percentage of coverage per technology in the NIZs to determine the dominant technology in the regime.

2.1.2 Socio-Technical Niches

Niches are considered the locus for innovation acting as ‘incubation rooms’ for the radical novelties. (Geels F. W., 2002b) (Geels F. W., 2004) Renewable energy technologies as a solution for electric supply in the NIZs in Colombia could be seen as niches in the sense that niches are often played out as experimental projects. The main difference between the regime and the niche is the degree of stability and in the niches rules are not yet crystallized. (Geels F. W., 2012) The categories of regime and niche are not only helpful to identify the dominant actors. Niche actors can be seen as alternatives to the mainstream or the status quo and reframe the whole socio-technical system. (Whitmarsh, 2012) In these projects much of the stability and rules are still in the process of making, as inferred from the information acquired from the documents of the technological innovation centers and CCEP staff. Some methodologies are new or some procedures or implementations are just varying from time to time and from community to community and from technology to technology. This shows how these projects in the NIZs in Colombia have the characteristics of socio-technical niches in the sense that they are still shaping their rules and establishing their definite stability. In the case of the technological innovation centers, it’s name speaks for itself. They are systems of innovation and are still in a stage in which they are being evaluated and assessed to be able to generate a solid methodology of implementation all around the different NIZ groups or territories. Certainly, the IPSE, CCEP and other actors behind these kind projects can be seen as the niche actors that can help reframe the whole landscape around NIZs. (Rodriguez, 2014b)

Niches are important because they allow the development of various social processes that can structure a path for change or transformation of the regime. Niche-innovation literature rescues three specific social processes: learning processes, articulation of expectations or visions, building of social networks. (Geels F. W., 2012)

Niches allow the creation of locations for learning processes. (Geels F. W., 2004) These learning processes are about technological imperfections, organizational issues, user behavior, infrastructure requirements and symbolic/cultural meanings. This is an extremely important factor in the development of a technological transition. (Geels F. W., 2012) Since they are a real novelty in the communities of the NIZs, the changes in behavior, organizational issues and cultural meanings of the communities, and their acceptance and adaptation to the new technology could well explain the success or failure of the same. In this area of the learning processes, cultural and ethical aspects play a vital role. Also, these niches can help the developers and project owners to also learn how to overcome technological imperfections and to develop better strategies to select and implement the correct technology that will ultimately bring development and benefits to the community. If user behavior is changed or transformed in the light of sustainable development while respecting and cherishing the symbolic and cultural meanings of the community, it would set an ideal scenario regarding the preservation of culture and heritage. Reshaping social behavior and structures towards a more developed and productive society while preserving a cultural and symbolic identity could definitely be seen as something to pursue in the future deployment of SET in non-interconnected zones of Colombia. The challenge is to find through the niche analysis through the Functions of Innovation Systems how these niches are developing and rescue all the learning processes that are valuable for a proper scalability of the niches into the regime.

The articulation and adjustment of expectations and visions comes real close to the learning processes found in niches. This process specially helps to bring guidance and direction to the internal activities while aiming to attract supporting actors to give funding. (Geels F. W., 2012) This is a process that has to be done for every single project of SETs in the non-interconnected zones in Colombia since all projects need additional external funding for privates

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 35 or volunteers. Also, since all the projects are done with the consent and approval of the communities, the visions and expectations are constantly changing for the main developing actor. In this aspect visions and expectations from the developers might clash with the visions and expectations of the communities. A project planner could have an idea of the projects factors and elements on his mind; then, when visiting the community many factors related to the environment or social context can change the expectations had a priori. The initial idea or vision of the project can conflict with the expectations or cultural ideals of the community thus requiring an adjustment of visions and scopes. (Rodriguez, 2014a) Initially, actors such as CCEP are doing a great job with planning the developing projects with communities that match their criteria and expectations, but the real challenge is to bring a more democratic process in which even if initial criteria and visions from the developers conflict with those from the community, a common ground should be found to agree under some terms to develop a project. A community should not be obliged to fit into certain criteria to be able to be eligible for inclusion into sustainable development, this would be against all what stands for inclusion, democracy and sustainable development itself. That is why identifying cultural differences, and the drivers and barriers derived from them, is so important.

As a result of the previous social process, the third process that occurs in niches is building social networks; the expansion and creation of social networks around the niche. This process intentionally searches to broaden the social and resource base of the niches to achieve the addition of human capital that is transformed into more labor and monetary resources needed for the successful development of the projects under the niche. (Geels F. W., 2012)

The insertion and deployment of renewable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones could be seen as socio-technical niche in the sense that niches are often carried by experimental or demonstration projects that allow the actors to learn about innovation in real life circumstances. Even though the projects itself are not an experiment, they are the first steps towards introducing SET as a relevant technological solution for electricity supply for the NIZ in Colombia. In these initial projects many learning processes are carried out and could well give the whole sense or experience of an experimental environment; hence their name technologic innovation centers. Many of these projects have an extra goal which is establishing a standard methodology and develop the best way to implement these technologies through the various learning processes. This is a valuable outcome that the IPSE, UPME and other developing actors could further use as a guideline to change the general ST-regime in the non-interconnected zones. It is important for the success of SETs in Colombia that this niche gains its own momentum which will be achieved if its visions and expectations become more precise and more broadly accepted, its learning processes align into a stable configuration and social networks become bigger and stronger. (Geels F. W., 2012) For these reasons, the identification of drivers and barriers inside the niche is necessary to align learning processes and define the visions and expectations to a general and specific purpose of bringing sustainable development to the vulnerable populations without access to electrical energy living in the non-interconnected zones.

The niche represented mainly by the technological innovation centers will be evaluated under the indicators generated in the functions of innovation systems that will be described in Section 2.2. Also, special attention will be paid to how these innovation centers are making a way into the regime trying to exploit the windows of opportunity set by pressures from the landscape and other changes that are taking place in the regime.

2.1.3 Socio-technical Landscape

The socio-technical landscape is the upper level which constitutes the ‘big picture’ or the general context under which the regime and niche dynamics are laid and influenced. The landscape can be somehow complex because of all the elements it comprehends and we are all part of it. Landscape includes spatial structures, political ideologies, societal values, beliefs, concerns, media and macro-economic trends. The landscape goes beyond the control of individual actors and represents the highest degree of structuration. (Geels F. W., 2012)

36 The development of sustainable energy technologies, as electricity solution in the NIZs, suffers a very particular landscape because we’re living in a key and crucial historic moment for Colombia. The most important item is the future of the internal conflict which has been for more than 50 years lashing Colombian society. Peace negotiations to find an end to the conflict are being carried in Cuba between the government and the narco-terrorist guerrilla of FARC (Colombian Armed Revolutionary Forces), which are having their 50th anniversary. President Santos just won the reelection with those peace negotiations as his banner. (The Economist, 2013) The problem is a partial skepticism from a sector of society which doesn’t forget the failed attempt of a negotiation in 1998 under the Pastrana government, which longs and praises the deeds of former President Uribe. Santos won by a very tight margin with only 50,9% of the votes, which poses a very difficult scenario to govern with such a big opposition. (Presidency of Colombia, 2014) Even though the negotiations are very advanced, the skepticism from a large part of the Colombian society is not un- founded since terrorist activities and guerrilla presence seem to have augmented since the beginning of peace negotiations tallying innocent civilian casualties, including children. (Reyes, 2014) The opposition to the government prefers Uribe’s methods who declared a heavy military outpost towards FARC weakening its structure and eliminating the main kingpins. This brought certain calm; people could travel more easily and big hits were given to this group that had been seeding so much pain among society. Uribe in his military crusade allowed American bases to be installed in Colombian territory to help the fight against drug trafficking and guerrilla terrorism. (Constitutional Court of Colom- bia, 2010) This closed the relations with the US specially supported by an initial Bush government who had a similar warmongering mentality. Things went out of hand during his second period when innocent people were killed and reported as guerrilla casualties in order for military officials to claim their bonuses for having good results. (Cárdenas & Villa, 2013) The conflict during these 50+ years has added so many elements that it so complex to understand and solve that this is just a recapitulation of recent events to explain what the current political scenario is. The success or failure of this peace process can change many policies and priorities for the government that may affect drastically the development of SET projects in the NIZs in Colombia. Not only blocking resource allocation, but also changing the whole social scenario of having violent actors present around the communities that could be benefited by the implementation of renewable energy technologies, and adding additional forced displacement in the country.

This radical political shift could well affect all the other landscape components such as societal values, beliefs and media. The macro-economic trends are also in the verge of change with the introduction of several free trade agreements recently signed by the Colombian government. FTAs with the US, South Korea, the EU and the creation of the Pacific Alliance obliges the whole macro-economic landscape in Colombia to be reshaped for the coming years. Colombian is a rising economy and included in the CIVETS group forms part of an important set of emergent economies in the world, this attracts foreign investment which can positively influence the development of renewable energy technologies. There are many fast changes ahead in the Colombian landscape in such a short time that will certainly introduce pressures to the ST-regimes that will affect the development of niches such as the SETs in the non-interconnected zones, either opening or closing opportunity windows to reshape the present regimes.

In the case of the landscape, all the elements present in the geographical, demographical and cultural scenes. Through the multi-level perspective we will take a look into which actors and special circumstances that affect the whole national context also have inherence in the electrical energy regime in the NIZs.

Cultural differences will be assessed with the help of Hostede’s dimensions of cultures. Colombia is such a multicultural country within its own natives that an analysis will be done over the two most representative minorities which are indigenous groups and afro groups which will be compared through the different dimensions of culture to the ‘dominant’ culture. These dimensions of culture will be only a guide to do a more systematic assessment of the cultural factor. The following dimensions are presented by Hofstede:

The dimensions of national cultures have been established after investigating which are the common problems that all nations face. Their solutions differ depending on the national culture. Social scientists have tried to identify which are all the common problems all societies have. In the 70’s Hofstede was able to perform a study in IBM employees

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 37 all around the world and found the first four dimensions of culture based of those results. Hofstede’s findings were compatible to studies performed by Inkeles and Levinson twenty years prior to his work. From those findings it was stated that basic and common problems to all societies should be reflected irrespective of the methodology used in the study. The initial common problems found by Hofstede were in the following areas (Hofstede et al., 2010):

• Social inequiality, inclunding the relationship with authority. • The relationship between an individual and the group. • The concepts of masculinity and feminity; and the values derived from the social and emotional implications of having been born as a boy or a girl. • Ways of dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity, which is related to the control of aggression and the expression of emotions.

These four problems represent the first four dimensions of culture according to Hofstede:

Power Distance - This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people. Hofstede et al., 2010) (The Hofstede Centre).

Individualism versus Collectivism - Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him- or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede et al., 2010).

Masculinity versus Femininity - A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap: both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life (Hofstede et al., 2010). As a summary in masculine societies the dominant values are success and achievement and in a feminine society the dominant values are caring for other and quality of life.

Uncertainty Avoidance - Uncertainty avoidance can be defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations, and how they get to cope or avoid dealing with those situations. (Hofstede et al., 2010)

Later in the year 1991 Michael Harris, supported by Hofstede, conducted another study across 23 different countries finding an additional cultural dimension based on the Confucian principles of existentialism of maintaining links to the past while dealing with the present and future. This added a new dimension that was later confirmed by Minkov in 2010:

Long-Term Orientiation/Pragmatic versus Normative - Long-term orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards—in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present—in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of “face,” and fulfilling social obligations.(Hofstede et al., 2010) This dimension basically indicates if a culture has a future-oriented perspective that is opposed to a short-term perspective.

In 2010 Minkov using a World Values Survey, besides confirming the fifth dimension found by Harris, added the sixth dimension of culture adopted by Hofstede in his model. This sixth dimension is related to the drives related to free gratification or just enjoying life and having fun. It links the notions of happiness, life control and the importance of leisure. This is a recently discovered dimension and Hofstede explains that it requires more study from now on. This

38 sixth dimension is defined as follows (Hofstede et al., 2010):

Indulgence versus Restraint – Indulgence stands for a tendency to allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Its opposite pole, restraint, reflects a conviction that such gratification needs to be curbed and regulated by strict social norms. As a cultural dimension, indulgence versus restraint rests on clearly defined research items that measure very specific phenomena. Note that the gratification of desires on the indulgence side refers to enjoying life and having fun, not to gratifying human desires in general. (Hofstede et al., 2010)

This gives a total of six cultural dimensions that will allow to study, analyze and compare the different cultural groups included on this research with the complementary approach of Trompenaars which will be described in the following section.

2.1.4 Remarks Over the Multi-Level Perspective Framework

The MLP framework has proven to be useful when analyzing technological transitions and dynamics in developing countries like Colombia. (Arocena & Sutz, 2002) (Hansen & Nygaard, 2013) In this case of the non-interconnected zones of Colombia it will be very useful to be able to identify the network of actors and stakeholders that have inference in the development of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZs in Colombia. It will be the key part of the whole framework to help answer and assess the second and third sub-questions. In the national context or landscape it will provide all the elements with barriers and drivers that will help answer the second sub-question. Regarding the third sub-question, the regime analysis found in section 3.2 helps to find all the barriers and drivers in the electrical energy sector or the socio-technical regime that is encloses all the elements that are sensible to give a way to sustainable energy technologies out of the innovation phase to the stage where it can be considered as a real and mainstream solution for supplying the electric energy service in the non-interconnected zones.

For both the upper and meso level, potential barriers and drivers have been identified at first hand. These are elements to be analyzed in Chapter 3 deeper to determine if they constitute a barrier or a driver.

The elements analyzed in the landscape which may results into potential barriers, drivers or both:

Geography and Natural Resources – Geographical diversity is one of Colombia’s particular features and what makes it such a rich and diverse country. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Thanks to the diverse geography of Colombia there is a wide arrange of different climates and thermal levels that allow a great richness in natural resources. To have a vast variety in natural resources can be a good advantage when developing sustainable energy technology projects because it helps to not limit the options to just one specific technology. On the other side, a complex geography also helps to give Colombia its centralized nature and hence the appearance of the non-interconnected zones. (Fajardo, 1989) The NIZs are separated, among other things, by geographical boundaries which may hinder the development of such a technological transition.

Political and Economic Stability – Colombia is living a very paradoxical moment of political conjecture. On one side the possible end or aggravation of the armed conflict is on a crucial point. Peace negotiations with the guerrilla of FARC are taking course and that could change the whole political scenario in many ways. It is paradoxical because Colombia is considered among the world’s important emergent economies and included in the CIVETS group. Colombia’s economy is growing faster than any other in the region and now has placed third in Latin Amer- ica just behind Brazil and Mexico. Having such a political instability, but a strong economic forecast is somehow contradictory and can result into big drivers or barriers for the development of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for the non-interconnected zones which have a strong participation in the armed conflict. (Hsu, 2010)

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 39 (The Economist, 2013) (World Bank, 2014)

Cultural Differences – This aspect takes a primary role in the landscape analysis. One of the aims of this research is to show the importance of national culture, and cultural difference in technological innovations. Unfortunately, there is little systematic research about this crucial topic. (Steers, Meyer, & Sánchez-Runde, National culture and the adoption of new technologies, 2008) An analysis of the Colombian national culture will be made to identify potential barriers and drivers derived from the cultural and ethical traits found in the Colombian culture with the aid of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. Also, Colombia is not only geographically diverse, but also its population is very varied and diverse due to the process of miscegenation during the colony period. A contrast between the minority cultural groups and the ‘dominant’ national culture will be presented. Why is important this contrast? Because, most of the minority groups found in Colombia are mainly in the non-interconnected zones. These cultural differences can also result in barriers and drivers for SETs to be used as a solution on electric energy supply in the NIZs.

Regarding the Regime level, the following potential barriers and drivers could be identified, and are object of study in the following chapter:

Consolidation of the Regime – The socio-technical regime of electrical energy in the non-interconnected zones is composed by some sub-regimes as showed in Figure 5. Paths and Dynamics of the ST-regime (Geels F. W., 2004). Mainly the technical regime has been established long ago and dominated by diesel powered systems. The lack of a better technology helped this technology to establish itself into the regime, but being expensive and not very reliable due to its scarce availability gives a window of opportunity to innovations to take part of the regime. (Florez Acosta et al, 2009) Also the user practice and market regimes, as well as the science regime have been shaped by this obliged option to choose for diesel power technologies. This regime consolidation, by lack of options can translate into potential barriers and drivers. The work that implies changing user practices and opening the market could be a barrier, but the option of having cheaper and more reliable options could be a driver that may open a space for sustainable energy technologies to take over the regime in the coming years.

Policy Reformation – This aspect could be the biggest driver or barrier creator of the regime. The appearance of a new legislation through law 1715, changes the whole panorama of the ST-regime for electrical energy in the NIZs. Law 1715 is the first policy instrument in Colombia to regulate and give guidelines on the use and implementation of sustainable energy technologies. The lack of this policy in former epochs was the main barrier for the development of such technologies in the country. (Florez Acosta et al, 2009) (Ruiz & Rodriguez-Pradilla, 2005) (Hernandez, Velasco, & Trujillo, 2011) Now, the creation of a policy that regulates and gives incentives for the development of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZs changes the whole scenario to a more positive one. This policy change also has a very strong inherence in the other sub-regimes as explained deeper in section 3.2.1.

2.2 FUNCTIONS OF INNOVATION SYSTEMS

The Functions of Innovation Systems (FIS) approach will help to complete the framework and through its functions will help identify more punctual elements to be studied in order to answer the fourth research sub-question regarding the innovation processes of SETs in the non-interconnected zones in Colombia. In the past, the FIS approach has proved to be effective when explaining the success or failure of technological transitions or trajectories of SET in developing countries. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) Its functions have helped to identify the elements of innovation and the introduction of new technologies into a certain environment. One interesting finding from the FIS implementation is that great investment in technological R&D and demonstration does not necessarily ensure successful innovations. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) In the case of SETs and Colombia, this could also apply. You can proclaim to have invested millions of dollars and brought the best experts to develop the projects for the non-interconnected zones, but if they don’t reach their goal of satisfying the societal needs of empowering

40 communities and shaping their user practices, it has been a waste of time, effort and substantial financial resources. That is why it is important that these valuable resources that are being allocated in these projects serve their societal purpose, and understanding that a project doesn’t end when you hit the start button of your technological system. The FIS method will complement the MLP, punctually in the niche analysis, since the basic idea of a technological innovation involves the strong influence of the network actors where the legitimization, regulation and standardization of a certain technology occur. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) This approach poses a new idea of technology transfer in which besides the development and implementation of hardware also software, organizational and institutional conditions, management and operational skills influence the development of a technology. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006)

Designing and implementing adequate management processes is a key issue to develop successful environmental and innovation policy programs. It is expected that changes in the social dimension join the technological change; changes in user practices, regulations, production networks and cultural consuetudes are inevitable. (Geels F. W., 2002a) An innovation system encloses not only the artifact itself but the whole environment in which it is embedded and it is the result of the socio-technical transformation. Innovation systems are a heuristic attempt to analyze all the societal sub-systems, actors and institutions that directly or indirectly contribute to the process of innovation. So, if the activities that foster or hamper innovation are identified, innovation processes can be intentionally shaped. (Hekkert, Suurs, Negro, Khulmann, & Smits, 2007) That is the main scope of this framework when identifying barriers and drivers through the functions of innovation systems. Having identified specific drivers and barriers will allow developers evaluate their own projects to identify the activities that hamper or bolster successful renewable energy technology projects in the NIZs in Colombia. Institutions can then reshape their methodologies by replicating the good practices and eliminating the hampering ones. This at the end will bring greater benefits to the vulnerable communities in the NIZs while saving time and resources to the project developers such as the IPSE, USAID or UPME.

The FIS approach is great because it helps to show punctual elements and activities of the innovation system through its functions. There are some reasons for choosing the FIS van Alphen framework over Strategic Niche Management (SNM) as a complementary framework to the MLP. The FIS approach has a more systematic way of mapping or identifying determinants of innovation. (Hekkert et al, 2007) Since the fourth research sub question is more about how are the innovation systems functioning and performing, rather than understanding how they are conformed, FIS van Alphen suits better this task. Having this systematic analysis of the FIS complemented by the organizational aspect of the multi-level perspective gives a deeper understanding of the innovation system. The external dynamics drawn by the interaction of actors through the MLP framework are complemented by the internal dynamics obtained through the functions of the FIS framework. (Hekkert et al, 2007). The performance of a system can be assessed in term of functionality, using the FIS framework, how well the functions are served within the system. (Bergek, 2002) The fourth sub-question then, is rather best addressed by a FIS van Alphen framework than by an SNM. The FIS van Alphen has modified functions from the original FIS framewrok to satisfy better the frame under which developing countries are analyzed. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006)

The FIS van Alphen approach has 7 different functions that help us study innovation systems: Creating adaptative capacity, knowledge diffusion, demand articulation, creation of legitimacy/counteract resistance, resource mobilization, market formation and entrepreneurial activities. (Hekkert et al, 2007) These seven functions are the starting guide to analyze the innovation system that the implementation of SETs in the non-interconnected zones supposes. Initially these functions are based on innovation system dynamics in industrialized countries. For the Colombian context, these functions have to be somehow modified and steered in a way that can serve the purpose of this research. Latin American innovation processes have a whole different landscape and thus the result and analysis has to be carried out under that context. (Arocena & Sutz, 2002) In the following sections each function will be described and the specific purpose it will serve under the context of the development of renewable energy technologies as a technological solution for the NIZ.

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 41 2.2.1 Creating Adaptative Capacity

This is one of the key functions in the innovation systems. This function relates to the development and strengthening of human, organizational and institutional capacity. The evolution in a society’s physical infrastructure, institutions and technologies often are reflected in transformation of social structures and personal values. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) This means that the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones will definitely have an impact in the social structures, personal values and cultural customs of the communities. These innovation centers and initial projects must take care that activities that promote an adaptative capacity to the new technology are being carried out, while preserving the cultural identity of the communities. This function is of main importance and is strongly linked to the analysis of cultural differences because some of these projects are being carried out in native indigenous or afro communities in which natural and environmental resources even have a strong spiritual inference and shape their whole cognition processes and values. Their whole worldview is conceived as the coexistence with nature from which all knowledge and wisdom is derived and defines their lifestyle from all other nations and cultures in the world, even the dominant Colombian culture. (Ortiz, 2014) The activities that com- prehend adaptative capacity building may include: workshops, training seminars, business planning and development of educational material among others. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006)

In the analysis of this function, answering the first sub-question through, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, will take an important role when contrasting the dominant Colombian dimensions of culture to the same dimensions in the communities that inhabit the NIZ that have already been using sustainable energy technologies. Understanding and weighting these cultural differences will enable a better understanding to the function of creating adaptative capacity. When understanding better how the social structures of certain society are built, creating adaptative becomes a simpler task. An indicator of this function will be the amount of meetings, workshops or seminars offered by the developing actors or stakeholders to inform and give training over the use of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for electrical supply in remote areas. Also, these should be informative not only but the use, but also about the benefits of the new technologies. On a more subjective side, mentioning the successful cases of how these technological transitions are being assimilated and embraced by the communities in the NIZs.

2.2.2 Knowledge Diffusion

Knowledge diffusion through networks is used to evaluate the flow of information between the heterogeneous stakeholders inside the innovation systems. It is of vital importance to recognize the necessity of having an inclusive approach and to strengthen those networks in which the diverse actors and organizations contribute to the technology transfer. For this, it is important that spaces and networks for information exchange are created through community groups, electronic media, social centers, meetings, etc. This is to ensure that the technology meets the local needs and demands. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) (Hekkert et al, 2007) As an example, the CCEP since the beginning of their projects, every single decision and action is consulted and carried out in close communication of the communal leaders. Every single step in the projects is done with the consent and even decided by the community. (Rodriguez, 2014a) It is important to keep this information channels open and strong to ensure the long term success of the projects. This will help to keep a strong relationship between actors and never losing the focus of satisfying the specific needs to be met in each particular social group. Close attention will be paid to the conformation of clear community groups, and social centers to support the implementations of the sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ. This function is very closely engaged with creative adaptative capacity, so the success of knowledge diffusion is very closely linked to the success of creating adaptative capacity. In this knowledge diffusion an indicator will be the amount of training and education programs to form new professionals that can be ready to meet the technical and logistic challenges that implementing these SET systems can bring.

42 2.2.3 Demand Articulation

Demand articulation is a function that includes guidance regarding the demands and necessities of the benefitted communities and the developing actors. Generally when talking about renewable energy technologies, it is regarding GHG emissions; in this case, GHG emissions reduction will be also accompanied by social development. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) This function is often complicated since the amount of information is often limited when regarding GHG emission reduction, in this case even if the GHG emission data is not available, social development parameters will be taken as the main element. (Hekkert, Suurs, Negro, Khulmann, & Smits, 2007) This function is closely related to other functions because it punctually focuses in the link between the innovation and the societal needs, which is extremely relevant for this research. An indicator of this function will be the repowering or creation of new production or labor centers, schools, and health centers repowered of created after the implementation of the sustainable electric systems.

2.2.4 Creation of Legitimacy

The creation of legitimacy or counteract resistance to change is a function to determine a matter of social acceptance and compliance with relevant institutions. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) This means that in the NIZ case the implementation of sustainable energy technologies have to prove relevance to the major stakeholders such as government institutions and developers of the projects. This function is very closely related to the reconfiguration of the ST-regime mentioned in the MLP. When major stakeholders are convinced and are aware of the benefits brought by the new technologies, they can exert pressure from the landscape to the regime giving a window of opportunity to the SETs to get established in the regime. Information campaigns and lobbying activities as well as media influence are very important in this function. On the other hand, vested interests, sunk investments, regulations and routines might make really hard this function to succeed. (Kamp, 2008) Having situations as Ecopetrol (Oil and gas Company) being the biggest and most powerful company in the country is lobbying towards more exploration and pushing to allow fracking and cracking is an example of it. Many people have investments in the oil and gas industry that may hinder the possibility of promoting sustainable energy technologies in order to protect those vested interests. An indicator of this function will be the efforts made to replace diesel system by renewable energy technology systems. When the replacement of the current systems is encouraged, it will mean that the creation of legitimacy is following a successful path.

2.2.5 Resource Mobilization

This function is about the necessary resources to enable the success of sustainable energy technologies in the non- interconnected zones. Resource mobilization is the financial and human capital resources needed as a basic input to all the activities within the innovation system. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006). Since RETs are in an innovation stage in the NIZ as a solution to electric energy supply, the costs are high and might set a feeling of reluctance among the supporting actors. Renewable energy technologies have the characteristic of having high initial costs and very low running and operational costs. In a developing country as Colombia a low initial cost are often preferred, rather than low running costs and has much to do with the short term vision aspect in the cultural dimension Hofstede proposes, which will be explained in further sections. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) According to the cultural dimension mentioned in the following section, Colombia has a culture of preserving tradition and saving for the present to achieve quick results, there’s not much concern about planning and saving for the future. (The Hofstede Centre, 2010) This is a cultural aspect that may intervene with this function. Stakeholders should understand that is a huge advantage of SETs to have very low running costs, especially for these areas. These are remote and isolated zones

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 43 where maintenance or an expert service is something not always available. An indicator for resource mobilization will be the amount of funding an incentives given to projects to develop electricity systems running with SETs in the non-interconnected zones.

2.2.6 Market Formation

As a complementary function, market formation talks about the creation and stimulation of new markets for the mentioned technologies. This must be done in order to create economies of scale and enable practices that lead to cost reduction and fair competition. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) It is passing from a science-based or sort of experiment like projects to a relevant option when thinking about energy generation in the non-interconnected zones. (van Alphen, Hekkert, & Turkenburg, 2010) With the recent opening to renewable energy technologies in Colombia with the law 1517 from May 2014, benefits on import fees and small business bolstering the creation of a market for renewable energy technologies can be possible. This will help the technology to be successful while having a protected market space in their niche. (Kamp, 2008) As an indicator, the stimulation for the appearance of businesses and companies related to sustainable energy technologies in Colombia will be taken into account. Since these technologies are still in the transition of experimental stage to market, there is not a well established market in Colombia.

2.2.7 Entrepreneurial Activities

This function indicates how well the innovation system is performing. When something is going wrong in any of the other six functions the entrepreneurial activities around the development of the technology will be somehow slower than what was initially expected. When the innovation system works well in all of its functions, a good sign is an environment where constantly entrepreneurial activities flourish constantly. (Van Alphen, Hekkert, & van Sark, 2006) Entrepreneurial activities help to convert all the networks, market and potential of new knowledge into concrete projects. (Kamp, 2008) It is important for the case of renewable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones to also analyze the entrepreneurial activities appearing along the Colombian territory. Also activities that might not be directly or strictly related to the development of SETs, but are a result of the implementation of such, will be taken into account. If the renewable energy technologies bring development and fulfill their societal mission, it will generate awareness among stakeholders to boost even more the development of these technologies. This might even help to the creation of new niches such as the implementation of renewable energy technologies in the urban areas and cogeneration. An indicator will be the appearance of new businesses and start-ups dedicated to the development of sustainable energy technologies. Also, activities that result directly from projects of electrification with renewable energy in the non-interconnected zones will be taken into account.

