School of Economics & Finance
Institutions, Colonisation and the Economic Development of Western Australia and South Australia, 1829 to 1900
Darren Christopher O’Connell
This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University
June 2014
Declaration
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any tertiary institution and to the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except when the reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Signed
Darren Christopher O’Connell
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Acknowledgments
“There is no greater agony than bearing an untold story inside you”
Maya Angelou
y own personal experience of (de)colonisation occurred in March 1979 when I witnessed Britain’s Royal Navy evacuating Valetta Harbour in Malta (Figure 1) M following the expiry of the Anglo Maltese defence treaty fifteen years after independence. I’ve also, as an adult, travelled to, and explored, many former colonies in various parts of the world, good and bad. History is a wonderful living phenomenon.
The number of debts I have acquired in researching and writing this thesis beggars my ability to repay them adequately. There will be many who don’t get mentioned in this section, due to space limitations, but they will be, or have already, been thanked in person.
Siobhan Austen and Felix Chan Figure 1: Spot the A uthor! deserve much of the credit for delivering this thesis, acting as surrogate mid wives if you will. Both provided inspirational learning experiences at Curtin University and encouraged me to pursue further study after I had completed my undergraduate studies (2006). Siobhan’s class on Economic Theory introduced me to Douglass North’s work which enabled me to combine my love of history with my trade in economics. But first came the Source : Author’s private collection intermediate step of Honours (2007) bridging as it did the transition from undergraduate to PhD studies. Felix reawakened my love affair with mathematics during this “gap year” and I became determined to conquer my fear of statistical and econometric analysis. My professional life has certainly benefitted immeasurably from the experience.
Barry O’Grady walked me through the experience of thesis and journal writing during my Honours year (2007). Although this beast is totally different from my earlier
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work on the derivatives markets, without the latter, the former would not have been possible (or it would have been of poorer quality) – the “L” plates were certainly valuable. Our collaboration over the years on various academic projects introduced me to a whole host of theoretical material which evolved into pivotal components of this research thesis.
The staff and management at the Greensborough RSL in Victoria must be thanked because without their carefully maintained library, that held a copy of the all important Australian Historical Statistics vol. 10, my thesis would, most likely, have struggled for flight. Their generosity in allowing me to use the club as my own personal office, as I furiously copied down masses of colonial data with rent payable in beer to general staff bewilderment, was much appreciated. Speaking of which, it must not go unremarked that the bulk of this thesis was constructed in pubs throughout Australia, usually located close to libraries, that served as congenial study environments when I was “on the road” gathering colonial data. The pub is, in my humble opinion, one of the better institutions that Britain bequeathed its colonies, as my dear departed dog Nosey can attest.
I’d like to thank the research staff at the State Libraries of New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia, particularly Steve Howell in Perth, for their help in locating sources of colonial data that helped to better understand those times. Tom Reynolds at the State Records Office of Western Australia was also an invaluable resource who uncovered numerous obscure data. Tim Barmby, Ray Broomhill, Stan Metcalf, Martin Shanahan, and Pamela Statham Drew were also very generous in sharing their knowledge of economic history: methods and techniques.
And finally a special thanks to my parents who gave me the gifts to enable me to get this far in life but will only open this thesis just long enough to read the dedication and acknowledgements. This thesis is as much dedicated to them as to the country that has given me so much in life.
Advance Australia Fair!
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Institutions, Colonisation and the Economic Development of Western Australia and South Australia to 1900
Darren O’Connell Curtin University of Technology School of Economics & Finance GPO Box U1987 Perth, WA 6845 [email protected]
Abstract This thesis adopts Douglass North’s institutional framework to explain why Western Australia and South Australia, established in 1829 and 1836 respectively as the only two non convict colonies, had considerable disparities in economic growth up to 1900. Both colonies were established under different modes of organisation (colonisation). The method adopted for WA harked back to Mercantilism, famously condemned by Adam Smith because it led to under investment in, and over exploitation of, colonial assets. SA on the other hand was the product of a radical new theory in colonisation proposed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield whereby land, instead of being given away as in WA, was sold at a fixed price with the proceeds being used to subsidise gender balanced immigration. Outcomes suggest that SA’s method of “systematic colonisation” introduced a better institutional matrix, compared to the initial institutions seeded in WA, allowing SA’s economy to develop sooner and at a higher rate of growth. However, once the detrimental effects of its method of foundation were eliminated, occurring on the eve of one of the largest gold discoveries of modern times, WA’s institutions finally provided the necessary incentives to effectively develop its economy such that by 1900, both colonies had an almost equal level of economic output.
Keywords: Institutions, institutional evolution, path dependency, economic development, economic history, colonisation.
