Notes

1 Overview of Saudi–Iranian Relations 1 . and share at least three joint oilfields, each known by its Persian or name, respectively: Esfandiar/Al Louloua, Foroozan/Marjan, and Farzad/Hasbah. Arash/Al Dorrah is shared between Iran, , and Saudi Arabia. The three states have yet to reach an agreement over the demarca- tion of the maritime boundary in the northern that affects the field. Iran’s share of the Esfandiar and Foroozan fields has dropped to levels that make their further development uneconomic, in part due to Saudi ability to extract faster from the fields. Saudi Arabia and Iran signed an agreement to develop the Farzad/Hasbah A gas field in January 2012, and were scheduled to sign a second agreement to develop the Farzad B gas field and Arash/Al Dorrah oilfield, pend- ing the removal of international sanctions against Iran. In 2014, they contested their respective shares in the Arash/Al Dorrah. 2 . British administration in the Persian Gulf began in 1622, when the British fleet helped the Persian Safavid king, Shah Abbas, expel the Portuguese from Hormuz island. The period of the British Residency of the Persian Gulf as an official colonial subdivision extended from 1763 to 1971. 3 . Interview with Abdulaziz Sager, chairman of Gulf Research Center, Riyadh, November 30, 2011. 4 . Alinaqi Alikhani, yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam , jeld shesh, 1355–1356 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 6, 1975–1976 (: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), pp. 324–325; 464. When the shah insists that the should under- stand that it cannot make Iran “a slave [puppet] government,” Alam informs him that the Americans have tried to make contact with different groups in Iranian society—alluding to dissidents. 5 . Interview with Ambassador Gafaar M. Al Lagany, former advisor to the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia to Washington, DC, February 16, 2005. 6 . Email interview with Awadh Al Badi, advisor to Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, March 27, 2012. 7 . Telephone interview with Abbas Maleki, former deputy minister of research and education (Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and head of the Institute for Political and International Studies, July 8, 2008. 240 ● Notes

8 . See Stephen M. Walt, “The Enduring Relevance of the Realist Tradition,” in Political Science: State of the Discipline III , eds. Ira Katznelson and Helen Milner (New York: W.W. Norton, 2003), pp. 200, 204. 9 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Fatollahi, former deputy for political affairs to Iran’s President , New York, September 25, 2009. 10 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 18, 2006. 11 . Interview with Saad A. Al Ammar, Assistant Secretary-General for Political Affairs, Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, Riyadh, November 30, 2011. 12 . Interview with Prince Muqrin bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, former director gen- eral of the General Intelligence Directorate of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, December 5, 2011. 13 . For a detailed discussion about the balance of power approach, see David J. Myers, Regional Hegemons: Threat Perception and Strategic Response (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), p. 90. 14 . See recent studies in history and anthropology, for example, Terry Eagleton, Ideology: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (: Verso, 2007), pp. 4–5, 11, 31, 39, 54. 15 . See Raymond Hinnebusch, “Introduction: The Analytical Framework,” in The Foreign Policies of States, ed. Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), pp. 19, 21. 16 . For a similar argument on the balance of power see Stephen M. Walt, Origins of Alliances (Ithaca: Press, 1987), p. 216. 17 . Interview with Nasser A. Al Braik, former ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to Iran, Riyadh, December 9, 2011. 18 . Telephone interview with Zamul Saeedi, diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and a former appointee to the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC), May 13, 2012. 19 . For similar arguments on leadership roles in the Middle East, see Hinnebusch, pp. 10–11. 20 . Ole R. Holsti, “Theories of International Relations and Foreign Policy: Realism and Its Challengers,” in Controversies in International Relations Theory: Realism and the Neoliberal Challenge, ed. Charles W. Kegley, Jr. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), pp. 35–65; Paul Salem, Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World (Syracuse: Press, 1994), pp. 273–274. 21 . “Complexity theory” examines both the macro-level (actions of the state) as well as the micro-level (inter alia, “change in the skills of people”). See James N. Rosenau, Distant Proximities: Dynamics Beyond Globalization (Princeton: Press, 2003), pp. xi; 203–217.

2 How Religion Shaped the Saudi–Iranian Relations 1 . Hossein Nasr, Ideals and Realities of (Chicago: ABC International Group, 2000), p. 147. Notes ● 241