2.2.8 Remarks over the FIS van Alphen Framework

As explained, the FIS van Alphen framework is ideal to systematically evaluate and assess the performance of the innovation systems that are carried out in Colombia for the development of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for electric energy supply in the non-interconnected zones. On the following table, a summary of the functions with the indicators that will help to analyze and evaluated the niche or innovation processes is presented:

44 FUNCTION INDICATOR Creating Adaptative Capacity • Number of seminars, workshops and meetings to inform about the use and benefits of SETs as an electric supply solution in the NIZs. • Effectiveness of policies and legislative tools that guarantee the realization of informative meetings, seminars, workshops, etc. Knowledge Diffusion • Number of education and training programs opened to prepare professionals/technicians in the development and implementation of SETs. Demand Articulation • Creation of production centers, schools, health centers and other facilities, as a result of the implementation of SETs, that help to bolster the sustainable development of the NIZ. Creation of Legitimacy • Concrete efforts to encourage the replacement of diesel systems to supply electricity for systems powered by SETs. Resource Mobilization • Amount of funding and financial incentives for developing projects of electricity generation with SETs in the NIZ. Market Formation • Stimulus given for the formation of new markets related to SETs. Entrepreneurial Activities • Appearances of businesses related to the development and deployment in sustainable energy technologies. Appearance of new businesses or entrepreneurial activities in the NIZ as a result of the implementation of SETs for electricity supply. Table 1. Indicators of FIS van Alphen Functions

Chapter 2 COMBINED METHODOLOGY FRAMEWORK 45 CHAPTER 3

46 3. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON- INTERCONNECTED ZONES

In order to address the whole issue of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia, it is proper to have a socio-technical analysis of all levels through the multi-level perspective approach. In this way, a clear insight will be held to then identify barriers and drivers in the different areas of investigation proposed in the research questions. The following chapter will be dedicated to explain and expose the whole scenario for sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ to finally identify the barriers and drivers these have in each area. Also an evaluation of the innovation system proposed by the SETs in the non-interconnected zones with be performed with the functions of innovation systems approach.

3.1 CURRENT STATE OF SUSTAINABLE ELECTRICITY ENERGY SUPPLY IN THE NIZ

In the non-interconnected zones, the IPSE (Institute of Planning and Promotion of Energy Solutions for Non-interconnected Zones) is the institution dedicated to the implementation and planning of energetic solutions, including electrical supply. The IPSE was created in 1999 and has the institutional mission of managing the energy supply to the NIZ either on a direct supply or through agreements with the local authorities. The IPSE is a public establishment ascribed to the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), but counts with independent legal status, property and administrative autonomy. (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2004)

The mission of the IPSE is to improve the living conditions of the communities in the rural areas or non-interconnected zones offering a complete energetic solution; with the principles of protecting the environment, respecting diversity, supported by a human team in constant growth and formation. To fulfill this mission, the IPSE has the task of identifying, promoting, develop and implement energetic solution for the long term, procuring to satisfy the energy needs of the NIZ and having support from the Ministry of Mines and Energy. (IPSE, 2013b) In order to comply with its mission and objectives, the IPSE has created the Technologic Innovation Centers (TICs) with the objective of obtaining better energetic solutions for the NIZ. In these innovation centers, the particular characteristics of each geographic area were taken into account including: energetic resources, socio-economic aspects and cultural aspects. The TICs enable learning processes that promote the education and adaptation to the different technologies for energy generation, preferably sustainable energy technologies. These centers were created with the vision of giving Colombia spaces with favorable conditions for research, have learning processes over implementation, adaptation and evaluation of the different sustainable energy technologies that will help to maximize resources and give a reliable energetic solution for the communities in the NIZ. The strategy followed by the IPSE was to locate different innovation centers in different places around the non-interconnected zones, mostly in the northern Caribbean Region and the Pacific Region. There are seven TICs in total created by the IPSE: Agro-energy, liquid and gas fuels, hybrid systems with wind energy, solar energy, gasification of biomass, micro-hydro and one for the rational and efficient use of energy. In this thesis work the focus is specifically in the innovation centers of wind energy, solar energy, biomass gasification and micro-hydro systems to describe the technological innovation system that is being developed around SETs in Colombia. The locations of these four TICs are seen in the map found in Figure 7 and it is followed by a brief description of each. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 47 Figure 7. Location of the Technologic Innovation Centers. (Source:Author)

• Technologic Innovation Center with emphasis on WIND ENERGY. In this TIC wind turbines are used to provide electrical energy to the communities of the Alta Guajira in the northern part of the country, especially the townships of Nazareth and Puerto Estrella located in the municipality of Uribia. These are remote communities with low electric demand. This center is also called of polygeneration because it uses a hybrid system of wind turbines, PV systems with trackers and diesel engines. The type of wind turbines used was single-bladed wind turbines. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

• Technologic Innovation Center with emphasis on SOLAR ENERGY. This innovation center has been conceived to supply electrical energy to the area of Titumate in the Choco department. This innovation center has a hybrid systems composed by a PV system and diesel engines. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

• Technologic Innovation Center with emphasis on HYDRAULIC ENERGY. The innovation center located in the Department of Choco is constituted by different technologies associated to the conduction of water to power small hydraulic turbines. The micro-hydro turbine powered by this innovation center has a rated power of 55 kW and is used to supply electrical energy to the township of La Encarnación. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

• Technologic Innovation Center with emphasis on BIOMASS. Regarding biomass, a TIC was created using gasification technologies from forest residues, taken from the deposits of residues that arrive to the beach in the Totumo region. This region is in the rural area of the municipality of Necoclí, Antioquia department. This TIC is able to supply electric energy to 50 families. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

48 This thesis work goes along with the idea of grouping all the renewable energy technologies into a same technological innovation system, following the vision of the Colombian government when developing plans for “non conventional alternative energy sources”. The Colombian legislation and policies are not technology specific because it was until 2014 that a specific law was emitted to regulate the use and incentive the deployment of sustainable energy technologies. In Colombia only about 4.75% of the total installed capacity is produced by sustainable energy technologies and 4.2% of that 4.75% is produced by hydraulic power systems, which are considered alternative sources because their capacity is below. This can be considered logical since 64% of the installed capacity of Colombia is hydro. That means that those small hydro-electric projects were built along with the massive ones that form of the main interconnected system. Examining those figures and adding that the total installed capacity of wind in Colombia is 19.7 MW, biomass use accounts for 0.14% of the totaled installed capacity of the country and solar is so small that is not even reported, but according to the IPSE the total installed capacity in Colombia is 6MW, it can be deducted that the numbers for renewable energy technologies in Colombia are so small that it can seem logical that the government takes a global approach towards these technologies rather that a technology specific approach. (UPME, 2013) (IPSE, 2011b) (García, Corredor, Calderón, & Gómez, 2013) Following that idea, the analysis of the whole niche will account for the different technologies as a whole since they are regulated and developed under the same policies, legislation, programs and entities. The following sub-sections will be dedicated to technology specific by describing each technology and its current state in Colombia, followed by a deeper insight over the technologic innovation centers developed by the IPSE and how the technologies being used in each are working and interacting with the communities.

3.1.1 Energy Demand in the NIZ and Sustainable Energy Technologies

The energy demand in the NIZ is relatively low with a demand per user ranging from 360 kWh to 1200 kWh per year. The average availability of the electricity service is 12 hours per day, but this is heavily outweighted considering that the islands region which has 24 hour access is taken into account in this average. In reality many of these places have only 4 hours of service per day. (Gómez et al, 2007) In the NIZ, there is an installed capacity of 118 MW out of which 108.5 MW correspond to diesel engine plants. (Obervatory of Renewnable Energy in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2011a)

Figure 8. Energy Demand in the NIZ (IPSE, 2014f)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 49 Due to some special characteristics of the NIZ, providing an electricity service isn’t a simple task. The NIZ have a 77% of unsatisfied basic needs, the population density is very low, the settlements are widely scattered across 66% of the Colombian territory. That results in a low average consumption as mentioned above which is also affected by the low payment capacity the inhabitants of the NIZ have versus the high costs of diesel produced electricity. (IPSE, 2014f) The energy demand reports from the NIZ can be very misleading since 57% of the total demand is from the San Andres Islands which have 24 hour coverage and represent a very small fraction of the total population of the non-interconnected zones. Also, as analyzed in section 3.2.3, many of the communities and ethnic groups don’t even consider energy or electricity as a basic need. As some testimonials and cases further shown in this section, many of the benefited people by the technologic innovation centers consider that 24 hours of coverage are not needed and that a few hours of service a day could perfectly meet their needs. Demand can be very subjective to the culture and life style of the community and end user. These communities have been in isolated in areas of very difficult access which not also makes hard to implement technolgies to provide the service, but even to collect data about energy supply, thus making the energy demand figures not accurate. (IPSE, 2014f) The following figure sure the actual status of electric energy supply in the 1,448 municiplities of the NIZ.

Figure 9. Electric Energy Supply Status in the NIZ

Even though, the actual demand is still very low, the technologies used to supply this electricity are not in optimum condition. Out of the 167.13 MW of actual installed capacity in the NIZ, only 151.47 MW are actually systems that are available for use. Regarding sustainable energy technologies, the situation looks very bad since more than 95% of all the energy produced in the NIZ is done with diesel engine generators. Sustainable energy technologies are mainly used and conceived as complementary technologies to reduce costs in the main diesel engine systems. (IPSE, 2014f) By 2011, there were only 9.5 MW of installed capacity in the NIZ provided by small hydro power facilities and PV systems. The wind power farm of Jepirachi is located in the NIZ and serves to isolated communities, but is connected to the national grid. So the 19.5 MW of installed capacity in wind energy doesn’t really account to the NIZ, leaving wind energy with no actual contribution to the NIZ installed capacity. The 200 kW installed in Nazareth are part of the NIZ installed capacity, but a recent study done by the University of La Salle, said the wind turbines presented structural failures and the IPSE finally didn’t receive the wind turbines to be operational. (Presidency of the Republic of Colombia, 2012) Colombia, as it is portrayed in section 3.2.1 has all the natural resources that offer wind and solar energy potentials to be able to supply the whole countries demand with 100% renewable energy, but the implemen- taiton of such technologies so far has been stagnant and insuficient until now, as a result of the lack of stimulus and

50 policies that may bolster the deploy of SETs in Colombia.

3.1.2 Polygeneration Technologic Innovation Center; Wind Energy, Solar Energy and Diesel Engines.

The technologic innovation center for Polygeneration is located in the township of Nazareth, municipality of Uribia in the Department of Guajira as shown in Figure 13. This TIC was conceived as a pilot project by the IPSE of science and technology to provide electric energy to the communities of Nazareth and through a medium voltage interconnection (13.2kV) to Puerto Estrella as well. The final scope or vision with these communities is to turn them into eco-villages through a social, ecologic and economically sustainable transformation process. Part of this process is taking the available energetic natural resources of the region to supply electrical energy using sustainable energy technologies such as wind and solar energy. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Between Nazareth, center of the indigenous Wayuu culture, and Puerto Estrella there are 206 users of the electric energy service, including the only hospital in the region and the boarding school, which is of great importance to the children and young people of this ethnic group, which demand a constant and reliable electric energy service. The service has to comply with the national standards for electric installations, contained in the NTC-2050 and the RETIE. For the township of Nazareth, the particular technologic regime was constituted by a Caterpillar diesel generator of 225 kW, which was only operational during 5 hours per day due to the high costs of fuel. That service could not satisfy the demands of the community of Nazareth; this situation made many of the members of the community to acquire personal electric generators running with fossil fuel as well. All this was translated in very high prices of electrical energy supply.

In Nazareth, houses demand 120 kW, the hospital 56 kW, the pumping station 23 kW and the boarding school 30 kW. To this total demand a diversity factor of 0.7 is applied giving an effective power of 160 kW, thus applying some conservative factors the hybrid system to be installed had to be of minimum 210 kW. In Nazareth the yearly consumption could reach 310.25 MWh/year, which is considered to be high when compared to communities with similar conditions in the NIZ. Also, another solution for Nazareth was the implementation of a pre-paid system for electric energy supply. People as they do with services as cell-phone could also buy credits of energy for their house. In 2009 intelligent energy meters were installed and connected to a special network and software to make this measure possible and a great success. The public lighting was also modified by installing photocontrolled and programmable lighting. This would also help to save a great amount of energy. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Hybrid Polygeneration System for Electrical Energy Generation For electrical energy supply in Nazareth, a hybrid system of Polygeneration was installed as part of the TIC. This hybrid system, named as Polygeneration by the IPSE, encloses three different technologies with an estimated power output of 675 kW. The system is composed by the following Elements:

The 225 kW diesel engine generator was the one originally found in Nazareth which had only 5 hours of daily operation. The final scope of this project is through the use of renewable energy technologies reduce the use of fossil fuels allowing the communities of Nazareth and Puerto Estrella to have a constant, affordable and reliable electric energy service. The two selected SETs as seen in (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)Table 2 are wind energy and solar energy. (IPSE, 2010) On the following sections a deeper description of each specific system is made.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 51 NOMINAL CAPACITY TECHNOLOGY TYPE QUANTITY per UNIT (kW) Wind Energy Single-bladed Turbines 100 2 Photovoltaic Polycrystaline silicon with 12.5 8 Solar Trackers Combustion Engine Diesel Engine Generator 225 1 Combustion Engine Diesel Engine Generator 150 1 Table 2. Technologies used in the Hybrid System installed in Nazareth (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Wind Energy in Nazareth As shown in Figure 36, the Guajira has the best wind potential conditions in Colombia. Taking advantage of this natural resource and potential, two 100kW, single-bladed turbine generators manufactured by the Spanish brand ADES were installed for this technologic innovation center. The exact location where the turbines were installed is in the Uracheein community which is part of the Jaiya Riyuu clan of the Wayúu indigenous people. This is 3 km away from the residential sector of Nazareth in a place called ITUO with exact geographical coordinates 12°11’11,7” N - 71°16’32,3” W. This place is free of vegetation and other obstacles, which allows the use on the marine breeze and trade winds. The average wind speed in this location is 4.5 m/s with sporadic wind gusts of 14 m/s. The community allowed through a signed agreement, between the local authorities and the clan, the use of the ground to implement the project. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Figure 10. ADES Single-bladed Wind Turbine as Installed in Nazareth (ADES)

The single-bladed turbine was selected because is the one the best adapts to the rotor conditions, because rotation speed is higher than that of turbines with two and three blades. These fast rotors reduce alternated fatigue induced damage between blades. Another advantage of these type of turbines is that it eliminates wake effect related failures due to the absence of dihedral angle and thus separating the blade from the tower. Also, the economic factor was determinant in the project and single-bladed turbines are more economical than two or three bladed turbines. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) (ADES) On the following table the whole technical specifications of the single-bladed wind turbines are given:

52 ELEMENT SPECIFICATION Rated Power 100kW Rated Wind Speed 9.3 m/s Cut-in Wind Speed 4 m/s Cut-out Wind Speed 20 m/s Wind Incidence Leeward Rotor Type Single-bladed • Rotor Diameter 30 m • Material Glass Fiber with Epoxy Prepeg • Swept Area 595 m² • Step Variable • Max. Rotor Speed 53 RPM • Max. Torque 20,900 N•m Gear Box Parallel Axes • Ratio 1:25 • Efficiency 0.93 • Lubrication Oil Bath Generator • Number of Poles 4 • Rated Voltage 400 V/690 V • Frequency 500 Hz/60 Hz • Proctection IP 54 • Thermic Class F Year of Production 2011

Table 3. Technical Specifications of 100kW Single-bladed ADES Wind Turbines Installed in Nazareth (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

PV Systems in Nazareth La Guajira region has the highest solar irradiance potential in Colombia (section 3.2.1.). This makes this region perfectly suitable for the implementation of PV systems. For the Nazareth project, 8 PV modules with trackers were installed. Each module has a capacity of 12.5 kW offering a total capacity of 100 kW for Nazareth and Puerto Estrella. This PV system was installed 4 km away from the center of Nazareth near the antinarcotics base of the National Police. The technology selected was polycrystalline silicon panels since at high temperatures they perform better than monocrystalline silicon panels. This PV system was conceived to supply electrical energy to 60-70 households which have an average consumption of 600W. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

This PV system also has 2-axis solar trackers, which enables the system to provide a higher efficiency and collect more energy from solar irradiation. In the azimuth axis, the tracker has a span of 240°; -120° to 120°. In the elevation axis, the angle span is from 0° to 60°. This tracker system, helps to increase the energy production in 35% to 45% when compared to the system without tracker. This helps to maximize the IRR and reduce the pay-back time of the system. The system is also programmed to adopt a horizontal position when wind speeds are superior to 70 km/h. The tracker system has two motors of three phases that help to have the movement of the panels. These motors have to be supplied with a reduced amount of electric power having a total yearly consumption of less than 100kWh/year. In Figure 11 the panels with the tracking system are shown and one of the wind turbines can be seen in the background.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 53 Figure 11. PV Modules with Solar Trackers Installed in Nazareth

The whole technical specifications of the solar trackers, MS TRACKER10+, installed in Nazareth can be seen in the following table. These specifications are of each individual tracker:

ELEMENT SPECIFICATION Frame Structure Material Galvanized Steel Module Surface Area 85 m² Nominal Maximum Power (Pmax) 11 kWp (In function of the installed modules) Tracking Technology Astronomic Programmed PLC Wind Protection Horizontal Positioning when Wind Speed > 70 km/h Tracker Height 3,300 mm Weight 2,000 kg Tracking axes 2 axes: Azimuth and Elevation Tracking Angular Span Azimuth: -120° to 120° ; Elevation: 0° to 60° Azimuth Actuation Planetary electric motor with crownwheel Elevation Actuation Electro-mechanic lineal actuator. Power Input 400V Three Phase Motor Yearly Consumption 100 kWh/year Automation Programmable PLC; independent programming for each tracker Table 4. MS TRACKER10+ Technical Specifications (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Diesel Engine Generators The electrical energy service in the township of Nazareth was supplied with a 225 kW Caterpillar diesel generator. This diesel generator is owned by the mayoralty of Uribia, which is the municipality to which Nazareth belongs. The mayoralty pays for the operation and maintenance costs of this equipment, the final users in Nazareth don’t have to pay for the service.

54 The average consumption of Nazareth and Puerto Estrella is 90 kW, for which an average of 8 gallons of fuel are con- sumed per hour. The generator set is operated for 5 hours per day. For this purpose a main fuel tank of 5000 gallons is filled with the fuel periodically, this main tank feeds the daily tank which has a capacity of 55 gallons. The technical specifications of this generator set are given in the following table. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

TECHNICAL DATA Motor Model Caterpillar 3306 System Frequency 60 Hz Motor Speed 1500 rpm Fuel Consumpiton 8 gal/hr Operation Time 5 hours

MOTOR TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Manufacturer Caterpillar Model 3306 DI Number of Cylinders 6 in Line Engine Cylinder Volume 10.5 L Battery Charger Amperage 27 VDC Water Pump Type Gear Type Oil Filter Type Baldwin R76 Total Oil Capacity 5 gallons Oil Type Diesel No 50 Cooling System Refrigerant Nominal Power 225 kW

GENERATOR TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Manufacturer Caterpillar Year 2007 Operating Voltage / Current 240V / 676 A Max. Temperature 105 °C

Table 5. Technical Specifications of the 225 kW Caterpillar Diesel Generator Installed in Nazareth (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

The second diesel generator mentioned in Table 2 is a 150 kW Cummins equipment. This diesel engine generator will be used to provide electricity to Puerto Estrella. By the time of the report, done by the National University of Co- lombia for the IPSE, this generator wasn’t in operation because the power/voltage transformer hadn’t been installed yet. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

Technology Integration in Hybrid System The three technology systems described in the previous sections were integrated into one hybrid system to supply electrical energy to Nazareth and Puerto Estrella. Since the system has three different technologies, it becomes certainly complex because it requires an advanced automation and control system to integrate, synchronize and select the different technologies that should be in line making the system the most efficient at reducing fuel consumption. Also, besides reducing the fuel consumption, the ultimate goal is to provide Nazareth and Puerto Estrella with a 24 hour reliable and good quality service of electricity. ADES, the Spanish company who supplied the wind turbines and PV system also provided an automation and con-

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 55 trol system based on advanced software to do the system’s power management. This advanced software controls the synchronizing of each technology depending of the demand or requirements of the load and system efficiency. Synchronizing correctly is of great importance in electric systems because a wrong synchronizing procedure could lead to catastrophic damages in the system. Also, besides the control systems and software the following elements complete the whole hybrid system:

• Energy Storage: 240 Batteries of 985 Ah (OPzS 800 without acid) • Acid Charger instead of battery mounting: 3,360 litres of electrolyte with a density of 1.24 gr/cm³ • Polylux Transformer: Isolating transformer IP-23, 300 kVA, 415/208V. • UPS (Unit of Power Supply); 20kVA/33/10 minutes • Inverter • Three-Phase bi-directional Hybrid Inverter: Hybrid System Control Command Unit (HCCU) Inverter • Chopper: Boost-Semix4s-Skyper; 5 Resistances of 20 W ; 480 Vdc (Charge Resistance Included)

The electrical line diagram of the system in presented in the following figure: In 2006, the IPSE had great initiative by the creation of the National Monitoring Center (NMC). Since the NIZ are remote and some are not easy to access, the IPSE decided to have an operations center in Bogota to be able to moni- tor and have an overview of the systems installed in the non-interconnected zones. This was an excellent to tool have

Figure 12. Hybrid System in Nazareth and Puerto Estrella Electrical Line Diagram ( Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011 edited by Author)

56 a close follow up on the systems spread all around the country. By 2009 the plan was to have 34 different locations around the country to send data to the NMC in Bogota and the Nazareth project is one of the locations that provide real time data of the system status through a monitoring system that sends the information via satellite. Figure 13 shows how the Hybrid Polygeneration system installed in Nazareth is managed and monitored remotely from Bogota.

Figure 13. Hybrid System Diagram Connected to the National Monitoring Center (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011 modified by Author)

Overall Remarks of the Hybrid Polygeneration TIC in Nazareth Foremerly, in Nazareth the Wayuu community had to rely on the 225 kW Diesel Generator owned by the mayoralty of Uribia which only provided 5 hours of low quality electric supply. Misuse and bad management even lead this generator to become faulty leaving Nazareth without electric energy service for three years. In response to this situation, people have their own diesel systems to power up their homes and businesses which resulted expensive and inefficient. Now, the technologic innovation center installed by the IPSE is helping Nazareth to go further towards a sustainable development. The ultimate goal is to reach 24 hours of availability and good quality service.

When the service reaches an availability of 24 hours, the users will start paying for it. This service will be charged with the rates of Uribia which is the closest municipality and all the homes of Nazareth will be typified in the lowest stratum, one. This is to ensure the Wayuú community and the more than 1,800 people benefited by this project will have access to a good quality service under affordable and competitive prices. The community has a lot of expectancy over the system and one of the good celebrations they could have was the centennial celebration of the foundation of the Wayuú boarding school. The school now with a better electricity system was able to have a great celebration of its centennial anniversary by offering new technologic and educational equipment to their students are comput-

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 57 ers and audiovisual equipment. (Ministry of Education, 2011) Unfortunately, there are still some deficiencies like for example in places places like the house of culture, people must go to the boarding school when they want to make use of audiovisual tools.

In general terms the Wayuú community has reacted very positive to the project and has very high expectations of what this kind of projects will bring them as benefits. One demonstration of these expectations is the giving of a piece of land by one of the families to build the technologic park. The Wayuú community feels respected and sees the technologies as a way to bring development to their community. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) Still, further improve- ments shall be made to guarantee a full access to 24 hours of good quality electricity.

3.1.3. Gasification Technologic Innovation Center

The TIC for biomass gasification is located in the township of El Totumo; rural area of the municipality of Necoclí as shown in Figure 7. Most of the population in this area is constituted by black people from afro communities dedicated to fishing, agriculture and mining. In 2006, a plan started to develop this technological innovation center because even though El Totumo had good covering of electricity service, one of its pathways had no service at all. This pathway is called Nueva Pampa. Necoclí was benefited by government funding in 2006 to get electricity to some of its pathways, but unfortunately Nueva Pampa wasn’t benefited. After this, taken advantage of its geographical position in front of the river mouth of River Atrato in the Caribbean Sea and considering the large amount of wood biomass that arrived to the beaches of Necoclí, the biomass gasification project was conceived.

Figure 14. Necoclí Beach Filled with Wood Coming From the Sea (Delgado, 2011)

Project Background In 2008, Necoclí offered electricity service to a total of 5,370 users of which 43.6% were located in the urban area and 56.4% in the rural areas. The households ranged between strata 1 and 3, having most of its users in stratum 2. (Strata is a way to classify households in Colombia according to how much they pay for taxes and services) To give a clearer overview of the situation by this time; coverage in urban Necoclí was 85.6% and 40.03% in rural zones of Necoclí. This was a deficit because in all the other urban centers around coverage was above 85% and this was due to the lack of service in the pathways of certain townships; having Nueva Pampa as one example of those pathways. Other townships with low or no access to electricity were: Pueblo Nuevo, Mellito, Las Changas and Mulatos. Before the gasification project started, people from the community saw the wood coming from the sea as garbage and even was thought of it as a burden to transit freely through the beaches. People back then used to gather all the wood and burn it in big bonfires to get rid of the wood or to have an amusing time by the beach with the light and warmth coming from the bonfire. (Delgado, 2011)

58 Figure 15. Bonfire in Necocli Beach (Delgado, 2011)

For lighting, the most used elements were candles, followed by battery lanterns and homemade petroleum lanterns made out of empty soda bottles. The following diagram shows the distribution of the elements use for illumination.

Figure 16. Distribution os illumination elements in El Totumo (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011)

Even though the situation regarding electricity supply was not ideal for many inhabitants of the area, their expectan- cies were somehow different from what the IPSE expected. In a research done in the area, it was highlighted that they manifested by them that they were not interested in having a 24 hour service; they concluded that with a few hours at night was enough. This reaction and response from the people in this area comes from being used to the absence of the service since they have been able to carry on with their activities despite not having the service. They don’t see it as necessary. Some of the houses that did have the service were connected through illegal interconnections which constitute potential threats to electrical accidents. Also, the lack of education among the users was evident in the use of only 110 W and 100 W regular light bulbs. None of the light bulbs was of a more modern technology which saves energy. The users preferred the brightest and fastest, because they didn’t know or weren’t aware about the implications of saving and having a rational use of electric energy. (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) (IPSE, 2011a)This is why with the installation and development of the technologic innovation center along with education and information programs for the final users is of vital importance.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 59 Biomass Gasification Energy Production Process The biomass gasification energy production process is done in a plant installed in a 4,075 m² terrain given in loan by a member of the community. This process consists of various stages: harvest and transportation, pre-drying and under roof storage, cut and processing, drying, gasification and electricity production.

Harvest and Transportation This stage consists in collecting the wood biomass residues found in the beach. This wood arrives to the beach from the Atrato River which has its mouth to the Caribbean Sea just in front of Necocli. In the beach, wood pieces are selected, washed and cut with chainsaw to have pieces ready for transportation. It is gathered in the beach at open air to release excess of humidity and to be ready to be put in the transportation wagon.

Figure 17. Wood Gathering and Cutting into Planks for Transportation (Delgado, 2011)

The wood biomass planks are then transported in animal-drawn (horse or donkey) carriages to the gasification plant facilities to be processed. All of the people involved in these activities are inhabitants of Nueva Pampa which is the pathway where the plant is located.

Figure 18. Worker Getting the Wood Planks Ready for Carriage Transportation (Delgado, 2011)

Pre-drying and Under Roof Storage After the wood biomass has been gathered and transported from the beach, it is stored in an open air facility with a roof to avoid that it gets wet if it rains. Locals, understanding the importance of the biomass project have now started to donate wood that is no longer in use to be process along with the wood from the beach. Through the solar irradiance and wind that the wood receives it starts a natural process of moisture removal. Planks are left there for certain time before it is fit for cutting and processing.

Figure 19. Wood Being Prepared for Pre-Drying Process.