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Table of Contents Chronology of Principal Events ...... viii
Glossary...... xii
Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1
Chapter 2: Institutional Economics ...... 19
Chapter 3: The Institutional Matrix ...... 52
Chapter 4: The Evolution of British Colonial Theory during the 1820s ...... 74
Chapter 5: The Foundation of Colonial WA and SA ...... 101
Chapter 6: The Economic Institutions of Colonial WA and SA ...... 115
Chapter 7: Other Growth Factors and the Economies of Colonial WA and SA ...... 171
Chapter 8: The Achievement ...... 230
Appendix A: Imperial Currency, Weights and Measures ...... 253
Appendix B: Maritime Explorations of the Colonies ...... 256
Appendix C: The Basket of Consumer Goods...... 260
Appendix D: Population Density ...... 261
References ...... 262
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Charts Chart 1: Total Land Alienation per Capita, 1829 1900 ...... 122 Chart 2: Ratio of Agricultural Land to Total Land Alienated, 1850 1900 ...... 127 Chart 3: Number of Annual Colonial Patent Applications, 1860 1900 ...... 136 Chart 4: Colonial Money Supply (M0), 1836 1900 ...... 139 Chart 5: Total Number of Colonial Bank Branches, 1836 1900 ...... 143 Chart 6: Public Debt per Capita, 1850 1900 ...... 146 Chart 7: Cost of Capital (%), 1850 1900 ...... 147 Chart 8: British Fiscal Contributions to WA’s Colonial Administration, 1837 1900 ...... 151 Chart 9: South Australia Election Enrolments and Turnout, 1857 1900 ...... 153 Chart 10: Colonial Taxation per Capita, 1840 1900 ...... 155 Chart 11: Size of Government, 1837 1900 ...... 157 Chart 12: Number of Churches per 1,000 of Population, 1837 1900 ...... 162 Chart 13: Percentage of Population Receiving Education, 1850 1900 ...... 166 Chart 14: Annual Rainfall Statistics, 1876 1901 ...... 174 Chart 15: Wheat Reaped per Acre Planted, 1829 1900 ...... 178 Chart 16: Development of Pastoralism, 1829 1900...... 184 Chart 17: Cumulative Export Earnings from Mining, 1829 1900 ...... 187 Chart 18: Average Output of Activities Associated with the Exploitation of Natural Resources: 1850, 1875, 1900 ...... 190 Chart 19: Percentage of Working Population by Census Year, 1844 1901 ...... 193 Chart 20: Masculinity Ratio, 1836 1900 ...... 196 Chart 21: Population Pyramids by Census Year, 1861 1901 ...... 198 Chart 22: Number of Occupations, 1840 1900 ...... 202 Chart 23: Developments in Colonial Transport and Communication, 1829 1850 ...... 212 Chart 24: Composition of Exports: 1850, 1875 and 1900 ...... 219 Chart 25: Net Exports, 1829 1900 ...... 220 Chart 26: Estimates of Real GDP (£’000) ...... 224 Chart 27: Estimates of Real GDP Per Capita, 1841 1900 ...... 225 Chart 28: Estimates of Real GDP per Worker by Census Year ...... 226 Chart 29: Comparison of nominal GDP and Population Density, 1829 1900 ...... 261
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Figures Figure 1: Spot the Author!...... ii Figure 2: The Institutional Framework ...... 72 Figure 3: Swan River Colony Land Grants Map, 1839 ...... 118 Figure 4: Productive Capacity of the States, 2011 ...... 173
Plates Plate 1: The man that made it happen ...... 243 Plate 2: The Swan River Colony ...... 244 Plate 3: Location, Location ...... 245 Plate 4: WA's Colonial Visionaries ...... 246 Plate 5: And the rush was on! ...... 247 Plate 7: The Province of South Australia ...... 248 Plate 8: Grand Designs ...... 249 Plate 9: SA's Colonial Innovators ...... 250 Plate 10: The spread of pastoralism in SA ...... 251 Plate 11: The Australia Colonies, 1836 and 1900 ...... 252
Tables Table 1: Snapshot of the Colonial Database ...... 16 Table 2: Measures Derived from the Colonial Data...... 18 Table 3: Comparison of Colonisation Methods at Settlement ...... 114 Table 4: Return of Pastoral Leases, 1851 1858 ...... 131 Table 5: Snapshot of Mining Industry, 1900 ...... 133 Table 6: Western Australia Election Enrolment & Turnout, 1890 1900 ...... 152 Table 7: Number of Religious Denominations, 1837 1900 ...... 160 Table 8: Percentage of Population in the Australian Capital Cities, 1841 1901 ...... 203 Table 9: Consumption Price Index, 1841 1900 (1900 = 100) ...... 221 Table 10: Life Expectancy at Birth, 1881 1910 ...... 228 Table 11: Key Dates of the Colonial Institutional Matrices ...... 233 Table 12: Currency Conversion, 2012 ...... 253 Table 13: Colonial Exchange Rates in London, 1829 1900 ...... 254 Table 14: Common Imperial Units ...... 255 Table 15: Average Prices of Various Articles of Use or Consumption, 1837 1900 ...... 260
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Chronology of Principal Events
