Managing group relations among elite netball players
By Selloane Martha Mosoahle
Mini dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
In Sociology
in the
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
at the
University of Johannesburg
Supervisor: Prof J. M. Uys Co- supervisor: Prof. Cora Burnett - Louw
August 2006
1 Acknowledgements and declaration
There are people in this world who always make a difference in other people’s lives. I would like to dedicate this dissertation to such people. A special thank you to the following people who directly and indirectly helped me get through this study.
Firstly, the God Almighty for giving me the ability to study and the courage to keep going even when it as difficult. My two supervisors Prof Uys and Prof Burnett for all their time, ideas and effort they put into this piece of work. To my wonderful mom who always believed in me and encouraged me to work hard. To my beautiful niece and my handsome nephew for all their ideas.
To the management of the University of Johannesburg Sociology Department for awarding me the Anton van Wyk Bursary. To the Statkon crew for capturing all the data and making it available to me in time. I am truly grateful to you all.
I would also like to thank the National Research Foundation (NRF) for their financial assistance of this project. Any opinion, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and therefore the NRF does not accept the liability in regard thereto.
I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted for the degree Masters in Sociology at the University of Johannesburg is my own work, and has not been formally submitted to another university for any other degree.
Martha Mosoahle
Johannesburg 2006
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2 Abstract
South African has experienced a decline in world netball rankings from being second in 1995 to fifth position since 2003. One of the reasons for this situation relates to the drop out of talented players, sometimes before even reaching the elite level. Secondly, the immigration of senior players to other countries is also a major concern.
The aim of this research is to establish the main factors that contribute to this state of affairs by considering the sacrifices that are made by elite netball players with regard to the rewards that they obtain in return. Cohesion was also investigated to establish the impact it has on players. Management of South African elite netball was revisited to determine the effect it has on players. Possible factors that enhance participation among players were also investigated.
The study was conducted by combining a quantitative with qualitative approach. The results indicated that serious attention should be given to professional management of elite netball to ensure that the rewards received counteract the sacrifices of an elite netball career. The biggest challenge in facing netball in South Africa however is the fact that netball is an amateur sport. Strategies were offered and recommendations made on how to effectively manage elite netball players in South Africa.
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3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page numbers
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DECLARATION i ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF GRAPHS v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Problem statement 2 1.3 The elite netball player 2 1.4 Elite netball in South Africa 3 1.4.1 Factors affecting group relations 6 1.4.2 The role of group relations in the functioning of groups 7 1.5 Theoretical approach 7 1.6 Conclusion 7
CHAPTER TWO: FACTORS AFFECTING ELITE NETBALL PLAYER’S PARTICIPATION 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Factors affecting elite netball player’s participation 9 2.2.1 The nature of sacrifices 10 2.2.2 The number of rewards 13 2.2.3 Cohesion 17 2.2.4 Group conflict and management 25 2.3 Conclusion 27
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4 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Research approach 29 3.3 Quantitative component 30 3.3.1 Structure of the questionnaire 30 3.3.2 Selection of respondents 30 3.3.3 Collection of data 32 3.4 Qualitative component 3.4.1 Structure of the questionnaire 32 3.4.2 Sampling of respondents 32 3.4.3 Collection of data 33 3.5 Insider outsider approach 33 3.6 Advantages of being an insider 34 3.7 Disadvantages of being an insider 35 3.8 Ethical considerations 35 3.9 Conclusion 36
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction 37 4.2 Profile of respondents 37 4.2.1 Participation level of respondents 37 4.2.2. Racial distribution of respondents 38 4.2.3 Age distribution of respondents 39 4.3 Sacrifices made by elite netball players 40 4.3.1 Material sacrifices 40 4.3.2 Social sacrifices 43 4.4 The nature of social rewards as a motivator to specialise in netball 4.4.1 Material rewards as a form of motivation to specialise in netball 45 4.4.2 Social rewards 46 iv
5 4.4.3 Psychological rewards 48 4.4.4 Physical rewards 49 4.5 The level of cohesion among elite netball players 51 4.5.1 I get along with other players from different races and cultures 51 4.5.2 The extent to which you consider your fellow netball players 53 to be your friends 4.5.3 To what extent would you discuss your personal problems 56 with your fellow netball players 4.6 Discrimination against netball players 58 4.6.1 Racial discrimination 58 4.6.2 Minority group discrimination 59 4.6.3 The discrimination based on the low status of the sport 59 4.7 Competition among elite netball players 60 4.8 Group conflict and management 61 4.9 Players’ views on whether they are allowed to air their views 64 on matters that concern them 4.10 The level of satisfaction with regard to management 65 4.11 Feelings of pride with regard to association with netball 67 4.12 Conclusion 67
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 69 5.2 Research problem 69 5.3 Summary of the main literature 70 5.3.1 The nature of sacrifices 70 5.3.2 The amount of rewards 70 5.3.3 The level of cohesion 71 5.3.4 The relationship between players and management 71 5.4 Research strategy 71 5.5 Summary of findings 72 v
6 5.6 Recommended strategies to enhance participation among 72 elite netball players 5.6.1 Addressing financial constraints 73 5.6.2 Formal netball structures 73 5.6.3 Recognition of netball as the major female sport 74 5.7 Limitations of the research 75 5.8 Recommendations for future research 75 5.9 Findings and conclusion 76
REFERENCES 78 APPENDIX A 83
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7 List of tables Page numbers Table 4. 1: Participation levels of respondents 38 Table 4. 2: Racial discrimination of respondents 38 Table 4. 3: Material sacrifices according to participation levels 41 Table 4. 4: Material sacrifices according to racial backgrounds 42 Table 4. 5: Social sacrifices according to participation levels 43 Table 4. 6: Social sacrifices according to racial backgrounds 44 Table 4. 7: Social rewards according to participation levels 46 Table 4. 8: Social rewards according to racial backgrounds 47 Table 4. 9: Psychological rewards according to participation levels 48 Table 4. 10: Psychological rewards according to racial backgrounds 49 Table 4. 11: Physical rewards according to participation levels 50 Table 4. 12: Physical rewards according to racial backgrounds 50
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8 List of graphs Page numbers Figure 4. 1: Age groups of different netball participants 39 Figure 4. 2: Getting along with other players according to 52 participation levels Figure 4. 3: Getting along with other players according 53 to different racial backgrounds Figure 4. 4: Friendship levels according to participation levels 54 Figure 4. 5: Friendship levels according to racial backgrounds 55 Figure 4. 6: Discussion of personal problems according to 56 participation levels Figure 4. 7: Discussion of personal problems according to 57 racial backgrounds Figure 4. 8: Dealing with competition according to participation levels 60 Figure 4. 9: Problems between players and management according 62 to participation levels Figure 4. 10: Problems between players and management according 63 to racial backgrounds Figure 4. 11: Player’s views on matters that concern them 64 Figure 4. 12: Satisfaction level with regard to management according 65 to participation levels Figure 4. 13: Satisfaction level with regard to management according 66 to racial backgrounds Figure 4. 14: I feel proud to be associated with netball in this country 67
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9 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In 1995, the South African national netball team was given the opportunity to participate internationally again after twenty years of isolation. That same year the team was able to take part in the world netball championships, and obtained a silver medal. That means South Africa was placed second in the world netball rankings. Since then, the South African team was unable to obtain its second position again. Instead it went down to position four in 1999 and position five in 2003. The South African team is still ranked fifth in the world in 2006.
Netball is regarded as the most popular female sport in South Africa with a high participation rate at school, tertiary, regional as well as provincial levels. According to the previous president of Netball South Africa, Ntambi Ravele, over two million girls and women participate in the sport. The problem is however that most of these participants drop out of the sport as soon as they reach a higher level of play. According to Ms Ravele (2004), over fifty percent of all netball players stop participating in netball after high school.
The negative effect of this premature retirement is exacerbated by the emigration of players to other countries. Some of South Africa's best players emigrated to other countries seeking greener pastures. Two of these players, Irene van Dyk and Leanna du Plooy are presently in the New Zealand team, which is the current world champion. The International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA) rates Irene van Dyk the best shooter in the world. If South Africa had been able to retain these players, international success could have been more easily attained.
The main question remains why there is such a high drop-out rate and migration of elite players to other countries.
10 1.2 Problem statement
There are many factors that have contributed to this current state of affairs. The following factors are of importance: i. Gender, as netball is predominantly a female sport and not recognised or adequately resourced in the same way as the traditional male sports such as rugby and soccer.ii. Netball is an amateur sport in South Africa, implying the lack of financial support which leads to players going overseas for better financial opportunities.iii. Dissatisfaction among players. iv. Intergroup conflict relating to management and players.
These and many other factors impact negatively on the satisfaction levels of elite South African netball players. Addressing these issues may prevent early retirement as well as migration of elite players to other countries. If these factors are explored, they can be addressed and strategies can be implemented to prevent players from leaving the sport or the country.
This study aims to identify the main factors impacting on the world of South African elite netball players in order to come up with strategies that can be used in managing elite netball players to prevent early retirement as well as the migration to other countries. The focus will be on investigating the role of group relations among elite netball players.
Before the role of group relations in elite netball can be discussed, it is important to give an overview of the meaning of elite netball in South Africa.
1.3 The elite netball player
Elite netball refers to players participating in high level netball competitions, including national as well international competitions. Due to the high standards of competitions that players are involved in, elite netball players are expected and compelled to undergo very intense training and preparation. This entails an average of one training camp per month over a weekend, close to an international competition, and about two international trips to
11 other countries annually. On average, an elite player will be away from home for seven weeks per year.
1.4 Elite netball in South Africa
In this case South African elite netball refers to the national netball league players, as well as national players. National league is the highest level of netball participation in this country and it consists of nine provinces participating in the competition. The nine provinces are divided into two sections. There are five top provinces, which participate in the A section. They are Gauteng Thunderbirds, Eastern Cape Comets, Cape Town Tornadoes, Free State Lynx as well as Kwazulu Natal Mermaids. The bottom four provinces are the North West Unicorns, Limpopo Crocodiles, Northern Cape Flamingoes as well as the Mpumalanga Ingwes.
National league competitions are played on Friday nights for a period of two to three months a year. Teams usually fly or drive on Friday mornings or afternoons to play in the evenings, and return the following day. Most players who form part of the national squads are selected from these national league teams.
National players consist of the twelve players who are selected to represent the country at international competitions. National players are more involved in competitions as they travel extensively. The travelling and attendance of training camps vary according to the different international competitions, such as the All Africa Games, Cosana Games (Congress of the Southern African Netball Association), Commonwealth Games, as well as the World Netball Championships. The Cosana Games, where all the Southern African national teams participate in netball and are played every second year. At the Commonwealth Games, all the Commonwealth countries participate in different sporting cods every four years. The World Netball Championships also take place every four years and approximately twenty different countries participate in this competition. It is important to note that most national players are also part of national league teams. This means that most national players have both national league and national team obligations.
12 The racial composition of participants at elite netball level consists of sixty percent Whites and forty percent Blacks and Coloureds.
The ratio of white players to players of colour is very much a result of policies and measures implemented to address racial equity after 1994. For example, Burnett (1999:36) refers to the situation in accordance with netball and racial equality, where a quota system was introduced to penalise provincial netball teams if 40 or 50 percent of female participants from disadvantaged communities were not included in provincial teams of different age groups. The same principle still applies in 2006.
The policy of racial equity in sport was incorporated with the sexual equity policy. Hagreaves (1997:14), states that after the first multicultural elections had been held in 1994, “the new country was labelled as the non racial, non sexist Republic of South Africa”. However, female sport is not being treated the same as male sport. For example, most male-dominated sports such as rugby, soccer and cricket are professional sports, whereas all the female - dominated sports are amateur sports. According to McIntosh (1987:198), an amateur is someone who participates and always has participated in sport without material gain and who has an occupation destined to ensure his/her present and future existence.