Cut and Processing In this process the wood planks are cut and reduced to small blocks of specific dimensions. A sawmill is used to process the wood blocks to be used in the gasifiers. There are two gasifiers in the project; a fix bed gasifier and fluidized bed gasifier. The biomass is stored already processed ready to be used in the gasifiers. For the fix bed gasifier the wood blocks are around 4 cm big and for the fluidized bed, 2 mm. The remaining waste such as sawdust, shavings and chips are also used in the gasification process.

Figure 20. Wood Cut and Processing (Delgado, 2011)

Drying Process Once the material has been reduced to the appropriate dimensions for gasification, it is sent to a final stage of drying. Thanks to the previous processes of open air storage and cutting the reduction of moisture is already advanced. This final drying process has three sub-processes. The first one is drying through the use of hot gases coming from the gasification outlet at controlled conditions of temperature and air flow. This makes the process efficient while using exhaust gasses. As a second sub-process, they leave the wood at open air sun drying. On a final sub-process, using the exhaust gases of the combustion of the diesel engine of the generator another drying sub-process is done.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 61 Figure 21. Open Air Sun Drying of Biomass (Delgado, 2011)

Curing and Packaging When the biomass is dry, is it passed to a storage facility where the biomass is cured with some powdered chemical products with the objective of avoiding contamination or plague infections that could consume or damage the wood. When the biomass is cured, it passes to be packed in packages of 20 kg to be ready to be used in the gasifier. The fix bed gasifier for example has a intake of 40 kg/h when in operation.

Gasification Process For the gasification process in the TIC, a fixed bed gasifier is used. The gasifier is fed at a rate of 40 kg/h by a feeding box. The packages of biomass are stored in a container which has an automatic feeding system with hoppers that brings the wood biomass into the gasifier. Inside the reactor of the gasifier, there is a combustion process of the wood biomass with the air that is introduced at atmospheric conditions producing a lean or dry gas. The solid waste produced in the gasification process is stored and held in the bottom of the gasifier, while the gas continues through a cooling and cleaning process.

The gas first passes to coolers with water spray and a venture to reduce its temperature and to initiate a tar cleaning process. The cold gas enters a stage where after passing a dump it enters first a coarse filter where the bigger tar particles are retained. This filter has a bed of chopped wood and has maintenance every 72 hours. After the coarse filter, the gas passes to a fine active filter made out of meshes and sawdust. This fine filter has weekly maintenance. Finally, to finish the cleaning process, the gas passes through a vacuum filter built with sawdust. This vacuum filter receives monthly maintenance. After removing the final tar particles from the gas, it is ready to be used as fuel for the electricity generation system composed by a gas engine and an induction generator. (Delgado, 2011) (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) (Hasler & Nussbaumer, 1999)

Figure 22. Fixed Bed Gasifier and Filters in Necoclí (Delgado, 2011)

62 Figure 23. Typical Fixed Bed Gasifier with Coolers and Filters (Hasler & Nussbaumer, 1999)

Electricity Generation A 40 kW generator set driven by a gas engine is used in Necoclí to produce electricity. The gas engine operates with the lean gas obtained from the wood gasification process which is introduced into a blower that helps to increase the gas flow into the engine. The combustion engine has a direct coupling to the induction generator.

Figure 24. 40 kW Gas Engine Generator Set (Delgado, 2011)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 63 Just like with the hybrid Polygeneration TIC, the biomass Technologic innovation center is also connected to the Na- tional Monitoring Center.

Figure 25. Biomass Technological Innovation Center Connected to the National Monitoring Center (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011)

Overall Remarks of the Biomass TIC in Necocli The Biomass Technologic Innovation Center in Necoclí has brought a wide number of benefits for the community since it started. With a broader access to a reliable electrical energy service, the population of Necocli has been able to purchase and use different technologic devices that help them to improve productivity, education and leisure. People in Necocli now are more able to make use of computers, televisions, refrigerators, radios, mobile phones, fans, among others. The project itself was able to create 10 direct jobs by 2011 and a series of other indirect and temporal jobs. In this way the Biomass TIC has also opened and widened the job opportunities in the area. The biomass project has a capacity to supply electricity to 60 families; by 2011 30 families were being benefited. The project has grown constantly. It started offering only 2 hours of service, then 4 and later 6 hours from 17:00 until 23:00. The scope is to keep increasing the availability of the service to more and more hours. The IPSE also made some agreements with the National University and the National Learning Service (SENA for its initials in Spanish). Through these agreements people got education and training in rational use of energy and energy management, but also different technical and other labor activities taking advantage of the electric energy service bringing also economic and social development to the Necocli region. (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) (Delgado, 2011) (IPSE, 2011a)This project is a good example of a road towards sustainable development in rural Colombia.

3.1.4 Solar Energy Technologic Innovation Center

The Solar Energy Technologic Innovation Center is located in Titumane in the northern part of the department of Chocó as seen in Figure 7. As explained in previous sections, the department of Chocó is the Colombian department with the lowest indexes of human development and living standards. It is located in a very wild jungle area which attracts a lot of eco-tourism because of the attractive zones without human intervention. The people living in this area are communities composed by black people from afro background whose main economic activity is fishing. Titumane is a township that depends from the municipality of Unguía which provided a limited service with Diesel engine generators. Taking advantage of the solar irradiation in this area, the idea of the TIC with solar energy to reduce fuel consumption was conceived. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

64 Project Background Titumane had a service that depended on the service given by the municipality of Unguía, which was of 4 hours per day. This service was provided through a diesel engine generator. A main driver to develop the technologic innovation center in Titumane was that the municipality decreased the fuel supply to the community. Before, the municipality was able to give 17 to 18 barrels of diesel fuel. Now, this number decreased to 7 to 8 barrel having a huge impact in the electricity service. The service also was very expensive for the inhabitants of Titumane who depend mainly on fishing activities. The idea of developing the technologic innovation center with PV technologies is to counteract the shortage of fuel supply and to achieve a 24 hour electricity service.

As well as with the other technologic innovation systems, studies are made to determine which are the most abundant and available natural and sustainable resources that the region has; this enables the implementation of a system to provide a reliable and efficient electric energy service. In the case of Titumane, solar irradiation was the natural resource chosen to implement a hybrid system of PV technologies and diesel engine generator. Titumane counted with a 150 kW diesel engine generator which was only operated during 4 hours per day. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

Generator Model P150E Serial 29980/40 Manufacturing Year 2011 Nominal Power 101.6 kW 127 kVA 0.8 pf Nominal Operating Voltage 220/127 V Number of Generator Phases 3 Frequency of Generator 60 Hz Current 333.3 A Operation Speed 1,800 rpm Max. Operating Altitude 152.5 meters above sea level Alternator Connection Type Star ISO 8529-3 Classification PR 500H TLO 875 Alternator Box Protection IP23 Excitation Voltage 45 V Excitation Current 2 A Automatic Voltage Regulator (A.V.R.) R230-A Motor Brand and Model Perkins 1006 TAG

Table 6. Diesel Engine Generator Technical Specifications (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

Hybrid Photovoltaic and Diesel Engine Generator System The three main elements that had to be added to the already existent diesel generation system were: PV panels, balance of system, adaptation and modernization of distribution lines. The idea of the Hybrid system is to keep the maximum operation time of the diesel engine to 4 hours per day. The balance of system has several components that are of high importance for the development of this project, starting with the bidirectional inverters.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 65 Bidirectional Inverters The inverter is one of the most important elements of the balance of system when speaking of photovoltaic generation systems. Inverters are the elements that convert the DC power generated by the PV panels into AC power that can be used and transported by the grid and conventional household electric appliances. In the case of Titumane, since a hybrid system was implemented, a bidirectional inverter was selected. These inverters operate at a minimum power of 75 kVA in a three phase system 127/208 Vac @ 60Hz. This inverter has a great feature of being managed locally or remotely, which is ideal for the integration with the IPSE’s National Monitoring Center.

The inverter used in this project must be bidirectional because it needs to be able to switch between operating modes: DC/AC inverter when supplying to the grid and AC/DC charger when feeding the battery bank. The general characteristics of the bidirectional inverter are:

• 75 kVA mínimum power with capcity of having two inverter modes: 60 kVA associated with batteries and 15 kVA associated to the grid connection. • Adjust the charge current from the diesel engine generator set depending on the load. • Automatic startup • Manual or automatic functioning without blackouts when switching between inverter modes. • Customizable battery management. • Adjustable charge transfer depending on the Battery State of Charge (BSOC), load consumption, and schedule parameters; such as the 4 hour limit for the diesel generator. All this without blackouts. • Load balancing that optimizes the operation of the system to minimum 80% of its capacity. • Priority for delivering energy produced by the PV System. • Capacity to integrate various power sources despite of they are DC or AC. • Local and remote monitoring software. • Monitoring of events, alarms and detailed data acquisition with storage capacity of at least 3 years. • Three phase voltage output 127/208 Vac • Voltage variation in inverter mode is less than 1%. (+/- 1%) • In charger mode (parallel with diesel engine) voltage variation has to be less than 10% (+/-10%) • Transference time between modes 0 ms. • Output frequency 60 HZ: +/-5% in inverter mode; +/- 3% in charger mode. • Withstand a 150% overload during 30s minimum. • PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) charge controller. • Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of maximum 4%. • Efficiency: 92% in power ranges of 20%-100% of nominal inferior power; 94% in power range of 70%-90% of nominal superior power. • Internal protection against: surge, high temperature, peak current, high or low frequencies, AC and DC peak voltage.

This inverter has software and communications that allow connection to a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, which will further help with the integration to monitoring from the NMC. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

Battery Bank The battery bank is composed by lead acid batteries with OPzS elements. The whole battery bank has a capacity of 3900Ah@C-100 and it is of vital importance for the hybrid system for energy storage. The batteries can last a minimum of 3 days with 80% of their depth of discharge (DOD). They have life cylcle of 1,500 cycles at 80% DOD. The outer lining of the batteries is made of styrene-acrylonitrile, making it resistant to mild impacts if they are dropped and also offering an hermetic sealing.

Figure 26. Battery Banks at Titumane (IPSE, 2011b)

Photovoltaic Modules The PV modules installed in Titumane were polycrystalline silicon panels. Each panel has a nominal peak power of 115-180 W. They are resistant wind speeds of 120 km/h, and come with 25 year guarantee operating at 80% of their nominal power. The modules also come with a charge regulator with maximum power point tracker (MPPT).

Figure 27. Photovoltaic Panels Installed in Titumane

As well as the other TICs the solar energy technologic innovation center in Titumane is linked by satellite to be monitored at the National Monitoring Center.

Figure 28. Hybrid System with Solar Energy Connected to the NMC (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 67 3.1.5 Hydro Innovation Center

Colombia has a very rich potential of hydraulic energy, hence more than 60% of its installed capacity is covered by large hydro-power plants. (UPME, 2013)This obvious potential makes the use of small hydraulic turbines to produce electric energy in the non-interconnected zones. These micro-hydro systems lead to the creation of a technologic innovation center dedicated to hydraulic energy in La Encarnación, department of Antiquia as shown in Figure 7. La Encarnación makes part of the non-interconnected zones and also has low indexes of human development and quality of life. Taking advantage of its rich geographical position, a project of hydraulic energy with small turbines was developed.

Project Background The IPSE in its initiative of developing different TICs, saw in La Encarnación great potential to develop a TIC focused on hydraulic energy. This was a easy and obvious choice because in La Encarnación there was already an old small hydraulic power plant out of line, like many around Colombia. Lack of economic resources and the appearance of larger hydroelectric projects, lead these smaller plants to shut down and left unattended. In La Encarnacion the IPSE has the goal to retrofit and repower a 55 kW hydro-power system to supply electricity to La Encarnación and two near pathways using water from a creek called La Quebradona. The potential this creek offers is a net fall of 46.8 m and a flow rate of 250 l/s. The old system had been installed in 1973 and was operational until 1997. The original system has a capacity of around 20 kW.

The groups of people that inhabit this area are mainly mestizos, followed with 5% of indigenous people and 1.2% from afro descendants. These groups of people mainly have rural cultural background and are dedicated to agriculture and cattle raising. The availability an electrical energy service will allow them to improve their living standards by the use of household electric appliances such as refrigerators to store their food and other supplies for their economic and farming activities

Hydro-Power System in La Encarnación The aim of the IPSE with this Project was to do a retrofit and repower the old 20 kW hydro-power system and replace it to a new 55 kW hydraulic system. In 2007, ten years after the old system got shut down, the IPSE implemented this TIC of a hydraulic turbine and three phase generator to provide electricity to 125 families located in the township of La Encarnación and the pathways of Barrancos and San Rafael.

La Encarnación is located in a mountain range area with numerous rivers which makes it an ideal location for implementing micro hydro-power systems. The municipality of Urrao is the local authority in charge of operating this TIC. For the implementation of this project several civil work had to be done such as the water intake, the water basin, the powerhouse, and the canals and tubing to conduct the water. (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

Water Intake A new water intake had to be constructed for the development of the project in La Encarnación. The water intake was built with lateral Ambursen type dam made out of reinforced concrete. It has two grids to filter or avoid the entrance of fish, animals or other big elements that may damage the system; one in the intake and one at the entrance of the conduction channel. The dam also has excess dumps, a retaining gate and a second intake which is of Tyrol type. The Tyrol type intake is also made out of concrete and has screw type gates and cleaning gates. (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

68 Figure 29. Water Intake at La Encarnación (IPSE, 2009)

Water Conduction Canal The conduction pipe is 3,160 m long. Most of the canal is done on the ground in a rectangular section. When the fall is not on ground, it is conducted through polyester piping and some sections have trapezoidal transverse area and made of simple reinforced concrete. In some sections, the conduction canal has relievers for when there is an excess of water due to rain water or other affluents.

Figure 30. Construction of the Conduction Channel (IPSE, 2009)

Storage Tank The storage tank is used as a basin to store all the water collected from the river to be delivered in a controlled way to the hydraulic turbine to produce electricity. The storage tank has 4 floodgates; 2 retention floodgates and 2 regulation floodgates. This storage tank is closed to avoid the entrance of people or animals. It also has a reliever for when there is excess of water. (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

Pressure Piping The piping used to deliver the water to the hydraulic turbines is made of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). It is 16” piping, PN 10 type. Most of its course is done underground and the in a steep slope section it goes over the ground to enter the powerhouse where the hydraulic turbines are contained. The pressure piping is in total 173 m long. (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 69

Figure 31. Pressure Piping at La Encarnación (IPSE, 2009)

Powerhouse The powerhouse used is an extension of the original power house. It had to be extended to allow the installation of 2 new hydraulic turbines. The first turbine installed was a 20 kW Pelton type turbine coupled to a 30 kVA synchronic generator with operating voltage 127-220 V. The other turbine installed was a cross-flow type turbine coupled to a 55 kW synchronic generator with a nominal speed of 1800 rpm and 60 Hz frequency. The admission valve to supply water to the turbines is a 16” butterfly valve. For its control, it possesses an electronic governor to regulate speed with PID, speed increases with pulleys and a flying wheel for when there are rough changes in the load. (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

Figure 32. La Encarnación Powerhouse (IPSE, 2009)

Figure 33. Hydraulic Turbines and Generators Used in La Encarnacion (IPSE, 2009)

70 Having a difference with the other TICs, the innovation center in La Encarnación is not connected to the National Monitoring Center. The reports are done by the Public Service Company of Urrao. They give a monthly report to the IPSE over the electricity consumption of the 125 houses that are connected to their network.

3.2 LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS

The Landscape is so general and broad that only the key factors that have a higher influence in the development of SETs in the NIZ will be studied thoroughly. To begin a brief explanation of the geography and population will be given to put in context that situation of non-interconnected zones and the reasons they exists. These zones have geographical burdens that isolate them from the centralized part of the country and hence its status of being non- interconnected. This isolation also derives into other differences such as cultural and organizational.

The political instability climate plays an important role in this whole implementation of SETs in the non-interconnected zones. Colombia is paradoxical because even though there’s still an internal conflict that has been going on for 50 years, economy is getting better every day and the country is seen as a rising star among the region placing itself third economy in the region just behind Brazil and Mexico, and projections keep looking promising. (World Bank, 2014) While the government has made a lot of efforts to keep the country in its good path of economic development, the conflict is mainly held in rural regions, most of which the non-interconnected zones make part of. This affects directly the development of sustainable energy technologies in these areas because while the access to the technologies can be made easier, its implementation can be another story since the rising of guerrilla attacks to population and infrastructure since the beginning of the peace negotiations with the current government of president Juan Manuel Santos. The presence of armed groups, not only guerrillas, in these regions can make very difficult the implementation of SETs in the non-interconnected zones due to security issues.

The last section the landscape will be dedicated to the cultural differences among Colombia and especially among the non-interconnected zones and the interconnected zones in Colombia. In this section the different minorities that occupy these territories will be analyzed with the help of Hofstede’s dimensions of culture to achieve a more systematic approach. The two main minorities that will be taken into account will be indigenous groups and afro groups. The amount of different indigenous groups in Colombia is very numerous, but they’ve been considered in one single category to avoid ethnocentrism and make a more general assessment. Regarding this issue, the largest indigenous groups will be taken into account and also those who had already access or contact with the sustainable energy technologies which are more relevant for this case of study.

3.2.1 Geography and Population

In Colombia even though 66% of its territory is considered non-interconnected zones, 95% of its population inhabits the interconnected zones. (Florez Acosta et al., 2009) To study the situation of sustainable energy technologies in these areas, it is necessary to understand and have a clear identification of the related zones. The Colombian government has divided the non-interconnected zones into 12 different groups as shown on Figure 34.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 71 Figure 34. Map of non-interconnected zones (taken from IPSE modified by author)

This map was defined by the IPSE which is the government institution in charge of planning and developing energetic solutions for the NIZ. Each of this groups or areas has been identified by the IPSE as part of the non-interconnected zones and classified depending on their population or geographical characteristics. For example groups 4 to 7 were defined by the rivers that cross through them. Groups 8 through 11 are departments of the political division of Co- lombia. (Colombia has 32 departments that define its political division; to understand better, it could be paralleled to the 12 provinces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands or the 50 states of the United States of America). Groups 2 and 3 are divisions of the Pacific Coast based on department divisions. Group 1 is part of the Chocó department which has great influence of the Atrato River and group 12 is made out of areas where isolated municipalities with a restricted access to electrical energy are located.

With this division in mind, the whole classification of NIZs is clearer and more understandable. It will also help to understand the assessments made by the government to implement either technology in a specific area or NIZ. Co- lombia is divided into six different regions which are clearly defined by its geographical characteristics. The mountain range region which is the Andean Region, two coastal regions defined by the ocean or sea they have a boundary with, the islands that make part of the country in both seas are considered a region itself, the flatland region of the west

72 called Orinoquia and the jungle region in the sound which makes part of the world famous Amazon rainforest. Figure 10 gives a graphic definition of these regions.

Figure 35. Regions of Colombia (IDEAM, 2010)

These regions are important to identify because the studies over solar and wind energy resources done in Colombia are classified by region. Regarding solar energy, the whole Colombian territory is very privileged since the equator crosses the southern part of the country, the Amazon Region to be more precise. Regarding solar irradiation official data from the IDEAM (Institute of hydrology, meteorology and environmental studies of Colombia) Colombia has a mean daily solar irradiation of 4,5 kWh/m² and very conveniently Guajira has the highest irradiation mean average, 6 kWh/m². (IDEAM, 2006) It is extremely convenient since Guajira is the most northern area or group 12 of the NIZs showed in the map of Figure 9. Official studies state that the annual mean solar irradiation in Guajira is 2190 kWh/ m²/year, the highest in the country. The following table shows the average for each region; showing that PV systems could be a feasible solution all over the country, resource wise. (IDEAM, 2006)

REGION SOLAR IRRADIATION (kWh/m²/year) Caribbean Region 1825 Amazon Region 1551 Andean Region 1643 Pacific Region 1278 Orinoquia Region 1643

Table 7. Solar Irradiation per Region in Colombia (IDEAM, 2006)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 73 On the other side of the coin, wind energy potential is totally the opposite to solar energy potential due to the same reason of having the equator passing by the southern region of the country and the Andes mountain range crossing through the country.

Figure 36. Annual Average of Mean Wind Surface Speed (IDEAM, 2006)

Just like with solar irradiation, Guajira is the most privileged area having areas where the mean surface wind speed yearly average is between 7.0 and 8.0 m/s. According to a study published by the World Bank, the Guajira region has a wind potential of 18 GW, enough to supply the whole country’s demand. (Vergara, Deeb, Toba, Cramton, & Leino, 2010) Unfortunately, the majority of all the rest of NIZ groups are located in areas where the mean surface wind speed is between 0.0 and 2.0 m/s which is very poor to implement wind power systems. This means that wind energy could be a viable option to the regions and communities that are nearby the Guajira.

On the other hand hydro power systems have been well known in Colombia for a long time and even the majority of the Colombian electrical system is supplied by hydro power. In the nineties it was almost all of it, but the coming of the dry season phenomenon called El Niño, dried up the basins and led to electric energy shortages all around the country at the beginning of the nineties decade. This is when gas and diesel were mostly implemented all around

74 the country to avoid shortages again when dry periods would come. Still, 64% of the supply of electrical energy in Colombia is done with hydro power with an installed capacity of 9,185 MW. Regarding the NIZs, micro-hydro systems account for 4.11% of the National total and 85.7% of the systems below 20MW with an installed capacity of 591 MW. (UPME, 2013)

3.2.2 Political Environment

Colombia has had some radical twists in its political scene since the beginning of the new millennium which has seri- ously affected the entire development of the country. After Andrés Pastrana’s government from 1998 to 2002, Álvaro Uribe Velez took office bringing a new radical position towards guerrillas and the internal conflict the country has been living for almost 50 years. Pastrana had a very frustrating and failed attempt to negotiate with the guerrilla of FARC (Colombian Armed Revolutionary Forces) in which the country saw how the guerrilla only used the ‘distention zone’ as a place to act in rampant criminal activities at their will. The distention zone was an portion of the country in which the government had decided to retire military presence to give it to the FARC as an act of good faith to sit down to negotiate peace. Instead of committing to the peace process, the FARC mocked the whole country and used this time of three years and three months and large space to strengthen their lines, expand their drug trafficking activities, enlarge their weapon arsenal and train their militias better. Also, they acted as the law and ruled over that area which was located in the non-interconnected zones, groups 12 and 5 if compared to Figure 34. (El Tiempo, 2013) The distention zone is marked in yellow in the map below. To have an idea of how big the distention area was like, it was a little bit larger than the Netherlands having a total area of 42,000 km², while the Netherlands has a total surface area of 41,526 km².

Figure 37. Military Distention Zone (United Nations Human Rights, Colombia, 2002)

After the failed peace talks and dismantling the distention zone, Colombian people urged for a leader with strong hand which was found in Alvaro Uribe. Uribe gave the biggest and hardest military hits to the guerrilla, taking back to control areas that before were not accessible for civilians. People had houses and farms abandoned in other regions because they couldn’t access due to guerrilla or paramilitary control, but under Uribe’s government that came to an end. While Uribe was strong and firm in his military warfare against guerrillas, he dealt with paramilitary groups in very different way making a demobilization pact in which many paramilitary combatants were reintegrated to society and head leaders sent to extradition in the United States. All in all, government control over certain areas was improved. (Gutierrez Arguello, 2010) This brought a new confidence and trust over Colombia and several successful campaigns

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 75 were launched to attract foreign investment. The world started to look Colombia with other eyes and Uribe achieved that by popular decision the constitution was changed so he could be reelected. In his second mandate, his ‘democratic security’ policy kept further on giving tremendous strikes to the guerrillas, but leaving harrowing side effects as the so called ‘false positives’ The false positives were innocent civilians killed to be presented as guerrilla casualties so the military forces could meet their expected goals and targets in their war against guerrillas. (Semana, 2014) This and other scandals caused national indignation, but still kept people craving for more of the ‘democratic security’ since economy was growing and guerrilla related activities had drastically dropped when compared to Pastrana´s times.

This resulted in Uribe supporting the now president of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos, who was his successful Minister of Defense in the fight against guerrillas. Santos came to power on 2010 under the flag of ‘democratic security’ and with the promise to continue with Uribe’s legacy. He won with the highest number of votes ever received in presi- dential elections in Colombia. (León, 2010) Even though Santos continued giving some big strikes to the FARC, his whole political strategy changed and tried to ally with everyone he could. He called it ‘National Unity’ having at his side his old enemies and contradictors working in his government. Many saw this as treason and Uribe and his followers, that had elected him, declared themselves direct opposition of the government. Santos started a process to negotiate with the FARC about peace again. Many saw the ghosts of Pastrana’s fail attempt appear, but this time circumstances were a lot different. No distention zone, a weaker guerrilla and negotiations in a neutral ground, Cuba. This was now the flag of Santos for reelection in 2014, peace. He called his opposition the enemies of peace and said the process he just initiated was the key to peace and end the conflict. He had to run against Uribe’s candidate, Oscar Zuluaga and won by a very thin margin in the second round. Santos far from his first victory won with just 51% on the total votes while Zuluaga remained with 45%. (Presidency of Colombia, 2014) This clearly shows how divided is the country and the entire political environment which has lately turned into a fight of poles.

Recently, the political scene in Colombia has been driven by personal attacks and political reputation defense, rather that truly meaningful policy making. As an example, one of the congress’ biggest debates was over Uribe’s ties with the development of paramilitary groups and other criminal activities. (Holguín & Vega, 2014) This could well set a barrier for the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones in the sense that politicians are recently more worried about covering their dirt and looking over the opposition’s mistakes rather than focusing on issuing good policies that may benefit the people.

As another fact is that during the Santos government, even though they are in a peace talk process, guerrilla criminal activities have increased and many of those activities have been against the energy industry; oil and gas infrastructure, coal transportation, energy towers and power lines. This not only makes the government to spend extra resources in rebuilding the old infrastructure, but also leaves a big fiscal whole in the nation’s budget since a good part of the GDP comes from the oil production in Colombia. That deficit has to be covered by rising up taxes to the general public which generates an environment of discomfort. This spending of extra funds due to guerrilla attacks under the current government can result in wasting valuable monetary resources that could have ended financing projects related to development of sustainable energy in the non-interconnected zones. Also, the presence of guerrilla groups in several of the non-interconnected zones makes it very difficult for engineers and other professionals that might be willing and have the resources ready to implement renewable energy projects in NIZs, but simply can’t do it due to the danger- ous presence of those rebel groups. In addition to the difficult access, the violence climate in these areas has been an huge incentive for large migration from the NIZs to urban areas making Colombia the country with most forced or violent displacement in the world just after Syria with more than 5 million. (United Nations High Comissionate for Refugees, 2011) One if the challenges for the government is to provide secure conditions for people to stop leaving to the urban settlements and even attract the already displaced groups back to the rural areas to make the land productive. Instead of contributing the urban nightmare, as Jeffrey Sachs calls it, they could make a vast difference in the agricultural sector of Colombia contributing the economic prosperity of the nation.

76 3.2.3 Cultural Differences

Since the establishment of Colombia as an independent nation and republic, cultural differences have played a major role in social policy making in Colombia. To understand why cultural differences have a more relevant impact in Colombia than in developed countries it is necessary to understand the historical and social context in which the Colombian society has been formed. Colombian society has had since the times of the colony, a marked classism that is still alive causing great division and polarization in the country due to high levels of inequality. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Colombia has high GINI index (53.5 in 2012) which shows it’s one of the most unequal countries in the world, and it’s top 3 in South America. (World Bank, 2012) This inequality has a long tradition down in history since the times of the colony from European descendant divided from natives and black slaves having a relevant impact in today’s social dynamics. Even inside the urban settlements strata division categorizes people in 6 different levels. It is difficult to set a common standard for Colombian identity because of the multicultural nature of the society. Western influenced culture could be seen as “dominant”, but it doesn’t fully give a general Colombian “identity” since the reality is much more complex. Regions are normally defined by geographical barriers like mountains, rivers or other landmarks. But in reality a region is more complex than a piece of land, it’s a social space unit in which is framed under historic processes and human settlements that take and transform the available resources developing a series of internal and external relationships regarding that space which are expressed economic, political, social and cultural terms. (Fajardo, 1989) Thus the NIZ is far more complex to understand. As we look into the map of the non-interconnected zones, they are all scattered around the country meaning they all have different historical and social processes which makes each group of the NIZ special and particular. But, the multicultural character of Colombia is not only expressed in a broad view, also in urban centers have certain geographical divisions. Meanwhile you might see contrasts all scattered around the city of slum nearby to wealthy neighborhoods, the social division takes place more marked in the social zones. People from the high levels of income (stratum 5 and 6) hardly share common special zones of entertainment with people from the low strata, 1 and 2. They have discriminatory points of view towards each other and that vision shared in urban centers is translated to the national context where the NIZ have been affected and left invisible to the eyes of development and progress by the national government, as a result of the same historic process of discrimination inherited from colonial times. Though, since the constitution of 1991 inclusion and participation was expressed as a guaranteed right to the minorities, the reality is very different. (Maya Restrepo, 2009). This is why studying the dimension of cultural differences in Colombia is key for any transformation process in the country; in this case a technological transition. This is a challenge and in this matter anthropologists had set 25 years ago three problems that are still present: the confrontation between knowledge sources in the analysis of communities and localities, the conceptualization about participation and inclusion and the construction of political projects that are not homogeniz- ing. Academic knowledge and popular knowledge are two ways to approach the analysis of social reality starting from two different logics: the formal academic and the one of building and living life as part of that society. That gives a meaning to the society as seen from outside, the academic point of view, or object region, and to the subject region which is the real existence lived by its inhabitants and it is related to cultural identity, common sense, collective built history, practices and customs, political projects and power networks. (University of Antioquia, 1989) The challenge is to try to find a balance between the external, objective academic point of view and the local, subjective insight. Think- ing about regions from the inside is also of vital importance when performing academic research, but sometimes it is forgotten to take that local insight just for the sake of formality.