Western Australia 1826: Occupancy of King George Sound by convicts from Sydney under Major Lockyer. 1827: Examination of Swan River by Captain Stirling in H.M.S. Success . 1828: Syndicate formed in London for colonisation of Swan River. Decision of British Government to found colony. Captain Fremantle in H.M.S. Challenger dispatched to take formal possession of Swan River. Captain Stirling appointed Lieutenant Governor. 1829: Parmelia leaves England with officials and first settlers, arrives in June. Formal possession of New Holland taken by Captain Fremantle. Foundation of Perth and Fremantle. 1830: Legislative Council constituted by Order in Council. Executive Council constituted by Instructions under Sign Manual. 1831: Agricultural Society established and first newspaper issued. 1832: Executive Council, Legislative Council, Civil Court established. 1833: First issue of Perth Gazette now The West Australian . 1834: First definite petition for convicts (from Albany). 1837: Bank of Western Australia established. 1837: Lieutenant Grey begins four years of explorations. 1840: Western Australian Company constituted to form settlement at Australind. 1841: Eyre's overland journey to King George's Sound. Bank of Western Australia amalgamated with Bank of Australasia. Western Australian Bank founded. 1845 to 1848: A.C. Gregory’s expeditions. Discovery of coal, lead and copper. 1843 to 1849: Petition for the introduction of convicts. 1849: Western Australia constituted a penal settlement. 1850: Arrival of first convicts. 1851: Commencement of pearling industry. 1854: Austin's expedition to the Murchison. 1856: A.C. Gregory's expedition from the Northern Territory to Victoria Plains. Anglican Bishopric established. 1857 to 1858: F.T. Gregory's survey of the Murchison and exploration of Gascoyne.
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1861 to 1868: F.T. Gregory's expedition to the north and settlement of the North West. 1864: Roebuck Bay Pastoral Association. Camden Harbour Pastoral Association. 1865: Denison Plains Association. 1866: Hunt's expedition to Hampton Plains. 1868: Cessation of transportation. 1869: First telegraph line erected. John Forrest's expedition in search of Leichhardt. 1870: Representative Government established. John Forrest's overland journey to Adelaide. 1871: Municipalities Act passed. Elementary Education Act passed. First railway built. Alexander Forrest's journey to Esperance. 1872 to 1873: Expeditions of Giles, Gosse, and Warburton. 1874: John Forrest's expedition to the north. 1875: Giles' overland expeditions. 1879: Exploration of Kimberley district by A. Forrest. 1880: Kimberley district opened up. 1885: Federal Council Act passed. 1886: Kimberley Goldfield proclaimed. 1888: Yilgarn and Pilbara Goldfield proclaimed. 1889: Great Southern Railway opened (built on land grant system). 1890: Imperial Act conferring Responsible Government passed. Responsible Government inaugurated. First ministry appointed, John Forrest Premier. 1891: Murchison Goldfield proclaimed. 1892: Coolgardie Goldfield discovered. Fremantle Harbour commenced. 1893: Hannans (Kalgoorlie) Goldfield discovered. 1894: Menzies Goldfield discovered. Midland Railway opened (land grant railway). 1896: Great Southern Railway purchased by Government. 1899: Goldfields Water Supply commenced (completed January 1903). 1900: July: Federal referendum taken. 1901: Commonwealth of Australia inaugurated 1 January.
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South Australia 1830: Captain Charles Sturt travels to the mouth of the Murray River in a whaling boat. 1831: Captain Collet Barker explores the Adelaide Plains and climbs to the summit of Mount Lofty. 1836: SA proclaimed by Governor John Hindmarsh on 28 December at Glenelg. Site for Adelaide chosen by Colonel William Light beside the River Torrens. 1837: Colonel Light completes survey of Adelaide city centre and designs the city's grid layout. Allotments of 1 acre (0.40 ha) are made. First regional town of Gawler is founded north of Adelaide. 1838: Overlanders Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney arrive in Adelaide from New South Wales with 300 head of cattle. First German immigrants arrive and settle in Adelaide and surrounds. 1839: Colonel Light dies at Thebarton. The first road in South Australia, Port Road, is opened. Edward John Eyre begins his explorations of the Flinders Ranges and beyond. 1840: The Corporation of Adelaide is founded as the first municipal authority in Australia. 1841: Adelaide Hospital (later Royal) opened. 1842: Copper is discovered at Kapunda. 1843: The first Legislative Council building opens on North Terrace. 1844: The colonial Government takes control of the Corporation of Adelaide. 1845: Copper is discovered at Burra. 1847: St Peter's College established. 1848: Pulteney Grammar School established. 1852: The Corporation of Adelaide is reconstituted. First transport of gold overland arrived in Adelaide. 1854: The township of Port Augusta at the head of Spencer Gulf is surveyed, and Mount Gambier is founded in the South East. 1856: First telegraph line and steam railway between Adelaide and Port Adelaide opened. South Australia enacts the Secret Ballot. 1858: Melbourne