Netball in South Africa is structured along professional lines. However, as an amateur sport, netball structures are mostly run by volunteers on a part time basis. The organisation is structured as follows:
President Vice President Selection Convenor Umpires Convenor Coaches Convenor Development Officer Secretary Volunteers
According to Ms Ravele (2004), women occupy most of the managerial and
13 administrative positions. The president is running netball on a part time basis and without receiving a remuneration. The deputy president, who is at the office nearly full time, assists the president with urgent matters. It is important to note that one person occupies the portfolios of deputy president and treasurer simultaneously. The selection convenor is responsible for the selection of the national team. The umpires’ convenor is responsible for upgrading the levels of umpiring in South Africa, and the coaches’ convenor is responsible for the development of coaches in South Africa.
The secretary and the development officer do office work such as receiving and sending out information to and from players and members of the executive committee. These are the only two paid employees as they are at the office full time. The development officer also conducts coaching and netball development to support the historically disadvantaged players and coaches. Other than the committee, there are service providers who assist with the high performance of netball players also on a part-time basis. They consist of:
Head Coach Assistant Coach Team Manager Team Doctor (temporary) and Physiotherapist Umpire (one international grading)
All the executive members live in different parts of the country and meet regularly. None of these members gets paid for rendering their services. The racial composition of the executive committee members consists of fifty percent Blacks and fifty percent Whites, with no Coloureds or Indians involved.
It is clear from the above information that South African netball is structured very informally because of its amateur status. This might be one of the reasons why women’s participation in sports, as Costa & Guthrie (1994:253) claim, will never grow in parallel with men’s sport even though they participate in similar activities.
14 1.4.1 Factors affecting group relations
The following are the factors that affect cohesion in group situations. These factors will be discussed on the basis of symbolic interactionism. According to Neuman (2000:21), symbolic interactionism perspective ‘provides meaning to the real life experiences’.
i. Sacrifices As netball is an amateur sport, elite netball players make different types of sacrifices to remain in the sport. These sacrifices have a major effect on the functioning of groups. Too many sacrifices can thus lead to less interest to remain in sport.
ii. Rewards Elite netball players get limited rewards due to lack of sponsorships, with their main sponsor being SPAR. This sponsorship is much less than the sponsorship for male sports. The number of rewards determines the level of commitment by players in the process to achieve their goal. The level of commitment will enhance cooperation from the group members, and therefore high cohesion levels.
iii. Cohesion Cohesion levels also have a major effect on the proper functioning of groups. For instance, high levels of cohesion lead to better performance, and low levels of cohesion lead to poor performance among groups. It is therefore important to have high levels of cohesion for effective functioning of groups.
iv. Group conflict and management The management of groups also determines their performance. Poor management of groups leads to poor performance and groups that are managed effectively are more satisfied and therefore perform better.
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1.4.2 The role of group relations in the functioning of groups
As was previously mentioned, cohesion as the main source of group relations plays a major role in the functioning of groups. Cartwright & Zander (1960:74) define cohesion as “the resultant of all the forces acting on all the members to remain in the group”. This definition is clarified by Golombiewski (Steyn & Uys 1998:175) when he explains the meaning given to cohesion in terms of the following three broad categories: - The attraction that the group has for its members. - The coordination of the efforts of the group members. - The level of motivation of the group members to do a task with enthusiasm and efficiency. It is clear from the above information that cohesion plays an important role in the functioning of groups. The next section focuses on the consequences of a high level of cohesion on groups.
1.5 Theoretical approach
Using the symbolic interactionist perspective, managing elite netball groups can be problematic due to many varied factors. The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on everyday life situations. According to Donnelly (2002:78) the symbolic interactionist perspective takes understanding at its basis, and distinguishes between descriptive and explanatory understanding. Factors affecting the lives and satisfaction levels of elite netball players will thus be traced by getting players' direct responses. Interviews and participant observation form an integral part of data collection. For the sake of this study, the focus will be on cohesion as the main aspect of intergroup relations.
1.6 Conclusion
The introduction gives an overview on the situation of netball in South Africa. The present netball situation was also revisited to compare the changes during the ten years of
16 democracy. Possible factors that might have an effect on elite netball players’ early retirement as well as migration were also discussed to determine these decisions.
In the second chapter, the managing of group relations is investigated, reflecting mainly on the role of cohesion in the functioning of groups. Possible factors that have an effect on cohesion are discussed in more detail. Group conflict and management are also discussed.
The third chapter will reflect on the qualitative and quantitative research methods that will be used for the interpretation of the results. Data analysis will also be discussed, followed by the ethical considerations when conducting research.
The fourth chapter will focus on the findings of the research. This will be done by means of tables and graphs, as well as the qualitative evidence.
The fifth chapter will draw the conclusion of the research findings as well as the entire study.
17 CHAPTER TWO
FACTORS AFFECTING ELITE NETBALL PLAYERS’ PARTICIPATION
2.1 Introduction
As illustrated in chapter one, numerous factors contribute to early retirement and migration of elite netball players. The study aims at identifying those factors in order to develop strategies that will encourage continued participation through symbolic interactionism. The following four factors will be dealt with, namely: sacrifices, rewards, cohesion as well as conflict management.
2.2. Factors affecting elite netball players’ participation
As was previously mentioned, this section of the study will focus on the four major factors that affect elite netball players’ participation.
As netball is an amateur sport, elite netball players make different types of sacrifices to remain in the sport. Those sacrifices include both material as well as social sacrifices. Material sacrifices consist of all the sacrifices that are financially related, for example, giving up career and academic opportunities, and forfeiting or delaying business opportunities. Social sacrifices on the other hand, may include giving up time to be with family and friends in order to play netball.
The exchange theory states that there is a correlation between sacrifices and rewards, implying that the higher the sacrifice, the more the rewards ought to be. Elite netball players however, receive limited rewards for the sacrifices they make, and that has an effect on their participation.
18 It is evident that regardless of all the challenges facing elite netball players, there are players who are participating and enjoying the game. This might be due to the high level of cohesion among elite netball players. Management can also have a great impact on the functioning of groups. It is also evident that groups that are properly and effectively managed, tend to function better than ineffective groups.
The following section will provide a more detailed discussion on the factors that have an effect on elite netball players’ participation.
2.2.1 The nature of sacrifices Elite netball players make numerous sacrifices to remain in the sport. The main sacrifices that are made by elite netball players are divided into two categories, namely personal sacrifices, as well as financial sacrifices. Personal sacrifices involve spending most of the time training, giving up career and academic opportunities, as well as giving up time to spend with family and friends. Larkin and Baxter (1993:30) mention that one of the realities that have a major impact on women’s participation is family responsibilities. According to them, women athletes are more likely than men to withdraw from sport once family and childcare responsibilities are taken up. As a result, men acquire more seniority and therefore more power in sport participation as well as organisations.
Financial sacrifices that are experienced by elite netball players involve players having to pay for their travelling expenses to and from training camps, having to buy their own equipment such as sport shoes and sometimes sport gear. Most of the elite netball players are qualified for different positions but are unable to get permanent jobs due to the high demands of the sport. Those who are employed take unpaid leave from work most of the time in order to participate in the sport.
Most of these sacrifices that are made by elite female athletes are perceived by them as a given norm. Homans (1950:123) defines norms as “ideas in the minds of the members of a group, which can be put in the form of a statement specifying what the members should
19 or should not do, or are expected to do in certain circumstances”. Norms and roles go hand in hand; Steyn and Uys (1998:154) define roles as "expectations that have to do with the way in which norms are made applicable to the behaviour of individual group members”.
Steyn and Uys (1998:154) also emphasise that roles of specific members of a group can differ from each other because of the achievement of the group goal. In netball, different members also have different roles. The team captain, the vice captain, the clothing committee as well as players’ committee have all been appointed with the responsibility to fulfil their different roles.
As was already mentioned, elite netball players endure various sacrifices due to the status of netball being an amateur sport. However, the status of netball is not the only reason players make sacrifices. The other reason which is often overlooked is the fact that netball is a predominantly female sport. According to a society’s culture which emphasises roles, norms and values, people are expected to behave and act in certain ways according to their genders. Elite netball players as females are expected to behave in a certain way. As such, this is already an involuntary sacrifice.
It is vital for the sake of this study to incorporate the sacrifices that elite netball players make due to their gender, which is being female.
Bauman (1991:157) defines gender as the “culturally produced social differences between males and females that are learnt through socialisation”. It is important however to note that there is a difference in terms of how societies view sex and gender roles. According to Hess and Ferre (1987:33), “sex differences are not gender differences”. Whereas sex differences are physical, gender differences are socially constructed, meaning that gender depends on how society views the relationship of male to man and female to woman.
20 Children grow up in a society being socialised in different aspects of life, such as their different languages, their different cultures, norms, values as well as roles. Coackley (1998:88) defines socialisation as follows: An active process of learning and social development that occurs as people interact with one another and become acquainted with the social world in which they live, and they form ideas about who they are, and make decisions about their goals and behaviours.
This means that through interaction and example, people learn what is socially expected of them, and therefore behave in that way. During this interaction process, the societal attitude of assigning specific roles to specific genders becomes a habitual behaviour. These social agents socialise girls according to beliefs related to femininity and boys to masculinity, meaning that girls learn to indulge in more feminine and ‘soft’ activities and boys in more physical and muscular activities.
This is done through assigning and associating certain duties with specific genders, where participation of females is not given equal value to that of males. Beal (in Coakley, 1998:242) emphasises this by mentioning the so called ‘protectiveness’ and the constraints that limit girls’ participation in sport activities. According to him, girls are not necessarily discouraged from playing sport due to these factors, but many are treated differently than their male counterparts in many regards.
Girls are less likely to realise and expect that physical activities and achievements can and should also be uniquely important sources of rewards in their lives. Fathers tend to spend less time in shared physical activities with daughters than with sons, and the playtime of girls is more likely to be regulated, prescribed and controlled by parents. (Beal in Coakley, 1998:242)
From the above discussion, it is clear that girls are not given the same amount of encouragement and support as boys to engage in competitive activities and participate in sport. Coakley (1988:236) gives an example of how sport deems aggression ‘fit’ with the dominant definition of masculinity in many cultures where boys who avoid sport during
21 childhood, especially sports involving physical toughness, are often called ‘sissies’. According to Coackley, girls who excel in sport that involves physical toughness and power are called ‘tomboys’.
This male to man and female to woman ideology therefore becomes a norm in most societies. This norm might become a driving force for males to play sport, and it might become an obstacle for women to participate in sport as much as men do, due to the low status given to female athletes and female dominating sports.
It is clear from the above discussion that players make different types of sacrifices to remain in netball. It is in the human nature to expect a reward for a sacrifice that is made. The next paragraph will deal with the different types of rewards that are received by elite netball players.
2.2.2 The number of rewards Elite netball players receive limited rewards with regard to the number of sacrifices they make. It is evident that there is gender discrimination when it comes to sport, where females receive fewer rewards for more sacrifices than what men do. The section investigates the perception of the South African society with regard to the rewards for female compared to male dominating sports.
The history of women in South African sport reflects a history of marginalisation, inequality and the lack of resources. This marginalisation of women in sport as Vertinsky (1990:1) claims, “remains a consequence of medical shibboleths about female physical activity which quite naturally reflected popular beliefs about the nature of women, their biological purpose and social role”. This means that gender is socially constructed, and reflects perceptions of inferiority that are biologically determined. This applies to the South African society. Unlike male sport, female sport has never been accepted as really important in South African society. During the apartheid era, gender, as Hagreaves (1997:191) claims, “has tended to be treated as less important than race and ethnicity”. This means that South African policies of that era to a large extent addressed racial inequalities rather than gender inequalities. This has leads to the current government also
22 turning a blind eye to the discrimination and marginalisation that all women in South Africa are experiencing and being exposed to when it comes to sport.
The statement above is supported by the South African Sports Action Magazine, where South African female athletes are referred to as ‘bold, beautiful, talented and penniless’, due to lack of financial support in female sport, and the typical gender stereotyping.
Hagreaves (1997: 30) provides a similar insight by concluding that the development of sport in South Africa also prioritises traditional male sports. According to her, large amounts of money have been spent on the township development of traditional male sport such as soccer, cricket and rugby. Although girls play cricket and soccer, they do so in comparatively small numbers compared to the boys, and they see relatively little of the development money. Their participation in these so called male sport codes is also frowned upon and their femininity questioned.