2 . I b i d . , p p . 9 5 – 9 6 . 3 . I b i d . 4 . M a r t i n L i n g s , Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester: Inner Traditions International, 1983), p. 330. 5 . Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi’is of (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 49. 6 . Interview with Mazin Motabagani, member of al-Madinah Center for the Study of Orientalism, Riyadh, November 29, 2011. 7 . R o s c h a n a c k S h a e r y - E i s e n l o h r , Shi’ite : Transnational Religion and the Making of National Identities (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), p. 134. 8 . Nakash, p. 47. 9 . Interview with Masoud Adib, faculty member of the Department of Philosophy, Mofid University, , June 16, 2014. 1 0 . M i c h a e l C o o p e r s o n , Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma’mun (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 190–191. 1 1 . H a m i d A l g a r , : A Critical Essay (New York: Islamic Publications International, 2002), p. 81, cited from manhaj al rashad li man aran al sadad, printed as appendix to Muhammad Husayn K ashif al Ghita al abaqat al anbariya fi l tabaqat al jafariya, ed. Jauder al Qazwini, Beirut, 1417/1998, p. 555. 12 . Nakash, pp. 15, 24, 44. 13 . Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, first published 1985, paperback 1988), pp. 14–18. 14 . Ibid., pp. 14–18, 25. 1 5 . N a k a s h , p p . 5 4 – 5 5 . 16 . Safran, p. 40. 1 7 . A l e x e i V a s s i l i e v , The (New York: New York University Press, 2000), pp. 227–228. 18 . Nakash, pp. 68–69, 77. 19 . Hamid Ahmadi, ravabet iran va arabestan dar sadeh bistom: doreh pahlavi [Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia in the Twentieth Century: Pahlavi Era] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1386/2007), p. 50. 2 0 . N a k a s h , p p . 7 8 – 9 0 . 2 1 . I b i d . , p . 1 6 8 2 2 . A l i M o h a g h e g h , asnad ravabet iran va arabestan saudi (1304–1357) [Documents of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia (1925–1979)] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1379/2000–2001), document number 25, 19 borj saratan 1303, pp. 6–7; see Ahmadi, pp. 48–49. 23 . Mohaghegh, document number 714, October 29, 1925, pp. 35–37. 24 . Ibid., archives of the Foreign Ministry of Iran, container 30, file 2, document no. 127, 12 neisan 1925, pp. 61–62. 25 . Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi–Iranian Relations 1932–1982 (London: Centre for Arab–Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), pp. 80–81. 26 . Ahmadi, p. 55. 242 ● Notes

27 . Mohaghegh, document number 211, 11 dei 1304/3 January 1926, p. 48. 28 . Ibid., document number 212, 11 dei 1304/3 January 1926, p. 53. 2 9 . I b i d . , “savad tarjomeh rooznameh umm al qura [Literacy to Translate the umm al qura Paper],” document number 53, 22 jamadi al thani 1344, pp. 55–56.

3 Saudi Arabia and Iran in Early Twentieth Century 1 . Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, first published 1985, paperback 1988), pp. 34–36. 2 . I b i d . , p p . 3 5 – 4 0 . 3 . I b i d . , p p . 4 4 – 4 5 . 4. A l i M o h a g h e g h , asnad ravabet iran va arabestan saudi (1304–1357) [Documents of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia: 1925–1979] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1379/2000–2001), document no. 438, 3 jamadi al-thani, 1344, p. 44. 5 . Hamid Ahmadi, ravabet iran va arabestan dar sadeh bistom: doreh pahlavi [Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia in the Twentieth Century: The Pahlavi Era] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1386/2007), pp. 52–53, cited in Foreign Ministry archives, container 30, file 5, 1305/1925–1926. 6 . Mohaghegh, document no. 212, 11 dei 1304/3 January 1925, p. 53. 7 . Ibid., document no. 254, 24 dei 1304/15 January 1926, p. 58. 8 . Safran, p. 52. 9 . See also Raymond Hinnebusch, “Introduction: The Analytical Framework,” in The Foreign Policies of Middle East States, ed. Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), p. 8. 10 . Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi–Iranian Relations 1932–1982 (London: Centre for Arab–Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), p. 104. 1 1 . A s q h a r J a f a r i V a l e d a n i , barresi tarikhi ekhtelafat marzi iran va iraq [A Historical Review of Boundary Disputes between Iran and Iraq] (tehran: daftar nashr far- hangh eslami/daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmellali, 1367/1989–1990), pp. 4, 8, 93–94. 12 . Several prominent geographers and historians of the early Islamic era were of the opinion that all areas of the Persian Gulf pre-Islam belonged to Persia. See Muhammad ibn Jarir Al Tabari, tarikh al-rusul wa al-mulk [History of the Prophets and Kings ] and Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn al-Hussein al-Masudi, muruj adh-dhahab wa ma’adin al-jawhar [The Meadows of Gold and the Mines of Gems]; Pirouz Mojtahedzadeh, keshvarha va marzha dar mantagheh geopolitik khalij fars [States and Boundaries in the Geopolitical Area of the Persian Gulf], chap panjom/5th ed., translated by Hamid Reza Malek Muhammadi Nouri (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1382/2003–2004), p. 210. 1 3 . J o h n W i l k i n s o n , Water and Tribal Settlement in South East Arabia: Study of the Aflaj of the (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 129. Descendants of the aboriginal population still remain in parts of the Persian Gulf, including Notes ● 243