The following sections of the chapter will be composed of: an obligatory historical account will be given to be able to understand the whole cultural scenario in Colombia as the result of a historical process that has been inherited for over two centuries and has marked the composition of the Colombian socio-cultural aspect. Following the historical account, a look into the Colombian cultural dimensions will be done. Afterwards, through the scrutiny of traditions, worldview and traditions from some indigenous and afro communities a series of values that can be identified by the cultural dimensions of Hofstede will be analyzed and compared to those values of the dominant o more western culture. A final comparative assessment will be given to set barriers and drivers based on the cultural differences found in the different cultural dimensions analyzed.

77 Historical Account Ethnic and Cultural aspects became a key point in Colombia when analyzing conflicts, social movements and policy making. It is a dimension that really affects and has influence in all the developing aspects of the country. Many of these have failed because it seems that historical memory and culture have no relevance to recent policy makers. Colombia is said to have historic amnesia forgetting to look back to its past to understand actual events. (Maya Restrepo, 2009) To understand today it is necessary to look back into history and in Colombia cultural development is a factor of social policy development due to facts of historical context. (Ruiz J. E., 1977)

Since the times of the colony violence and subjugation to indigenous tribes that were at different stages of development, had different habits and customs, combined with the looting of their natural wealth lead the foundation of social injustice and violence that continues afflicting today the country. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) It appears that the colonial behavior hasn’t ceased centuries after the emancipation from Spain. This is reflected in recent acts of social injustice, looting and violence towards minorities in Colombia. Not far from what the Spanish colonizers did centuries ago; multinational companies and other state supported industries have made great acts of injustice towards minorities and communities in the NIZ in the name of progress. Forced displacement like in the case of building a damn for the electric central of El Quimbo or la planning of changing the course of the Ranchería River by El Cerrejón, a very important coal company, are just a few examples of those acts. (Granados & Múnera, 2012)

Since the beginning, before the coming of the Europeans to America, Colombia was a country of a vast variety of non homogenous cultures all marked by different social and cultural features all influenced by the topography, climate, environment and geography. Different indigenous or native groups and civilizations with different stages of development, social structures and power networks were found. The survival of an approximate of 180 different linguistic groups today around the Colombian territory shows the lack of unity that has made finding a common national identity a very difficult task till today.

The coming of Europeans to Colombia changed the whole cultural and social environment to a climate of inequality, segregation and violence that the country still suffers. The colonization brought social and legal contrasts which were translated in polarization because of the great social and cultural diversity found in the time. To the already non homogenous mix of native tribes an addition of European colonizers and African slaves was added. The ‘Encomienda’ was a legal regime established where Europeans and their descendants through subjugation would own land with the native Indians inhabiting it and it was designed to uproot the natives from their natural environment and create a pool of labor trying to introduce them to a “formal” economy. That isn’t far from today’s reality where Colombia is, after Syria, the country with most violently displaced people in the world with over 4 million internally displaced persons of the 34 million refugees in the world. (United Nations High Comissionate for Refugees, 2011) They were used as workforce in the gold mines. So, natives and Indians changed their whole mindset and trading traditions to an imposed economic currency system, taken their traditions to an imposed European system. The European oc- cupation of America was the greatest demographic catastrophe of human history, and ii is reflected in the 2,74% of the current population of Colombia that is composed by the various indigenous communities. (United Nations High Comissioner for Refugees, 2012)

The very presence of Europeans, apart from physical violence and coercion to the natives, also caused a profound split in the societal structure among the indigenous people with changes in their economy, relations to the environment, upsetting the family balance and their complex hierarchical systems of society which had reached an advanced evolution. The process of uprooting and corruption was completed by the destruction of their values and the physical environment in which they were based. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Values are core to culture because they determine actions, attitudes and expressions, so changing the values of a society is translated into had a big change in culture. (Trompe- naars & Hampden-Turner, 1997) The segregation and polarization of the country was given by the aspects of race, climate and geography and development within the country. These aspects continue to be aspects of separation and segregation giving birth to the classist society that Colombia is today. Indigenous and afro people in Colombia are

78 seen as different and minorities that are not as well integrated in the society which is expressed through many kinds of racism. The climate and geography aspects are a complex aspect but today’s segregation due to geographical factors is also accompanied by the levels of development within the country. Speaking in a broad context, today derogatory terms to people from the country side or the farmers are used in the big cities such as ‘provinciano’, derived from the term province with in Colombia is in connotation to the rural areas. Even in Bogota, the Capital, the term ‘provinciano’ is used to anyone coming from the outside, even from other big cities such as Cali or Medellin. In the big cities, most often, in high social circles, farmers are seen as ignorant and uneducated people and terms as ‘campeche’ or ‘camp- esino’, farmer, are used to denote someone’s ignorance a lack of education. Even terms as ‘negramenta’ used for a group of black people or ‘indio patirrajado’ referring to an indian, though disparaging, are openly and commonly used by Colombian people. (Colombian Academy of Language, 2012) But segregation is not only from urbanized areas to the rural remote areas or minorities, inside the big cities a climate of contrast, inequality and segregation is latent by the use of strata to classify households. The strata system classifies households into six different levels where strata 1 and 2 have subsidized services by strata 5 and 6. But the real separation is much more complex than subsidies and marks a series of geographical zones within the city exclusive for people of certain stratum. People from stratum six will rarely share common spaces of daily life with a person of stratum one, unless this stratum one person may result being its domestic help or worker, which is the common case. The strata is seen by many, including Bogota’s actual left-wing mayor, as a fascist, discriminatory and antidemocratic system; a system that has opened serious debates of social inclusion where reactions by many of the actors implied show how far is Colombia of reaching unity, common national identity and social inclusion to all of its inhabitants which is the cornerstone of ending a climate of violence and social injustice to which the internal armed conflict is the result. (Mayoralty of Bogota, 2014)

All this segregation and separation has been subtly accepted in the Colombian society under the premise of a mul- tiethnic nation that is Colombia. So, supposing that we all have a bit of African, Indian or European blood gives space to a light open racism without serious reactions or consequences. The Spanish used miscegenation as a means of adaptation an evolution. They thought that mixing the European race with the native indigenous and the African slaves would produce a better adaptation and evolution to the race and thus also integrating better the minorities or inferiors into their systems. That only helped to create more diversity, but still imaginary boundaries and frontiers were drawn by status and economic disparities. That gave fruit to today´s complex segregation and tolerated racism. (Munera, 2005). Spanish cultural values were introduced based on the missionary activity which resulted in two very important characteristics of Colombia culture. First, it evolved in what currently is perceived as profound religiosity which is perceived all across Latin America. This sense of religiosity which is found in the opening phrases of the Colombian Constitution where God’s protection is invoked and the country was consecrated to the Holy Heart of Jesus in 1902 till 1994 when liberty of cults was considered a constitutional right. The second and most important, education, started as a result of the first one since evangelization activities gave birth to education centers. Since times of the colony education was for the privileged classes and education center were mainly attended mainly by students of upper classes Creole or ‘criollos’ and American Spanish. Creoles were descendants of Spanish with high positions in the society, but mixed with other race and American Spanish were pure Spanish descendants born in America. Today, education hasn’t changed as an element of divergence since the most privileged classes are the ones that have access to education of good quality. Private schools have a chasm of quality when compared to public schools; and even public schools have a very low quality of education many can’t even attend to those schools. Colombia was placed in the last places of the PISA education tests performed in OECD countries in 2012 having the vast majority of students performing in the lowest levels. Also these test showed that poor students in Colombia score 74 points behind those who are more privileged which in practical terms means they are two years of education behind when compared to the wealthy students. Also students in rural areas have 50 points less than those in urban areas; more than a year behind. (Bos, Ganimian, Vegas, & Álvarez Marinelli, 2014)

Although education was mainly for the richest and influential families and members of society, education in times of the colony set up the climate and environment for revolution which resulted in the independence from Spain and the formation of the current Republic. Three main elements derived from the educational boom bolstered the climate

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 79 for independence revolution: the education reform for more inclusion, the botanical expedition and the ‘comuneros’ revolution. The educational reform helped to open more spaces for education and encounters between students which served as the cradle for many revolutionary ideas. The botanical expedition lead by José Celestino Mutis was perhaps the most important educational event in Colombia’s history. Not just through its contribution to science and biology, but because it created a conscience of revolution with Mutis saying in one of his speeches, “We look not towards our backward Spain, but towards learned Europe.” These eloquent words, among others, lit an atmosphere of revolution among students and those near educational circles. The ‘comuneros’ revolution was a revolution led by merchants and craftsmen tired of the high taxes and abuses from the Spanish kingdom. (Ruiz J. E., 1977)

This climate of revolution during the independence process has certain similarities to the current events in Colombia. Many of the left-wing revolutionary ideas and groups that evolved into guerrillas started from the spaces opened to students where ideals of revolution were born. Just like in the days of the independence revolution, the school meeting spaces and places helped to get students together to generate actions of revolution. One great example was the former guerrilla group called M-19 who had its beginnings through a small “subversive” act like the publishing of the magazine ‘Alternativa’ through where they expressed their ideals. (León Palacios, 2008) The guerrilla group ended up taking an armed posture making a guns revolution that resulted in one of the most shameful and still obscure events of the recent history of the nation which was the Palace of Justice Siege on November 1985. Finally, members of the M-19 signed peace with the government after a two year process from 1989 to 1991, and resulted in the redaction of the 1991 constitution. Many of these former guerrilla members are now part of the active political life of Colom- bia in high positions like the actual Mayor of Bogotá, Gustavo Petro. (García Durán, Grabe Loewenherz, & Patiño Hormaza, 2008) More frequently strikes are happening around the country against government regulations and FTA’s with other countries that hamper the local producers. Like in the Revolution of ‘Comuneros’ people from all sectors rise up in strike. The most recent and to name a few are the Justice strike, the agricultural strike, the transportation strike in Bogotá.

Colombia’s history in the times of the independence revolution seems like blue print of current Colombia. In the period of 1810-1830 most of the energy and resources was spent in the armed struggle against Spanish monarchy and the consolidation of a national identity. The efforts of the most outstanding individuals were concentrated on the struggle for emancipation rather than on scientific and cultural activities. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Today Colombia only spends one percent more on education that on its military budget; spending 4% on education and 3% on military. (World Bank, 2012) The end of the armed conflict and finding a way to peace is priority to Colombians than any other thing. Paying no attention to other profound realities like disparity and inequality keeps fueling the conflict. Colombians look at the armed conflict as the cause of all the countries disgraces, but the conflict is actually the result of much more profound issues found in cultural and social roots. In the XIX century having a troubled history and great economic disparities led to an accentuation of inequalities between the ruling classes and the rest. This is still the reality of XXI century Colombia. Since then people were divided in two classes composed by 8 – 10% of the population which were the rich families that had the monopoly of wealth, employment and learning. When you have the monopoly of education and learning, as a result you have the monopoly of labor and power. The popular classes composed by the rest of the population were uneducated, lacked of moral resources and as a result opposed to progress. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) This is no far from today’s reality and that’s why cultural differences make such an important part of technological transitions, in this case the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones as a solution for electrical generation. If you have a needing class opposed to progress combined with an unwilling to help ruling class, certainly it will constitute a bigger barrier than any other barrier of a technical, infrastructure or scientific nature.

Analysis of Dimensions of Culture of Dominant Culture: Pressures over the Regime The cultural traits and characteristics of the Colombian dominant culture identified in the previous section were obtained from the scores as a result of the studies carried out with the Hofstede framework. In this section, the aim

80 is to analyze the characteristics of Colombian culture under the context of technological transitions, more specifically the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones. These cultural traits found in a general context level, are elements of the landscape that set pressures to shape the regime into consolidation, when constituting barriers for the promotion of SETs, or into opening spaces and windows of opportunity when bolstering drivers.

Analyzing the traits and characteristics found in the cultural dimensions, barriers could be identified. Strong centralization in Colombia, inequality and economic disparities are basically the essence of what caused the existence of the non-interconnected zones since the beginning, and still prevails. Having democratic and inclusive plans of action are key for development, and in Colombia that is a major problem. The NIZ are precisely a result of that lack of attention, inclusion and democratic planning. It has its foundation in the process of subsequent and repeated unfair exchange between the urban or productive centers and the rural areas that constitute the non-interconnected zones. This unfair exchange is the result of economic, political and ideological conditions produced historically. There is a miss conception when classifying regions as poor or rich. There could be a region rich in resources, but full of poor people; as an example the whole Pacific Coast which belongs to the NIZ. This means that there are social relationships that foster the idea of concentrating wealth and decision making in the rich social groups who inhabit the urban areas, and reinforced by the acceptation or resignation from the poor people. (Fajardo, 1989) This is exactly what the power distance score explains. Since the times of the colony, an unequal exchange between the urban centers of production and rural areas has developed into the acceptance by the poor populations in the NIZ that decision making and the capability to bring progress to a region comes from the rich populations in power and official institutions. As, an example, for the CCEP the community there are going to benefit with their projects has to meet some specific criteria. Among those criteria, the community or social structure of the community has to be classified as “easy going”. (Rodri- guez, 2014a) Being, “easy going” refers that they can go along with the ideas of the project without being prone to the appearance of conflicts towards the projects developers or even between the same members of the community. At the end, communities and benefited groups are bound to what the developer or the project considers according to its criteria or assessment. This leaves a question in the air that constitutes a barrier for the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones. Are sustainable energy technologies being implemented in a democratic way in the non-interconnected zones? This particular trait constitutes a barrier in the long term because it represents the need of more democratic plans of action to bring sustainable energy technologies as a mean of solving the problem of the lack of electric energy in the non-interconnected zones.

The traits of a collectivist society could be a double-edged sword. In one sense, the openness and the willing to be part of a group and relate to each other in community makes it easier to build up teams with common interests and that’s how easily many initiatives and programs have been designed to meet the need of the non-interconnected zones. A very good example is the success of initiatives like “Un techo para mi país” (A roof for my country) where volunteers such as high school and university students would raise fonds, and collect materials to then go themselves to build houses to families who lost their house or who are homeless. From 2010 till 2012 they were able to build 2653 houses with the help of more the 14,000 volunteers involved in any of the activities such as fund raising, collecting other resources, volunteer recruitment and field work building the houses. (Un Techo Para Mi País Colombia, 2012) Another example of a great collective gathering towards a common end were the marching protests by Colombians all around the world under the name ‘A Million Voices Against FARC’. More than 14 million people worldwide marched against the FARC guerrilla and their criminal activities, constituting the largest antiterrorist demonstration in the world till that moment. (Morales Guevara, 2009) This show how Colombians have a great capacity to get in collective action towards good causes, and the initiative to satisfy the needs of communities in the non- interconnected zones could well be part of it. On the other side of the coin, collectivist traits of Colombian society in the high spheres of power can lead to the promotion of protecting vested interests. This in addition to the masculine culture of praising achievement, luxury, wealth and with the mix of fearing and thus rejecting what is different derived from uncertainty avoidance can result in a big barrier. This big barrier comes from times of the colony presented in the historical account section. Since in Colombia

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 81 there is a strong sense of achievement, to avoid the different and to remain in in-group collectivism this leads to the monopolization of education, power and representation. This means that the same families that have had access to power in former times, still remain like that. As an example the actual president Juan Manuel Santos; Santos comes from the wealthy and powerful family of former president Eduardo Santos who was in office from 1938 to 1942. His family also owned the most important newspaper in the country, El Tiempo and his cousin Francisco Santos was the vice-president of former president Álvaro Uribe. (Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, 2014) The Santos family is just one example of how politic life is Colombia also moves by influence and mostly the traditional families in power are maintained. This promotes a perpetuation of policy making to benefit the same groups that are affiliated to the groups that have influence in power positions, thus corruption. Corruption and protection of vested interests is a common practice in Colombia and reinforced by an ineffective judiciary constitutes in many cases a barrier for technological transitions when such aren’t of the interest or benefit of the policy makers.

The dominant Colombian culture has some special traits that make it quite particular. While on the bureaucratic and formal side these traits lead to barriers established by protection of vested interests, on the popular and more infor- mal side it’s a society that can easily join into common causes and start successful civil initiatives without waiting for approval or support from the government constituting an enormous driver for technological transitions.

Ethnic Minorities Dimensions of Culture: Cultural Differences In Colombia it is impossible to enclose the whole set of ethnic groups into one single classification. As explained by Ruiz in his cultural study, Colombia before the arrival of the Europeans was populated by many diverse native groups each very different from the other in language, customs, values, beliefs, etc. This gave birth to the very heterogeneous society Colombia is today, especially in the non-interconnected zones where these ethnic minorities mostly reside. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) Today, there are 102 different Indian communities in Colombian and three main afro groups: negros, raizales and palenqueros. In 1999 gypsies were also added as a recognized minority in Colombia. Each of these groups are very different from one another in their culture; values, worldview, cosmogony, etc. Among the 102 different native Indian communities, there are 62 different languages all representing 62 completely different cultures. The most important fact to understand, regarding the non-interconnected zones and ethnic minorities, is that native Indians create all their cultural patterns and values from their territory. The territory in which they are settled gives birth to their worldview, cultural values, cosmogony, etc. This is very important to assume when studying the non- interconnected zones because they are so disperse and different among each other, that requires practically a different approach for each community based on their cultural structure which comes from their territory. That is why their territory is much more than a space that they occupy or a piece of land; it’s the foundation of all their social and cultural scaffolding. One element that unites them is their respect and conception over nature and preservation of the environment. (Ribon, 2014) This element also gives as a result certain cultural characteristics that are translated in the following analysis through the different dimensions of culture. Their view of nature is not just of preservation and conservation, but results in other particular behaviors that give us a way to evaluate and compare them with the cultural dimensions of Hofstede. Based on some particular and punctual elements that are shared by the majority of these communities, the whole analysis of the cultural dimensions for ethnic minorities will be done.

Regarding Power Distance ethnic groups such as indigenous groups of afro groups, would score much lower than the dominant Colombian culture. These ethnic minorities have had a whole history of resistance and battle towards oppression from the west. Today they still feel the need to keep a stance of resistance towards the western pressures. The brief history of resistance could be summarized in resistance against the Spanish, then resistance against the colony and the evangelization that remained after independence to change their spiritual legacy, and today a resistance against the so called progress that threatens their territory and the environment. The cornerstone of today’s resistance is the right to ‘prior consultation’ (Consulta Previa). (Ribon, 2014) Prior consultation was a right acquired in the constitution of 1991 in which the ethnic minorities have the right to decide when projects of infrastructure or legal/administrative measures are developed that may affect their cultural, social and economic integrity. They have the

82 right to decide what their priorities and needs towards development are in the measure that it doesn’t affect their lives, spiritual wellbeing, their territory and participate actively in the decision making of these measures which are based in principles of good faith, right to due process, right to access the complete and truthful information. Basically, in the event of a project that requires the modification of the Indian Territory, the project developers in joint action with the government have the obligation to inform truthfully and completely to the communities about the benefits and drawbacks of the project and how the development of such is going to affect them. Then, the community has the right to decide if they agree or not, and under which conditions. Unfortunately, the right to prior consultation hasn’t been much respected by the multinational companies and the government actors. From 1993 to 2011, 2,142 environmental licenses were expedited but only 141 prior consultation processes were done. One may argue, “This is logical if you think that most of these environmental licenses were given in territories where ethnic groups don’t reside”. Ethnic groups occupy 28% of the Colombian territory, which is an important fraction constituting almost a third of the whole Colombian territory. (Abad, 2011) If ethnic groups occupy almost a third of the Colombian territory, isn’t arguable that something is wrong when out of 2,142 environmental licenses given; only 141 had a prior consultation process? And even though if prior consultation is done, in most cases the ministry of interior who leads the whole process, almost always takes a stance in favor of economic development and more western views of development. This is also a result of the undemocratic access to education at all levels, inherited from colonial times, which results in the lack of representation of the ethnic groups in the bodies of power. (Ruiz J. E., 1977) (Ribon, 2014) This situation has lead to the ethnic groups to adopt positions of strong resistance against progress or technological transitions and any sort of west efforts that may threaten against their heritage and culture. Ethnic groups have seen that much of what we call economic progress, for them is just the destruction of the environment and tradition which leads to retrogression. Hence the stance of resistance may constitute a barrier to technological transitions since, mostly, technological innovations for them have resulted in bad experiences and disrespect.

Regarding the Individualism dimension, ethnic groups would score lower than the Colombian dominant culture. These communities are even more collective oriented than the dominant Colombian cultures, but it is also another kind of collectivism. Since communities are smaller groups, immediate family or relatives are mostly the whole community in which you live in thus making it easier to have a collectivist approach towards the whole community rather than a single in-group approach as seen in the dominant culture. It is a different kind of collectivism in the sense that they haven’t adopted the neoliberal approach insolvently adopted by the dominant culture. Colombia since its foundation as a rule of law state has adopted a model coming from the French revolution which proclaims equality and has been successful in Europe and the western world, but failed in Latin America because of the tremendous heterogeneity of the social tissue that conform Latin American societies. More than equality, the model that Latin American cultures must adopt is the sense of equity, which is the concept of community and collectivism under with the indigenous and other ethnics groups are governed. This means, all children should have access to education, but they should not all be given exactly the same sort of education. It all has to be of the same high quality, but not treating the exactly same topics because Colombia is not a homogenous society. Indigenous people defend ethno-education, which is learning with respect to their needs, traditions and priorities. (Ribon, 2014) Jaime Garzon, one of Colombia’s history greatest characters, was a great politician, journalist, comedian, activist and peace conciliator which was murdered by paramilitaries with connections with politicians that were uncomfortable by his speeches and complaints towards corruption and bad politics. In one of his speeches he also appointed to this very same issue. Garzón said that the first step into being a failed state is that Colombian education system was teaching people since childhood things that had nothing to do with the real needs of the country, and thus just copying what other models from other countries are. (Garzón, 1997)This all to say that in the principles of equity, ethnic groups and more likely indigenous communities contemplate that each group should educate themselves towards their own traditions and priorities, but always thinking with a great sense of responsibility towards others who are different by inhabit the world, and a strong sense of generational responsibility. Community and collectivist traits are not alone towards my immediate relatives, but towards the rest of the inhabitants of the planet. For example, the Kogui indigenous group worldview says that even though we don’t share the same immediate space and worldviews, we have to take care of each other’s destiny since we inhabit the same planet. That is why the call themselves the big brothers or older brothers, because they

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 83 feel responsible for the conservation and protection of the earth so the younger brothers can also benefit from it; the younger brothers as the people raised with western values. (Ereira, 2014) So in that sense, ethnic groups have broader sense of collectivism because they enclose a higher degree of awareness that we as inhabitants of the world should act with responsibility towards each other, having in mind our differences. Within their communities the well- being is measured by the community and not individually. They always think of we instead of I. As an example, when someone is sick they don’t see it as that individual got sick, but rather as the community failed in something that lead that person to become sick, and thus it is the community’s concern to get this person healed. Their major concerns are to remain as a collective and to find the way that all the members of the community are doing well. (Ribon, 2014) Equity in contrast of equality, creates a frame of unity recognizing each other’s differences and not compelling to a one common framework of guidelines for all, but rather a common shared responsibility.

In the masculinity vs femininity dimension, the ethnic groups score a more feminine society as opposed to the very masculine dominant Colombian. In general line, the uniqueness of social structure of these ethnic groups doesn’t enable their societies to thrive for achievement, status or wealth. Their leadership roles are inherited by family, but it’s not monarchic. Leaders are supposed to be the wise men of society and help in conflict resolution, and to strive for the well-being of the community as a whole. Achievement and success is measured collectively, the failure of the whole community means the failure of the individual as part of that community. Also, between genders, their worldview tends to have equilibrium between masculine and feminine by giving the same importance to hunting and other activities related specific to men than activities exclusive for women as raising and educating children at home. Also, the function of the spiritual leader of the tribe of community is considered as important as the function of the mother that stays home cooking and educating her children. Both roles are given the same importance since they are conceived to be equality necessary for their society and community to run well. Even in some communities such as the Wayuú or the Sikuani, women take the politic and leadership roles of representation of their people. (Barrera, 2014) All these characteristics or cultural traits are very common in those ethnic groups, but along the centuries through evangelization and contact with the western culture, the communities or ethnic groups that have had more contact with the urban centers have changed their behavior into a more masculine way, trying to imitate the ways of the dominant culture. (Ribon, 2014) In general terms ethnic groups have a stronger sense of femininity and their values such are more of those as identified as feminine.

In the uncertainty avoidance dimension the score among ethnic groups cannot be generalized. In this dimension there are two cases that oppose to each other. Depending on the community or the ethnic group and their relationship with the unknown and different, they’ve formed their own response to the uncertain. In 2013 in October was held the I International Congress of the American Indian Communities, where indigenous communities and tribes from all Latin America gathered to talk and debate over various issues and topics. Regarding this topic the two different positions were found where on one side some rejected profoundly progress and the western world because they have brought only harm and destruction. They’ve felt that the western society have come to them to impose their values and priorities without even listening or trying to understand their own points of view. Thus, the communities which have this view reject and oppose to any sign of progress coming from the western initiatives, being a great barrier to technological transitions. Some even chose to go deep into the jungle so they can strictly avoid any contact with the western world which is detrimental for them. This is the position held mostly by the old generations of indigenous people, and communities who have suffered harrowing experiences with the western world. On the other side, there are some communities and mostly the new, younger generations who think that they have to accept some new ideas, recognize differences and learn how to cope with those differences to be able to survive. Younger generations and some other groups see in technological transitions tools to be used to cope better with the differences among them and the rest to live peacefully and better. Also, entering formal education to later have representation in the state or- ganisms are advantages they see from the cultural exchange with the west and other ethnic groups. They believe that understanding the western worldview and their technologic advances can be used as means to preserve and protect their traditions and cultural heritage. Media is also a powerful tool they see they can use to get people from the cities to learn more about the indigenous groups and their importance in Colombia and why they should be preserved.

84 (Ribon, 2014) In this dimension, there is no consensus and it is unique to each community.

In relation to time and having a long-term orientation ethnic minorities, especially the indigenous groups, have a very especial duality. This duality consists in having a short-term orientation approach regarding tradition and preservation of customs, but a long-term orientation when planning and expecting results of their actions. The short-term orientation expressed in the preservation of tradition can be well seen in the preservation of 62 different native languages by these communities. The afro community of Palenque, called palenqueros, is an amazing example in this topic. The people from Palenque are descendants from African slaves from the times of the colony. Their sense of preserving their African roots even led them to create a new language called palenquero which is a Spanish-based creole that has also some influences of the African Bantu language. (Arnaiz-Villena et al., 2009) This shows how strong the feeling of preserving traditions and culture are way stronger than in the Colombian dominant culture. On the other hand, these ethnic groups see the world and time over a broader dimension than most of the western world. They have an enormous sense of generational responsibility because they conceive the future as the time of their grandchildren’s children. Every action and everything they do in the present is to be able to preserve the earth so their descendants can enjoy it in the same quality or even better than them. They are not only long-term oriented regarding time, but also regarding space. As an example, the Kogui living in the top of the mountain would think of preserving and not contaminating the river in the top in order for the city or the urban settlement in the bottom of the mountain can enjoy clean water and the fish of the river. (Ribon, 2014) This conception of looking towards the well-being of others distant in space and time could well be a driver for technological transitions such as the implementation of SETs in the non-interconnected zones when their advantages and benefits in the long-term future can be fully comprehended by the communities.