From the information above, it is clear that gender inequality is a major problem in the South African sporting fraternity. This is supported by Roberts (1993:9) when she says: “Contemporary South African sport is gender biased, male dominated and sexist”. Hagreaves (2000:28) also emphasises this gender inequality when she claims that gender inequalities and sexism have produced overriding structures of male authority, domination and control of positions of power throughout South African society, a reality which is exaggerated in sport. Women see the chance of restructuring and equalising relations between men and women in sport slipping away, because since the Post Apartheid era, men have to a large extent re-established dominance in ideology, structures and practices.
According to Engelbrecht (1996:74), some of the issues and problems in sport have resulted from the government, not having equal representation of men and women in decision-making positions on all levels of governance, as well as equal resources for male and female sports. Roberts (1993:9) also claims that women were conspicuously underrepresented in management positions such as the then National Sports Council
23 (NSC), where there were eleven men on the executive committee, but only two women, whereas women had high profiles in service roles. According to Hagreaves (1997:200), “the general absence of women in decision-making positions reflects the deeply rooted power imbalances between men and women in South African sport”.
This issue of inequality is made clear by Ngcongo (1993:200) when citing one woman from the Soweto Sport Council as follows: “the ANC literature is always talking about women empowerment, but ask them what they are doing around that? These are just statements, nothing else”.
It is evident that female dominating sports are not treated the same as male dominating sports, and the rewards are also not the same. Larkin and Baxter (1993:5) emphasise, “fewer women than men participate; when they do participate, they lack equal opportunities”. According to them, most sport organisations possess a distinctive gender biased structure with men occupying the more powerful positions.
This statement is emphasised by Cashman (1995:82) when he says: Participation in sport for women has not been on equal terms with men: sport has underlined women’s subordinate and subsidiary position, whether it be in associate membership, lesser prize money, access to sporting facilities, inferior sporting status and minimal media coverage.
According to Roberts (2004:23), a similar status quo is maintained in South Africa. She claims: “It took Penny Heyns two Olympic gold medals and numerous world records before she got the respect, publicity and support owing to an elite woman athlete”. Roberts (2004:23) also claims that increasing numbers of girls and women are taking part in more different sports, with road running, netball and football being South Africa’s most popular women’s sports, but financial assistance and media publicity which are necessary components for their development, are not forthcoming.
24 The fact that female athletes have less status and are getting fewer rewards compared to male athletes, might make female athletes feel inferior and that might have a negative impact on their participation. This phenomenon is also explored by Pfister (1999:9) when she says, “the gendered sports culture, which is specific to each sport, is created not only by tradition and the image of sport, but is performed by participants to correspond with their self image”. Men in decision-making positions still control sports structures and protect their power and the hegemonic dispensation. Burnett (1999:36) makes it clear that “even though feminist groups have tried to change the gendered space of elite and social physical culture in recent years, initiatives are still met with severe opposition”.
It is clear from the information above that gender ‘hierarchy’ has always been a norm in the South African society when it comes to sport. Gailey (in Hess & Ferre, 1987:32) defines gender hierarchy as “a situation where social power and control over labour, resources, and products are associated with masculinity”.
There have however been improvements with regard to female representation and the number of rewards since the start of democracy, but many expectations were created through policies and structures, and women to a large extent have not reached equality in terms of empowerment and access to resources.
Since 1994, female participation in sport has increased, and opportunities to prove themselves as highly competitive and as good as male athletes have improved. In order to put gender on the ‘agenda of change’ lobby groups have been constituted within existing structures of sport. For example, in December 1996, the structure of women sport was formalised in the new dispensation; the then called National Sports Council (NSC), and the national Development of Sport and Recreation (DSR), facilitated the national strategy for Women and Sport South Africa (WASSA). WASSA was launched on 15 March 1997 and “produced a multifaceted strategy document to address gender issues in achieving the goal of a gender equitable sport in South Africa” (Burnett 1999:35). The role of the organisation was to advise the Minister of Sport on issues of national concern and
25 significance in sport and recreation for women, and on the development of a gender sensitive policy and programmes.
According to Cassere (1998:9), the council was asked to “assist in the development of a comprehensive policy framework to guide the actions of provincial and national sport and recreation”. WASSA was disbanned and replaced by a national body called SAWSAR (South African Women in Sport and Recreation). This structure was established in 2004 to negotiate and monitor gender equity in South African Sports (Burnett, 2004). According to Burnett (2004), Sport and Recreation South Africa drives that programme of gender equity.
We can conclude that the number of rewards available for and obtained by female athletes in comparison to male athletes, is limited. The next paragraph will discuss the effect of cohesion in the functioning of groups.
2.2.3 Cohesion Cohesion is one of the most important factors in the functioning of groups. This statement is made evident by Hogg (1992:142) when claiming that increased cohesiveness is sometimes associated with increased productivity and improved performance. Brawley (1988: 16) supports this by saying that from a group perspective, greater team cohesion is associated with greater stability of each individual and the group as a whole.
i. The impact of cohesion on groups Cohesion seems to be an important factor in a group and might be one of the main reasons why people join groups. For example, some people, as Gershenfeld (1987:75) claims, seem to have a stronger need to belong than others.
26 According to Hogg (1992:1) Cohesiveness is the descriptive and technical term used by social psychologists to refer to the essential property of social groups that is captured in common parlance by a wide range of other expressions such as solidarity, cohesion, comradeship, team spirit, group atmosphere, unity, oneness, we-ness, groupness and a sense of belonging.
Widmeyer (1983:463) supports the statement above when saying that many athletes, coaches and spectators believe that cohesiveness is often a deciding factor in the winning or losing of a team. “The team that plays together, stays together and wins together, and players play, but teams win”.(Widmeyer, 1983:463). Cohesive teams perceive themselves as being bound to each other. According to Ridgeway (1983:100), there are three different ways in which groups bind their members to them, namely through: - Links of friendship and mutual liking. This aspect of cohesiveness is called interpersonal integration. - The nature and effectiveness of its organisational structure. This aspect of cohesiveness is called structural functional integration. - A set of shared beliefs, rules or practices. This aspect of cohesiveness is called normative integration.
Groups perform better when they have a high level of cohesion. Widmeyer (1983:463) supports this when he claims that many psychologists believe that high cohesive teams perform better than low cohesive teams due to the following five reasons:
Firstly, high cohesive teams need not spend so much time and energy on group maintenance, and therefore have more energy to devote to task performance than low cohesive teams.
Secondly, team members who are attracted to a group, work harder to achieve the goals of that group.
Thirdly, the exceptional communication within cohesive teams enables them to communicate and coordinate their resources better.
27 Fourthly, cohesive teams possess a willingness to interact, a situation which makes group resources available to an extent not enjoyed by less cohesive groups. Lastly, membership loyalty and group longevity, characteristics of cohesive groups, enable team members to persist at a task and therefore these aspects increase the team’s chances of performing well.
The amount of cohesion in a group can determine the stability of that particular group. Gershenfeld (1987:84) best summarises this concept as “the attraction of the group for its members”. According to him, the following factors play a major role in increasing attractiveness of membership in a group:
- Size The size of a group often greatly influences people’s attraction to it. Smaller groups are likely to be more attractive than large ones. Netball consists of bigger as well as smaller groups. Bigger groups in this case will be the national squad. The smallest group consists of 12 players (national team), head coach, assistant coach, team manager and a physiotherapist.
- Group climate The level of commitment of group members influences the attractiveness of the group. When playing at an elite level like the national league or national level, commitment has to be a priority.
- Fear Under conditions in which subjects are in a situation of fear, they prefer to be with others, and the opportunity to be with others rather than alone increases the attractiveness of the group.
28 Williams (1991:13), claims that reviewers of sports cohesion research conclude that cohesion performance outcome relationship is positive in interacting teams, but negative in coacting teams. According to him: In interacting sports like netball, success depends upon appropriately combining each player’s diverse skill in an interdependent pattern of teamwork, whereas in coacting sports, players independently perform the same skills, where team success is determined by the sum of individual performances.
Many factors therefore have an impact on cohesion. There are however also consequences of high levels of cohesion in the functioning of groups. The next paragraph focuses on such consequences. ii. The consequences of a high level of cohesion In contrast with factors impacting on cohesion, Ridgeway (1983:103) mentions five major consequences of cohesion on groups.
- The amount and quality of communication It is evident that members of a close-knit group will talk to each other more than those who are not in a similar group situation. As they value the group, they try to take part in its activities, and that means interacting with other members. It is also evident that the greater the cohesiveness, the more communication activity and interaction take place in the group.
- Member loyalty and satisfaction If everybody talks more and is friendly towards each other, it is not surprising that members seem to enjoy their membership and involvement in high cohesive groups more than would be the case in low cohesive groups. High cohesiveness leads to greater acceptance, trust and confidence among members, which in turn helps each member feel a sense of security and personal worth.
29 - Influence of the group over its members If people are enthusiastic about a group, they are more willing to make some personal adjustments, even sacrifices, in order to remain a member. This gives the group a certain power over the behaviour and opinions of its individual members.
- Goal attainment The association between cohesiveness and goal attainment is depicted in the way athletic coaches are always so preoccupied with the spirit and togetherness of their teams. Highly cohesive groups are more successful at mobilising their members’ energies and directing them towards a goal.
- Elaboration of group culture Highly cohesive groups generally develop a more complex group culture. When a group achieves that sense of solidarity that comes with cohesiveness, it tends to develop little behavioural routines in which members interact together to express their sense of togetherness. Those behavioural routines become part of their culture.
It is clear from the above discussion that cohesion has major consequences for groups. It is therefore vitally important to keep the level of cohesion high at all times in order to achieve collective goals. This can be done by enhancing factors that positively affect cohesion and correct those factors that negatively affect cohesion. iii. Factors that affect cohesion in the functioning of groups Various factors may affect cohesion among groups. The following concepts have direct bearing on group cohesion.
- Group membership McGrath (1984:8) defines a group very broadly. According to him, a group is “an aggregation of two or more people who are to some degree in dynamic interrelation with one another”. A netball team consists of twelve players, with seven players taking the court and five being reserves. It therefore fits the definition of a group.
30 However, Shaw (1981:454) defines a group in much more detail, by explaining it in terms of the interaction amongst members. According to him, “a group consists of two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person”. A group in effect entails membership, as well as interaction. In a group, as Steyn and Uys (1998:10) put it, ‘people need people’. It is also clear when one looks at the definition of cohesion, that the higher the cohesion between groups, the more cooperative groups tend to be.
It is however important to note that group membership can also be problematic, and that can affect the level of cohesion. For instance, groups consist of different members with different interests and ideas; this means that certain compromises have to be made to try and accommodate every group member so that group members can cooperate successfully and effectively.
- Cooperation If players do not cooperate within a team, it becomes difficult for the team to function effectively. Forsyth (1990:354) identifies cooperation as “the success of any one group member, which improves the chances of success for the other group member”. Cooperation is thus a determining factor in the existence of a strong relationship.
Cooperation is very important in netball, as it influences interaction on and off the court. Steyn & Uys (1998:10) claim, “people need each other because the goals they strive to achieve, almost without exemption, are of such a nature that they cannot be reached without the cooperation of others”. For netball players, cooperation on court leads to working together in order to perform well, communicating with trust, knowing that the others understand you well and are comfortable with what you are saying and doing. Lack of cooperation within the team may lead to negative factors such as the lack of trust between players, demotivation to perform, as well as limited enjoyment. Lack of cooperation may also lead to a decrease in competition levels and the desire to win among players.
31 - Competition From a functionalist perspective most people regard sport as a positive aspect in a society. Successful sports people are not only regarded as important citizens, but they are also seen to “reaffirm a commitment to societal values emphasising competition, success, and playing by the rules” (Coackley in Eitzen, 1999:24).