Oman, , and the Hasa region of Saudi Arabia. See Mojtahedzadeh, 121, 126. 1 4 . P i r o u z M o j t a h e d z a d e h , Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography (London: Curzon Press, 1999; RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), pp. 65–69. 1 5 . M o j t a h e d z a d e h , keshvarha va marzha , pp. 156, 251–253. 16 . On account of its Arab population, Khuzestan was claimed as Arab land and at different junctures referred to as “Arabistan” by the Gulf . In ancient Persia, a people known as the Khuz lived in the mountainous regions north- east of Khuzestan. Under the Parthian Empire (also known as Ashkanian, 247 bc –224 ad ), the Khuz migrated to what is now called Khuzestan (hence Abol-Ghasem Ferdowsi’s references in poetry attributed to him to the “land of Khuz”). After Islam, Arab and Persian historians called Khuzestan by its Old Persian name, “Ahvaz,” which is now a main city in Khuzestan Province. In the Treaty of Erzerum (1847), the Ottomans granted Persia sovereignty over the city port of Muhammara (Khorramshahr) and Jazeera al-Khazr (Abadan) in Khuzestan, and, in general, any land to the east of the Shatt al-Arab. See Valedani, pp. 33, 581–583. 17 . Gregory Gause, “The Foreign Policy of Saudi Arabia,” in The Foreign Policies of Middle East States, ed. Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), pp. 194–198. 18 . Badeeb, p. 222; cited in al-Aidarous, al-alaqat al-arabiah al-iraniah . 19 . Letter of the Foreign Ministry of Iran, Office of Audits, 22 aban 1307/14 November 1928, cited in Ali Farahmand, “engelis va projeh iran-zodai az khaleej fars [Britain’s De-Persianization Project in the Persian Gulf],” faslnameh tarikh ravabet khareji [Quarterly on History of Foreign Relations], no. 22 (bahar 1384/ Spring 2005): p. 174. 2 0 . B a d e e b , p . 1 0 2 .

4 Early Diplomatic Relations 1 . Hamid Ahmadi, ravabet iran va arabestan dar sadeh bistom: doreh pahlavi [Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia in the Twentieth Century: Pahlavi Era] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1386/2007), pp. 61–62, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, container 30, file 2, docu- ment no. 127, neisan 1305/Fall 1925. 2 . A l i M o h a g h e g h , asnad ravabet iran va arabestan saudi: 1304–1357 [Documents of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia: 1925–1979] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1379/2000–2001), “az habibollah hov- eida be vezarat oumur kharejeh [From Habibollah Hoveida to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs],” document no. 254, 24 dei 1304/14 January 1926, pp. 58–59. 3 . M o h a g h e g h , “elamiyeh oumumi raees al vozara dar mahkoumiyat aamal vahabi- yan [Public Declaration of Head of Ministers Condemning Wahhabi Actions],” 1 tir 1305/23 June 1926, pp. 67–68. 244 ● Notes

4 . Ahmadi, pp. 60–61; see also Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi–Iranian Relations 1932–1982 (London: Centre for Arab Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), pp. 34, 82. 5 . Information gathered here is based on a draft paper shared with me by Awadh Al Badi, advisor to Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies. Al Badi was unable to share the primary sources at the time. 6 . Ahmadi, p. 63, cited from “nameh safir iran dar mesr [Letter of Viceregent of Iran in ],” Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of Iran and Saudi Arabia, container 44, file no. 19, 1307/1928, letter of 8 khordad 1307/29 May 1928. 7 . Badeeb, p. 49, cited from Telegram No. E 6322/3704/91, from Mr. Bond to Mr. Butler (Public Record Office London), dated November 10, 1929. 8 . Ahmadi, pp. 63–64, cited from “ravabet iran va saudi, shenasaee dowlat hijaz [Iran–Saudi Relations, Recognition of Government of Hijaz],” Foreign Ministry Archives, container 44, document no. 14, 1928. 9 . Ahmadi, p. 64, cited from “yusuf yasin dar riyadh be sefarat iran dar mesr [Yusuf Yasin in Riyadh to Embassy of Iran in Egypt],” Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of Iran and Saudi Arabia, container 44, file 14, 18 ramadan 1346. 10 . William Ochsenwald, “Islam and Saudi National Identity in the Hijaz, 1926–1939,” presentation at the Middle East Studies Association Conference, November 2004, cited from report by W. L. Bond, British Consult in Jeddah, to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, dated June 26, 1929. 11 . Ahmadi, p. 66, cited from “raport hoveida be vezarat kharejeh [Hoveida’s Report to the Foreign Ministry],” container 50, file 71/189, 1310/1930–1931. 12 . Ahmadi, p. 69, cited from “mosaferat faisal pesar dovum ibn saud be iran , [Trip by Faisal, the Second Son of Ibn Saud to Iran],” container 12, 19, file 115, 1311/1932. 13 . Mohaghegh, document No. 38, 1 ordibehesht 1310/22 April 1931, pp. 95–97. 14 . Ahmadi, pp. 69–70, cited from container no. 37, file no. 63/94, 1307/ 1928–1929. 15 . Ibid., container 63, file no. 14, 1314/1935–1936. 16 . Ibid., pp. 74, 253. 1 7 . A l e x e i V a s s i l i e v , The History of Saudi Arabia (New York: New York University Press, 2000), pp. 325–327. 18 . Badeeb, p. 84. 1 9 . M o h a g h e g h , “ghozaresh ghorbani—sefarat iran dar mesr be vezarat kharejeh dar khousous masaaleh haji maghtoul va vaghayeh haj sal 1322 [Report from Ghorbani–Embassy of Iran in Egypt to Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the Deceased haji and Events of haj in 1943],” document no. 40, pp. 99–105. 20 . Graham E. Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi’a: The Forgotten Muslims (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), p. 183. 2 1 . M o h a g h e g h , “az be malak ibn saud [From Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to King Ibn Saud],” document no. 53, p. 127. 2 2 . A h m a d i , p p . 2 5 5 – 2 5 6 . Notes ● 245