Ethnic groups regarding indulgence and free gratification for having fun and enjoying life has varied scores among each group or community separate. The score in this dimension, when compared to the dominant culture, is dependant and subjective to each particular community. The factor that determines their attitude towards indulgence is their contact with the urban centers or the dominant culture. As an example, the Embera Chamí who are an Indian group or the negros within the afro groups, have had a prolonged contact with the urban centers and society and thus it is normal and common to find in these groups that in the weekends they go out to party and drink alcohol as part of their recreational activities. This contrasts very much with the way of indulging from the other indigenous groups which have ‘mingas’ as their leisure and indulging activities. In the mingas, people gather to have fun by for example helping the neighbor build his house or doing group work to help improve something in the community. These mingas could sometimes be seen as work, but the indigenous communities see it as an opportunity to get together and share with each other, which is their way of enjoying life. These communities are less prone to have leisure activities just for the sake of fun or enjoying life, in contrast to the others who have more contact with the dominant culture. (Ribon, 2014)

From the cultural differences and analysis over the dimensions of culture between the ethnic minorities and the dominant culture, some elements could be identified that constitute barriers and drivers. The position of resistance and preservation of their cultural identity opposing to change and external pressures from a western culture constitutes a barrier. This barrier affects the process of technological transitions because these ethnic or minority groups might well see the technological innovations as unnecessary or even harmful. As a driver, ethnic groups generally have a very strong approach towards environmental conservation and preservation. Anything that would help to take care of the environmental and represents an enhancement for the future generations is keen to be accepted and embraced by the communities. If these communities get to understand the full benefits of sustainable energy technologies and the benefits they bring to the non-interconnected zones it will be a big driver that will bolster the technological transition. Another barrier posed by a cultural difference is derived from not complying fully with the minority’s rights such as the prior consultation or a fair access to pertinent education. These and other rights are not fully respected and generate a detrimental relationship between the dominant cultural and the ethnic minority groups; it creates a lot of un- trustworthiness and resistance to ideas coming from the dominant culture groups. Cultural differences between the

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 85 dominant culture in Colombia and the ethnic minorities lay a set of barriers and drivers that have a heavy influence in the process of technological transitions that can well mean their success or failure in the non-interconnected zones.

3.2.4 Barriers and Drivers from the Landscape

BARRIERS DRIVERS • Political instability and armed conflict • Growing emergent economy. • Very centralized country. Segregation. • Privileged geography and rich in natural resources. • Resistance to have western intervention in their • High generational responsibility and environmental territories awareness from ethnic groups. • The vast diversity of different ethnic groups poses different challenges in every community. Table 8. Barriers and Drivers from the Landscape

In Colombia the biggest barriers at the landscape level are the political instability and the armed conflict. These two barriers influence practically every other sphere of the landscape in Colombia. The political instability and the perpetuation of the violent internal conflict go hand in hand. There is a current political polarization between those who support the actual government and a negotiation of peace with the FARC rebels, and those who support former president Álvaro Uribe and his firm hand politics of a military outpost to end the conflict. This also affects the positions of the rebels and determines their actions in the rural areas where the NIZ are located. The presence of strong violent groups in these areas only helps to increase the number of internal refugees in the country. People are migrating from the fields to the cities due to violence and lack of opportunities in their own lands. Political instability also generates a shifting environment over policies in all the sectors, including electricity for the NIZ. When people abandon the fields and the rural areas to go to the big cities, the legitimization for developing more services in the non-interconnected zones decreases because those people no longer reside in an area that lacks electricity or water service. Also, having the most amounts of internal refugees in the world after Syria, is a very expensive misfortune. That means that many resources are allocated to compensate the victims of war which have been violently displaced from their lands. Resource that if this situation wasn’t present could well be used in the rural areas to develop school, health care center and alongside electricity provision systems. Recently, there has been a very quick shift of politics in the country causing great instability. With different governments and different political approaches, new ministers, mayors and other political leaders that take office, the approach towards specific policies also changes. This means that plans and projects that were done by a certain politician in office may not have continuation in the next elections. Every new mayor elected and political representative has its own government plan and proposals which may come in conflict with projects and policies in force. This heavily affects the development of projects in the non-interconnected zones because in order to develop projects in these areas, the project executors must work very closely with the local administration. If the new local administration doesn’t agree with the scope of the project or has already promised to allocate resources in order projects, the previous projects have no continuation and are left abandoned.

The second strong barrier coming from the landscape is the segregation between urban and rural areas. Geographi- cal burdens already make difficult to access most of the rural areas, which are the NIZ. To this you can add the lack of representation of these areas in the central government, institutional racism and a reduced access to education to people from rural areas. In certain way as explained in section 3.1.3 the extent of poverty in the NIZ, and the lack of education/literacy is a result of a historical process of segregation from the urban centers towards the remote areas inhabited by the ethnic minorities. In the NIZ poverty and lack of education are results of this same barrier of segregation that threatens the development of the non-interconnected zones in every aspect. This might be a very difficult barrier to overcome because it is rooted in a long historical context and reinforced throughout the year as shown in the previous section. This barrier unlinks any process of development occurring in the urban centers with the development in the non-interconnected areas. Thus, most policies are oriented to the interests of those in urban

86 areas, which is also common because, as explained in section 3.1.1., most of the Colombian population lives in the urban centers. This extreme centralization has caused great amounts of inequality inside the country, being the NIZ of the most affected areas. This barrier is also linked to barrier one because the absence of the government in the NIZ has left vulnerable populations at will of armed violent groups like guerrillas and paramilitaries who establish their own law and rules for the communities. Fortunately, the fighting and resistant spirit of the native groups has in many cases prevailed. The best example is the Nasa people who expelled of their lands the guerrillas and official military groups with just sticks and courage. They claimed their land should be a land of peace and free of conflict.

This attitude of resistance by the ethnic minorities, especially the indigenous groups, proposes a cultural barrier in the landscape. As seen in the case of the Nasa people from Cauca, it can lead to the difficult deployment of policies coming from the “dominant culture”. The abandonment of the government combined with false promises of development that end in tragedy has helped to reinforce that feeling of resistance and a stance to defend their own identity regardless the threat. These minorities have been let down in many cases when they are promised new projects and ideas for development which end up destroying their material and cultural heritage. These communities are then obliged to take a stance of resistance against promises of progress and development coming from the central government who has failed to fulfill their promises. Also, in some cases there can be an anti-democratic approach to the development of initiatives that may benefit these marginal groups. It is anti-democratic because in some cases the aid of the initiative will only be developed if the community fits their criteria to make the job in some way ‘easier’. That leaves communities that don’t comply to the criteria to have a more difficult access to development. In some sense this communities feel to be used with political purposes and not a genuine spirit of altruism and democracy.

As exposed in section 3.2.3, there are more than 100 different Indian groups, three different afro-descendent groups and 62 different languages spoken across the NIZ, besides the official Spanish. This makes very difficult to doa systematic study over culture and establish a defined methodology regarding learning processes and adaptability in each ethnic group. Such processes are subject to the cultural values each community has and the perceptions they have over different topics. Their cosmology and cosmogony dictates much of their values and behavior, which means that a completely different approach is required for each community. This makes the process of policy creation very exhausting when trying to respect the minorities’ rights in the detail. General policies must cover the most common aspects and specific methodologies must be created and formulated when approaching each community by separate. This creates a barrier in the process of policy creation and project implementation in the NIZs. Luckily, the prior consultation process described in section 3.2.3 creates a frame that guarantees that learning processes are being carried out as it is further explained in section 3.5.1 when analyzing the innovation system of renewable energy technologies in the NIZ.

A very important driver in the landscape is that even though Colombia has a very high political instability, its economy only keeps growing and it’s projecting the country into stardom among the new rising emergent economies. A rising economy comes with more foreign investment and more access to new technologies and new ideas for development. As proposed by Gosens et al, emergent economies are increasingly contributing to the development and innovation of clean-technologies. (Gosens, Lu, & Coenen, 2015) Colombia, right now has the opportunity to become a country that contributes to clean-technologies. Colombia is now over Peru as the fastest growing economy in the region and has recently displaced Argentina as third economy in Latin-America, after Mexico and Brazil. The region’s trend is a 2% while Colombia has been growing in an Asian-like trend between 4%-6% during the last couple of years. All this figures and economic improvement can only mean that a good amount of foreign investment is coming to Colombia activating many productive sectors. Transnational dimensions influence a lot this processes and Colombia’s economic performance is calling the attention of many international actors to invest and intervene in the country’s development. This can be clearly seen in sections 3.5 and 3.4 where international funding and intervention is key for development processes in the country. A growing economy also translates into an enhanced purchasing power from the Colombians that can now reach in broader scale new products and technologies that previously were not easily at hand.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 87 Also, Colombia’s privileged geographical position give the country a very rich potential in natural resources. Colombia is the second country in biodiversity in the whole world, and its location by the equator and its varied orography helps to have abundant and diverse climates. This vast amount of natural resources makes it easy for Colombia to have the raw material to carry out great sustainable development projects. As seen in section 3.2.1. it has a large number of rivers, abundant solar irradiance and even big amount of concentrated wind power potential in the Guajira. The biodiversity that Colombia possesses allows also a wide and vast arrange of possibilities for biomass sources. This makes easier the labor of project developers since they have various options of renewable resource selection, not being limited by one particular resource offered by the environment. Having an wide variety of options makes projects more efficient and more affordable fitting the technical specifications to the best option offered in the environment. It also even enables the construction of hybrid systems like the one exposed in section 3.1.2. where solar and wind power technologies were used in one combined system to provide electricity to an indigenous community.

A cultural difference driver is the high ethic responsibility ethnic minorities have towards the environment and future generations. Their values and culture advocates for the preservation of the environment and tradition to be able to inherit a habitable world for future generations. Their perception of time and space is so responsible that can help to lead to even more sustainable initiatives thinking in preserving the environment for many generations to come. Also, the new generations of indigenous people are starting to embrace education and technology as tools and means to preserve better their traditions and the environment. That could well help to merge the benefits that technology offers with the ethical responsibility of the ethnic minorities.

3.3 ELECTRICAL ENERGY SOCIO-TECHNICAL REGIME IN THE NIZ

The actual energy socio-technical regime in the non-interconnected zones is dominated by the use of diesel as and energy source to produce electricity. In the non-interconnected zones back in 2009, 99% of the population had electrical energy service for six or less hours and 93% of that energy was produced with diesel engines. This made people to pay prices of between €0.17 to €0.28per kWh in a country where the minimum wage of the time was around €166. Not to mention that many of the families living in the non-interconnected zones don’t even earn a full minimum wage. (Banco de la República de Colombia, 2014) (Florez Acosta et. Al, 2009)

As described previously, the NIZs are the areas with the lowest indices of human development in Colombia and the electricity services are not existent or of a very low quality. Its quality is measured in the number of hours available and its reliability. Basically the main goal of installation of power systems in the non-interconnected zones implies to increase the number of hours of availability to an ideal of 24 per day and with a completely reliable system that may enable to increase life quality for the communities and thus reducing the incentives to migrate to urban areas. The government through the IPSE which is the institution responsible for all the plans to bring electrical energy to the non-interconnected zones has been tracing plans to bring the service and fullfill its purpose. Unfortunately, for the development of sustainable energy technologies, of the 1,500 generation units with and installed capacity of 118 MW in the NIZs, 98% were hydrocarbon-based by 2007 and it hasn’t changed much since. The demand in the NIZs is relatively low with a demand per user ranging from 360 kWh to 1200 kWh per year. There are 91 providers to supply the 1,200 small towns, villages and municipalities in the NIZs. The average availability is 12 hours per day, but this is heavily outweighted considering that the islands region which has 24 hour access is taken into account in this average. In reality many of these places have only 4 hours of service per day. (Gómez et al, 2007)

The IPSE is the main institution that regulates and is in charge of all the energy projects in the non-interconnected zones. The IPSE has the reponsibility of planning, executing and evaluating all the projects done in the NIZs. If projects are to be done by separate entities, they must seek approval from the IPSE. Luckily, the IPSE was proefficient and created the FAZNI which is the Fund of Financial Support for the Energization of the Non-Interconnected Zones.

88 This fund, as it name says, was created to find financial resources to be able to deploy projects to install energy power systems in the NIZs. The FAZNI has existed since the year 2000 when created under the law 633, and was valid till December 31 of 2007. Later in 2006 it was prolonged till December 31 of 2014 with the pass of law 1099, and recently prolonged till December 31 of 2021 under law 1715 as described in section 3.3.1. (IPSE, 2014c) It was reported that by 2007, the FAZNI each year could collect between US$ 30 million to US$ 35 million to support all the energy projects in the non-interconected zones. In the scope of the IPSE there is a big interest for impulsing renewable energy systems because they see a real advantage in them. Renewable energy systems will avoid all the uncovenients that the transportation of fuels require and also less maintanance costs are derived. The drawback of the renewable energy systems is its big initial investment. That’s why the IPSE proposes to evaluate the cost-benefit of having a sustainable energy system installed instead of a fuel engine based system. IPSE, also addresses climate change mitigation and adaptation action as an argument to migrate or implement new renewable energy systems. The sustainable energy systems could provide the avalaibility and reliability the fossil fuel systems can provide actually. Access to fuel in these areas is in many cases not economically, logistically or politically feasible, thus giving a greater advantage to renewable energy technologies in reliability because they mostly don’t depend on resources that come from the outside. Also, in their scope a strong campign of rational and efficient use of electricity is promoted. (Gómez et al, 2007) (IPSE, 2014c)

The current energy regime in the non-interconnected zones is marked by systems which are not fully available and reliable running on expensive and hard to get hydrocarbon fuels. All these circumstances present a perfect opportunity for sustainable energy technologies to exhert a pressure in the regime and transform it. The technical advantages sustainable energy technologies have over this faulty systems and the willingness of implementing those technologies by of the decision makers, IPSE, sets the perfect scenario for sustainble energy technologies to take over this socio- technical regime and transform it.

3.3.1 Electric Energy Policy Regime in the NIZ Dynamics

Regarding legal and economic frameworks the core document that now regulates and is the key to the future of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia is law 1715. This could well be seen as the first step that sustainable energy technologies have made into the regime to transform it. Policies and regulations that shaped or made part of the electricity regime in the non-interconnected zones has now been replaced by this new policy that opens wider windows of opportunity in the regime for the innovations at the niche level start shaping and taking over the rest of the regimes within the whole ST-regime of electric energy in the NIZ. There are windows of opportunity open to change the paths of the technological regime, user and market regime and along also the science and education regime. These changes in the policy regime can lead to a chain reaction to bring changes and new paths to all the other regimes that make part of the whole ST-regime of electric energy in the NIZ. An analysis of the law has been done to identify the drivers, and the voids or uncertainties that could result in potential burdens. Also, special attention was given to the initiatives and changes that can reshape and transform the paths and dynamics of other regimes

To begin, the object of the law must be specified and explained. Nowhere before, in Colombian legislation related to energy production and regulation, was the term alternative energy technology or renewable energy technology specified. Law 1715 of 2014 was created specially to define which technologies should be considered as using non- conventional energy sources and especially sustainable energy technologies, to then create a framework to regulate their use and implementation through a series of incentives and benefits. The law states clearly that its main scope seeks to gradually overcome the legislative, economic and market barriers that had existed till now to guarantee appropriate conditions to develop a sustainable energy technology market. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) This relieves the main barriers stated by all the previous studies done over renewable energy technologies in Colombia, which mainly agreed that the main barrier was the lack of legislation and government incentives to deploy sustainable energy technologies. (Florez Acosta et. al, 2009) (Hernandez, Velasco, & Trujillo, 2011) (Ruiz & Rodriguez-

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 89 Pradilla, 2005)

As a first meausre the law defines the Non-Conventional Energy Sources and especially renewable energy technologies as the ones that should be benefited from the benefits of law 1715. Sustainable energy technologies are defined as those technologies available worldwide and environmentally sustainable that are not being implemented or are used in a marginal way in Colombia. The SETs that are contemplated as so by the framework of law 1715 are solar, wind, geothermal, micro-hydro, biomass and tidal or any other form of energy from the sea. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) There is also space to add future technolgies that can benefit from the incentives of the law which are not initially contemplated, like hydrogen and fuel cells for instance.

In this legal framework the idea of autogeneration and energy surplus is considered in which industry and households can produce their own energy and sell the surplus to the grid. This of course is not relevant for the non-interconnected zones directly, but this situation influences directly to the incentives and benefits towards the implementation of sustainable energy technologies which does affect the non-interconnected zones. This aspect of the law has a void in the sense that autogeneration is allowed independent from the energy source used to generate. Also, the selling of energy surplus is done under the CREG (Commission to Regulate Energy and Gas) which is used for transactions between the energy market and the big energy companies already established. This situation is not ideal to incentive households or small producers to sell surplus to the grid due to all the complicated regulations they must follow if they’re treated as an established big energy company to avoid penalties and sanctions. An amendment or modification of the CREG should be done to treat small producers and households when selling surplus to the grid so in this way regular households have a closer access to one of the most attractive benefits of having a renewable energy technology system installed.

Windows of Opportunity in the Electricity Regime Caused by Economic Benefits Among the economic incentives to bolster the implementation of renewable energy technologies in Colombia three clear tiers are established: tax reductions, import tariff exemptions and accounting benefits by accelerated deprecia- tion of the assets related to the sustainable energy technologies.

In Colombia not everybody has to pay taxes over the income statement, it’s only after certain amount of income that a person must do it, and it was recently adjusted for 2014 to include more people as taxable. For those who pay a tax over income up to 50% of the investment over a system that uses renewable energy technologies to produce energy can be deducted from their tax declaration. This amount can be declared during the first five following years to the acquisition of the SET system. Also the exemption of the VAT is considered for projects and systems that make use of renewable energy technologies. To make valid this benefit, an environmental license or certification from the government must be obtained first. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) This step or aspect can potentially have a drawback due to the high ineffectiveness of the Colombian government in regard of issuing licenses due to the high burocracy levels present in the government. This burocracy levels and ineffectiveness is also a result from the distrust towards some people that may take advantage of these benefits unlawfully or corruptly. Regarding directly the non-interconnected zones, the amount of people that have to declare an income tax in these areas is quite reduced and it’s a benefit that can hardly be used by the majority in the NIZ. On the other hand, the exemption of the VAT will make it easier and more affordable for the developers and sponsors that want to implement SET systems in the non-interconnected zones.

Regarding tariffs to import sustainable energy technologies to Colombia will have a 0% customs and import tariff. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) This means that the final user will actually be able to have access to SETs at a very affordable cost. The only drawback to this benefit is that the project in which the technologies are going to be used has to have a certification or license from the government approving it.

90 Regarding the accounting benefits, all the assets that are related to the sustainable energy system itself, in the case of a business, it can be depreciated on a maximum annual rate of 20%. This will certainly give a good advantage in the bookkeeping procedures of a business that decides to make use of sustainable energy technologies for autogeneration of their own electric energy.

Windows of Opportunity Specifically in the Electricity Regime of the NIZ Regarding the NIZs there are a lot of benefits derived from law 1715 of 2014. The first and most notorious benefit is the creation of the Non-Conventional Energy and Efficient Energy Management Fund (FONOGE for its acronym in Spanish). The FONOGE is a subsidized fund that will impulse autogeneration projects for the most unprivileged sectors of the Colombian society and also promote in these sectors the efficient and rational use of energy. This fund covers also the non-interconnected zones in its scope.

For the non-interconnected zones especially there is a scheme of additional incentives since all the benefits of autogeneration and selling energy surplus to the grid cannot apply for obvious reasons. Since 93% of the systems installed in the non-interconnected zones are power by diesel fuel, there is an incentive to do a transition to a low- carbon economy in these regions. If a community or a municipality has a diesel system, they will receive economic incentives to transfer to a sustainable energy system. To be able to receive the funding for the SET system, the decision will be based on a monetary cost-benefit analysis where the savings produced by the renewable energy system must exceed the costs of the system itself. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) This is a huge leap from previous government postures towards an energy technological transition in the NIZs and is very beneficial to the deployment of renewable energy technologies. Though, this could be seen as a good incentive for promoting sustainable energy technologies and to make a transition to a low-carbon economy, it is based solely on monetary and financial aspects. SETs may have a hard time striving to emerge in the NIZs is their going to just compete with conventional energy sources in the financial field. If environmental aspects counted or a life cycle analysis would be taken into account, another would be the scenario for sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones. Nonetheless, it is wonderful to have a government willing to bolster a transition from diesel to renewable energies. These initiatives are starting to trace a new path to the user and market regime that is held within the whole ST-regime of electrical energy in the NIZs.

In addition to the previously mentioned initiatives to drive the development of SETs in the non-interconnected zones, another additional funding incentive will be prolonged till December 31 or 2021. By the actual regulations, for every 1kWh that is transacted in the Energy Stock Market the administrator of the System of Commercial Exchange will collect COP$ 1 (€ 0.000385 approx.) to support the fund for the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones. (IPSE, 2000) This is through the FAZNI fund which will be described more thoroughly in section 3.2.

Though law 1715 has a very wide National scope to promote the use and implementation of sustainable energy systems, the non-interconnected zones have been very well taken into account by the government as an important sector that must be transformed by the technological transition to a low-carbon economy. Not only transferring the actual diesel systems to SET systems, but also bringing the possibility to have a reliable electrical energy services to remote areas that didn’t have it before. This for sure will have a huge impact in the sustainable development of the rural areas of Colombia which will empower countrymen to be productive and contribute to the general development of the country.

Windows of Opportunity in other Regimes of the Electricity ST-Regime The government made a thorough plan over sustainable energy technologies and they understood that education and research and development play fundamental roles in the development of a technology in a National scale. The

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 91 Finance Ministry will do joint efforts with the Ministry of Mines and Energy and the Ministry of Environment and Sus- tainable Development. In these efforts, they plan to give grants to NGO’s, Universities and other scientific or research institutions that have projects and plans to do research on the fields of sustainable energy technologies to provide solutions to the problems found around the country.

Also, they will be very active in seeking international cooperation with neighboring countries to develop sustainable energy networks. To accompany the grants and incentives of R&D, the government will seek also R&D cooperation with foreign countries and well as knowledge and technology transfer joint efforts. Additionally, the renewable energy market will open space for a whole new job market creating jobs and helping the economy in the country. Although, to satisfy that market, technicians and engineers must be prepared and trained to satisfy the demand and challenges this new market will bring. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014) The government will have to invest in the creation of new programs to train new professionals that will perform the tasks required. In this sense, the government has already been active by creating the ‘Training Center on Alternative Energies’ in which technicians will be initially trained on PV systems, wind energy and geothermal. (Ministry of Education, 2010) These efforts could entirely shape and transform the whole science and education regime within the ST-regime of sustainable energy technologies as an electricity supply solution in the NIZ and also nationwide.

All in all, the Colombian government issuing this law gave a huge jump towards the development of sustainable energy technologies, not only in the non-interconnected zones, but in the whole National landscape. This law has removed many of the major barriers that renewable energy technologies had in Colombia, the lack of a legal and regulatory framework that would define and set the rules under which sustainable energy technologies could be implemented. Now, there are still some voids and aspects to be specified and defined more thoroughly, but the base has already been laid for a better future of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia.

3.3.2 Drivers and Barriers from the Electricity Regime in the NIZ

BARRIERS DRIVERS • Very well established technological regime. Be- • Diesel fuel prices and logistics make electricity tween 93%-98% is diesel. expensive. High O&M costs. • Law 1715 opens windows of opportunity all around the ST-regime.

Fortunately, in the regime more drivers than barriers were found. The biggest and main barrier in the regime is the strong presence of diesel engine systems. As explained in the landscape section, the NIZ are geographically without communication to the large urban centers. Colombia being so centralized has segregated the non-interconnected zones making it too expensive to bring the electricity service straight from the national interconnected system. Since the amount of people living in the NIZ is so few and scattered around 66% of the whole national territory, the use of standalone systems was imperative. Diesel engine systems have been the only option for these communities, and this if they receive the service, because many don’t even have the service or have just intermittent provision. Cur- rently, between 93% and 98% of the NIZ that have access to electricity use diesel engine generators. (IPSE, 2011b) The technological regime is very well established all across the NIZ and the users are used to manage that type of technology. In the next section when analysis the niche, it can be seen that such a strong regime has led other technologies to be considered and used as complementary technologies, rather than a direct replacement. Also, the fact that the coverage of the service is not total, the focus is in achieving 100% coverage of 24 hours of reliable service rather than a preference for a specific technology. It seems that many of the already installed diesel systems will remain operating as currently until the whole of the NIZ has a 24 hour provision of electricity service. Even though the diesel combustion engines are the most used technology in the NIZ, the fact that is so widely used also helps to set some

92 drivers based on its various drawbacks.

Diesel fuel and the logistics behind it make electricity very expensive. Not only the fuel makes electricity generation expensive, but also the recurrent high costs involved in operation and maintenance of such systems make it easy for the users to decide to accept the implementation of a system that doesn’t require fuel supply and has lower maintenance and operation costs. In the NIZ not only the access to electricity is not possible, but the availability of roads and other means of transportation are scarce and expensive. The state of the roads is so bad that it will take transportation trucks to deliver the fuel a long time, recurring in high transportation costs also associated to the high cost of the fuel itself. Not only availability of the fuel is scarce, but also the availability and operation of the installed systems is not optimum. Many systems are in bad shape or even not operational because of lack of maintenance. The location of such areas is so remote that a maintenance service could be too expensive and not affordable to the communities or local authorities that are in charge of such systems. A technological option that would offer low maintenance and cheap energy sources could easily be an option accepted and adopted by the local authorities and communities.

The biggest driver carrier is the new legislation under law 1715 which has opened several windows of opportunity in the regime. The electricity socio technical regime in the NIZ has begun a transformation since the installation of the new law that regulates the use and implementation of alternative energy sources with some specific points over the NIZ. This law has had a snow-ball effect over the other regimes that have opened big windows of opportunity in the regime for the appearance of new technologies. The ST-regime is now in an inflexion point of dynamic change that may lead to a reshaping of the ST-system having its beginnings in the reformation of the policy regime through law 1715. The introduction on new legislation which gives benefits to those who like to promote the use and com- mercialization of sustainable energy technologies is reflected in the appearance and interest of few entrepreneurs interested in beginning a market for such technologies as it is discussed later in section 3.4. This new regulation policy was the most important step the Colombian government has made regarding the electric energy regime in the NIZ.

3.4 Interaction Between Actors

On this section the objective is to lay out the interaction between the different actors and stakeholders among the different levels of interaction. The actors and stakeholders involved in the development of sustainable energy technologies as a solution to provide the electricity service in the NIZ are show in the map in Figure 44.. The main stake- holder in all this technological transition process is the IPSE which is the institution specially created from developing the electricity projects for the non-interconnected zones in Colombia. Although the IPSE carries with most of the weight, there are other supporting actors that also have a vital and important role. The construction of this map has been done according to the official institutional documents, government information and interviews with experts and persons working in such institutions. A review of the diverse roles of each actor will be reviewed and explained to further establish the relationships between all the actors involved in the technology transition process of implementing SETs as a solution to sustainable electricity supply in the NIZ.

3.4.1 IPSE: Historical and Organizational Context

In the structure of the Colombian government, everything regarding energy is under the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) whose mission is to create and adopt policies, plans, programs and projects related to mining and energy; this includes electricity. The MME is in charge of the policies over energy, gas, hydrocarbons and mines. Regarding this thesis work, the Ministry of Mines and Energy has to adopt and create the policies for generation, transmission, interconnection, distribution and establishment of technical norms for electrical energy. Also, the MME has the task to establish norms over the rational use of energy, development of alternative energy sources, and in general any technical, economic, legal, industrial or commercial activity related to the use of natural resources for producing energy.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 93 (Administrative Department of Public Functions, 2006)

The Ministry of Mines and Energy has several related bodies under its coverage with specific purposes. Among those institutional bodies the Mining and Energy Planning Unit (UPME), the Gas and Energy Regulatory Commission (CREG) and the Institute of Planning and Promotion of Energy Solutions for the Non-Interconnected Zones (IPSE) are found. The UPME is the body in charge of making and updating the national mining plan, the national energy plan, and the expansion plan for the electric sector in accordance to the National Plan of Development (NPD). The UPME also has the task of assessing the economic and social convenience of using and developing non conventional energy sources, which include the use of SETs. (UPME, 2013)

Another important actor seen in between the national and local coverage is the CREG. The CREG is the body that has as its mission to regulate all the gas and electric energy household services, in a transparent, independent and technical way to promote sustainable development regulating monopolies and giving incentives for a fair competition in the market to cover the needs of the users following the criteria established by the Colombian law. The CREG was created in 1994 under laws 142 and 143 in order to regulate the activities of electricity and gas as public services. (CREG) (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

All the mentioned above institutions make part of the organizational structure of the Colombian state to regulate and create policies of energy and its use. The National Interconnected System (NIS), according to the Colombian electricity law, comprehends the generation equipment, the interconnection network, the regional and national transmission lines, the distribution networks and the electrical load from the users. Great part of the NIS fall under the coordination of the National Center of Delivery (NCD), which is a sub-system of the NIS. There are small generation plants which are not coordinated with the NCD, but operated by an autonomous companies connected to the INS.