However, it is important to note that the very competition that is emphasised, can lead to frustration among players if they do not reach their goals, and that might lead to conflict. Forsyth (1990:353) defines the Latin word conflictus which means, “striking together with force”, as follows: Disagreement, discord, and friction among members of a group: interaction in which words, emotions, and actions “strike together” to produce disruptive effects. When conflict occurs in a group, the actions or beliefs of one or more members of the one group are unacceptable to and hence are resisted by one or more members of the other group.
An interesting question here is: Can competition among female athletes lead to certain types of behaviours which cause controversies in the team? The answer is positive. According to Bandura (in Boutilier and San Giovanni, 1983:57), female athletes learn all these types of behaviours, but even though they do, they do not display these responses the same way as males. He claims that women sometimes act aggressively if they see the situation as allowing opportunity for them to behave aggressively. In most sporting activities, aggression is emphasised as symbolising toughness. However, this aggression usually gets out of hand as players get frustrated. The situation also prevails in netball. It is important to discuss both frustration and conflict, as these concepts often correlate. For instance, conflict may lead to more frustration and frustration may also lead to more conflict among groups.
According to Alderman (1974:105) competition may manifest in frustration and conflict in the following manner:
32 i. Competition as frustration Competition among women exists within and outside the world of sport. Orbach (1994:103) supports this when she says: Today, as women struggle to take up their place in the world, to expand their vistas, to consider taking on and doing new things, they have a ready made masculine ideology thrust upon them which goes roughly like this; the world out there is tough. If you want to succeed out there you also need to be tough. You need to know how to compete, to be single minded and firm.
The statement above is also applicable to netball, as netball players constantly compete to make the team (either provincially or nationally). High profiled competitions necessitate a highly competitive attitude. Alderman (1974:105) also claims that: When two people or groups are engaged in trying to achieve the same reward and that reward is so defined that there is competition, then automatic frustration will occur in the loser. He also claims that frustration in sport is at its maximum when competitors are nearly equal in ability and skill.
The two quotes above state that the level of competition among female athletes is as tough as it is among male athletes. Coackley (1988:140) emphasises this by noting that in the case of athletes, sport involves a combination of exciting experiences and powerful social processes. He argues that some behavioural conducts in sport are deviant from regular behaviours because they fall outside the borders of what is considered a normally accepted range. They may however not be addressed or punished because they reaffirm normative ideals in the society at large. It is important in this regard to realise that some of these behaviours often lead to conflict among athletes.
ii. Competition as conflict Conflict is a “social process, which encourages the perceived and real differences between people, while minimising what they have in common” (Alderman 1974:105). Before continuing with the discussion about competition as conflict, it is important to note that there are two types of conflicts among groups, namely intragroup and intergroup conflict. According to Forsyth (1990:394), intragroup conflict is a type of conflict that occurs within groups and “intergroup conflict is caused by competition among groups over limited resources”. In netball both these types of conflict occur. Intragroup conflict can occur when players compete against each other to make the team, and intergroup
33 conflict can occur when the selected teams compete against other teams. However, it is important to know that intergroup conflict and intragroup cohesion can correlate with each other. For instance, “rises in intergroup conflict tend to go hand in hand with increases in intragroup cohesion” (Forsyth 1990:401).
Alderman also claims that when competition is so severe and extreme that fair play is cancelled out, conflict results. This can be very relevant to netball when players feel that team selection, for example, was not done fairly. Group conflict thus has a major effect on cohesion. Managing groups can be problematic if one does not have the necessary skills to minimise conflict among groups by monitoring and managing them effectively.
2.2.4 Group conflict and management The manner in which teams are managed and structured can be influential to participants. This is emphasised by Robinson (1984:110) when he says: “How groups are put together will place limits on what they can be used for, and on what they can achieve”. This means that the management of groups determines their performance.
Robbins and Finley (2000:136) claim that one of the major problems in managing groups is “communication shortfalls”. According to them, lack of communication can lead to the following problems: Team dysfunctions, mismatched needs, confused goals, cluttered objectives, unresolved roles, bad decision making, uncertain boundaries, bad policies, restricting procedures, personality conflicts as well as bad leadership.
Such problems need to be prevented in order to have good relations in the team. One might ask why is it so important to have good relations in a team. Shaw (1981:400) claims that many group theorists believe that “good interpersonal relations may be more important for effective group action than abilities and skills possessed by members of the group”. This means that if members of a team are not satisfied, the team will not be able to perform to its best, despite exceptional abilities.
34 Several approaches to managing group conflict have been proposed by Shaw (1981:391):
i. Recognising the problem Unless someone in a group recognises that a problem exists, it is unlikely that any action will be taken to solve the problem.
ii. Diagnosing the problem Once the problem is identified, group members or those who are in charge can decide on different solutions.
iii. Decision making Group members might sometimes decide on a solution to a problem, and the way in which decisions are made has important implications for the acceptance and implementation.
iv. Accepting and carrying out decisions Accepting ways to carry out decisions by cooperating and taking responsibilities is a critical step in the problem solving process.
When managing any group, it is important to bear in mind that different group members have different needs. This obviously also applies to female sports teams. This is supported by Anshel (in Costa and Guthrie, 1994:292) when saying that female athletes have certain needs, such as physical activity, competition, respect, communication as well as close relationships with team mates, and that those needs are not very different from those of male athletes. The most important tool that one needs in managing groups well, is good communication skills in order to understand clearly what each member expects.
Several suggestions have been made by different authors on how to keep a group of different people with different backgrounds together. For the relevance of this study, focus will be on negotiations.
35 - Negotiations One of the main problems among elite netball players is negotiations. Forsyth (1990:420) defines negotiations as:
Involving meetings of parties to discuss their grievances and recommend solutions. Both sides draw up a list of problems that are sources of dissatisfaction. The next group together considers each issue and seeks a solution that is satisfying to both sides.
While attempting to answer these questions, it is important to bear in mind that when dealing with team sport, group pressure plays a big role in an individual’s behaviour. Group pressure is seen by Kiesler and Kiesler (1970:31) as “a psychological force operating upon a person to fulfil others’ expectations of him, including especially those expectations of others relating to the persons’ ‘roles’ or behaviours specified or implied by the ‘norms’ of the groups to which they belong’.
2.3 Conclusion
This chapter reveals factors that affect elite netball players’ participation. Four factors were given attention from a symbolic interactionism point of view. The factors that were discussed in this chapter mostly applied to elite netball players, who are female athletes. The study revealed that elite netball players are to a great extent negatively affected by most of these factors. This results in the dissatisfaction experienced by female athletes with regard to the treatment they are getting, compared to male athletes.
Female athletes seem to have fewer opportunities to participate at all levels than what male athletes have. More so, society’s norms and values play a major role in this whole scenario. According to Barash (1984:82), these norms and values reinforce stereotypes of ‘woman as a lesser man’, passive, dependent, maternal and physically weak.
Gender stereotyping seems to have a negative effect on both the sacrifices and rewards of female athletes and elite netball players. The way in which elite netball is structured and
36 managed in South Africa, seems to be problematic. The fact that elite female athletes are not as well recognised as male athletes makes female athletes feel unimportant and therefore inferior. The next chapter reflects on how the research was done and which research methods were followed to reach the findings.
37 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
The main aim of the study has been to identify factors impacting on elite netball players' participation and satisfaction. For the sake of the study, the following factors are of importance and will therefore be discussed in this chapter: i. Sacrifices that are made by elite netball players. ii. Rewards that are obtained by elite netball players compared to the sacrifices that they make. iii. The impact of cohesion among elite netball players. iv The management procedures within the South Africa Netball Federation.
Chapter three deals with the research design employed in this study in terms of the following aspects: i. The research approach chosen and justification for choosing such a research design. ii. Instruments and processes used to collect data. iii. The insider outsider approach. iv. Ethical considerations when conducting research. v. The limitations of the study.
3.2 Research approach
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used in this research. The main reason for the quantitative research method was to get comparative empirical data from different respondents. Another reason for this research approach was that it provided information concerning various trends of factors that mainly impact on the satisfaction of elite netball players. To get clarity on the questionnaires that were structured, in-depth interviews had to be used.
The main reason for the in-depth interviews was to get insight into the different experiences, feelings and perceptions of players themselves. In-depth interviews provided contextual information for the interpretation of empirical data. In-depth interviews also gave meaning in accordance with the symbolic interactionist approach and reflected the
38 ‘lived realities’ of netball players (Neuman 2000:21). As was mentioned previously, the symbolic interactionist perspective provides meaning to the real life experiences, and in- depth interviews therefore provide clarity to those real life experiences.
3.3 Quantitative component
3.3.1 Structure of the questionnaire Self-administered questionnaires were used to obtain the quantitative data. Questionnaires were developed based on the information collected through a literature study and the experiences of elite netball players.
3.3.2 Selection of respondents Questionnaires were distributed to forty respondents. The majority of the respondents was White (n = 20), followed by Blacks (n = 11) and Coloureds (n = 3). All respondents had been involved in elite netball for a minimum period of one year (players) and a maximum of fifty-two years (management). The minimum age of players was 20 years, with a maximum age of 35 years. The minimum age of management members was 42 years, with a maximum age of 62 years. The management component which consisted of six members included the netball president, the head coach, assistant coach, an elite umpire, team doctor, as well as a physiotherapist.
Questionnaires were clearly structured and carefully evaluated by two highly respected academics, to give athletes a clear and wide variety of choices. This was compiled considering the different intellectual levels of the different athletes. The athletes seemed to have no difficulty completing the questionnaire.
The actual environment used for fieldwork was a netball training camp in Pretoria in 2003, where questionnaires were handed out to respondents. Respondents took the questionnaires to their rooms, filled them in and brought them back the next day.
39 There was a small section of the questionnaire that was only applicable to players and another one to management. - The first section contained data pertaining characteristics of the groups the respondents belonged to, and the biographical information required to ascertain information about each respondent. This was done to investigate the relationship between players’ experiences and their response to their different backgrounds. - In the second section, items were formulated on a 5-point Likert scale with the response varying from 1, indicating a very negative response, to 5, indicating a very positive response. This approach enabled respondents to indicate how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with something, as well as how strongly they agreed or disagreed on certain issues.
Below are examples of what the different sections entailed:
- Biographical information In the first section the questionnaire focused on age as well as race to be able to get a clear indication of whether there was any correlation between certain age groups as well as racial groups. Gender did not play any role, as all the respondents were females. However, it was important to refer to gender to ensure if there were any male respondents, especially among the management.
- Group dynamics among players This section focused on the following: level of cohesion among players as well as between players and management, the conflict level among players, and the reasons why players are still participating in elite level netball. The management of netball in South Africa might also be a factor that motivates or demotivates players to participate. Players’ feelings about netball in South Africa, as well as their relationship with management, were also investigated.
40 3.3.3 Collection of data Data collected was computerised, using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics were generated, from which tables and graphs were derived.
3.4 Qualitative component
According to Neuman (2000:16), “qualitative research attempts to construct and reconstruct meaning and reality as seen and experienced through the eyes of the participants”. Another advantage of in-depth interviews is that it requires researchers to “immerse themselves in the complexity of the situation and interact with their participants” (Leedy 1997:106).
3.4.1 Structure of the questionnaire In-depth interviews were conducted with twelve national players, together with six members of the management (head coach, assistant coach, team manager, team doctor, physiotherapist, as well as one of the top graded umpires). Respondents were asked to reply to open ended questions. The same respondents who filled in questionnaires were also interviewed. Two to three interviews were conducted per day. The interviews were conducted over three weekends, as the national team meets mostly over weekends.
3.4.2 Sampling of the respondents In-depth interviews were conducted with twelve national players, together with six members of the management. Questions that were asked during in-depth interviews corresponded with the ones asked on the questionnaires, but were probed in much more detail. This was to allow respondents to elaborate clearly on what they had said in the questionnaire.
Players were asked their views on early retirement and the migration of elite South African netball players, followed by the future of netball in South Africa. Respondents were also asked to elaborate on why they were still involved in netball, as well as what
41 they thought should be done to ensure stability and continued participation of netball players in this country.
