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Livestock Water Needs in Pastoral Africa in Relation to Climate and Forage

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Livestock Water Needs in Pastoral Africa in Relation to Climate and Forage Livestock water needs in pastoral Africa in relation to climate and forage Table of Contents John M. King ILCA Research Report No.7 International Livestock Centre for Africa September 1 983 ILCA PUBLICATIONS The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) is an autonomous, non-profit making research and information centre with a mandate to improve livestock production throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The activities and publications of the centre are financed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR members which have funded ILCA to date are the International Development Research Centre, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, and the governments of Australia, Belgium, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Iran, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Responsibility for ILCA publications rests solely with the centre and with such other parties as may be cited as joint authors. Until 1982, the centre's two main series of scientific publications were Systems Studies and Monographs. These two series have now been superseded by the present series of Research Report. ORIGINAL: ENGLISH This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed version. Table of Contents Summary Key words Preface Acknowledgments 1. Introduction 2. Body water 2.1 Functions 2.2 Body water pool 2.2.1 Water storage 2.2.2 Oedema 3. Water balance 3.1 Dehydration 3.2 Channels of water loss 3.2.1 Evaporation 3.2.2 Urine 3.2.3 Faeces 3.2.4 Lactation 3.3 Channels of water gain 3.3.1 Drink 3.3.2 Water in food 3.3.3 Guttation, dew and hygroscopic plants 3.3.4 Respiratory and cutaneous water intake 3.3.5 Metabolic water 3.3.6 Milk 3.3.7 Faeces and urine 4. Factors affecting water turnover 4.1 Energy production 4.1.1 Forage intake and metabolism 4.1.2 Starvation 4.1.3 Endogenous heat production 4.2 Thermoregulation 4.2.1 Environmental heat and humidity 4.2.2 Cold and rain 4.2.3 Behavioural response to heat stress 4.2.4 Coat characteristics 4.2.5 Mass, shape and appendages 4.2.6 Body temperature fluctuation 4.2.7 Counter-current cooling 4.3 Water availability 4.3.1 Watering regime 4.3.2 Water restriction 4.4 Integration of energy metabolism, thermoregulation and water 5. Energy and water use in pastoral systems 5.1. Analytical background 5.1.1 Energy units 5.1.2 Forage intake 5.1.3 Energy use 5.1.4 Energy budgets 5.1.5 Tissue mobilisation 5.1.6 Response to chronic energy deficit 5.1.6.1 Drought 5.1.7 Compensatory growth 5.1.8 Body water turnover 5.2 Simulation by species 5.2.1 Zebu cow 5.2.2 Camel 5.2.3 Smallstock 5.2.4 Donkey 6. Water and livestock development 6.1 Rangeland 6.1.1 Uncontrolled grazing 6.1.2 Controlled grazing 6.2 Woodland 6.2.1 Tree shade 6.3 Livestock 6.3.1 Beef versus milk 6.3.2 Cattle improvement 6.3.3 Breeding cattle for pastoralism 6.3.4 Species mix 6.3.5 Centripetal watering 6.3.6 Restricted watering 6.3.7 Night grazing 7. Research implications 7.1 Modelling and hypothesis 7.2 Component research 7.2.1 Priority topics 7.2.2 Priority species 7.3 Field methods 7.4 Conclusion References Abbreviations used in the text Summary Water is used by the herbivore as a medium for physical and chemical energy transfer, namely for evaporative cooling and intermediary metabolism. Therefore animal water turnover cannot be considered in isolation from energy metabolism. A detailed discussion of the physiology of water and energy use in the herbivore is given and a diagram of the interrelation between the two has been constructed. A simplified version of this 'soft' model has been used to simulate the energy budget and water turnover of the main livestock species in the African pastoral production system during the dry season. The analytical background to the model has been obtained from the literature, supported by field observations. However, data from Africa are scarce. The information obtained on water and energy use by livestock in the traditional pastoral system has been applied to water and livestock development in the context of range, woodland and livestock management. There are numerous implications for research, notably for hypothesis and modelling, as well as component research for which priority topics and species are given. The research emphasis is placed on field work which is not as difficult as it used to be, because technical equipment is becoming increasingly compact and rugged and communications between the field and advanced laboratory facilities have improved. An important contribution that the developer, and