As explained in previous sections the NIZ are the zones or areas that are not covered by the NIS and which represent around 66% of the Colombian territory that include around 1200 human settlements comprehending an estimate of 2 million people in 91 municipalities located in 16 of the 32 Colombian departments. The IPSE is the institution dedicated to bring energy to these areas directly to the users or under agreements with the local authorities. The IPSE was formally created in 1999 as an institution with the social scope of identifying, planning and promoting integral, economically feasible and sustainable energy solutions for the non-interconnected zones. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) (IPSE, 2013b) In 2007 the IPSE was restructured and strengthened in its organization and as a result the following general functions are under its scope:

• Implement the Ministry of Mines and Energy policies and guidelines through programs and energy infrastructure projects. • Research and development to diagnose the energy needs among the regions that constitute the NIZ in Colom- bia. • Make technical and financial feasibility studies over the planned projects. • Manage and allocate diverse financial resources and the participation of the private sector in the execution and development of energy projects in the NIZ. • Manage the inclusion and participation of the communities in the execution, operation and maintenance of the energy infrastructure that guarantees that the energy services are provided in a sustainable and efficient way. • Settle agreements with the different territorial and local authorities. • Execute and supervise the energy infrastructure works that concern them. • Provide a consulting service to the community entities or organizations that are in charge of the management, operation and maintenance of the energy infrastructure. • Manage international energy transactions with the interconnected networks of the neighboring countries for the NIZ when this is the only available solution, as long as it doesn’t require direct user service.

94 Also in the restructuring of 2007 under law 1151 of the National Development Plan, the IPSE received complementary functions in controlling and structuration of projects for the NIZ:

• Manage the energy information over the NIZ. • Develop and implement solutions that include the use of sustainable energy technologies. • Develop rational use of energy programs. • Obtain international cooperation resources for funding energy and technology transfer projects.

The way the IPSE has available the following financial resources to be able to operate (IPSE, 2014a):

• Resources given by the government from the national budget. • Contributions and donations; includes international cooperation. • Credit resources • Income from the selling of rights and assets • Financial performance of the resources transferred to any title with exception to those coming from the National General Budget. • All the dividends from their investments in stock and participation in societies in developing of its social object

The IPSE then is the central actor regarding all the activities of developing the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ as a solution to provide the electricity service as it is shown in Figure 38. Almost all projects and funding are managed and supervised by the IPSE, which is the main institution in the map of actors and stakeholders.

3.4.2 International Organizations

As mentioned in previous sections, international organizations have a vital role as actors of the development of SETs as an electrical energy solution for the non-interconnected zones. International organizations play a fundamental role in the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia because they provide the funding necessary to execute and develop the projects. The FAZNI fund annually collects between US$30 to US$35 million to develop projects in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. Unfortunately, such amount is not sufficient. (Gómez et al., 2007) Thus, the need to have international actors involved in providing financial resources becomes crucial.

The United Nations (UN) in 1997 through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN- FCCC) agreed in the Kyoto Protocol within 196 Nations and ratified by 192 of them, considers climate change as global threat that requires global actions and universal agreements on how to fight against it and which measures to take on a global scale. Following this scope and agreed common global goals, any action to help to the mitigation or adaptation of climate change anywhere in the world helps to the fight against climate change’s potential threats. Indus- trialized countries are the most active countries in this scope whether it is executing projects of funding project. Also, trading carbon credits and other measures have been implemented internationally to help with the global cooperation against climate change. (UNFCCC) Projects in Colombia are benefited from this purpose because the lack of an established market for sustainable energy technologies and private capital not willing to invest in such projects makes it imperative to search for funding resources from international organizations to support and finance the sustainable energy technology projects in Colombia.

Most of these organizations such as the World Bank, the Inter-American Bank of Development (IABD) give funding sometimes as donations or loans to the executive actor. In the case of Jepirachi, the EPM which is a private company received a loan from the World Bank to be able to execute the project. The IABD has a specific plant to support

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 95 the electrification of the non-interconnected zones in Colombia. This project specifically aimed to benefit the Low- income, rural populations in the Pacific Region, including the departments of Chocó, Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nariño. The total funding given to this project was US$ 1.2 million which the IABD provided, but still the IPSE was the responsible to assess and execute the whole project. (Gómez et al., 2007)

Also the Kingdom of the Netherlands through the ministry of foreign affairs signed an agreement with the Colombian government called the Financial Mechanism for Electrification provided a total of € 13.6 million in the period between 2007 and 2011 to support projects with the scope of bringing electricity to the NIZ and also help with poverty reduction in those areas. The World Bank was again also involved in this agreement that began with the Copenhagen convention. (Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, 2010) The German government for instance gave funds to the SENA to start the education programs on PV technologies.

The case of USAID is very interesting because they made their own program, the Colombia Clean Energy Program, in which they invested US$ 18.6 million to study and plan several projects for the non-interconnected zones. This program works in joint action with the IPSE, but in many cases they work directly with the communities planning and delivering the projects. The CCEP is still in the study and proposition phase. This is a stage that requires a lot of study because of all the social and cultural burdens explain all through this document. Yet still the CCEP is still in the process of designing a standard methodology or approach to execute their planned projects. (Rodriguez, 2014a)

There are other institutions such as the Observatory of Renewable Energy in Latin America and the Caribbean (ORELAC) dedicated to help with research and development. The ORELAC works very closely with the IPSE as its partner in Colombia. The IPSE directly works with the ORELAC providing the information regarding the development of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia. The ORELAC helps with consulting and other educational and research tasks. (Obervatory of Renewnable Energy in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2011a)

This section shows the vital importance of having international organizations supporting the development of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for the electricity service in the non-interconnected zones. These organizations have the crucial role of providing financial resources and funding for the development of such projects. Currently, the internal funds and resources available aren’t sufficient to cover the financial burdens these type of project proposes. Actually, depending so heavily on international aid is a barrier to the development of SETs in the NIZ in Colombia. Creating a legitimate and strong market for SETs in Colombia would generate the interest of private particulars that may see the profitability of such technological solutions and thus generate the internal financial muscle strong enough to not depend so heavily in the resources coming from foreign aid. The challenge is for the Colombian entrepreneurs and private capital entities to take their chances in developing a robust market that can generate the necessary resources to support the development of sustainable electricity solutions in the NIZ.

3.4.3 Final Users and Local Institutions

Final users in the non-interconnected zones are as diverse in their needs as in their user practices towards electricity consumption. There’s even final potential users that have never had contact with the service or even find it unnecessary because they have never had one. Even users with a deficient service in some cases acknowledge they don’t even need a full 24/7 electric energy service, and this is reflected in the low consumption of a typical user in the NIZ; their consumption ranges from 360 kWh to 1200 kWh per year. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) (Gómez et. al, 2007)

These end users in the NIZ are supplied by the IPSE through close joint action with the local and regional authorities. As mentioned in section 3.3, most times IPSE with the local service provider and the local authorities provide the service making the IPSE all the project planning and execution and the local operator or authority managing the service with also close action from the CREG. The CREG has the task to make the surveillance of domentic electric

96 energy and gas services and thus, controlling the a good service is provided service in the NIZ is part of their task. The following map shows the relationships between the final users and other actors.

Figure 38. Map of Actors of Electricity with SETs in the NIZ in Colombia (Author)

3.4.4 Remarks over Actors Interactions

In the actors and stakeholders map it is clear that the one actor that holds a central stage is the IPSE. The IPSE as an institution is fulfilling the role it was intended to have when created back in 1999. On the upper level, international organizations and foreign governments play the fundamental role of providing financial and technical resources to be able to execute the projects. Even though they are not central actors seen in the political perspective of the Colom- bian government planning, they hold a very important role because of the lack of private interest in funding or investing in the development of electricity solutions for the NIZ. It is very simple to understand that this lack of interest is provided by the perception of no profitability in these projects and reflected in the absence of an established market for sustainable energy technologies in Colombia.

In the National level, the government provides the main funding to these solutions through funds such as the FAZNI, which are the main contribution, but still not enough to satisfy the demand of financial resources these projects require. Also, the government must not only support the IPSE, but also education institutions such as the public universities and the SENA in the formation of young professionals prepared to accept the challenges the development of SETs in the NIZ will have. Also, programs such as the Colombia Clean Energy Program have been established as local

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 97 by international organizations like USAID. These programs are autonomous and work closely with the IPSE in terms of financing and studies, but don’t share the same vision and hold their own perspective of the solution for the NIZ. Even though, local professionals are working in this program, they could well share the vision and methodologies used by the IPSE that have proven to be successful. The CCEP has only produced several projects planning with great promising goals, but no execution yet that prove how efficient their methods are. Since the CCEP is a program that has its own autonomy its logical they are finding their particular way of execution and planning, last time contacted they were still in the process of making their methodology for project development. (Rodriguez, 2014b) This shows how the IPSE’s experience has to hold more importance regarding this topic and how initiatives like supporting the IPSE in the functions they are failing is vital to make SETs a successful solution to the electricity service problem in the NIZ.

The IPSE connects the cooperation of international bodies, the planning and vision of national government policies and works closely with the communities to develop solutions based on their needs, cultural and territorial backgrounds. The IPSE is the institutional that holds the key to support all the structure to develop SET solutions in the NIZ to provide electricity. This institution work directly with the community leader, local authorities and local energy operators to make the solutions works and the technology innovation centers are proof of that success.

3.5. FUNCTIONS OF INNOVATION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

The niche analysis is completed by the evaluation of the innovation system under the seven functions of innovation systems mentioned in section 2.2. The evaluation will be done with the indicators showed in Table 1 and done under a global context for the whole set of renewable energy technologies for the reasons explained at the beginning of section 3.1.

3.5.1 Creating Adaptative Capacity

Indicator: Effectiveness of policies and legislative tools to guarantee the realization of informative meetings, seminars, workshops, etc.

The innovation system proposed by sustainable energy technologies in Colombia can be initially evaluated by the creating adaptative capacity function that can be reflected in the amount of informational meetings and the successful cases of implementation among communities in the NIZ, and how the policies around it are effective in guaranteeing the creation of adaptative capacity through those informative channels. Regarding creating adaptative capacity, the number or amount of meetings are covered and guaranteed by the Colombian legislation through the right to prior consultation mentioned in section 3.1.3. This is a fundamental right given by the constitution to the ethnic minorities regarding to the development of projects in the areas they inhabit. As explained in section 3.1.3, in many cases the process and the right of prior consultation is not always respected when developing certain projects, but in the case of sustainable energy technologies this fundamental right helps with the creation of adaptative capacity and all the cases consulted, TIC’s developed by the IPSE and projects by the CCEP, have had a prior consultation process. (Rod- riguez, 2014a) (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011) This prior consultation processes guarantee that the communities are protected in their fundamental rights to information and preservation of tradition and culture. As an example, the Jepirachi project was examined to understand how this prior consultation gives total access to create adaptative capacity in the innovation system of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia.

Jepirachi is the first and only wind farm so far installed in Colombia providing a huge benefit to the wayuú people. The Jepirachi project was developed in close cooperation with the wayuú people, hence the name of Jepirachi which means “winds from the north-east” in wayyunaiki, their native language. This wind farm was made by Empresas

98 Publicas de Medellin (EPM) which is a company owned by the mayoralty of Medellin, capital of the department of Antioquia. The Jepirachi wind farm consists of 15 Nordex N60 wind generators with a capacity of 1,300 kW each, for a total installed capacity of 19.5 MW nominal power. This was the first registered project by Colombia in the United Nations (UN) as part of their climate change strategy. (EPM, 2010) (EPM, 2014)

This is the first true pilot project on full wind energy in Colombia and has had success in creating adaptative capacity among the wayuú clans. EPM had support from the wayuú communities as well from Corpoguajira which is the entity that rules all the environmental and sustainability issues in the Guajira region. The wind farm also had the support of the Municipality of Uribia, and the Office of the Governor of the Departmentof La Guajira, and on-going monitoring by the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the Colombian Ministry of Interior and Justice. (EPM, 2010)

EPM, carried out prior consultation processes in which the first met with the wayuú people to explain to them the benefits of the technology and decide the terrain which would be used for such a purpose. The consultation process for building Jepirachi took three years from 1999 until June 2002. “During the information, prior consultation and negotiation process, competent authorities from different levels participated. At the national level, there was participation from the Ministry of the Interior and Justice and the Ministry of the Environment; at the departmental level, there was participation from the Office of the Governor of the department of La Guajira, including the Secretary of Indian Affairs and the Depart- mental Secretary of Health; and at the municipal level, the Municipality of Uribia, including the Mayor’s Office, the Office of Indian Reservations, the Secretaries of Government and Planning, the Municipal Unit of Agricultural Technical Assistance (UMATA), and other bodies such as Corpoguajira, the National Vocational Training Service (SENA), the Colombian Institute for Rural Development (INCODER), and the traditional leaders and authorities of the community and surrounding areas, who validated the agreements.” (EPM, 2010)

The project’s prior consultation process had three different levels that had to be studied with the community in the meetings:

• Informative: EPM was in the obligation to give all the technical and environmental characteristics of the project to the community. Also, they had to inform about the environmental policy studies that should be carried out, the people responsible of the project were presented, foreseeable impacts of the project, amount and type of construction activities to be carried out and the timelines of the project.

• Consultation: EPM had also the task of carrying out a social characterization of the wayuú people in the area, also the installation of weather stations. On the side they should collect and listen to the perceptions of the communities over the project impacts to carry it under a joint vision. Also, the perception of the project’s magnitude and management measures to see it aligned with the expectations.

• Negotiation: Negotiation was done directly with the communal leaders and with the help of translators from Spanish to Wayuunaiki. For each meeting an act or minute was signed and fingerprinted by each of the attendees. The minutes contain the full information given and discussed over the project’s scope, characteristics, studies, the communities’ concerns, the needs to be satisfied, fulfillment of expectations and commitments made by all the parties. Also, besides the written minutes, video and photographic records testify the legitimacy and transparency of the process.

During the prior consultation process a socio-environmental management measure program was developed between EPM, the community and the municipal administration. The goal of those measures were to create programs focused of creating adaptative capacity of the reality of these communities of now having a wind power project in their territory. Also, to promote a sense of ownership of the project between all the different parties and to bolster the inter-cultural exchanges based on mutual respect to take decisions to lead to the improving the quality of life of the communities and set them in the path for sustainable development. (EPM, 2010)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 99

Figure 39. Prior Consultation Meeting for Jepirachi Project (EPM, 2010)

After the completion of the project and after some years of operation, wayuú people didn’t have to be resettled or had to leave their territories, meaning that it was a successful attempt to keep the indigenous communities in their ancestral lands. On the other hand, the impacts the project has had is the regular complaints and impacts wind power projects have in general: increase of noise levels, threats to bird populations and visual pollution. These complaints mentioned are constant from wind farms all around the world and in no case show a changing in the traditions and culture of the wayuú communities. The wayuú people was also able to maintain their herding and agricultural activities as normal as before having the wind farm. (EPM, 2010)

Indicator: Number of seminars, workshops and meetings to inform about the use and benefits of SETs as an electric supply solution in the NIZs.

Regarding seminars, workshops and meeting, the people from the NIZ have been gathering and attending different forums, workshops and informative meetings regarding the use of sustainable energy. Some of these forums have been regional in the NIZ and have had a good affluence of attendees and the response of the people in the NIZ has been quite positive. For the Pacific Region, more specifically Chocó, the Regional Forum on Renewable Energy Integration was held on August 5 of 2014 at Quibdo, Capital of the Chocó department. It was a forum from 8 a.m. till 5 p.m. where the main scopes were to discuss and inform over the law 1715 of 2014 by which the integration of non- conventional renewable energy to the National Energy System is regulated and the legal framework and instruments for the promotion and use of sources is established not conventional energy. Also, to make known to the public and to the general audience the methodology under which projects of RETs for the NIZ are presented and planned. (IPSE, 2014b) In the same Pacific Region, but more to the south, there was another forum held in the city of Cali. This forum in Cali had the same scope as the one held at Quibdo, and was held on September 30 of 2014. (IPSE, 2014d) On the Eastern Region of Colombia the third important forum was held in Villavicencio on October 28 of 2014. (IPSE, 2014e) These forums show how the communities in the NIZ are gathering to have discussions and to inform themselves about benefits and legal frameworks under which the use of renewable energy technologies is regulated for the NIZ.

The regional forums are probably the biggest meetings that have been held on a national level. They counted with the sponsorship of the IPSE and were backed as important forums to attend regarding the use of sustainable energy technologies for the electrification of the NIZ. But, also some smaller meetings and discussions have been held all around the NIZ to expand knowledge and adaptative capacities to the potential users of such technologies. These

100 minor meetings were more specific of each project and in the proceedings of the projects it can be found the specific topics and discussions that were held. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

3.5.2 Knowledge Diffusion

Indicator: Number of education and training programs opened to prepare professionals/technicians in the development and implementation of SETs.

In Colombia regarding knowledge diffusion, a great barrier can be found since there are no official accredited university programs to prepare engineers or other sorts of professionals on the area of renewable energy technologies. Universities do have some elective courses in their programs regarding sustainable energy technologies, but there is no core or structured program to follow. Though there are no structured programs in the Colombian high education institutions, that doesn’t mean that Colombian engineering students aren’t getting training or qualified to develop and implement sustainable energy technologies at all. Proof of that is the participation of the EAFIT University of Medellin with a sponsorship from EPM and other private companies to participate in the world solar challenge 2013 won by TU Delft´s Nuon Solar Car Team with the Nuna 7, or the plans of the University of the Andes to participate in the Latin America and Caribbean Solar Decathlon with a self sufficient bamboo house powered by PV technologies. (Uni- versidad de Los Andes, 2014) (EAFIT, 2013) Entering contests like the Solar Decathlon and the World Solar Challenge requires that students are very well prepared in their fields of study including the knowledge of sustainable energy technologies. This means that Colombian universities are gradually training and educating their students in these topics, but not formal or structured programs dedicated only to sustainable energy technologies have been opened.

The Colombian government is actively taking more care of the base-line of education with formal programs to train technicians and the community itself. The SENA which is the national center for giving technical education with the sponsorship of the German government and German company sunset opened a program to train 400 people to become experts of PV technologies. Among the mix of trained people are technicians and engineers of various en- terprises with the task of replicate knowledge and promote technical knowledge diffusion over the PV systems. The goal of this program is to prepare professionals to the upcoming challenges of implementing and expanding the use of PV systems as a solution for electricity generation in Colombia. (SENA, 2013a) The SENA also had a program to train people on wind energy as well. The trained people even culminated their training with the installation of a small wind turbine in the island of San Andres with a load capacity of 2 kWh. (SENA, 2013b) The oldest programs are regarding biomass and biofuels which had a plan from the SENA starting in 2009 with successful results. It started in the area of Valle del Cauca with is by the Pacific coast where many sugar cane plantations are located. The chaff from the processed sugar cane is burnt to produce steam to drive steam turbines and thus creating a co-generation electricity market. Also another sugar cane by-product is bio-ethanol. These models have been copied from the Brazilian sugar mills. (SENA, 2009)

Figure 40. SENA students being trained on PV systems. (SENA, 2013a)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 101 Regarding the community, the government through the IPSE has launched programs to teach people about energy rational and efficient use. The main program is called Energy Sentinels. In this program the IPSE looks to train children and young adults as sentinels of energy with the task of educating other people in their community and encouraging towards a more rational use of electricity and to take care of the infrastructure and equipment that provides the service. This is a true knowledge diffusion because they look to empower the community giving them tools to spread the knowledge about how to use correctly and take the most of the technologies they have available to receive the electricity service. This is probably the most basic form of knowledge diffusion, but perhaps the most powerful because of the empowerment element it contains and the amount of people in the NIZ it reaches. The main scope of this educational program is to reduce the use of fossil fuels and to take the most advantage of electric energy, this is key to strengthen the role of sustainable energy technologies opening a window of opportunity in the regime. When people in the NIZ are educated over how much better is to use SETs and the impact that fossil fuels have in the environment, the final user will final start demanding for the use of SETs to provide the service. (IPSE, 2012) Com- plementary to this sentinels program, the IPSE built the technological innovation systems, exposed in section 3.1., to explore which practices enhance a better use of electrical energy in the NIZ, and which are the critical activities that lead to energy waste. From the findings in these TICs, all the material and educational program has been developed. It has all very practical and hands-on. In the figure below 31 children from La Macarena are shown in the graduation of their Energy Sentinels training. These kids are just a handful of all the young leaders and future users that are and will continue spread knowledge about rational use of energy and renewable energy technologies in their communities.

Figure 41. Energy Sentinel Kids from La Macarena (IPSE, 2011)

Other activities around the implementation and deployment of renewable energy technologies in the NIZ are the ‘Energy Wednesdays’. During these Energy Wednesdays were practical meetings where training was given to the technicians, engineers and other employees of IPSE. This was done to train better that personnel that would further visit the NIZ for project implementation. The training given by experts on each field was over technical, normative, environmental, and practical implementation of sustainable energy technologies. The Energy Wednesday had a total of 187 meetings and classes by 2010. (IPSE, 2010) Another initiative was “Technology Thursdays” where on the last Thursday of each month, technology developers or technology providers were visited to learn about new technologies that could be implemented in the NIZ. Up until 2010, 35 Technology Thursday visits were made to technology developers and distributors to learn and facilitate an approaching to implement such technologies in the NIZ.

102 Figure 42. Energy Wednesday training for IPSE personnel. (IPSE, 2010)

3.5.3 Demand Articulation

Indicator: Creation of production centers, schools, health centers and other facilities, as a result of the implementation of SETs, that help to bolster the sustainable development of the NIZ

On this function, the innovation system proposed by the use of SETs in Colombia has been performing quite well. In most of the cases a condition to implement the project is to have as scope powering a school, hospital or productive center from which the community can be benefited. In many cases the project can create direct and indirect jobs also bringing a benefit to the communities changing their user practices towards a more productive approach.

The first clear case is the one mentioned in section 3.1.3. The technology innovation center in Necocli is used for the gasification of wood and created a huge impact in the whole community by the beaches of Necocli. The community started to see the wood arriving at the beach with different eyes. Before the gasification center, this wood was seen as rubbish and was used in bonfires or even sometimes just burnt to keep the beaches with some free space. Now, the wood is seen as a precious resource and even a whole market has been formed around it created many direct and indirect jobs. The gasification plant became a company or institution to generate employment and improve the quality of life of the people of Necoclí. (Delgado, 2011) (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011)

In the case of the poly-generation TIC of wind energy and solar energy installed in Nazareth, there were great benefits for the community regarding the demand articulation and the indicator selected to evaluate the innovation system. In Nazareth the main elements that required to have a good reliable electricity service were the boarding school for the wayuú youth. The electrification of this boarding school allowed longer schooling periods and the inclusion of media and computing technologies for education. This aspect is bringing a higher and broader education quality to the wayuú youth in Nazareth. The other facility that was greatly benefited by the project was the hospital of Nazareth. This hospital has 25 beds to serve people and giving the emergency room service. The hospital also has x-ray, ultrasound, surgery room, obstetrics and clinic lab services. It is a very complete hospital, but was in need of a better electricity service like the one supplied by the hybrid system installed with the technology innovation system. Additionally, for the community of Nazareth, the pumping station that helps to deliver the water service to the community is powered by the electricity generated by the TIC. (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011)

In the case of the TICs of hydro power and solar energy, the electricity produced is to provide the service to households and no special or specific facilities were considered as part of the central scope of the projects.

In the case of the CCEP the scope and one of the fundamental requirements is to create projects in which sustainable development is central. This means that the project cannot only be developed to provide electricity service to

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 103 households, but it must support some sort of education, health or production facility with the lowest environmental impact. Projects planned by the CCEP include the following:

ETHNIC GROUP PROJECT LOCATION TECHNOLOGY USED SCOPE/BENEFITS /POPULATION Arusi, Pacific Coast Micro-hydro power Black, 145 families Communal ice fac- tory. Public and household lighting. El Yucal, Pacific Coast Micro-hydro power Emebera Chami, 92 Corn and rice thresher. families Public and househols lighting. Utría, Pacific Coast Solar Energy Natural Park Eco-tourism activities Santa Rosa de Guayacán, Solar Energy and biomass. Pacific Coast Portable PV systems and Embera Chamí, 32 families Crafts workshop. 20 ef- solar refrigerator. ficient stoves. San Antonio, Atlantic Micro-hydro power 1,5 Kogui, 271 people School, health center and Coast kW water purification system. Bunkwimake, Atlantic Micro-hydro power 8 kW Arhuaca, 165 families (210 Panela (unrefined sugar Coast kids in school) paste) production and drying of cocoa. Boarding school and health center. Palmor, Atlantic Coast Micro-hydro power 130 Coffee growing commu- Meatpacking and fruit pulp kW nity processing facilities. Silos and coffee pulper engines. Cerrejon, Guajira Solar Energy Wayuú, 215 families Yucca flour processing plant, water pumps and experimental farm. Table 9. Projects planned by the CCEP with its scopes and benefited communities. (Colombia Clean Energy Program)

In almost all cases the solution to the basic and urgent needs of the communities was catalyzed by the implementation of SETs to provide a reliable and affordable electricity service. As seen in all the cases presented above, sustainable energy technologies were not only a means to provide an electric energy service, but also a powerful tool to guide communities in the NIZ towards sustainable development.

3.5.4 Creation of Legitimacy

Indicator: Concrete efforts to encourage the replacement of diesel systems to supply electricity for systems powered by SETs.

For the creation of legitimacy function law 1715, as mentioned in section 3.3.1, creates a perfect frame to encourage the implementation of sustainable energy systems as a replacement to the diesel systems that constitute the electrical energy regime in the NIZ. The environmental advantages that renewable energy technologies offer when compared to the diesel engine generators are scientifically proven and depending on the technology, its operation and maintenance costs are notably lower. The law gives special economic incentives when a project to replace diesel engines with SETs proves to be economically viable to offer lower electricity costs to the final user. (Congress of the Republic of Colombia, 2014)

104 As shown in the TICs described in section 3.1, the transition towards a low carbon economy regime will have gradual steps. In the TICs it was shown that a total elimination of the diesel engine systems was not done, but a more complementary task from the sustainable energy technology systems was implemented. The task of this technology innovation centers is to create the necessary learning processes to be able to get to the stage of replace the current technological regime in the NIZ.

On the other hand, these efforts and offer benefits have not passed unnoticed in some sectors. For example, Eco- petrol, which is the biggest company in Colombia, is a national oil company with part or private capital has looked towards SETs for remote locations as a solution. On the past November they emitted a request to all the companies in Colombia with experience in solar energy and PV systems to present their profiles for the future projects on solar energy which will have a validity of 15 to 20 years in which Ecopetrol will pay for the electricity generated by the PV systems installed. (Ecopetrol, 2014) If the biggest oil company in the country is calling for these type of solutions instead of continuing with their old stream of using heavy fuel oil, diesel or gas engines, it means that the use of PV technologies is a very appealing solution for remote areas such as the NIZs. This is not direct physical substitution of diesel engine technologies for SET systems, but in the practical sense the solution that fossil fuel engines provided has now been replaced by PV systems and by the biggest oil & gas actor in the country. This is a strong win for SETs in Colombia, most specifically SETs.

Since law 1715 hasn’t entered in its enforcement period yet, it is difficult to evaluate concretely this function, but the efforts are already making big changes in the industry and how the stakeholders perceive the future of SETs in Co- lombia. Also, the Ministry of Mines and Energy through the IPSE has shifted their strategy for the NIZ towards using more SETs and gradually transforming the technological regime dominated by diesel engines. Currently, as shown in the TICs in section 3.1, sustainable energy technologies are being used as supporting technologies for the actual diesel regime. The goal of the IPSE and the Colombian government is first to ensure that all the population of the NIZ has a 24 hour reliable service, regardless of the source, and then push towards a low carbon economy. The priority is to provide the service which delays somehow the impacts of this indicator. There is no actual register of the number of diesel units replaced by renewable energy technology systems.