3.4.3 Collection of data Data was analysed through labelling the main themes and grouping them under different headings and subheadings. These themes were therefore analysed and were used to substantiate the arguments with regard to findings.
3.5 Insider outsider approach
In this research, the status of the researcher as an instrument in gathering data needs to be considered. Sands (2002:45) defines the insider outsider dichotomy as “the mental construction of behavioural boundaries that separate distinct groups or population as well as the ethnographer’s group and those that are being studied”. As a member of the national netball team, the researcher is considered an insider researcher.
At the same time, the researcher might be an outsider in terms of the outsider perspectives. Rabe (2003:150) explains it as follows: “You may be an outsider regarding certain aspects of a person’s life”. According to Rabe (2003:150), the concepts of insider outsider can be understood in terms of the following three concepts:
Firstly, ‘insider outsider’ can be understood in the context of power relations, where the researcher is considered as the one with power and the researched as the one relatively without power. Before research is being conducted, researchers plan which areas of research they are going to focus on, and this gives them the power to manipulate questions to cover those areas of focus. In this case the researcher was an outsider due to the fact that she was a netball player and a vice captain when the research was conducted.
Secondly, ‘insider outsider’ can be understood in the context of knowledge. The insider as researcher has inside knowledge which the outside researcher does not have. The researcher also needs to have a clear knowledge or background of the subject matter
42 before conducting research. In this case, the researcher is an insider due to the fact that she was a netball player and a vice captain when the research was conducted.
The third way in which the ‘insider outsider’ constructs can be understood, is found in the field of anthropology. In classical anthropology, the researcher approached those being studied as an outsider in the majority of cases. Those cases included racial background, culture, language, as well as age difference.
This means that when conducting research, the researcher is perceived as an outsider by respondents who are different from him/her in terms of the above mentioned anthropological methods. In this study, the researcher was an outsider due to issues such as age compared to younger or older players, as well as players who come from a different racial or cultural background.
3.6 Advantages of being an insider
There were many advantages of being an insider researcher when the research was conducted. First and foremost, the fact that respondents knew the researcher made the interviews run smoothly as respondents were at ease and very cooperative. Another advantage of being known to the respondents was the high response rate. Thirty-four out of forty respondents completed the questionnaire and participated in the interviews. Another advantage as an insider was the fact that the researcher knew what was going on in the South African Netball Federation. This made it easier to focus on the effective areas of research. It also made the researcher and the respondents comfortable, as they knew each other. The relationship of trust therefore came automatically in this research.
43 3.7 Disadvantages of being an insider
The negative consequence of being an insider might be the following: firstly as an insider, your presence might influence respondents’ responses and secondly, respondents might assume that you have enough knowledge of what is happening and might therefore ignore certain important issues.
3.8 Ethical considerations
According to Bates and Fratkin (in Sands 2002:107), “the researcher has a moral obligation to consider possible repercussions of the investigation and to communicate them to informants, making sure they understand”. In this case, the following three important aspects were discussed with the informants before interviews were conducted, namely: trust, informed consent, as well as sensitivity.
The first aspect is about gaining the trust of the respondents to make sure that they open up and respond spontaneously and without hesitation when conducting research. Sands (2002:109), supports this when he says that in an interview:
The researcher must: Attempt to build a trusting and open relationship with cultural members, whether the informant or cultural members realise or recognise the true intent of the ethnographer, soliciting accurate cultural information and immersing in cultural experience demands open and honest communication.
The second aspect after gaining trust with regard to the information given to the researcher, is the issue of informed consent. A researcher also needs to inform respondents about the nature of the research and what it entails. A researcher as explained by Sands (2002:113), also needs to “indicate to participants that their participation or continued participation is voluntary: they also inform participants of significant factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate”.
44 The third aspect after informing respondents about the nature of the interview, is the issue of sensitivity and treating respondents with respect. According to Sands (2002:120), “fieldwork may, in all likelihood, involve invading or stepping on the toes of the groups, organisations, as well as cultural, ethnic or racial groups”.
The study that was conducted involved a lot of sensitive issues where respondents had to reveal and declare the information that they had about the organisation. It was therefore important for the researcher to be aware of these sensitive matters when conducting the research.
3.9 Conclusion
This chapter described the research methods and the procedures followed in this study. The motivation behind combining quantitative and qualitative research was presented and the means by which data was processed were described. Finally, ethical considerations were indicated and the role that the researcher took during the research was clarified. The following chapter will deal with the research findings.
.
45 CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
South African netball has experienced a severe drop in the world rankings since 1995. This drop is as a result of a high drop out level and migration of elite players to other countries. This research dealt with the identification of the factors impacting on elite netball players’ participation. While previous chapters focused on possible factors affecting elite netball players’ participation and satisfaction, the discussion that follows provides a presentation, analysis and discussion of the research approach used to carry out this investigation.
This chapter therefore reports on the key findings generated by the study. Findings will follow the order of the themes as presented in the literature review. An analysis and comparison between major variables will also be done.
4.2 Profile of respondents
4.2.1 Participation level of respondents Forty questionnaires were distributed for this research, however only thirty-four respondents returned the questionnaires. Out of the thirty-four respondents, 35% were national players, 41% were national league players, 15% were part of management and 9% did not indicate the nature of their participation. The number of respondents and their level of participation are indicated in the table below.
46 Table 4.1
Participation levels of respondents
Level of participation Number Percent % National league player 14 41.2 National player 12 35.3 Management 5 14.7 Total 31 91.2 Missing values 3 8.8 Total 34 100.0
4.2.2 Racial distribution of respondents The majority of the respondents was Whites (n = 20), followed by Blacks (n = 11) and Coloureds (n = 3). This is similar to the representation in the population with players in the netball squad being 60% Whites compared to 40% Nonwhites (Blacks and Coloureds). For the purposes of this study, Blacks and Coloureds will be combined and will be referred to as Blacks. The table below illustrates the racial distribution of different respondents.
Table 4.2 Racial distribution of respondents
National league National Part Total Race player player of management Black 8 4 2 14 White 6 8 3 17 Missing values 3 Total 14 12 5 34
47 4.2.3 Age distribution of respondents Respondents’ ages varied from a minimum of 20 to a maximum of 62 years. The big difference in age is as a result of the members of management who are part of the respondents. The graph below indicates the various participation levels, as well as the various age groups of the respondents.
Figure 4.1 Age groups of different netball participants
70
60
50 e g A
40
30
20
National league player National player Part of management
According to figure 4.1, the majority of national players seem to be younger compared to national league players. This is due to an early drop out of netball players, sometimes before they even reach the national level of participation. The reason for such a high drop out rate from elite netball might be because of the sacrifices that elite netball players have to make. The next paragraph will discuss the sacrifices that are made by elite netball players.
48 4.3 Sacrifices made by elite netball players
Possible sacrifices that are made by elite netball players were divided into the following two categories: material sacrifices and social sacrifices.
4.3.1 Material sacrifices Under material sacrifices the following categories were considered: giving up a career, the loss of academic or business opportunities, as well as financial implications.
In the first place, giving up a career opportunity relates to not being able to continue in or taking up a particular position due to the requirements of playing netball. Giving up an academic opportunity means not being able to complete studies, or not being able to take up the opportunity to study. The loss of business opportunity means having to miss out on and not being available when good business opportunities arise due to netball commitments.
Most players indicated that they had to make financial sacrifices. More national players declared that they were making financial sacrifices compared to national league players. Financial sacrifices in this case include having to pay for competitions such as national championships where players have to pay for their accommodation as well as travelling expenses. National players also have to pay for their own food while on tour and that might be costly in other countries, especially when they travel frequently. More national players also identified a higher level of sacrifice than national league players with regard to giving up business, as well as other career opportunities. The table below illustrates the sacrifices that are made by netball players from different participation levels.
49 Table 4.3 Material sacrifices according to participation levels
Material Participation level sacrifices National League Player National Player To a small To a large Total To a small To a large Total extent extent extent extent n % n % n % n % Give up career or 12 86% 2 14% 14 7 58% 5 42% 12 academic opportunities Give up business 12 86% 2 14% 14 6 50% 6 50% 12 opportunities Financial 7 50% 7 50% 14 4 33% 8 67% 12 expenses
The above results show that more national players experience various types of material sacrifices than national league players. This is due to the fact that national players are more involved in netball activities such as competitions, travelling, and training camps than national league players. For example, unlike national league games which are usually played on Friday nights, with the season lasting for about three months, the national team competitions require more travelling to other countries (two to three times a year, depending on the competitions per year), and that requires more time. This is evident in what was said by one of the players who had been in the team for a long time and still did not have a job. She mentioned that she had wasted a lot of her time playing netball for her country. According to her: Very few organisations understand when you tell them you are going to represent the country in netball. I still do not have a job; no one wants to hire me because they say I am never there (at work).
Similar to the different participation levels, the various race groups also varied in the emphasis they placed on material sacrifices that needed to be made if you want to be an elite netball player. Black and coloured players however did not admit to giving up any career opportunities to play netball. In the same vein, black and white players did not identify giving up business opportunities as a form of sacrifice. Table 4.4 below illustrates the sacrifices that are made by netball players from different racial
50 backgrounds to become elite athletes.
Table 4.4 Material sacrifices according to racial backgrounds
Material Race sacrifices Black White To a small To a large Total To a small To a large Total extent extent extent extent n % n % n % n % Give up career or 9 75% 3 25% 12 13 76% 4 24% 17 academic opportunities Give up business 7 63% 4 36% 11 13 76% 4 24% 17 opportunities Financial 7 39% 11 61% 18 6 35% 11 65% 17 expenses
Material sacrifices are still perceived by many players as a sacrifice with vital implications. The majority of white players feel that they are making more financial sacrifices than other racial groups. A white player however indicated during an interview that all racial groups are making the same financial sacrifices when it comes to netball, yet black players seem to get more support. She explained:
We Whites are perhaps not getting the same financial backup as Blacks because of the transformation period that is taking place. Blacks are in a better position to get all the help and support for full participation.
When asked whether all racial groups were making the same kind of financial sacrifices in the national team, another white player said:
No, I think black players are in a better position to get help because of their history. You see, if you are white you have money and if you are black you don’t have money. That’s how it works in South Africa.
The second type of sacrifices that are made by elite netball players are social sacrifices
51 4.3.2 Social sacrifices Social sacrifices refer to elite netball players missing out or giving up the time they could have spent with family and friends, giving up social activities, social relationships, as well as participation in other sports.
Both participation levels indicated that they were making social sacrifices on various levels. However, national league players indicated making more sacrifice with regard to their social activities, whereas national players indicated making more sacrifices in social relationships. Table 4.5 indicates social sacrifices that are made by elite netball players according to their participation levels.
Table 4.5 Social sacrifices according to participation levels
Social Participation level sacrifices National league player National player To a small To a large Total To a small To a large Total extent extent extent extent n % n % n % n % Time spent with 4 27% 9 60% 13 8 50% 8 50% 16 family and friends Social 6 33% 12 67% 18 5 36% 9 64% 14 relationships Social activities 4 24% 13 76% 17 6 42% 8 57% 14
Similar to different participation levels, all racial groups also indicated making social sacrifices on various levels. In the case of different racial groups, black players indicated making more sacrifices in their social activities, whereas white players indicated making more sacrifices in social relationships. Table 4.6 indicates social sacrifices that are made by elite netball players according to their racial backgrounds.
52 Table 4.6 Social sacrifices according to racial backgrounds
Social Race sacrifices Black White To a small To a large Total To a small To a large Total extent extent extent extent n % n % n % n % Time spent with 4 29% 10 71% 14 4 25% 12 75% 16 family and friends Social 5 31% 11 69% 16 3 23% 13 81% 16 relationships Social activities 4 25% 12 75% 16 5 36% 9 64% 14
Findings confirmed that elite netball players are making both material as well as social sacrifices. The fact that netball is an amateur sport, results in the fact that there is not enough funding, which implies that netball players have to fund their netball careers as well as their lifestyles. A national player reflected on this matter when she was asked why she thought many players were leaving the country to play elsewhere. She said: “I think it’s because there are no sponsors and players are struggling to make ends meet here in South Africa”.