hence the scientist can make to the productivity of pastoral systems will be to increase the efficiency with which scarce water and energy resources are used. Key words /Water//livestock//pastoral systems/-/body water//water balance//dehydration//energy exchange//thermoregulation//water availability//water use//Zebu cattle//camels//small ruminants//asses//pastoral development/ Preface Livestock development projects initiated in sub-Saharan Africa over the past two decades have absorbed close to one billion American dollars worth of aid. Much of this aid, particularly during the period 1961 to 1975, has been directed towards the semi-arid and arid zones where the provision of drinking water for man and his livestock has been the largest single item of expenditure. In these zones, which are occupied primarily by pastoral people, shortages of drinking water occur every dry season, of which there are one or two a year depending on the region. Therefore any form of water development might be expected to improve the living standards of pastoral people in normal years and their chances of survival in times of drought. Unfortunately this is often not so. Water development may contribute to imbalances in the use of land and water resources in dry areas. These imbalances are exacerbated and intensified when they coincide with detrimental climatic fluctuations, both wet and dry, making the effects of drought and flood more severe and leaving a legacy of erosion and desertification. Recent improvements in international communications have given extensive publicity to natural disasters and helped to focus world attention on the problems of water and livestock. The most recent example of such a catastrophe in Africa was the drought in the Sahel from 1968 to 1973. It caused the collapse of the livestock industry of five countries - Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Upper Volta - and severely damaged that of two others, Senegal and the Gambia. It was against this background that ILCA was prompted to put together a series of state-of- knowledge reports on water and livestock problems in Africa. There were a number of scientific disciplines involved, and the subject has been divided into four topics, each of which is dealt with in a separate research report (RR) as follows: RR 6. The water resource in tropical Africa and its exploitation, RR 7. Livestock water needs in pastoral Africa in relation to climate and forage, RR 8. Organisation and management of water supplies in tropical Africa, RR 9. Economics and planning of water supplies in pastoral Africa. The four reports are best read in relation to one another. As well as providing technical and economic guidelines for national planning authorities, these reports review the interrelation of animal metabolism, water, climate and forage. They also consider the complexities of human organisation and management upon which the success or failure of the most carefully prepared and executed water development project will largely depend. The authors are primarily addressing senior personnel engaged in scientific research, planning and implementation. The justification for this approach is that if there were simple solutions to the problems of water and livestock in Africa, they would have been found some time ago. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank all those who helped with the initial literature search, notably: the Master and Prof. P.A. Jewell of St. John's College, and the Librarian, Department of Applied Biology, all of the University of Cambridge; Prof. W.V. Macfarlane, and the Division Documentation de l'Institut d'Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux; and the Commonwealth Bureaux of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Animal Health, and Nutrition in the U.K. Thanks are also due to those who have commented on the manuscript, particularly the following ILCA staff members: Mr. D.J. Pratt (former Director General), Dr. R.S. Temple, Dr. L.J. Lambourne, Dr. P.A. Konandreas and Prof. R.E. McDowell (Chairman of ILCA's Board of Trustees). The comments of the following outside referees are also gratefully acknowledged: Dr. V.A. Finch, Prof. C.R. Taylor, Prof. P.J. Van Soest, Dr. J.E. Vercoe and Prof. A.J.F. Webster. Finally I wish to thank Mrs. S.B. Westley, Dr. R.A. Stewart and Mr. S.D. Chater for editorial assistance, and Mrs. G. Maloba for typing the draft. 1. Introduction The greatest threat to life on land is the danger of dehydration (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1975). Most livestock have to drink at least every other day to be productive, and every few days to survive. The provision of water is therefore of prime importance in all animal production systems.
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