2 3 . B a d e e b , p p . 8 5 – 9 0 . 24 . Ahmadi, pp. 89–93, 256, cited from “ouza siyasi va edari arabestan saudi [Political and Administrative Conditions in Saudi Arabia],” container 9, file 61, 1330/1951–1952; “nameh az sefarat jeddah be vezarat kharejeh [Letter from Embassy of Jeddah to Foreign Ministry],” container 22, file 24, 30 bahman 1327/ February 1949. 25 . Vassiliev, p. 333, cited from Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, p. 13655; Arab World Political and Diplomatic History , 1900–1967, July 6, 1954. 26 . Masoud Kouhestani Nejad, “ravabet iran va dar doreh dr. mossadegh [“Relations between Iran and Israel under Dr. Mossadegh],” faslnameh tarikh ravabet khareji [Quarterly on History of Foreign Relations] , no. 15 (tabestan 1382/ Summer 2003), pp. 145–148, cited from Documents of the Foreign Ministry, file no. 1332–9–78. 2 7 . M o r t e z a G h a n o u n , diplomacy penhan: jastari dar ravabet iran va israel dar asr pahlavi [Secret Diplomacy: Preview of Relations between Iran and Israel in the Pahlavi Era] (tehran: tabarestan, 1381/1991–1992), p. 182. 2 8 . K o o h e s t a n i N e j a d , p . 1 0 6 . 29 . Ghanoun, p. 182; see also Marzieh Yazdani, “asnad mohajerat yahoudian iran be felestin [Documents on Immigration of Iranian to Palestine]” (tehran: ente- sharat sazman melli iran, 1374/1995–1996), pp. 154–155. 30 . Kouhestani Nejad, pp. 107, 110–111, cited from “rouznameh rasmi keshvar sha- hanshai iran [Official Newspaper of the Kingdom of Iran ],” s. 1828, 8 khordad 1330/30 May 1951, p. 3. 31 . Mohaghegh, p. 132, cited from document no. 57.

5 Diplomatic Relations: 1955–1963 1 . Hamid Ahmadi, ravabet iran va arabestan dar sadeh bistom: doreh pahlavi [Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia in the Twentieth Century: The Pahlavi Era] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1386/2007), p. 102, cited from “mosaferat padeshah saudi be iran [Travel by the Saudi King to Iran],” Foreign Ministry Archives, container 95, file no. 23, 1334/1955–1956. 2 . Telephone interview with Mohammad Taghi Sept, retired diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 3, 2008. 3 . S o n o k o S u n a y a m a , and Saudi Arabia: Contradiction and Conflicts in the Oil Era (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), pp. 24–25. 4. Saeed M. Badeeb, The Saudi–Egyptian Conflict over North : 1962–1970 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), pp. 12, 19–21. 5 . A h m a d i , p . 2 5 7 . 6 . Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi–Iranian Relations 1932–1982 (London: Centre for Arab Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), p. 53. 7 . Ahmadi, p. 98, cited from British Embassy in Tehran to London (PRO), Telegraph no. 1062/156, 19 January 1956. 246 ● Notes

8 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Iranian Relations, p. 53, cited from British Residency in Bahrain to the Foreign Office in London (Public Record Office, London), declassified confidential telegram no. 1062/1/56, July 19, 1956. 9 . Ahmadi, p. 102, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, “ouza siyasi va edari arabestan [Political and Administrative Conditions in Arabia],” container 9, file no. 28, 1334/1955–1956. 10 . Ahmadi, p. 100, cited from British Embassy in Tehran to Foreign Office in London (PRO), Report no. 27, March 28, 1957. 1 1 . A h m a d i , p . 2 5 8 . 1 2 . A l i M o h a g h e g h , asnad ravabet iran va arabestan saudi: 1304–1357 [Documents of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia: 1925–1979] (tehran: entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1379/2000–2001), document no. 60, 10 khordad 1335/31 May 1956, p. 137. 1 3 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Iranian Relations, pp. 105–107; Ahmadi, “moafeghatnameh havai bein iran ba arabestan [Air Transport Agreement between Iran and Saudi Arabia],” container 29, file 11, 1338/1959–1960, p. 100. 1 4 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Iranian Relations, pp. 105–107. 15 . Mohaghegh, document no. 63, p. 141. 1 6 . A h m a d i , p . 2 5 8 . 17 . Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, first published 1985, paperback 1988), p. 84. 1 8 . S h e r m a n A d a m s , Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961), p. 290. 19 . The phrase “Arab cold war” was coined by Malcolm Kerr. See The Arab Cold War: Gamal Abd Al Nasir and His Rivals, 1958–1970 , 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971). 20 . Sunayama, pp. 25–26, 215. 2 1 . A l e x e i V a s s i l i e v , The History of Saudi Arabia (New York: New York University Press, 2000), pp. 351–352. 2 2 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Iranian Relations, p. 55. 2 3 . S a f r a n , p . 1 0 4 . 2 4 . S u n a y a m a , p p . 2 7 – 2 8 . 2 5 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Egyptian Conflict over North Yemen , p. 13. 26 . Ahmadi, p. 114, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, “moulaghat safir kabir iran ziaoldin gharib ba amir faisal [Meeting of Iranian Plenipotentiary Ambassador Ziauldin Gharib with Prince Faisal],” 9 Azar 1337/30 November 1958. 2 7 . J o s e p h A . K e c h i c h i a n , Succession in Saudi Arabia (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 133. 2 8 . S a f r a n , p . 1 1 0 . 2 9 . A s q h a r J a f a r i V a l e d a n i , barresi tarikhi ekhtelafat marzi iran va iraq [A Historical Review of Boundary Disputes between Iran and Iraq] (tehran: daftar nashr farhangh eslami/daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmellali, 1367/1989–1990), pp. 233–235. Notes ● 247