Elite netball players indicated making more social sacrifices than material sacrifices. Having sponsors that can provide rewards to elite netball players, may impact positively on their participation, and therefore enhance their participation. The following chapter will discuss the various types of rewards that elite netball players receive, as well as the impact they have on players’ participation.
4.4 The nature of social rewards as a motivation to specialise in netball
Respondents were asked to indicate the kinds of rewards that influenced and motivated them to specialise in netball. For the sake of this study, players’ motivation to specialise in netball was determined in terms of four main categories, which were material rewards, social rewards, physical rewards as well as psychological rewards. It is important to note
53 that even though elite netball players hardly get any material rewards for their participation, material rewards were considered. These four main categories will be briefly discussed.
4.4.1 Material rewards as a form of motivation to specialise in netball Material rewards consisted of the following factors: prizes, money, accessibility to, as well as availability of facilities and equipment. Prizes in netball players’ case comprise medals, trophies, vouchers, netball certificates, as well as other small prizes such as T- shirts and netball balls. Money in this case refers to players’ incentives, players’ personal sponsorships from companies such as Adidas and Spar, as well as small sponsorships of spending money to certain players when they are travelling to other countries.
Accessibility in the case of netball players refers to access to high performance training as well as advanced coaching levels. Availability of facilities and equipment refers to having free access to training facilities such as training centres, gymnasiums and netball courts. Equipment refers to training equipment such as playing and training gear, playing shoes as well as other more advanced training equipment such as ladders for footwork, cones, skipping ropes and other equipment used for plyometric exercises.
Material rewards were not considered by elite netball players as a motivation to specialise in netball. Only one respondent considered it to be a motivation to specialise in netball. Availability of facilities and equipment was also indicated by a small percentage of players as a motivation to specialise in netball. Most players when they were asked what motivated them to specialise in netball, mentioned their talents, making friends as well as enjoyment.
54 4.4.2 Social rewards Social rewards on the other hand consisted of the following: achievement in sport, the status of the sport as well as the influence of parents, families, friends, media, role models, educators and coaches. According to a netball player, exceptional achievements in sport mean representing either your province or your country. The status of sport refers to the importance of the sport to an athlete as well as the acknowledgement by society.
National players regarded the influence of parents and family members, friends, coaches and role models as having no effect on them as a motivation to participate in netball. National league players regarded the influence of the media as having no effect on them as a motivation to specialise in netball. Most respondents from different participation levels referred to the possibility of achievement and success in sport as their main motivation to specialise in netball. Table 4.7 illustrates social rewards as a form of motivation to players from different participation levels to participate in netball.
Table 4.7 Social rewards according to participation levels
Level of participation National league National player Total player n % n % The possibility of achievement 6 50% 6 50% 12 and success in sport Influence of my parents and 4 100% 4 family members Influence of my friends 1 100% 1 Influence of my educators 1 20% 4 80% 5 Influence of my coaches 4 100% 4 Influence of role models 1 100% 1 The status of sport 1 50% 1 50% 2 The influence of the media 3 100% 3 Total 18 56% 14 44% 32
55 It is clear from the table that the prospect of achievement and success in sport is equally important to both black and white players. The influence of parents and family members, educators, coaches and role models was mentioned by a small number of black players and no white players, as a motivation for them to specialise in netball. Black players however did not regard the influence of friends and the status of sport as a form of motivation for them to specialise in netball. Table 4.8 illustrates social rewards as a form of motivation to players from different racial backgrounds to participate in netball.
Table 4.8 Social rewards according to racial backgrounds
Racial backgrounds Black White Total n % n % The possibility of 6 50% 6 50% 12 achievement and success in sport Influence of my parents and 4 100% 4 family members Influence of my friends 1 100% 1 Influence of my educators 5 100% 5 Influence of my coaches 4 100% 4 Influence of role models 1 100% 1 The status of sport 2 100% 2 The influence of the media 2 100% 2 Total 22 71% 9 29% 31
The possibility and prospect of achievement and success is regarded by players from both participation levels, as well as both racial backgrounds as having more influence on them to participate in netball. The influence of the media was regarded by national league players as not having any effect on them as a form of motivation for their participation in netball. This might be due to the fact that national players get more media coverage than national league players. The latter are therefore not really exposed to media coverage and recognition.
56 Social rewards as a form of motivation for players to participate in netball were outlined. The following paragraph reveals the psychological rewards.
4.4.3 Psychological rewards Psychological rewards consisted of factors such as psychological wellbeing and enjoyment. Psychological wellbeing refers to the ability to minimise your level of stress through exercise. Enjoyment refers to loving what you are doing and doing it with passion and internal as well as emotional satisfaction
The majority of respondents from different participation levels regarded the psychological wellbeing as having a small effect as a motivation on their participation level. Enjoyment on the other hand, was mentioned by the majority of the respondents from different participation levels as a major motivation to participate in netball. Figure 4.9 illustrates psychological rewards as a form of motivation among players from different participation levels to specialise in netball.
Table 4.9 Psychological rewards according to participation levels
Participation National National Part of Total levels league player player management n % n % n % Psychological 2 14% 3 25% 1 20% 6 well being Enjoyment 12 86% 9 75% 4 80% 25
Total 14 45% 12 39% 5 16% 31
Similar to the different participation levels, the members from the various race groups also described enjoyment as being the main motivation for them to participate in netball. Table 4.10 illustrates psychological reasons for players from different racial groups to be involved in netball.
57 Table 4.10 Psychological rewards according to racial backgrounds
Participation Black White Total levels n % n % Psychological well 3 27% 3 18% 6 being Enjoyment 11 78% 14 82% 25
Total 14 45% 17 55% 31
Enjoyment of the sport was described by most players from different participation levels as well as racial backgrounds to be their main motivation to specialise in netball. For instance, one player referred to netball as: “the most skilful, quick decision making and enjoyable sport”.
4.4.4 Physical rewards Physical rewards consisted of factors such as talent as well as health and fitness. Talent is the innate and aptitude ability enabling a person to play sport. Health means physical well being as well as maintaining the ideal weight, and fitness refers to physical attributes such as endurance, stamina, strength, flexibility, power, agility and speed.
Health, fitness and body aesthetics are considered by most national league players as having an effect on their motivation for participation. Talent was mentioned as an important motivation to specialise in netball among both participation levels. Table 4.11 illustrates the effect of physical rewards as a form of motivation to specialise in netball on players from different participation levels.
58 Table 4.11 Physical rewards according to participation levels
Participation levels National National Part of Total league player player management n % n % n % Health, fitness and 4 29% 3 25% 3 60% 10 body aesthetics My talent 10 71% 9 75% 2 40% 21
Total 14 45% 12 39% 5 16% 31
Similar to participation levels, the majority of players from different racial backgrounds referred to talent as a form of motivation for them to participate in netball. Table 4.12 illustrates the effect of physical rewards as a form of motivation on players from different racial backgrounds, to specialise in netball.
Table 4.12 Physical rewards according to racial backgrounds
Race Black White Total n % n % Health, fitness and 5 36% 4 24% 9 body aesthetics Talent 9 64% 13 76% 22
Total 14 45% 17 55% 31
59 Talent was considered by the majority of respondents as a form of motivation to participate in netball. This was supported by a national player when she was asked why she was still playing netball. She said: “I play netball because netball is my talent and I love playing it”.
Having talent to play netball and the enjoyment of the game are the main reasons and rewards for players to be involved in the game. The following paragraph will reveal the impact that cohesion has on elite netball players.
4.5 The level of cohesion among elite netball players
The cohesion level among players was investigated through evaluating their friendship levels in the team. The following questions were asked: i. To what extent do you get along with other players from different races and cultures?. (This type of question tried to investigate the relationship between players from different cultural and racial backgrounds). ii. To what extent do you consider your fellow netball players to be your friends? iii. To what extent would you discuss your problems with your fellow netball players? These questions aimed at investigating whether there were closer relationship levels between players. Results to the questions are discussed below.
4.5.1 I get along with other players from different races and cultures Both the national league players and national players seemed to get along well with other players from different races and cultures. National players however were more likely than national league players to indicate that they were getting along ‘very well’ with other cultures and races. Figure 4.2 illustrates the extent of the relationship among players from different participation levels.
60 Figure 4.2 Getting along with other players according to participation levels
I get along with other players from different races and cultures
2 10 National player
5 9 National league player
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Well Very well
With regard to different racial backgrounds, both races seemed to get along well with one another, but a high percentage of players indicated that they got along very well. 33.3% of the black players compared to 21. 4% of the white players seemed to get along ‘well’.
On the other hand, 67% of the black players compared to 79 % of the white players seemed to get along ‘very well’ with their fellow team mates. Figure 4.3 illustrates the relationship level of players from different racial background.
61 Figure 4.3 Getting along with other players according to different racial backgrounds
I get along with other players from different races and cultures
4 13 White
4 8 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Well Very well
Elite netball players get along well with each other. National players however, seem to get along better than national league players. The reason to that might be due to the high competition levels the national team is exposed to, resulting that national players are more dependant on each other than national league players. Black players on the other hand seem to get along very well to a greater extent. When one player (white) was asked about the relationship levels both in the national league and national team levels, she said:
All cultures get along well in the team. There are no racial problems among us. We are all different and I guess that’s what makes life interesting.
4.5.2 The extent to which you consider your fellow netball players to be your friends There is an indication that national league players considered their fellow netball players to be their friends ‘to a greater extent’ than national players. Figure 4.5 illustrates players’ views on how they consider their fellow team mates to be their friends.
62 Figure 4.4 Friendship levels according to participation levels
To what extent do you consider your fellow netball players to be your friends?
10 2 National player
6 8 National league player
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
To some extent \ only some of them To a great extent
Among different racial groups, black players are more likely to consider their fellow team mates to be their friends than white players. Figure 4.5 illustrates players’ views from different racial backgrounds on how they consider their fellow team mates to be their friends.
63 Figure 4.5 Friendship levels according to racial backgrounds
To what extent do you consider your fellow netball players to be your friends?
13 4 White
6 6 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% To some extent \ only some of them To a great extent
Even though national players seem to get along better than national league players, it is interesting to know that national league players tend to become close friends to a greater extent than national players. This might be due to the fact that national league is played more on a social level than on the basis of competitive international matches. One can therefore conclude that the seriousness of the international competition levels against other teams also influences the friendship levels. This means that high competition levels are based on more intense competition among individuals in making the team as well as performing well, whereas lower competition levels are based more on establishing casual relationships, making friends and enjoying more casual matches.
64 4.5.3 To what extent would you discuss your personal problems with your fellow netball players? National league players were more likely to consider their fellow team mates as their friends. The situation is however different as some of the national league players admitted to not discussing their personal problems with their fellow team mates. This might be due to the fact that national league players spend less time with their fellow team mates compared to national players. More time together under stressful conditions like national competitions leads to special opportunities for bonding which causes relationships to become strong. Figure 4.6 illustrates the extent to which players from different participation levels are able to discuss their personal problems with their fellow team mates.
Figure 4.6 Discussion of personal problems according to participation levels
To what extent would you discuss personal problems with your fellow netball players?
16 1 White
2 8 2 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Not at all To some extent \ only some of them To a great extent
65 Among different racial groups, black players seem to have a different view on sharing personal matters than the white players. Only a few black players admitted discussing their personal problems with their fellow team mates. The majority of white players are more open when discussing their problems with some of their team mates. Figure 4.7 illustrates the extent to which players from different racial groups are able to discuss their personal problems with their fellow team mates.
Figure 4.7 Discussion of personal problems according to racial backgrounds
To what extent would you discuss personal problems with your fellow netball players?
16 1 White
2 8 2 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Not at all To some extent \ only some of them To a great extent
The reason for national players being able to discuss their personal problems with fellow team mates more than national league players, might be as a result of varying time periods that different participants spend together. Unlike national league players who spend only a week during the league season, national players sometimes spend more than three weeks together when on tours. National players have more opportunity to become more familiar with each other, thus developing trusting relationships.