Also, this creation of legitimacy has been affected by the position of resistance of certain indigenous groups who have had harrowing experiences from intervention in their territories coming from the central government. The barrier identified in the landscape certainly affects the performance of the innovation system specifically in this function. Although replacement of technology and ensuring a better, more affordable and reliable service of electricity is to the best interest of the communities, but many of these communities don’t even see electricity as a necessity and feel the urge to avoid the most contact with the government entities and other “western minded” projects in their lands.

3.5.5 Resource Mobilization

Indicator: Amount of funding and financial incentives for developing projects of electricity generation with SETs in the NIZ

In this function the formula for almost every project is the same. Government funds combined with foreign governments and agencies funding is the typical financial scheme. All sustainable energy projects in the NIZ in Colombia have required a combination of government funding and international agencies aid. For the near future most likely it will remain that way, since these project have more a social scope rather than a profit making approach. In the following table the amount of founding for each project will be presented describing the technologies implemented and the actors involved in funding.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 105 PROJECT TECHNOLOGY FUNDING AMOUNT FUNDING ACTORS Jepirachi Wind Power US $27.8 million EPM Polygeneration TIC Wind and Solar Energy US $3.12 million IPSE (funding received from diverse government funds dedicated specially to the NIZ and foreign aid from the Dutch government) Solar Energy TIC Solar Energy US $ 784,665 IPSE (funding received from diverse government funds dedicated specially to the NIZ and foreign aid from the Dutch government) Biomass TIC Wood Biomass Gasifica- US $ 138,105 IPSE (funding received tion from diverse government funds dedicated specially to the NIZ and foreign aid from the Dutch government) Hydro TIC Micro-hydro Power US $ 751,080 57% IPSE (funding received from diverse government funds dedicated specially to the NIZ and foreign aid from the Dutch government) and 43% local Gov- ernorate of Antioquia Colombia Clean Energy Micro-hydro Power, Solar US$ 18.5 million USAID (The total amount Program (CCEP) – All Energy and Biomass of funding required by the project projects was higher and completed by other actors, the amount expressed here is only the funding given exclusively by USAID)

Table 10. Amount and Sources of Funding for the Most Important SET projects in the NIZ (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) (EPM, 2014) (Lodoño Giraldo, et al., 2011) (Colombia Clean Energy Program) (Osorio Arias, et al., 2011)

The principle funding comes from the government funding through plans like the support fund for energizing non- interconnected zones (FAZNI) in which for every kWh traded in the National Power Trading Stock a COP$ 1 will be destined to this fund. The National Fund of Royalties (FNR), Fund for Social Energy (FOES), Program for Electrical Grid Normalization (PRONE) are other funds created by the Colombian government which collect funding that is destined to support the task performed by the IPSE. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011)

On the other hand there is also foreign funding as the mentioned above from the Dutch government. USAID through the CCEP gives their part and other governments like the German government support programs like the educative program on PV systems launched by the SENA as mentioned in section 3.4.2. Other institutions that help with loans and funding are the Inter-American Bank of Development (IABD), the World Bank and the United Nations through the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). In definitive its always a mix of national government funds with

106 some foreign aid destined for social and sustainable development.

3.5.6 Market Formation

Indicator: Stimulus given for the formation of new markets related to SETs.

The Stimulus given by law 1715 for market formation is mentioned and explained in section 3.2.1. In Colombia, besides from hydro power, there are no established markets for the different sustainable energy technologies. The micro-hydro power market is of course by far the largest market regarding SETs in Colombia since hydraulic energy is the most widespread technology in Colombia to produce electricity. In Colombia 65% of the installed capacity are large hydro power (>20 MW) systems, and out of the 4,7% that constitute the use of small scale SETs, which is the solutions needed for the NIZ, 4,2% corresponds to micro-hydro. (UPME, 2013) This shows how by far this is the biggest market among the different SETs.

After hydro, wind and biomass are the following technologies that are more well represented, but still their installed capacity is so small to be able to consider there is any established technological market around this technologies. Both technologies are in a experimental stage still, fortunately with good results that are calling for more of these kind of solutions. In the case of biomass there is a more established market because of all the transfer that has come from the Brazilian market which is rather big. All this knowledge transfer and diffusion has made of biomass a market not so foreign and unknown to the Colombian industry. Also, since using biological waste seems something more regular in a country like Colombia. Mostly the job market for this type of projects is dominated by chemical and environmental engineers. There is a stronger local labor force and established local market for technology production because the processes used in biomass processing are more similar to processes found in the industry, thus the experience of certain companies can be already translated to the field of biomass processing for energy production.

In the case of wind energy, there isn’t a established market like in the case of solar energy. In most cases the same companies who offer wind energy also offer to be specialized in solar energy. As explained before, the conception of the Colombian government of treating sustainable energy technologies as one same technological group, has been translate to the market. The market is still not mature and no specialized companies are well established. Many companies in Colombia come to the market as experts in renewable or alternative energy technologies, without having a clear scope or specialization towards one particular type of technology. The wind energy solutions these companies tend to offer are rather small of focused for a household. Another burden for wind energy to have a bigger market in Colombia is the very close links to Spain who is a worldwide leader in wind energy. The Spanish wind energy markets sits among the most developed wind energy markets in the world and such experience and the current state of Spanish economy has made in Colombia decide to choose for Spanish companies as contractors to execute the big wind energy projects. This is a the case of ADES in the technologic innovation centers, which is a company who presents a model of complete energy solutions combining wind and solar energy, model replicated by many Colom- bian companies as mentioned before. In the case of Jepirachi, a bidding process was opened in which only foreign companies participated because there were no local companies with the experience or technology means to be able to compete. Spanish Gamesa competed with the final winner, German company Nordex. Nordex won the US $27.8 million turn-key project being the biggest wind project in Colombia. EPM is planning on a bigger project to expand to a 200 MW production based on wind energy, and it’s expected that many foreign companies may open an office in Colombia to facilitate the access and operations of these kind of projects. Solar energy has been almost meaningless in Colombia with just 6MW installed and this is accounting mostly for the few solar energy panels the IPSE has installed around as pilot projects and the beginning of solar energy in Colombia which was telecommunications. Teleco was the company that in the late 80s and 90s spread the use of PV systems in remote telecommunication facilities. (Rodriguez Murcia, 2009)The potential of solar energy is Colombia is huge and many European and American companies have set their eyes on that and are looking their way to enter the

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 107 Colombian market. Since in Colombia there is no technology production related to solar energy, what is expected is that well established companies in the west look for representatives or distributors in Colombia. This is a case of Vibran in Bogota. Vibran is a company dedicated to power management projects especially for turbines and fossil fuel engines. Due to the recent interest of big clients such as Ecopetrol in PV systems they’ve fell compelled to enter the solar energy market by joining efforts with a German company. On the counter part of these companies who look for exclusivity deals, are companies who look to develop a name for themselves offering affordable solutions directly to the end user. This is the case of companies such as former Biosolar de Colombia. This company used to offer solar energy solutions to the end user by importing equipment and designing the system themselves. Back then when Biosolar de Colombia started there was no law 1715 or special regulations that could benefit them so it made it more difficult to make is a really accessible solution for the average person. Their clients were mostly people who had some environmental awareness and felt “experimental” and wanted to try having a PV system at home to reduce grid consumption. Biosolar claims that it is very closed or undeveloped market still, and that the big and real projects are meant to be directed towards foreign companies that will come to establish their experience and know-how. This was one the reasons for Biosolar de Colombia to shut down. (Isaza, 2014)

The market formation in Colombia for sustainable energy technologies as mentioned is very technology specific. There is a very well established market for hydro, but for technologies such as PV and wind the market is still in its formation process and will take some years of lessons and learning process to consolidate a strong and mature market.

3.5.7 Entrepreneurial Activities

Indicator: Appearance of businesses related to the development and deployment of sustainable energy technologies.

Currently the active companies and technology supplying actors involved in projects such as the technological innovation center and Jepirachi in the Guajira are foreign. No local Colombian companies have been involved heavily in the part of technology supply. Even less, there are any technology producers regarding sustainable energy technologies in Colombia.

Entrepreneurial activities regarding wind and solar energy in Colombia are placed in a market that tends to the appearance of technology distributors, rather than new entrepreneurial companies. The foreign companies are looking for an opportunity to join efforts with a Colombian partner to have presence in a market that is starting to be opened. This doesn’t create any new entrepreneurial activities in the practical sense. While in the paper many “new” companies may appear registered, it is only the joint effort of a well established engineering Colombian firm and a technology producer abroad. New small companies are appearing in ventures to start slowly expanding the renewable energy market in Colombia making use of the benefits given by the law 1715.

In the case of hydro power systems, there are very few spaces for new companies of entrepreneurial activities to take place. The hydro power market has been present in Colombia for a long time already in the big scale, but now having the problem of the NIZ there are spaces for the appearance of new actors to get involved in developing the micro- hydro market. The most mature companies are around the processing of biomass, because biomass processing is very similar to other chemical processes so companies which years of experience in such processes can easily migrate to the biomass market. Experience in the installation and development of chemical reactors for industrial processes can be used in the biomass market.

Entrepreneurial activities in Colombia for developing sustainable energy technologies seem to be quite stagnant and it is the sign that the whole innovation system is not performing very good. In the case of wind and solar it is too young and dominated by foreign technology developers. Making some research, a list of companies that are pioneer-

108 ing in the development of a renewable energy market in Colombia shows a very interesting fact: In Colombia the renewable energy market is seen a whole and it is not technology distinctive. This means that the same companies that distribute and implement PV systems will also offer wind power and micro-hydro systems. This reinforces the idea of treating all the technologies involved in SET as one whole technology innovation system. Probably, when this technology innovation system is mature and developed, we might start seeing technology specific innovation systems. Hopefully the whole range of incentives given by the law 1715 towards research and development may help to the opening of new spaces for creation of entrepreneurial activities especially in the areas of wind and solar energy. The following list shows a list of companies dedicated to the development of renewable energy technologies in Colombia.

COMPANY TECHNOLOGIES OFFERED CONTACT INFO GIE SAS • Solar Energy (Thermal and PV sytems) www.gie.com.co • Wind • Geothermal • Micro-hydro • Biomass/Biogas • Hybrid Systems HEMEVA Ltda* • PV Systems http://www.hemeva.com/ • Wind Energy • Micro-Hydro Hybrytec • PV Systems http://hybrytec.com/Home/Default. • Wind Energy aspx • Hybrid Systems My Green-Tech Ltd. • Solar Heaters [email protected] Arquitectura Bioclimática • Solar Energy http://www.arqbioclimatica.com.co • Wind Energy • Hybrid Systems Sensstech** • Solar Energy [email protected] Vibran SAS* • PV Systems www.vibran.com.co • Hybrid integration with diesel Ampa • PV Systems http://www.ampasolar.com/ Solarmax International S.A. • PV Systems http://www.solarmax.co/ Eco Energy • PV Systems [email protected] Ecopower Solutions • PV Sytems http://ecopower.com.co/ • Wind Energy Heliosyst • PV Systems http://heliosyst.com/ • Water Purification w/ PV Esolar • PV Systems http://esolar.com.co/ • Wind Energy Energia & Movilidad • PV Systems http://www.energiaymovilidad.com/ Solen Technology • PV Systems http://solentechnology.com/ • Wind Energy • Micro-Hydro • SET Educational kits Table 11. List of Companies that have commercial activity with SETs *Companies that were founded some years ago performing in related industries as energy consulting services or construction.These companies see in renewable energy technologies a promising revenue stream for the future. This means that they aren’t actual entrepreneurial activities per se, but bigger and experienced companies venturing in the renewable energy market.

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 109 **Companies who operate in other countries. They are possibly not from Colombian origin.

Another handful of companies which allegedly participate in the renewable energy market in Colombia were found to exist, but no relevant projects or contact information so were not added to the list. As shown, there is just quite a handful of pioneers and entrepreneurs in the renewable energy technology sector in Colombia, which hopefully in the future will constitute a mature market.

Indicator: Appearance of new businesses or entrepreneurial activities in the NIZ, as a result of the implementation of SETs for electricity supply.

This indicator is closely related to the market formation and demand articulation functions. All around the NIZ and the projects have created new jobs and new parallel economic activities have been developed. As mentioned in the market formation section, in many of the projects an economic entrepreneurial activity was supported and bolstered by the implementation of the sustainable energy technologies. Inside the communities the entrepreneurial activities have risen since the appearance of these projects and the clearest example is the biomass TIC in Necoclí. The amount of indirect jobs created by the gasification plant is translated into entrepreneurial activities based of wood collection and transportation. What people perceived as rubbish is now looked up as an income source and an economic opportunity. Biomass is perhaps the most open technology to entrepreneurial activities. The case of Necocli can well be replicated around the country because the raw material around the biomass processing technologies offers a wide number of options regarding an alternate economic activity.

3.5.8 Barriers and Drivers from the Innovation System

BARRIERS DRIVERS • Lack of programs dedicated to SETs in Colombian • The Colombian legislation guarantees a proper universities. formation of adaptative capacity process through the prior consultation right. • Funding and resource mobilization depends heavily • End user knowledge diffusion programs from the in foreign aid. help to create legitimacy based on the demands of the end user • Old and stagnant market for micro-hydro • Great support of local economic, educational and health development processes/facilities through the introduction of SETs in communities. • Not well formed market for wind and solar calling • Law 1715 guarantees incentives for a regime for foreign companies to fill the gap. transition to SETs. • Lack of entrepreneurs in sustainable energy technology fields. • Resistance from some ethnic minorities to allow development of a technological transition in their territories. Table 12. Barriers and Drivers derived from the performance of the Innovation System of the SETs in Colombia (Author)

In the niche posed by the innovation system of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia several barriers and drivers are found. One initial barrier is the lack of programs dedicated to SETs in the Colombian Universities and educational institutions. The only official programs that certify professionals in the field of SETs are mainly to train technicians. These people are trained on the basic handling, installation and commissioning of the equipment. The problem is that since there are no programs that lead to scientific development and scientific based education, no

110 technological developments specific to the Colombian market can be made. Also, experts such as engineers with education of graduate level have to come from abroad, and the Colombian market is not even developed and thus incapable of offering competitive labor conditions as salary, benefits, etc. This reflected in the facts that major projects are developed by foreign companies such as Spanish and German companies; there are no strong Colombian companies dedicated to SETs as a result of the lack of a market and lack of professionals in the field rather than technicians that can support the activities of the foreign companies that go to Colombia to implement and develop SET projects.

As well as with implementation and project execution, funding also heavily depends on foreign aid and international agencies to intervene. Although, the Colombian government is already making some efforts as described in section 3.5.5 with funds like the FAZNI, it is not enough and some additional funding is needed to develop sustainable energy technology projects in Colombia. Colombia has had the contribution of international agencies and foreign governments on its goal to implement and develop SETs as a solution for the non.-interconnected zones, but to make it a sustainable market, strong local actors such as banking institutions or big companies such as Ecopetrol must begin to start getting involved in this process contributing with resources. In the case of Jepirachi, EPM had to ask for loans on international agencies like the World Bank, because for local banking institutions such projects with a social outcome have little profitability and are not appealing to their business.

Other barrier is that the biggest share of installed capacity of SETs in the NIZs is micro-hydro. Micro-hydro have 4,2% of the 4,7% of installed capacity of SETs and other alternative sources. Micro-hydro systems are not a new market and many of these systems were already installed in the 70s, 80s or 90s and are being repowered or retrofitted. The market for micro-hydro is not really growing; it’s just transforming and refurbishing existent facilities. Also, the vast know-how available in these technologies make micro-hydro have an advantage when is thought as a solution for the NIZ hampering the appearance of much newer technologies, for the Colombian market, such as PV systems of wind energy. Though, micro-hydro can cope in many cases with the needs and scopes of projects, it’s not always the best choice, but has the advantage of know-how and easy replicablility in Colombia leaving other technologies with a difficulty to make its way into the regime. This could be seen as an overshadowing caused by the same government policies that treat all the technologies under the same package. This happened already when natural gas was considered an alternative energy source, and was given the same benefits as to sustainable energy technologies. (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2005) As expected, oil and gas companies took great advantage of this situation and currently natural gas has a pretty big market in Colombia leaving all the other energy sources covered under the label of “alternative energy sources”, which included SETs, undeveloped. The case of micro-hydro could mean that the private companies that have the resources to fund SET projects and already have the experience and know-how on developing hydroelectric projects, would prefer this type of technology over other SETs like PV or wind.

The lack of a market for PV technologies or wind power in Colombia, imperatively needs the presence of experienced foreign companies to execute the projects regarding SETs. In the requirement sent by Ecopetrol, they specified that experience in Colombia or internationally would be counted with the same standard. (Ecopetrol, 2014) In the cases of Jepirachi, the Wind energy TIC or the solar energy TIC, the executors and commissioning companies were European. In the case of the CCEP, Tetratech, a US company based in California is the responsible for all the execu- tions. In Colombia there are no established companies with the proper experience in developing wind or solar energy projects to compete to the coming of foreign companies to develop and execute all the big projects. Companies such as Biosolar de Colombia would make small projects such as residential PV installations, but never industrial of community scale applications.

Finally as established in the remarks of the landscape and also in the creation of legitimacy function, the position of resistance from the communities could become a great barrier. It is ideal that the IPSE and other developing actors continue with the great job done in the technological innovation centers communicating constantly with the community and overall respecting their right to prior consultation. When communities are reluctant to have a intrusive technological advance in their territories, there’s not much it can be done to continue with the deployment of any

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 111 technological venture in such areas. The best approach is to align the goals and benefits of such developments and technological transitions to their worldview and understanding of life.

On the more positive side, a huge driver for SETs in the non-interconnected zones is the existence of a legal measure such as the prior consultation. This legal mechanism ensures that the learning processes in the innovation system are well carried, and the IPSE seems to be doing a pretty good job at this. In all of the technologic innovation centers, a close contact with the community has been established, and a preservation of traditions and culture has been respected in the process of creating adaptative capacity informing the community about the benefits they will receive from the implementation of sustainable energy technologies in their communities and how such technologies will help them enter into a path of sustainable development. The most important note is that despite the prior consultation process is not always respected in Colombia, the actors that are implementing and deploying sustainable energy technologies have been very careful of respecting this right and giving its full importance to create a greater adaptation and legitimating the technologies. Such a powerful tool guarantees that there is a truly democratic process in the development of SETs in the non-interconnected zones where mostly ethnic minorities are located.

Another driver for the deployment of SETs is the constant concern of the government to educate the final user about the use and benefits of SETs. Once the final users are the ones that understand and carry the message that creates legitimacy for the use of SETs in the non-interconnected zones, it will be drive the development easier and faster throughout the NIZ. Having such a vast territory and with so many different ethnic and cultural groups makes difficult a widespread education since groups throughout the NIZ most time don’t relate to the other cultural groups makes necessary to educate the end users. The strategy the Colombian government and the IPSE are using is creating the sentinel programs where they educate the children and young people to take care and spread the correct use of their electric energy systems. It is a very smart move because they are already educating the future generations who will pass on this knowledge to the next coming generation creating a culture of awareness about the need of efficient and conscious use of electricity, and using SETs and taking care of infrastructure is part of that rational use of energy culture. When the final users start demanding more SETs rather than fossil fuel systems, this will create a demand pull for a market creation and impulse the development of SETs not only in the NIZ but throughout Colombia.

SETs in the NIZ are not only bringing a longer and more reliable electric energy service, but they are also encouraging and setting communities into paths of sustainable development. As shown in table Table 11 and the scopes of the technologic innovation centers developed by the IPSE, all the projects have a very positive social impact in the communities. Not only making electricity more widely available and affordable is one of the achievements of SET projects in the NIZ, but also solving social problems inside the communities by enhancing the operation of education centers, health centers and productive facilities. This is true sustainable development because while the use of fossil fuels and environmental impact is reduced in the communities, they are benefited with the creation of new jobs and upgrades in education centers and health centers. These are very strong arguments of legitimacy for implementing more SETs in the NIZ.

As expressed broader in section 3.3.1, the new legislation coming with law 1715 guarantees many financial and fiscal benefits for those actors interested in investing in the development of SETs. This will attract more strong private actors to give funding to develop such projects and see a monetary benefit in response. With these policies and measures the barrier of depending on international institutions and public resources will be diminished. Law 1715 will be enforced in the middle of 2015, until now all of its potential benefits are just mere speculation. Only after evaluating how the private actors react to these offered benefits it can be judged or assessed if they proved to be effective in their goal of bolstering the development of sustainable energy technologies. For now, it looks very promising and for sure will attract many companies and actors to get involved in this market which still needs to be formed.

112 3.6 SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP FOR ELECTRICITY IN THE NIZ

As concluded in the previous section, one the main barriers of the innovation system proposed by SETs in Colombia is the absence of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activities. The absence of a market causes that people don’t feel compelled to start any venture of the field of renewable energy technologies in Colombia. The NIZ is often seen as non profitable area and doesn’t attract the interest of private capital. Still, the lack of development and inclusion of the NIZ stays as an important problem of Colombia reflected in the migration of millions of abandoned and violently displaced persons to the main urban centers. A better integration and cohesion of these communities to the rest of the country would help to strengthen the rural field and that will have an impact of agrarian development and the global production of the country.

The inhabitants of the NIZ, mostly the indigenous groups manifested such needs for recognition, inclusion and significance to the Colombian government. The lack of access to electricity as shown is one more area in which these people have been forgotten and left aside with a diesel regime that provides a non reliable service for 6 hours or less a day and at high prices in these poor areas. This leaves the NIZ without the possibility to run their schools, hospitals and productive centers. As shown in the analysis in previous sections.

The minga has been modality of gathering and also of resistance from the Indigenous groups. As established in section 3.2.3. indigenous groups have an attitude of resistance towards intervention in their territories and initiatives of exploiting their lands. This is mentioned as a barrier for the development of SETs in the NIZ, but with that resistance towards intervention, a need and an urge for representation and autonomy comes along. This is why in October of 2013 the association of indigenous peoples after a big demonstration negotiated with the Colombian government over 5 main points that are very pertinent for the development of the non-interconnected zones. Their motto was: “Por la Vida, el Territorio, la Autonomía y la Soberanía” (For life, Territory, Autonomy and Sovereignty.) (Indigenous and Popular Social Minga , 2013) These five points were:

• TERRITORY: Legal security for indigenous territories and full exercise of the right to territory. Establishment, expansion, consolidation of indigenous territories and colonial guards.

• PRIOR CONSULTATION ON MINING PROJECTS, ENERGY AND HYDROCARBONS: Direct revocation of concessions or contracts for mining in indigenous territories.

• EXERCISE OF AUTONOMY AND SELF-GOVERNMENT: It is based on territorial autonomy, worldview and autonomy in the exercise of self-government.

• TLC AND AGRICULTURAL POLICY: Promotion referendum for the repeal of NAFTA or renegotiating them, likewise, repeal of all rules that affect the sovereignty.

• HUMAN RIGHTS, ARMED CONFLICT AND PEACE: Comprehensive adoption of the rights enshrined in the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), demilitarization of indigenous territories, clearing Plans consolidation and respect for the exercise of territorial control by the indigenous guard.

The first three points are the one that have to do more with the development of sustainable electricity systems in the NIZ. Currently, as show in the interaction of actors, the service of electricity in the NIZ depends heavily on the IPSE and the funding of government and international institutions. Depending almost completely on foreign bodies for the acquisition of a service, hampers completely the hopes for exercising autonomy from the indigenous people. On the other hand having access to a good and clean electricity service helps the communities in the NIZ to consolidate their productive activities and strengthen their settlement in their territories. Also, the action of these communities against mining and the oil and gas industry helps to benefit the introduction of SETs for their benefit, since these

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 113 technologies as proven in the Technology Innovation Centers don’t affect their environment and rather change their quality of living for better. Thus, the implementation of SETs as an electrical energy solution in the NIZ, would not only give these communities the access to a basic service, but it will create a link between the communities and the government that will help as a means to close up the communities to gain the representation and recognition they’ve been claiming for years.

Electricity in these areas will give the opportunity for educating better the children in the NIZ and create a closer contact between those remote areas and central Colombian territories. Once the government gets a feeling of regaining control and the communities in the NIZ feel recognized and included, sustainable energy technologies will serve their complete purpose in the NIZ.

The following proposal comes inspired by the idea that inclusion and representation is not only created by government and official institutions, and that the end of segregation and exclusion doesn’t come from the official actors and representatives. Ordinary citizens can also take the flag of inclusion and of effective action. This has been done and demonstrated effective in Colombia under several different programs of sustainable entrepreneurship.

3.6.1 TECHO: A Model Case of Social Entrepreneurship in Colombia

In Colombia, several projects of social entrepreneurship have had success and this lead to the creation of programs and companies to solve social issues like poverty reduction, clean water access, conflict victim reparation, among others. Compartamos con Colombia (Let’s Share with Colombia) is one these companies and works as a social innovation lab to promote ideas for bolstering development and close the inequality gap in Colombia. It also works in sustainability designing strategies and structures for the private sector to add sustainability to their value chain. This company was created between various private firms to be able to tackle social problems in Colombia. (Comparta- mos con Colombia, 2015)

Yo creo en Colombia (I believe in Colombia) is a company created by a former McDonald’s Manager who decided to create a firm to build trust. They take projects or ideas that have the potential to show positive things about the country and make them happen through structured planning taking it from the concept to the action. Their challenge is to create and build skills in the people with such ideas to be able to make them happen. They work in four specific subjects which are community development, education and empowerment, massification and consulting. (Yo Creo en Colombia, 2015)

Guajira sin sed (Guajira Without Thirst) is another social entrepreneurship initiative that started when researcher Juan Carlos Borrero designed a desalination device working with wind energy. Borrero received sponsorship from the University of La Guajira, Carbon Company El Cerrejon, the Alpina foundation and Unicef. With Borrero’s device they are bringing clean water to the people in the Guajira region which lacked access to such a vital element. (Diario del Norte, 2013)

All these are inspiring initiatives that prove that in Colombia social entrepreneurship can be successful and it’s a way to reach vulnerable communities. TECHO, formerly called Un Techo Para Mi País Colombia (A Roof for my Country Colombia), is a model case that could well help as an example for community based solution for the development and deployment of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ. TECHO is an initiative that started in Chile in 1997 and arrived to Colombia on 2006. TECHO is an organization operating in Latin America and the Caribbean, which seeks to overcome poverty, thousands of people living in slums, through the joint action of its local people and young volunteers.

TECHO works under the principle that poverty is a surmountable condition and therefore can be finished. For the

114 organization it is a problem of many dimensions, which goes beyond the economic and is also manifested in the violation of fundamental rights and human dignity in the inability to meet basic needs, in limiting freedom, lack of opportunities and exclusion within the spaces of participation and decision in the civil, social, cultural and political life. (Techo, 2013) In the same line of TECHO regarding poverty, the lack of electricity in the NIZ is also a problem that goes beyond the economic burdens and is manifested in many singular ways that include the lack of opportunities and participation in spaces where people from the NIZ can be relevant in decision and policy making.

The interesting thing about TECHO is their operational structure in which the local people of the communities and young volunteers are the main actors. Volunteers for TECHO are mainly high school and university students from all disciplines who spend a weekend or part of their vacation time volunteering to build houses for people in situations of extreme poverty. Having volunteers and locals as the main driver of the initiative, avoids a higher dependence on government bodies or other formal institutions which is one of the barriers the development of SETs in the NIZ has.

Figure 43. Volunteers and locals building houses under the TECHO initiative

TECHO follows a two stage methodology to work with the communities. In the first stage, volunteers identify the vulnerability factors of the homes and settlements relying on references from the community and other influential actors, driving from the beginning the organization, participation and responsibility of the community in the process.

In the second stage of intervention, TECHO seeks to create spaces to start working plans and develop projects with the communities; this is how the work tables are created, a formal instance where community members together with volunteers from the Organization, week after week, diagnose, raise awareness, plan and assess according to the community needs. Further they design the programs and projects to be implemented.

The work table is the right space for decision making and coordination of projects around the issues affecting the community. It is an open space in which all community members can participate, assuming specific responsibilities in the development of the project or as observers of this space for dialogue and coordination. (TECHO, 2013)

The work tables and TECHO’s methodology goes in line with what the communities in the minga are claiming with the respect for the prior consultation. This gives more inclusion and participation to the community, but at the same time creates a special link between volunteers and locals who make part of very different socio-economic spheres. This creates real inclusion and attacks directly segregation and exclusion.