3 0 . V a s s i l i e v , p . 3 5 8 . 31 . Safran, p. 75. 3 2 . V a s s i l i e v , p p . 3 6 2 – 3 6 3 . 33 . Ahmadi, p. 118, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, “safir kabir iran [Iran Plenipotentiary Ambassador],” container 10, file no. 24, report 41/12/18. 34 . Ahmadi, p. 118, cited from “ouzaa dakheli va siyasi arabestan [Internal and Political Conditions in Saudi Arabia],” container 10, file no. 24, report 41/11/4. 3 5 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Egyptian Conflict over North Yemen , pp. 39, 56–57. 36 . See J. F. K. Library Memorandum for the President from Robert W. Komer, 8 February 1963 (JFK, NSF countries, Iraq, Box. 117 “Iraq 1/63–2/63,” docu- ment 18), p. 1. 37 . Telephone interview with Sept. 38 . Ahmadi, p. 119, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, “safir kabir iran ziaul- din gharib (Plenipotentiary Ambassador of Iran Ziauldin Gharib),” container 10, file no. 24, report 1341/12/30. 39 . Ahmadi, p. 129, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of Mission of Jeddah, container 9, file no. 18, 1342/1963–1964; Mohaghegh, document no. 765, pp. 215–216. 40 . Telephone interview with Reza Ghasemi, former diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and last ambassador of Iran to Kuwait before the Iranian revolution, May 18, 2012. 41 . Statement by Thomas Lippman, Adjunct Scholar, Middle East Institute, Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights and Oversight of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred and Tenth Congress, First Session, “Is There a Human Rights Double Standard? U.S. Policy toward Saudi Arabia, Iran and Uzbekistan,” Serial No. 110–62, June 14, 2007, p. 6. 4 2 . B a d e e b , Saudi–Iranian Relations, p. 103. 43 . Safran, p. 97. 44 . Mordechai Abir, Oil, Power and Politics: Conflict of Asian and African Studies (London: Franck Cass, 1974), pp. 53–54. 4 5 . S a f r a n , p . 1 1 0 .

6 Epoch of Saudi–Iranian Cooperation and Rivalry 1 . Hamid Ahmadi, ravabet iran va arabestan dar sadeh bistom: doreh pahlavi [Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia in the Twentieth Century: Pahlavi Era] (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1386/2007), p. 122. 2 . Telephone interview with Reza Ghasemi, former diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and last ambassador of Iran to Kuwait before the Iranian revolution, May 18, 2012. 3 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, November 27, 2011. 248 ● Notes

4 . Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi-Iranian Relations 1932–1982 (London: Centre for Arab Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), p. 61. 5 . Ahmadi, p. 132, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of the Mission of Jeddah, “vaghozari boursha tahsili daneshghahah iran [Granting Scholarships by Iranian Universities],” container 14, file no. 10 and 110, 1346/1965–1968. 6 . Ibid, p. 133, cited from “asar farhanghi iran va arabestan [Cultural Works of Iran and Saudi Arabia],” container 12, file no. 16, 1345/1966–1967. 7 . A l i M o h a g h e g h , asnad ravabet iran va arabestan saudi: 1304–1357 [Documents of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia: 1925–1979] (tehran: entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1379/2000–2001), document no. 95, pp. 222–226. 8 . Ahmadi, p. 128, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of the Mission of Jeddah, container 14, file no. 4, 1346/1967–1968. 9 . Badeeb, p. 60. 10 . F. Gregory Gause III, Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 155. 11 . Alinaqi Alikhani, yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam, jeld yek, 1347–1348 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 1, 1968–1969 (tehran: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), p. 298. 12 . Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, first published 1985, paperback 1988), pp. 203–204. 1 3 . A s q h a r J a f a r i V a l e d a n i , barresi tarikhi ekhtelafat marzi iran va iraq [A Historical Review of Boundary Disputes between Iran and Iraq] (tehran: daftar nashr farhangh eslami/daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmellali, 1367/1989–1990), p. 302. 14 . Ahmadi, p. 300, cited from Foreign Ministry Archives, Documents of the Mission of Jeddah, container 17, file no. 29, 1349/1970–1971. 15 . Telephone interview with Mohammad Taghi Sept, retired diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 3, 2008. 1 6 . S o n o k o S u n a y a m a , Syria and Saudi Arabia: Contradiction and Conflicts in the Oil Era (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), pp. 31–33; also see Tabitha Petran, Syria (London: Ernest Benn, 1972), p. 252. 17 . Telephone interview with Sept. 1 8 . A h m a d i , p . 1 2 7 . 19 . Email interview with Saeed Badeeb, Saudi policy analyst and scholar, June 29, 2015. 20 . Safran, pp. 138, 204. 2 1 . A h m a d i , p p . 2 3 0 – 2 3 1 . 22 . Alinaqi Alikhani, yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam, jeld shesh, 1355–1356 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 6, 1975–1976 (tehran: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), pp. 233–234, 260. 23 . Article published in a Persian foreign policy journal printed after the Islamic revolution, by Ahmad Mirfendereski, which this author read years before, but Notes ● 249