66 The issue of white players being more open in discussing their problems with fellow team-mates might also be a cultural thing, as one black players remarked:
You see, us Blacks, we are very friendly and get along well with everybody. But we don’t often discuss our problems. That’s how we were brought up, but Whites are more open than us. So I would say it’s a cultural thing.
In this case, the respondent is referring to culture to illustrate the different ways Blacks and Whites are brought up. Various relationships among players were discovered. Players indicated high friendship levels among each other. The following paragraph will focus on discrimination against players as a possible factor that would affect their participation.
4.6 Discrimination against netball players
Three different types of discrimination were revealed. The first type of discrimination was racial discrimination, followed by minority group discrimination as well as the discrimination based on the low status of your sport. All elite netball players experienced a form of discrimination against them. Most of these players mentioned the discrimination based on the low status of their sport as the type of discrimination they experienced more often.
4.6.1 Racial discrimination
According to findings, the majority of white players experienced racial discrimination more often. Racial discrimination in this case refers to the type of discrimination that is based on the colour of your skin. This type of discrimination experienced by white elite netball players might be due to the tremendous change of the management positions, whereby the management committee used to consist of white members only in the past, compared to a 40% of black management in the new dispensation.
67 4.6.2 Minority group discrimination The majority of white players also claimed to be experiencing the minority group discrimination. Minority group discrimination is discrimination based on the proportional size of your group (in this case race). The reason for experiencing this type of discrimination might be due to the quota system implemented whereby only 60% of the players in the team are Whites. The statement above is emphasised by a management member (White) of Netball South Africa when she was asked what the reason might be for players leaving the country to play somewhere else. She replied: “Politics, especially white players are leaving the country, as they feel excluded in the teams”.
4.6.3 The discrimination based on the low status of a sport This type of discrimination was experienced by most players from all different cultural backgrounds. According to Roberts (1993:23), this type of discrimination is peculiar to most female amateur sports for not getting the same recognition as male sports such as rugby, soccer and cricket.
Larkin & Baxter (1993:5) mentioned gender discrimination in the literature where they claimed that in sport, fewer women participate than men and when they do participate, they lack equal opportunities. The same argument arose during in depth interviews where all the respondents mentioned that netball players were not getting the recognition that they deserved compared to male participants in various sporting codes. This was indicated clearly by one of the players during an interview when she said: “Netball is not getting any recognition; instead, most people don’t know anything about it”.
Elite netball players indicated that they were experiencing various types of discrimination. These various types of discrimination might have a negative effect on players’ participation level. The next section reveals the effect that competition has on elite netball players.
68 4.7 Competition among elite netball players
According to Forsyth (1990:394), competition is regarded as one of the most important aspects of intergroup relations. He claims that competition among individuals over limited resources might cause intergroup conflict. In the case of different participation levels, national players felt that they were able to handle competition better than national league players. For instance, 50% of the national league players agreed to being able to handle competition, and 50% admitted that they had difficulty to handle competition. This is in contrast with the national players who all strongly agreed to being able to effectively deal with competition. Figure 4.8 illustrates the players’ different levels of ability to handle competition. Figure 4.8 Dealing with competition according to participation level
I can handle competition fairly well
National player 100.0
National league player 50.0 50.0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% % of respondents
Agree Strongly agree
White players indicated that they could handle competition better than black players. For instance, 25% of the black players in comparison with 29% of the white players agreed that they could handle competition well. However, 75% of the black players in comparison with 72% of the white players strongly agreed that they could handle competition well.
69 The findings state that national players are able to handle competition better than national league players. This is to be expected as national players are exposed to the highest levels of competition in sport more often.
Various factors that affect elite netball players’ participation have been revealed. The last section focuses on the management of groups as one of the factors that can influence group participation.
4.8 Group conflict and management
Respondents were also asked what they considered to be the most important problem they experienced apart from financial problems. Findings revealed that the other problem experienced by many elite netball players was the lack of communication between players and management. Both national league players and national players indicated that communication with management was not good. Both national league as well as national players also referred to the lack of cooperation with management as another major problem. Figure 4.9 illustrates the problem of poor management as experienced by respondents from different participation levels.
70 Figure 4.9 Problems between players and management according to participation levels
Apart from financial problems, what do you experience as the most important problem in netball?
Other
2 1 2 Part of management None
Lack of communication between players and National player 2 1 6 2 1 management
Lack of cooperation
National league player 1 6 1 3 Racial problems
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Players from all racial backgrounds regarded lack of communication between players and management as a major problem. Racial problems were still mentioned by a small percentage of black (18%) and white (17%) respondents. Lack of cooperation between players and management was also mentioned by players from different racial groups as another problem in netball. Figure 4.10 illustrates this problem as experienced by respondents from different racial backgrounds.
71 Figure 4.10 Problems between players and management according to racial backgrounds
Apart from financial problems, what do you experience as the most important problem in netball?
4 1 9 1 3 White
1 1 6 2 3 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Other None Lack of communication between players and management Lack of cooperation Racial problems
Lack of communication and absence of good cooperation between players and management are two other important problems in elite netball. This is confirmed through in depth interviews, when one of the older players who had been in the team for a long time was asked how the communication level between players and management was. According to her:
You are not allowed to say anything even if things go wrong in netball; if you say something, you get punished by either being suspended or dropped from the team.
72 4.9 Players’ views on whether they are allowed to air their views on matters that concern them
A high percentage of neutral response was experienced among players concerning their frankness to give their opinions against decisions that concern them. From the above findings about the lack of communication between players and management, it was clear that most players would rather not say anything even if they were not satisfied, so as not to jeopardize their place in the team and possibly their netball career. Figure 4.11 illustrates players’ views on raising their opinions about matters that concern them.
Figure 4.11 Players’ views on matters that concern them
I feel that players are given a fair chance to raise their voices on decisions that concern them
Neutral 43%
Disagree 15% Agree 15%
Strongly disagree 9%
No response 18%
The majority of players indicated that they were not given a fair chance to raise their views on matters that concern them. The high neutral response rate made it obvious that players were hesitant to air their views.
73 The reason for players being hesitant to express their opinions and concerns is, as one respondent claimed, players are victimised for expressing opinions. There have been two incidents where very experienced players were suspended for raising their concerns against management. Those two players are no longer part of the national team.
If players are not given a chance to express their opinions on matters that concern them, those players will be dissatisfied and this can result in them giving up netball. The following paragraph reveals the satisfaction levels of elite netball players with regard to management.
4.10 The level of satisfaction with regard to management
Only a very small number of respondents was satisfied with the way netball is managed in South Africa. A high neutral response rate was also experienced among respondents. Response came from national league players (64%), national players (58%) and management (40%). Figure 4.12 illustrates the satisfaction among players and members of the management with netball management in South Africa.
Figure 4.12 Satisfaction level with regard to management according to participation levels
I am satisfied with the way netball is managed in South Africa
Part of management 1 2 2
National player 2 2 7 1
National league player 1 9 2 2
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Very satisfied
74 Respondents from both racial backgrounds reacted with a high neutral response rate. Both black and white respondents indicated a limited satisfaction level. Among black respondents a small response rate of being very satisfied was recorded. White players indicated that they were very dissatisfied with the way netball was managed in South Africa. Figure 4.13 illustrates the satisfaction level with regard to netball management in South Africa.
Figure 4.13 Satisfaction level with regard to management according to racial backgrounds
I am satisfied with the way netball is managed in South Africa
2 3 12 3 White
1 9 2 2 Black / Coloured
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Very satisfied
Most players were hesitant to raise their views about the management of netball in this country. Bad management techniques and structures can also be one of the reasons for players’ early retirement, as well as immigration to other countries.
75 4.12 Feelings of pride with regard to association with netball
It is however interesting to know that 26% of the respondents still feel proud to be associated with netball despite all their feelings about netball in this country. This is however in contrast with 6% who disagree, 26% who are neutral as well as 42% who indicated no response. Figure 4.14 illustrates these comparisons.
Figure 4.14 I feel proud to be associated with netball in this country
I feel proud to be associated with netball in this country
Agree 26% Neutral 26%
No response 42%
Disagree 3% Strongly disagree 3%
4.12 Conclusion
In conclusion the majority of respondents mentioned that there was a future for them in South African netball, but that a lot of changes needed to be made to secure that future. Respondents mentioned that South African netball needed to be given the recognition that it deserves as a major women sport. This means that players’ needs should be a priority and elite netball players should be respected and receive recognition the same way as many male participants receive in their sporting codes.
76 The participation of elite netball players is thus affected by a variety of factors. From a symbolic interactionist perspective, the study focused on four major factors affecting elite netball players. Some of these factors enhanced players’ participation, but most of them caused players’ participation to drop and even cease.
Further analysis showed that elite netball players’ participation was affected by both internal as well as external factors. By internal factors the researcher referred to issues existing in the South African Netball Federation itself, the issues that exist among players and management, as well as between players. Some of these issues can however be addressed and be solved by both players and management through having active and positive communication. This can only take place when all parties are involved. Problems present among the various groups as well as between the various groups need to be addressed.
By external factors the researcher referred to outside issues affecting the federation as a whole. Such issues result from having less support from the South African sporting fraternity, public sectors and sponsorships.
This chapter presented and summarized the major findings of the survey and discussed factors that affect elite female netball players’ participation. The next chapter will analyse these findings and try to make comparisons with other findings. The next chapter will therefore present the final conclusions of these research findings.
77 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1 Introduction
The first two chapters investigated the position of South African elite netball, which is losing status in the international netball fraternity. The South African team, as was previously discussed, was ranked second in the world in 1994. The South African team was however unable to retain its second position, and instead dropped to position four in 1999 and position five since 2003. A possible factor that might have contributed to the loss of prestige is the fact that netball is an amateur sport in South Africa. The study focused on the following factors that impacted on the satisfaction levels of elite netball players: i. sacrifices, ii. rewards, iii. cohesion and iv. conflict management.
In this concluding chapter, the following issues will be considered: - The research problem - Summary for the main literature - Research strategy - Limitations of the research - Recommended strategies to enhance continuous participation among elite netball players - Implications for future research - Findings and conclusions
5.2 Research problem
The national team did not only experience a drop in its rankings, but also a high drop out rate among players, especially after high school. This premature retirement from South African netball was also followed by immigration of several excellent players to other countries.
78 The following paragraph gives an overview on the summary of the main literature generated by the study.
5.3 Summary of the main literature
The literature reveals that there are several factors that affect the management of groups of elite netball players. The following factors are of importance: i. sacrifices, ii. rewards, iii. cohesion and iv. conflict management.
5.3.1 The nature of sacrifices Elite netball players are making major sacrifices in order to participate in netball. Netball players claim to be making both material and social sacrifices. Material sacrifices include giving up a career, the loss of academic or business opportunities, as well as coping with financial costs. Social sacrifices include players losing or giving up the time they could have to spend with family and friends, giving up other social activities, neglecting social relationships, as well as missing opportunities of participating in other sport.
5.3.2 The amount of rewards Due to netball being an amateur sport, elite netball players do not get the same recognition as most male sporting codes. Elite netball players are therefore getting limited rewards compared to the sacrifices they are making. Material rewards and social rewards were the two types of rewards that the study mainly focused on.
Material rewards consisted of prizes, money, accessibility to as well as availability of facilities and equipment. Social rewards on the other hand referred to achievements in sport, the status of the sport as well as the influence of parents, families, friends, the media, role models, educators and coaches.
79 5.3.3 The level of cohesion A high level of cohesion was discovered between elite netball players. Various questions were asked to determine the relationship levels between them. Players from different racial backgrounds admitted to having good relationship levels, as well as getting along with each other.
5.3.4 The relationship between players and management According to literature, the manner in which teams are managed and structured can be influential to participants. This means that the management of groups will determine their performance. Literature also claims that one of the major problems in managing grups is communication shortfalls.
A summary of the main literature was revealed. The following paragraph focuses on the research strategy that was implemented.