TECHO is financed through various partnerships with companies, some international cooperation, individuals who contribute through the plan of partners, and conducting various campaigns and fundraising events. This means that in most cases volunteers plan and organize events to raise funds for TECHO; from golf tournaments to simply going

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 115 to the streets to collect money. This means that resources are limited and must be precisely allocated. That’s why projects planned by the work tables and different communities enter into a contest in which projects are evaluated to determine if they are favored to be executed. Initially, most of the resources came from donations and the efforts of volunteers to raise funds, but the impact the programs has had in the country has been such that has attracted important partners as finance institutions, universities and big corporations. Throughout the years the impact of TECHO is reflected in their capacity to raise around €1 million during 2012 (€ 913,900) and 2013 (€1,047,306) in donations, summon 22,000 volunteers all around of 2013, build 1,108 house in 2013 and train 500 locals in diverse labors. (Fundación Un Techo Para mi País Colombia, 2013) (TECHO, 2013)

TECHO is the perfect example of a fruitful initiative of social entrepreneurship that by its impact is involving many influential actors and it is a searchers solution as William Easterly would put it. Chilean young people started with the project along with a church priest in 1997. Its revolutionary vision of having volunteers and locals as the main driver and the impact is having in the lives of the communities and the volunteers has lead to have the Inter-American Bank of Development, Deloitte, Boston Consulting Group and Burson Marsteller as their main allies.

3.6.2. Relevance of the TECHO Model for Electricity in the NIZ

TECHO’s model is inspirational to help with the problem of electricity in the NIZ because it helps to deal with many of the barriers present for the emergence of the sustainable energy technologies niche. First, it deals with the heavy reliance of the actual innovation system in the IPSE. The IPSE as central actor limits greatly the impact of such technologies in the NIZ. As shown in the analysis of actor interactions, the IPSE regulates all the projects and plans regarding the electrification of the non-interconnected zones. The means of action from the IPSE are limited to many factors and can only address a certain amount of vulnerable communities. This means that actually the communities that are not in the plans of the IPSE are not able to receive benefits of a good electricity service. Having an organized group of volunteers serving the not yet reached communities could help to alleviate the situation. Probably it won’t be greatly significant, but it will change at least living standards for the intervened community.

Inclusion is not only achieved through government programs, true inclusion is when normal citizens of different backgrounds interact and share common grounds. Having young students from the universities and high schools working together with locals from the poverty areas creates a great inclusion atmosphere that not only benefits the locals that receive the houses, but also brings a great experience and teaching to the volunteers who have contact with that other side of the country they didn’t know before. In the case of the NIZ, having inclusion between this new generation of students and the ethnic minorities would not only have a positive impact in the NIZ bringing electricity and bolstering productive, education and health centers, but it will enrich academic environments. These volunteers will bring back to the universities and schools the experience of other worldview and a closer contact to their roots and history before the colony. This will be certainly a better inclusion and recognition of the ethnic minorities in society than any other intended by policies or government planning.

The lack of entrepreneurs in the innovation system is addressed by the initiative of having volunteers doing the labor of such absent entrepreneurs. It is social entrepreneurship in action that doesn’t require many experts or special skills, just the will to help. Volunteers many don’t know anything about building houses, but end up contributing greatly to the final goal. Heavy funding is still done by big organizations and companies, but the power of crowdfunding the TECHO model offers can make a difference. In donations only in Colombia, TECHO now registers around the €1 million mark. All these donations are achieved by the volunteers who creatively plan and organize ways to raise the money to keep on going the project. In the case of electricity in the NIZ, equipment is certainly more expensive than house and the impact will not be as scalable, but it is one initiative that will empower communities and volunteers to start actions towards a new country, just as TECHO is doing. The magnitude of the projects done by such initiative in the NIZ regarding electricity would not have the same magnitude or impact as that of the TICs established by the

116 IPSE, but are worth the effort. Still, comparing the amount of funding received in donations by TECHO is admirable and important when compared to the Technologic Innovation Centers. The total capital invested in the Solar TIC was € 611,704. Capital invested in Biomass TIC was € 1,678 per kW installed in a key turn project. (Benjumea Hernández, et al., 2011) (De la Cruz Morales, et al., 2011) This shows that these community and volunteer based initiatives have the potential to achieve projects of the magnitude of government institutions such as the IPSE.

A social entrepreneurship initiative based on volunteers and working closely with the communities could well help to meet the shortcomings of the current innovation system of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. Having a direct contact between volunteers and locals involved in the development of projects becomes a great “searcher’s approach” as Easterly calls it. It helps to address the second tragedy of the poor which is actually getting the aid to those who need it. (Easterly, 2006)

Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NON-INTERCONNECTED ZONES 117 CHAPTER 4

118 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This last section will be dedicated to the conclusions, final remarks and recommendations of sustainable energy technologies as an electrical energy solution in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. These conclusions reflect the findings using the proposed framework and the research done according to such framework.

4.1 CONCLUSIONS

This research project started with a main question that was:

Which are the barriers and drivers of the Sustainable Energy Technologies as an electric energy supply solution in the Non-Interconnected Zones?

To be able to answer this question, a series of sub-questions were formulated. Each sub-question was meant to give a clearer differentiation of the levels of analysis made throughout this research. It was found that the development of sustainable energy technologies in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia currently faces more barriers that actually drivers. Bad governance and political instability affect every single social process in Colombia and technological innovations are not the exception. As well, cultural diversity and behaviors of segregation and classism intensify the conflicts and burdens caused by the political instability. On the other side, Colombia is a country that benefits from abundant natural resources and is having a period of economic boom. Economic development in Colombia in recent years put the country as an attractive point of foreign investment and situates the country as a world emergent economy and third place between Latin-American countries.

Specifically in the NIZ, its electric system is dominated by diesel engine systems with around 95% of installed capacity in such areas. Thus, such service is intermitted, available only few only a limited amount of hours a day and expensive. There is a lock-in with such technologies and people in the NIZ are poor and can’t always afford the service. Recently the government released law 1715 which aims to regulate SETs and give benefits to start projects in the NIZ. The goal is to reach to 100% of the population of the NIZ which a coverage of 100% of availability of the service at an affordable price.

Unfortunately, the innovation system of sustainable energy technologies in Colombia is not been well developed. Learning processes and advances have been developed, but the lack of a market, absences of relevant entrepreneurs and the heavy dependence on international actors to maintain the innovation system, makes it very fragile and not ready to become a scalable solution for supplying electricity to the NIZ.

This is why at the end of all the analysis the importance of social entrepreneurial activities in Colombia is highlighted as means to respond to such a failing innovation system. From the communities perspective, the model of having volunteers working hand in hand with the locals inside the communities to help to overcome shortcomings of a failing innovation system is very significant. The resulting barriers of a lagging and incomplete innovation system that doesn’t have a market for SETs or entrepreneurs ready to boost such market can be overcome with such initiatives at a community level. Social entrepreneurship in Colombia has proved to be successful having TECHO as great inspirational model to solve problems in vulnerable areas. An initiative of the same nature gathering young student volunteers from universities and high schools to go and work with and for the communities to bring them access to electricity in the

Chapter 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 119 NIZ can be part of an alternative solution that in the future might have huge impact. As said by William Easterly, “You don’t have to immediately eliminate world poverty, bring world peace, or save the environment. You just have to do whatever you discover works with your modest resources to make a difference in the lives of poor people.” (Easterly, 2006) This is the correct path and approach to take regarding such social problems in Colombia, specifically in this case the access to electricity in the NIZ. It might not have initially a significant impact in the overall statistics around Colombia, but for those who are benefited it is a whole world of difference.

The following section gives answers to each sub-question in a deeper and more complete way.

1. Which is the best framework for the analysis of barriers and drivers of sustainable energy technologies as a solution for the non-interconnected zones?

The lack of access to electricity in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia is a complex problem which requires a profound analysis at all levels. It is not just a mere technological problem or of lack of legitimating the use of better technologies to supply such service. It has many factors and actors that affect its development and for this reason a combined framework using the Multi-Level Perspective and the Functions of Innovation Systems approaches was used.

The MLP approach helps to analyze factors and actors at the most general level, which is the landscape and helps to understand and visualizes relationships and interactions with actors and factors in mid and lowers levels; the regime and the niche. The regime speaks and analyzes specifically the actual state of electric energy systems in the non- interconnected zones and how prone these systems are to be changed or replaced by an emergent technological innovation such as sustainable energy technologies. In the niche, sustainable energy technologies are starting to form an innovation system that could well be the solution for the actual shortcomings of the electricity service in the NIZ. Such innovation system is better understood when analyzed and assessed in a more systematic manner.

For doing such systematic evaluation the FIS, as by Van Alphen, framework has very specific functions that were evaluated through indicators that show how the innovation system is performing. Doing a systematic evaluation of the innovation system helps to identify punctual and particular factors of improvement in the innovation system so it can then successfully come into the regime to replace the current electricity systems in the NIZ in an effective and scalable way. The Functions of Innovation Systems as by van Alphen was selected over other FIS approaches because this one has been modified in its functions to be applied in developing countries which are not capable of producing R&D and their own technology as it’s the case of Colombia and sustainable energy technologies. FIS van Alphen approach stresses over technology adaptation and implementation which is the specific case of renewable energy technologies and the non-interconnected zones of Colombia.

These two frameworks come from the same theoretical roots and work very well together. Additionally, factors from the landscape such as cultural behaviors were also used in the analysis of particular functions of the innovation system, making the interaction between frameworks stronger. Also in the landscape level, the suggestion of using complementary theories, such as Hofstede in the cultural aspect, helps to bring a deeper insight into the analysis of landscape factors. This is also another attempt this research makes in the creation of stronger and more comprehensive frameworks to analyze technological transitions.

In the national general context or the landscape, possible the most influential element for any process in Colombia is the political instability and bad governance. Bad governance has a direct impact to underdevelopment and poverty of

120 nations. (Easterly, 2006) Over 50 years of internal conflict and violence have directed many of the political decisions of the country, and it’s probably the most influential happening of late Colombian history. Currently, Colombia is found in a huge historical and conjectural moment with a possible negotiated end of the conflict. Nevertheless the country is in the middle of peace talks, opposition towards the government has never been so big, reflected in the extreme political polarization in Colombia. A failure in the peace process talk could lead to the continuation of the bloodshed in the NIZ thus legitimating the adoption of warfare politics like the one proposed by former president Alvaro Uribe. Financing war not only makes valuable resources that could be used for developing SET project to be allocated in the military, but also centers the efforts of the great minds of the country to focus in the end of such conflict. At all levels, the continuation or end of the armed conflict between the government and the subversive groups will have big impact in all policies and government decisions made in Colombia; the development of electricity projects in the NIZ is no exception. Also, post-conflict scenarios consider the possibility of many of the more than 4 million displaced people in Colombia returning to the rural areas in the NIZ where they originally come from. This would set new challenges for the Colombian government regarding development in the NIZ.

Colombia in general is a very fortunate country given its geographical characteristics. The geographical position of Colombia and the natural resources available are definitely a driver for the development of SETs. Colombia has a geographical position that offers extraordinary potential of solar irradiation all around the country making it perfect for the development of PV technologies. Also, in the northern part of Guajira and the Caribbean Coast there is great wind energy potential that could supply the whole countries demand. Though it is a small area in proportion, it still provides a great wind energy potential, with an additional offshore potential. Hydraulic turbines constitute two thirds of all the installed capacity of the country making of Colombia a country that more or less has sustainable energy supply. Also, being the second most bio-diverse country in the world provides great amounts of biomass potential for the development of such technologies. The access to the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Ocean also leads to have a great tidal energy potential. Colombia is a very rich country in natural resources with excellent conditions for the implementation of SETs as a very viable solution for the NIZ to supply the electrical energy service in technical and economic terms.

Colombia’s 1,141,748 km2 also brings many limitations in communication and integration of people, thus the existence of the non-interconnected zones. These zones are not only lacking the electrical energy service, but are also culturally and ethnically separated from the centralized or urban part of the country. With 102 different native indian communities, three groups of Afro communities and 62 different languages and cultural traditions around the country there is a true challenge to unify Colombia under same policies and legislation. Although the constitution is valid for every Colombian, these ethnic minorities located in the NIZ have autonomy in their laws and how they do life in their communities having a sense of respect for their tradition and cultural heritage. Many times those cosmogonies, world views and cultural traditions clash with the views of the most urban Colombia, which is most western cultured. A posture of resistance since the times of the colony, presents a real challenge for any ideas of development from the government towards the ethnic minorities. Harrowing experiences with promises of development that ended up in environmental damages, cultural and heritage destruction and corruption of their community organizations have also reinforced the sense of resistance in these communities towards the ideas of development coming from the most modern side of Colombian society. Though, there is a great dichotomy in this between autonomy and integration. New generations have the sense that having representation in the government and learning from formal western education will actually give them tools to fight and strengthen their stance on resistance and preservation of tradition and the environment. While some people from these ethnic groups state they’re better off in their ways and with less contact with the modern society, others just think that learning from their modern counterpart is the best way to preserve tradition and continue with their legacy. The stance of each specific group regarding ideas of development from the modern Colombian culture can be either a threat or a driver for the development of technology transition processes in the NIZs. This is reflected on the agreements regarding territory, autonomy, energy, agrarian reformation and FTAs and prior consultation achieve in 2013 between the indigenous people and the government through the social minga. Ethnic minorities claim recognition and relevance in decision making, but are still looking to have

Chapter 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121 autonomy in their own territories. This is why cultural differences are so crucial and important when studying these kind of processes.

The way to approach these challenges and take advantage of such precious resources is to take one step at a time and solving particular problems one by one. The peace negotiations, the policy changes and the great availability of natural resources in Colombia can be part of the change in the lives of people in the non-interconnected zones. Taking advantage of these resources and strategically avoid corrupt practices will lead to help to contribute to the development and improvement of the non-interconnected communities.

3. In the current state of electrical energy systems used in the NIZs, which are the key socio-technical and socio-economic actors and factors that are sensible to change and give a window of opportunity to sustainable energy technologies?

In the current state of the electrical energy systems in the NIZ is dominated by diesel engine generators covering more than 95% of the installed capacity in the NIZ. This makes the diesel engine regime a very strongly established regime, basically provided by a lack of alternatives in the past. Such regions had electricity demands that could only be supplied by diesel fuel systems and the final users got used to these technologies. Though, almost all systems are using this type of technology, the service they provide is of back quality and expensive. Having a service that doesn’t last in many cases more than four hours per day and with high prices for communities that are poor is something that creates legitimacy for cheaper and more reliable options such as renewable energy technologies. The technology regime within the electric energy regime in the NIZ is very sensible to change because of the burdens the current regime poses over the final users. Sustainable energy technologies can help to provide a cheaper, more reliable and environmentally friendly service for these regions.

Also, recent initiatives from the government have completely changed the policy regime that affects the electrical energy systems in the NIZ. Law 1715 opens huge windows of opportunity in the NIZ for the implementation and development of solutions that included sustainable energy technologies. The government through the IPSE, which is the institution in charge of electrical energy solutions in the non-interconnected zones in Colombia, have launched initiatives to start providing reliable and affordable electrical energy solutions to the population of the NIZ that is around 2 million users. Law 1715 gives financial incentives for the executive actors, tax exemptions and other benefits for those interested in developing sustainable energy technologies. Also, there are even funding benefits for those who show that changing their diesel engine system for sustainable energy technology solutions is economically more beneficial for the final users.

4. How are the innovation processes of sustainable energy technologies developed in Colombia functioning or performing?

The innovation system for sustainable energy technologies in Colombia is not performing completely well. The innovation system has great tools to start and encourage the initiation of learning processes through a very powerful tool such as the prior consultation right that the constitution gives the ethnic minorities. This right, guarantees a proper process for creating adaptative capacity in these communities. This helps to ensure that the information is getting out there to the final user so they can embrace the technological change. The IPSE is doing a great job regarding this task with the technological innovation centers and also all around the country with initiatives as the Energy Sentinels and the Energy Wednesdays. Energy Sentinels is a program to train young kids and teenagers in the responsible and rational use of energy and infrastructure. These young users, are taught why the system is important for them and why the electrical energy provided is so important and why it should be used in a smart way. Also the Energy Wednesdays is an initiative where experts from IPSE go to the communities sharing knowledge about electrical energy alternatives and it use; by 2010 a total of 187 meetings were held. This is complemented by the Technology Thursdays which are oriented to more technical information talks; of these meetings, 35 were held by 2010. (IPSE, 2010) All this programs

122 also help with the knowledge diffusion aspect of the innovation system. This knowledge diffusion is complemented with the programs institutions like the SENA provide to train professionals in the commissioning and operation of PV systems. Also, students from Colombian universities are being encouraged in learning and participating in international contests regarding SETs. Since the nature of the NIZ is communities with unsatisfied basic needs, the demand articulation and creation of legitimacy is done towards the sustainable development benefits SETs offer when compared to the existent regime of diesel engines. Almost all planned projects with SETs have a socio-economical positive outcome in the communities that justifies their execution. Also, the option to transitioning to a more affordable, reliable and environmental friendly technology creates legitimacy for SETs in the NIZ. Regarding those functions, the innovation system performs very well.

The innovation starts to fail when the lack of an established market and the lack of entrepreneurial activities make obligatory the use of international and foreign financial resources to support the development of sustainable energy technologies. Even though the government has set incentives and created funds to finance the development of the SETs as a solution for the NIZ, that funding is not sufficient. Complementary financial resources from private and international organizations is need and private companies in Colombia aren’t yet much interested in participating. Since there is not a market for sustainable energy technologies and no entrepreneurial ventures to explore the construction of such market, the executive actors have to come from abroad. So far, the innovation system has failed to produce great interest on producing entrepreneurial activities on SETs, and the brave ones who have tried, have failed. Law 1715 could well be the catalyst that will begin with a strong market for sustainable energy technologies in Colombia with all the attractive benefits for private actors to be interested in investing in such fields. This could well be salvation for the innovation system in the big scale.

Under a MLP perspective, the whole process of technological transition and innovation is shaping very important and interesting paths that in the future will help to determine if the niche or sustainable energy technologies will have a successful integration and reshape of the energy regime in the NIZ. From the landscape many pressures as international agencies allocating resources for the development of such technologies and the whole global scenario that call for actions regarding climate change adaptation and mitigation has influenced in changes inside the regime of electricity in the non-interconnected zones of Colombia. During many years, it was said that Colombia had great potential of resources for the development of sustainable energy technologies; the major burden was the lack of regulating policies for such technologies. Now, thanks to these pressures from the landscape, the policy regime has been reshaped and taken a different path with the approval of law 1715. This law has started to reshape the whole socio-technical regime at all levels as described in section 3.3. This situation has now set great windows of opportunity for technological innovations such as the sustainable energy technologies to enter the energy regime that is being dominated by diesel engine technologies. The logistics and fuel prices make the current regime unstable and with a not so favorable perception from the end users in the NIZ. This will definitely make even better the opportunities set in the regime for such innovations to be established and deployed.

On the other side, user perception in many cases is that a 24 hour service of electric energy is not even needed. This is due to historical and cultural contexts that prime the need for survival over other needs. These aspects may be some sort of burden to the deployment of sustainable energy technologies as a niche entering into the regime. Add- ing to that perception, the lack of entrepreneurs and local research in areas of sustainable energy technologies make it even harder to think of a quick and dynamic transition to low carbon economy in the non-interconnected zones. The whole set of barriers and drivers for the development of sustainable energy technologies is very wide, but the most certain conclusion to make so far is that the windows of opportunity are more open than ever for the introduction of renewable energy technologies to the non-interconnected zones of Colombia with the potential to benefit a very large amount of people. Careful planning must be done to bolster and encourage entrepreneurial activities in the SET niche, and the problem is that the IPSE is carrying mostly the whole weigh of these activities. A good development of the niche accompanied by a careful social/cultural interaction with the end user communities may ensure a successful introduction of SETs into the ST-regime of electricity in the non-interconnected zones. Creating legitimacy

Chapter 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 123 from the cultural perspective of the ethnic groups and entrepreneurial activities should be the first steps towards a transition from the niche to the regime for sustainable energy technologies. This is why the ordinary people action is a legitimate and important solution. Social entrepreneurship actions as proposed in section 3.6 are part of the key to help the deployment of SETs in the non-interconnected zones. It will not only help to bring electricity to this people, but will contribute to attack the main problem SETs try to solve that is inclusion, significance and recognition of the people living in this areas.

4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS

A threat to the innovation system of sustainable energy technologies in the NIZ is the lack of differentiation of particular technologies. Policy wise the government gives to each technology the same treatment and benefits. This was done in early years with natural gas classified as an alternative source of energy with the same benefits that solar, wind of biomass had. Natural gas was given full attention by most actors that had the financial resources to bolster the development of natural gas around the country, driven by the profitability such technology offered. The lack of specific policies that regulate each technology separately could also create this same effect when one of the technologies proves to be more profitable or promising than the other, based on a single policy that covers then all. Since all different technologies have different characteristics, specific policies should be created to regulate each technology particularly. This could seem a waste of time when there is no market for any of the technologies, but it could well prepare the field for a better interest from the actors required to start the market and the entrepreneurial activities going regarding sustainable energy technologies. This is reflected in the absence of a solid market in Colombia for sustainable energy technologies. The few Colombian companies involved with SETs are mere distributors and not technology specific. It is common to see that a PV installation company also does wind energy and focuses more in hybrid solutions. No developments in an specific technology are done through research and development to address the specific Colombian case. This is the result of a lack of relevant entrepreneurs and the appearance of foreign companies as the main actors for technology supply.

The IPSE, should be obligatory allowed to work more closely with international organizations that desire to create initiatives such as the Colombia Clean Energy Program. The IPSE is doing a very good task regarding cultural differences and understanding the needs of each community based on their traditions, cultural heritage and world view. Such experience should not be undervalued, and must be use to optimize the utilization of the resources given by foreign agencies that have the will to cooperate with sustainable development in the non-interconnected zones. Those first steps in the functioning of the innovation system should not be wasted and rather be complemented with efforts from the government to create and bolster and local market for SETs with strong research and development. Educa- tional institutions, such as Universities, should work more closely with the industry to develop relevant technological solutions for the Colombian scenario and more specific to the NIZ. This would bolster the innovation system of SETs in Colombia and would decrease the heavy dependence on international and foreign actors.

Additional supporting bodies around the IPSE should be created focused on advising and promoting the creation of entrepreneurial ventures regarding sustainable energy technologies in Colombia. In order for the innovation system to finally perform well, an institution dedicated to advice and support startups or small companies that want to enter in the SET market should be created. This would boost the creation of a market for sustainable energy technologies, giving greater opportunities to keep expanding the development of SETs as a solution for electrical generation not only in the NIZ, but around the country.

The armed conflict in Colombia is one of the events with most impact in the political instability of the country, and its resolution could start seeing the light soon. This could be a real change in the most influential factor to burden the development of technological transitions in rural areas of Colombia. The IPSE and the Ministry of Mines and Energy should have a contingency plan for a post-conflict scenario involving an exodus from the cities back to the

124 rural areas. Many of the violently displaced people that ended up in the cities, dream of going back to their lands in the non-interconnected zones. If the end of the conflict comes and a mobilization of displaced people is done back to the rural areas, the energy demand will increase due to a population increase. Their planning and project should also consider that future scenario in which populations all around the NIZ grow rapidly due to great mobilizations of people returning to their land in the NIZ. Also, if so a joint action with the new communities should be closely held. Articulating the development of projects according to the needs of the returning communities to serve their best interests and needs should be a priority.

For the regular ordinary students that have already been part of initiatives like TECHO and study in fields related to sustainable energy technologies, it is their opportunity to start a new social action to bring yet one more solution to the vulnerable communities in Colombia. Even if the skills don’t completely with SETs a volunteer will always have something valuable to contribute. This has proven successful in Colombia and I hope this document serves as a means to understand better the problem the people living in the NIZ face. The current main barrier which is the armed conflict and political instability can well pose a threat to such initiatives, but helping the communities that are closer to the urban centers and don’t have presence of illegal actors can be the beginning. This will help to attack a problem even bigger which is the segregation and exclusion generated towards such communities. In return, volunteers can learn from the higher spirit of environmental sustainability and generational responsibility these people have in their cultural traits. These small intercultural exchanges can help to enrich the vision and worldview of the volunteers as well as giving new opportunities for the communities benefited. It is a great opportunity to give a bit to the transformation of a new Colombia. It might not be statistically significant, but on a personal and community level, the effort is worth it.

4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS OF FURTHER RESEARCH

The possibility of using other complementary frameworks when doing the landscape analysis should be considered. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions were used timidly because of pragmatic purposes because in essence it deals with business culture mostly. A more technology transition related framework should be developed or investigated. Tech- nology transitions in developing countries are far more heavily influenced by such landscape factors like culture and political instability than in developed countries. This is why frameworks that are used in developed countries are adapted and modified, such as the FIS van Alphen, to be used in developing countries. This research work tries to get a bit closer to that approach, but creating a cultural study or framework the quantitatively relates culture more specifically to technological transitions would be ideal. Multidisciplinary groups should be encouraged to perform this task involving the technical formation with social sciences.

In developing countries, such as Colombia, cultural diversity is so vast that it calls for performing intra-national cross- cultural studies. This would not only benefit the particular Colombian case, but it would also help to understand certain dynamics of post colonial countries which have certain cultural hues that developed countries don’t have. For Colombia in particular, it is necessary that more academic work is done regarding that documentation of all the cultural richness in the country. Most of such cultures have a very rich oral tradition and even today it still remains the same. Having written or academic information regarding ethnic groups in Colombia is not very common. Multi- disciplinary groups should be encouraged to start documenting such richness of cultural heritage. This will certainly help to understand more about Colombia, its origins and traditions. Most of our history has been documented and explained from the western view left by the descendents of the Spanish, it would be incredibly interesting to have the same story told by the ethnic minorities documented. Having multiple sides and narrations of the same story, would certainly enrich the way we study and perceive history in such a diverse country. Such an initiative can also be encouraged and recommended in other developing countries. Also, for the use of such studies, systematic frameworks should be developed that are not as business oriented as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

This document in the beginning aimed to start with the initiative of including a national cross-cultural analysis with

Chapter 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 125 technological transitions, but it is a topic that demands a whole different complete research. The cultural diversity that is found in western countries like Spain where you have the Basque Country and Catalonia which have different historical development and languages, but share the same western cosmogony, cosmology and western values than the rest of the country is very different than that found in former colonies with fractured societies like Colombia. For this reason a cross-cultural framework for within a country should be established. This can be useful for Latin- American countries and African countries which are potential emergent economies and potential market targets for technological advances and business development.

Not only with culture this deep analysis should be done, but with other factors of the landscape. Use complementary frameworks that give an extra dimension and depth to the research. The creation of more comprehensive and multidisciplinary frameworks is imperative to understand and analyze better technological transitions.

4.4 REFLECTIONS ON WORK

The initial intention of this research was to use a cultural framework to include a heavy cross-cultural study to show its influence in technological transition. The use of a more systematic approach was intended using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, but this proved to be more a burden than a help when trying to address the core problem which was electricity in the non-interconnected zones. Not having complete and systematic data that would directly help to address the problem made it very difficult to add the initial innovative approach that was intended.

Also failed attempts of using complementary cultural framework were done. This happened because of lack of data in the case of Trompenaars or mismatch of data when trying to use the GLOBE studies. It was very challenging trying to keep the innovative feeling of adding another dimension to culture in technological transitions. It was somehow frustrating to see that the frameworks intended to use were not suitable for the initial scope that was held on mind. It certainly delayed the progress in many cases and in other cases it deviated the attention from the main problem of identifying barriers and drivers for the development of SETs in Colombia.

Despite that in Colombia the IPSE is already taking a culture specific approach regarding the non-interconnected zones, this work can set a precedent in building multidisciplinary frameworks to study and analyze better technology transitions in developing countries. Culture and ethnic diversity is a factor that normally is no taken into account when assessing technology transition processes and that in the case of Colombia, has brought success. The IPSE taking into account worldview and necessities of the ethnic minorities have had success is promoting and creating acceptance for the use of sustainable energy technologies. This approach could be taken for other technology transfer processes in developing countries that have such diversity that influences directly into the success or failure of a technological transition.

Perhaps the initial scientific idea of this research was somewhat pretentious, but it helps to leave the concern of the need for such frameworks and approaches that will lead to more comprehensive and complete analyses of technological transitions. On the other hand the development of a more concrete proposal for a sustainable entrepreneurship action would have been ideal. The limited timeline didn’t help to develop a more structured solution that goes well with the heart and vision that started with this project.

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