could not later find in order to properly cite in this research. In addition, the author spoke to Mirfendereski a number of times. 24 . Alinaqi Alikhani, yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam, jeld seh, 1352 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 3, 1972–1973 (tehran: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), pp. 190–205. 2 5 . A l e x e i V a s s i l i e v , The History of Saudi Arabia (New York: New York University Press, 2000), p. 349; Badr Alkhorayef, “King Faisal Stood Firm on Oil Embargo,” , May 4, 2008. 26 . Interview with Abd al-Rahman Al Shobeily, former member of the consultative council ( majlis al-shura) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, November 30, 2011. 27 . Mohammad Taghi Sept, “khatereh az doran mamoriyat dar chand keshvar arabi [Memoir of a Mission in Several Arab Countries],” jahan, pp. 97–100. 28 . Alikhani, vol. 6, pp. 150, 413. 2 9 . A l i n a q i A l i k h a n i , yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam , jeld chahar, 1353 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 4, 1973–1974 (tehran: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), p. 16. 30 . Alikhani, vol. 6, pp. 44, 47–48. 3 1 . S e p t , p p . 1 0 6 – 1 0 7 . 3 2 . R o s c h a n a c k S h a e r y - E i s e n l o h r , Shi’ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and the Making of National Identities (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008) pp, 92; 99. 33 . Alinaqi Alikhani, yad dasht ha-yi asaddollah alam, jeld dou, 1349–1351 [The Diaries of Alam], vol. 2, 1969–1971 (tehran: entesharat maziar va moin, 1377), p. 149. 34 . Telephone interview with Ghasemi. 3 5 . I b i d . 36 . Telephone interview with Sept. 3 7 . F a i s a l b i n S a l m a n a l - S a u d , Iran, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf: Power Politics in Transition (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), pp. 33–35. 38 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 39 . Badeeb, pp. 61, 65–74. 40 . Faisal bin Salman al-Saud, pp. 38–45. 4 1 . B a d e e b . 42 . Telephone interview with Ghasemi. 43 . Jafari Valedani, pp. 431–432. 4 4 . S e p t , p . 1 1 2 . 45 . Faisal bin Salman al-Saud, cited from PRO/FO, 371/16070/September 27, 1932, p. 81. 4 6 . B a d e e b , p . 1 1 9 . 47 . Faisal bin Salman al-Saud, p. 109. 48 . Alikhani, vol. 6, p. 24. 49 . Telephone interview with Ghasemi. 5 0 . B a d e e b , p p . 6 2 – 6 3 . 250 ● Notes

5 1 . T h o m a s R . M a t t a i r , The Three Occupied U.A.E. Islands: The Tunbs and Abu Musa (Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 2005), pp. 120–122. 5 2 . S a f r a n , p p . 1 3 4 – 1 3 5 . 53 . Alikhani, vol. 2, pp. 109, 175. 54 . Telephone interview with Ghasemi. 55 . Telephone interview with Ghasemi; Muhammad Jaafar Chamankar, bohran dhafar va regim Pahlavi [Dhufar Crisis and Pahalvi Regime] (tehran: mouaseseh tarikh moaser iran, 1383/2005–2006), p. 66. 5 6 . B a h m a n N a i m i A r f a a , mabani raftari shoura hamkari khaleej fars dar ghebal jomhuri eslami iran [Persian Gulf Cooperation Council’s Behavioral Foundations toward the Islamic Republic of Iran] (tehran: daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmel- lali, 1370/1993), p. 30. 57 . Faisal bin Salman al-Saud, p. 24. 58 . Safran, pp. 170, 177. 59 . Interview with Charles W. Freeman, Jr., former US ambassador to Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC, September 20, 2011. 60 . Alikhani, vol. 4, pp. 153–154. 6 1 . A h m a d i , p p . 1 8 9 – 1 9 0 . 62 . Badeeb, pp. 63–64, 112. 6 3 . S a f r a n , p . 2 3 0 . 64 . Alikhani, vol. 6, pp. 118, 128, 286–288. 6 5 . S a f r a n , p . 2 6 9 .