5.4 Research strategy
The research strategy was employed in an effort to empirically establish the contributing factors affecting elite netball players’ participation and satisfaction. Chapter three indicated that the research strategy consisted of both a quantitative and a qualitative approach.
The quantitative element consisted of a self-administered questionnaire distributed among elite national league as well as national players. The qualitative phase of this study was conducted amongst national players by means of semi-structured interviews.
5.5 Summary of findings
5.5.1 The nature of sacrifices Elite netball players seem to be making both types of sacrifices, being material as well as social sacrifices. National players claim to make more financial sacrifices than national
80 league players. On the other hand, white players claim to make more financial sacrifices than black players.
5.5.2 The amount of rewards Rewards were divided into four main categories, which were material, social, psychological as well as physical rewards. Physical rewards, mainly talent, together with psychological rewards are the main motivations for players to continue playing netball. Social rewards also have a slight positive effect as a motivation to specialise in netball. Material rewards have a small effect as a motivation to specialise in netball, as players are hardly getting any kinds of material rewards.
5.5.3 The level of cohesion There is a high level of cohesion among elite netball players on both participation levels as well as racial backgrounds. Friendship levels among national league players are however higher than among national players. Friendship levels are also higher among blacks than among white players.
5.5.4 The relationship between players and management Elite netball players described the lack of communication and cooperation between them and their management as the main problem in elite netball. The majority of players also described not getting a fair chance to raise concerns and air their views on matters that concern them. This was evident in the large neutral response rate of elite netball players when questioned about matters involving management. The majority of players expressed dissatisfaction with management and experienced a lack of pride and enthusiasm to be associated with netball in this country.
5.6 Recommended strategies to enhance participation among elite netball players In chapter four the profile of respondents was presented and the development of scales and the formation of the hypotheses were discussed and tested. Qualitative data was also presented in chapter four. Based on this data, recommended strategies to enhance participation among elite netball players will now be considered.
81 Strategies to enhance participation among elite netball players based on the findings of the research were recommended. These strategies will endeavour to encourage the participation in netball, as well as reduce early retirement and the migration of elite netball players to other countries.
The following factors discussed below are key elements for the success of elite netball in South Africa. They are addressing financial constraints, getting formal netball structures in place, as well as the recognition of elite netball as a sport with similar status as many male sporting codes.
5.6.1 Addressing financial constraints The first strategy to enhance participation among elite netball players is to provide the players with financial assistance. Financial constraints as the most common problem in netball, lead to many other problems. The findings discovered that financial sacrifices were also one of the most commonly experienced sacrifices among elite netball players.
Other problems and obstacles in netball develop as a result of not having enough funds. Obstacles such as not having enough role models for instance, are the result of netball not having enough media exposure for young girls to identify with their role models. This leads to the society not having interest in the game, as they are not familiar with the sport.
It is clear from the above information that financial constraints in netball lead to many other problems. The way netball is managed in South Africa makes it difficult for players to participate full out as well as for the management committee to operate effectively. The next paragraph will focus on the importance of effective and well-run formal netball structures for the improvement and sustainability of the sport.
5.6.2 Formal netball structures According to Ravele (2004), Netball South Africa is an informal organisation, which is run mostly by volunteers. Most of these volunteers have their own careers which are their main priorities. The management of netball in South Africa is therefore not given the
82 recognition and status that it deserves as the biggest female sport body in the country.
Formal netball structures like Netball South Africa require a permanent head office together with full time employees. The president of Netball South Africa and the head coach should also be employed full time so that they can focus on their main goals, which are to run netball effectively and efficiently, as well as to give players the full attention when it comes to coaching, development, and reaching their full potential. This will enable players and the appointed netball committee to have an effective way of communication, the lack thereof, according to findings, being one of the major problems in netball.
Such formal structures will also enable appointed employees (according to their different protocols), to focus on what their responsibilities are, and therefore enable the structure to run more professionally. This will lead to netball being given enough recognition and therefore more publicity.
Once recognition and publicity are in place, financial assistance will be provided by either private and/or public sectors. This will therefore enable elite netball players to participate fully, without any financial difficulties.
5.6.3 Recognition of netball as the major female sport. Netball as the biggest women sport in terms of participation needs to receive more recognition by the government and society as a whole. Elite netball players should be given more time to prepare for major competitions. This includes giving them time off from work in order to represent their country. This will give netball players more commitment and dedication to keep on playing and to participate to the best of their ability.
83 5.7 Limitations of the research
The limitations of this research need to be examined on various levels. Firstly, in respect of the quantitative data gathered, secondly, in terms of the qualitative data gathered and thirdly, the limitations of applying this research to a wider elite netball population.
As far as the quantitative data was concerned, the greatest limitation concerned the time frame during which the research was conducted. Questionnaires were handed out during a training camp and had to be returned the next day. This means that respondents had a limited time to respond to the questionnaires during a time when they were also busy with other netball commitments.
With regard to qualitative data, this data was collected from the members of the national team during a training session. The impact of the hard training camp might have had an influence on players’ response. The presence of the researcher, who was also a member of the national team, (more so, the vice captain during the interview) might also have influenced respondents’ frankness to a certain extent.
Another difficulty that was experienced in conducting the research, was the limitation with the distribution of the questionnaires. As was already explained, questionnaires were only handed out to a squad of forty elite netball players. Due to a limited number of respondents, factor analysis could not be conducted, instead, only item analysis was conducted.
5.8 Recommendations for future research
The initiation of this research was based on factors affecting elite netball players’ participation. These particular factors were discussed from a symbolic interactionist perspective. This research revealed many difficulties that exist in elite netball and that might possibly affect the participation level of elite netball players. The end result of this research is similar to and corresponds with what was initially anticipated.
84 It would appear from the experience of this study however, that as research unfolds and findings become evident, the need for more research to be conducted, develops. This therefore helped the researcher to realise that more attention needs to be given to broader areas of research in order to come up with a clear strategy to encourage the relevance for further research.
5.9 Findings and conclusion
The history of elite netball in South Africa was revealed in chapter one. Several issues such as the deterioration of the sport, and the early retirement and migration of elite netball players were also discussed. Factors affecting elite netball players’ participation were argumented, investigated and discussed.
The issue of gender roles was identified as the main reason why female athletes are treated as less important than male athletes. With gender roles as they have manifested in South Africa, female athletes are expected to perform certain duties, and sport is not emphasised as one of their roles.
Elite netball players are experiencing a variety of problems, with financial constraints as the major problem. Elite netball players regard lack of communication and cooperation between players and management as one of the main problems in netball.
Elite netball players also make many sacrifices in order to remain in the sport. These sacrifices are mainly due to the fact that netball is an amateur sport without any income for participants. This results in players jeopardising their jobs, where they have to take time off from work in preparation to represent their country. Other personal sacrifices such as academic and social sacrifices are also made.
However, regardless of all the controversies in their sport, elite netball players are still motivated by their enthusiasm, talents and their enjoyment of the game to participate in netball. Players also indicated a good relationship with each other, and mentioned their
85 friendship levels as one of the main reasons why they are still involved in the sport. The majority of players predicted that a bright future for netball in South Africa could be realised, but on the condition that certain things need to be rectified and need to change.
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91 Appendix A
1. What is your age in complete years? (Count part of a year as a full year)
Years
2. To which racial group do you belong?
Black 1 Coloured 2 White 3 Indian 4
3. Are you a national league player, national player or part of management?
National league player 1 National player 2 Part of management 3
4. How long have you been involved with elite netball? (In years)
Years
5. Indicate the most important reason you are still involved with netball:
Health, fitness or body aesthetics (e.g. lose weight, build muscles) 1 Psychological well being 2 The possibility of achievements and success in sport 3 My talent 4 Enjoyment 5 The possibility of external rewards (e.g. prizes, money, etc) 6 The influence of my parents and family members 7 The influence of my friends 8 The influence of my teachers 9 The influence of my coaches 10 The influence of role models (e.g. sport hero) 11 The status of sport 12 The influence of the media 13 Accessibility 14 Availability of facilities and equipment 15 Other? Please specify:
92 6. How satisfied are you with the way netball is run in South Africa?
Very satisfied 5 Satisfied 4 Neutral 3 Very dissatisfied 2 Dissatisfied 1
7. Apart from financial problems, what do you experience as the most important problem in netball?
Racial problems 5 Lack of cooperation 4 Lack of communication between players and management 3 None 2 Other problems? Please specify:
Question 8 to 17 is only applicable to players
As a player:
8. I get along with other players from different races and cultures
Very well 5 Well 4 Neutral 3 Don’t get along 2 Don’t get along at all 1
9. To what extent do you consider your fellow netball players to be your friends?
To a great extent 4 Only some of them 3 To some extent 2 Not at all 1
10. To what extent would you discuss personal problems with your fellow netball players?
To a great extent 4 Only some of them 3 To some extent 2 Not at all 1
93 11. I think management (including the president and executive members) is doing their job well
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
12. I feel that players are given a fair chance to raise their voices for decisions that concern them
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
13. I am satisfied with the way the team is selected
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
14. I can handle competition fairly well
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
94 15. To what extent do the following aspects motivate you to specialize in netball?
Definitely To a large To some Not at all 4 extent 3 extent 2 1 Your success in sport (Olympian, national colours, etc) Financial rewards (money) Career opportunities Travel opportunities and experience Recognition Status/ Prestige Your talent Your desire to win Personal development Self actualization and brief Your religious belief Other? Please specify:
16. Please indicate to what extent do you experience any of the following forms of abuse and/ or discrimination as an elite netball player
Type of abuse/ discrimination Never Sometimes Often All the time 4 3 2 1 Minority group discrimination Race discrimination Gender (male/female) discrimination Discrimination based on your amateur status Age discrimination (too old) Age discrimination (too young) Discrimination based on the fact that you are not from the ‘right’ region or club Discrimination based on your personality Political discrimination Sexual harassment Discrimination based on the low status of your sport Other? Please specify:
95 17. To what extent do you have to make the following sacrifices in order to become an elite athlete?
Type of sacrifice Definitely Toa a large To some Not at all 4 extent3 extent 2 1 Give up other career opportunities Give up educational opportunities Give up business opportunities Give up social activities Give up social relationships Give up participation in other sport Financial sacrifices Personal sacrifices
Question 18 to 20 is only applicable to management (including the president and the executive)
As part of management:
18. I get the honour and respect that I deserve from all the players
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
19. I feel that discipline among players is fairly good
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
96 20. To what extent do you want to change the following?
Changes Definitely To a large To a small Not at all 4 extent 3 extent 2 1 The whole strategic planning
Certain positions in the management crew The relationship between players and management Other? Please specify:
Question 21 to 30 is applicable to everyone
21. To what extent do you experience conflict amongst players?
All the time 4 Often 3 Sometimes 2 Never 1
22. To what extent do you experience conflict with management?
All the time 4 Often 3 Sometimes 2 Never 1
23. To what extent can conflict in netball be attributed to the following?
Conflict regarding All the time Often Sometimes Never 4 3 2 1 Competition to make the team Fairness in selecting the team Fairness in umpiring Favouritism Gossip Backstabbing
97 24. I am satisfied with the way netball is managed in South Africa
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
25. Please rate the following categories from 5 to 1, where 5 is regarded the best and 1 the worst
5 4 3 2 1 Management (including the president and the executive) Player’s performance Preparation for competitions Team manager Umpires Physiotherapist Team doctor
26. South African netball is progressing well
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
27. I feel proud to be associated with netball in this country
Strongly agree 5 Agree 4 Neutral 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
98
28. To what extent do the following need attention in order to ensure that netball players perform to the best of their ability?
Definitely To a To a Not at all 4 large small 1 extent 3 extent 2 Communication between players and management should be improved Player’s needs should be met at all times There should be more major competitions Players should have personal trainers to assist them with their training All of the abovementioned
29. In order to achieve greater success in netball, to what extent do you require each of the following?
Aspects influencing performance Definitely To a large To a small Not at all 4 extent 3 extent 2 1 Financial support Emotional support Social support Scientific assistance Training opportunities Expert coaching Competitive opportunities Potential Other? Please specify
30. What does it mean to be an elite netball player?
99