7 Saudi Arabia and Revolutionary Iran 1 . Interview with Abd al-Rahman Al Shobeily, former member of the consultative council ( majlis al-shura) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, November 30, 2011. 2 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, November 27, 2011. 3 . R o g h i y e h S a d a t A z i m i , arabestan [Saudi Arabia], Chap Sevom/3rd. ed. (tehran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1380/2001–2002), p. 126. 4. Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 5 . Interview with Ambassador Gaafar M. Al Lagany, former advisor to the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia to Washington DC, February 16, 2005. 6 . Interview with Ahmed Badeeb, former advisor on Afghanistan to the govern- ment of Saudi Arabia, Jeddah, December 1, 2011. 7 . Interview with Hassan Keynoush, retired diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tehran, January 3, 2004. 8 . M a m o u n F a n d y , Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), pp. 196–199. 9 . See Nikki R. Keddie and Yann Richard, Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution (New Haven: Press, 2006), pp. 260–277; Toby Notes ● 251

Matthiesen, “Hizbullah Al Hijaz: A History of the Most Radical Saudi Shia Opposition Group,” Middle East Journal Institute, volume 64, no. 2 (Spring 2010): pp. 180–181. 1 0 . A l e x e i V a s s i l i e v , The History of Saudi Arabia (New York: New York University Press, 2000), pp. 395–397. 11 . See Matthiesen, p. 183. 1 2 . J o s e p h A . K e c h i c h i a n , Succession in Saudi Arabia (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 59. 13 . Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, first published 1985, paperback 1988), pp. 301, 305. 14 . See Stephen M. Walt, “Revolution and War,” World Politics, 44 (April 1992): 321. 1 5 . S a f r a n , p p . 3 6 1 – 3 6 2 . 16 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 1 7 . F a n d y , p . 1 0 1 . 18 . Interview with a former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia who did not wish to be identified, Tehran, December 28, 2004. 19 . Telephone interview with Mohammad Taghi Sept, retired diplomat with Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 3, 2008. 2 0 . A s q h a r J a f a r i V a l e d a n i , barresi tarikhi ekhtelafat marzi iran va iraq [A Historical Review of Boundary Disputes between Iran and Iraq] (tehran: daftar nashr farhangh eslami/daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmellali, 1367/1989–1990), p. 551. 21 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 2 2 . S e e a l s o V a s s i l i e v , p . 3 9 8 . 2 3 . S o n o k o S u n a y a m a , Syria and Saudi Arabia: Contradiction and Conflicts in the Oil Era (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), pp. 31–33; also see Tabitha Petran, Syria (London: Ernest Benn, 1972), pp. 157–158. 2 4 . “tahlili bar jangh tahmili regime iraq alayheh jomhuri eslami iran [An Overview of the Imposed War by Iraq against the Islamic Republic of Iran],” vol. 2 (tehran: edareh kol omour houghoughi vezarat kharejeh, 1373/1994–1995), p. 182. 25 . Joost R. Hilterman, “Outsiders as Enablers: Consequences and Lessons from International Silence on Iraq’s Use of Chemical Weapons during the Iran-Iraq War,” in Iran, Iraq, and the Legacies of War , ed. Lawrence G. Potter and Gary G. Sick (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. 151. 26 . Hamid Hadian, monasebat jomhuri eslami iran, arabestan saudi va iraq pas az 11 september [Relations between Islamic Republic of Iran, Saudi Arabia and Iraq after September 11] (tehran: sagar mehr, 1388/2009–2010), p. 55. 27 . Telephone interview with Mohammad Mahallati, Presidential Scholar of Islam, Oberlin College, January 13, 2010. 2 8 . S a d a t A z i m i , p . 1 2 6 . 29 . See Saleh al-Mani, “The Ideological Dimension in Saudi-Iranian Relations,” in Iran and the Gulf: A Search for Stability, ed. Jamal S. Al Suwaidi (UAE: The 252 ● Notes

Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1996), p. 167; N. J. Rashid and E. I. Shaheen, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf War (Joplin MO: International Institute of Technology, 1992), p. 130. 30 . Telephone interview with Abbas Maleki, former deputy minister of research and education (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran), for- mer head of the Tehran-based Institute for Political and International Studies, and former Robert E. Willhelm Fellow for 2011–2012 at the Massachusetts Institute for Technology, June 13, 2012. 31 . Interview with Al Lagany. 3 2 . L a u r e n c e L o u e r , Transnational Shi‘i Politics: Religious and Political Networks in the Gulf (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), pp. 164, 192, 211; Matthiesen, pp. 183–184. 33 . “amar va arman shohada ra eshtebah bayan nakonim [The Figures and Ideals of the Martyrs Should Not Be Mistakenly Cited],” sobhe sadegh, vol. 11, no. 492, March 14, 2011. 34 . Interview with Manuchehr Mottaki, former minister of foreign affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, July 3, 2008. 35 . Saeed Badeeb, Saudi–Iranian Relations: 1982–1997 (London: Center for Arab and Iranian Studies and Echoes, 2006), p. 99. 36 . Hadian, p. 67. 37 . Interview with Awadh Al Badi, advisor to Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Washington DC, June 1, 2012. 38 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 39 . Telephone interview with Maleki. 40 . Interview with Al Lagany. 41 . See Fandy, pp. 67, 95, 103. 42. Ibid., pp. 71, 172, 190. 43 . Interview with Saeed Badeeb, Saudi policy analyst and scholar, Jeddah, December 1, 2011. 44 . Interview with Mottaki. 45 . Telephone interview with Maleki. 46 . Interview with Mottaki. 47 . Mahmoud Ghahremani, “naghd ketab khoshoonat alayheh iraq, mojazat, hughough va edalat [Critique to Book on Violence Against Iraq, Punishments, Laws and Justice],” faslanemeh khavar miyaneh, sal shesh, shomareh 2, tabestan 1378/1999–2000, p. 217. 48 . Interview with Al Lagany. 49 . Stephen M. Walt, Taming American Power: The Global Response to U.S. Primacy (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), p. 14. 50 . Interview with Charles W. Freeman, Jr., former US ambassador to Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC, September 20, 2011. 51 . Interview with Mazin Motabagani, member of al-Madinah Center for the Study of Orientalism, Riyadh, November 29, 2011; Fandy, p. 72. Notes ● 253

8 Saudi–Iranian Détente 1 . R o g h i y e h S a d a t A z i m i , arabestan [Saudi Arabia], chap sevom/3rd. ed. (teh- ran: markaz chap va entesharat vezarat oumur kharejeh, 1380/2001–2002), pp. 129–130. 2 . Telephone interview with Abbas Maleki, Robert E. Willhelm Fellow for 2011– 2012 at the Massachusetts Institute for Technology, former deputy minister of research and education (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran), and former head of the Tehran-based Institute for Political and International Studies, June 13, 2012. 3 . I b i d . 4. E z a t o l l a h E z a t i , tahlili bar geopolitic iran va iraq [An Analysis of Iran-Iraq Geopolitics] (tehran: daftar motaleat siyasi va beinolmellali 1384/2005), pp. 218–220. 5 . I b i d . 6 . Interview with Hossein Mousavian, lecturer and research scholar at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, and former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to Germany, Princeton, September 17, 2011. 7 . Andrew Parasiliti, “The Military in Iraqi Politics,” in Iran, Iraq and the Arab Gulf States, ed. Joseph A. Kechichian (New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 91–92. 8 . M a m o u n F a n d y , Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), p. 200. 9 . I n t e r v i e w w i t h M o u s a v i a n . 1 0 . I b i d . 1 1 . I b i d . 1 2 . I b i d . 1 3 . I b i d . 14 . Telephone interview with Maleki. 1 5 . Jomhuri-e-islami, September 23, 1996 and May 25, 1996. 16 . Indictment, Khobar Tower Release, FBI Press Room, June 21, 2011,; see: http:// www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/khobar.htm . 17 . Interview with Ali Asqhar Khaji, former special envoy on Iraq at Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Tehran, January 4, 2005. 18 . Hamid Hadian, monasebat jomhuri eslami iran, arabestan saudi va iraq pas az 11 september [Relations between Islamic Republic of Iran, Saudi Arabia and Iraq after September 11] (tehran: sagar mehr, 1388/2009–2010), p. 30. 19 . Interview with Saeed Badeeb, Saudi policy analyst and scholar, Jeddah, December 1, 2011. 20 . Interview with Abd al-Muhsin Al Akhlas, former minister of social affairs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, 5 December 2011. 21 . Interview with Ambassador Gaafar M. Al Lagany, former advisor to the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia to Washington DC, February 16, 2005. 254 ● Notes

2 2 . G r a h a m E . F u l l e r , The Arab Shi‘i (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), p. 192. 2 3 . F a n d y , p p . 1 6 5 , 2 4 2 . 24 . Toby Matthiesen, “Hizbollah al Hijaz: A History of the Most Radical Saudi Shi‘i Opposition Group,” Middle East Journal, volume 64, no. 2 (Spring 2010): p. 191. 25 . Interview with Al Lagany. 26 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Abtahi, former vice president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Montreal, September 12, 2006. 27 . Telephone discussion with Saleh bin Soleiman Al Wahaibi, secretary-general of the World Assembly of Muslim Youth, Riyadh, December 8, 2011. 28 . Interview with Nasser A. Al Braik, former ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to Iran, Riyadh, December 9, 2011. 29 . Interview with Maleki. 30 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, November 27, 2011; Discussion with Jamil F. Al Dandany, office of the president and chief execu- tive officer, Saudi Arabian Oil Company, , December 10, 2011. 31 . Interview with Al Braik; Discussion held with an Iranian intelligence officer who did not wish to be identified, Riyadh, December 5, 2011. 3 2 . I n t e r v i e w w i t h K h a j i . 33 . Sadat Azimi, pp. 136–137. 3 4 . “ rokhdadhayeh siyasat khareji iran, 1377 [Chronology of Events of Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1998–1999]” (tehran: markaz asnad va tarikh diplomacy, 1380/2002– 2003), pp. 35–36, 40, 43. 3 5 . I b i d . 36 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 37 . Email interview with Ata’ollah Mohajerani, former vice president and govern- ment spokesperson of the Islamic Republic of Iran, April 12, 2013. 3 8 . rokhdadhayeh siyasat khareji iran, p. 109. 3 9 . I b i d . , p p . 1 1 2 – 1 1 3 . 40 . Telephone interview with a former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia who did not wish to be identified, July 14, 2012. 41 . Interview with Mohammad Javad Zarif, former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations, New York, September 10, 2000. 4 2 . rokhdadhayeh siyasat khareji iran, pp. 127–130. 43 . Interview with Abtahi. 44 . Sadat Azimi, pp. 138–139; see also Anthony Cordesman, “Iranian Security Threats and US Policy: Finding the Proper Response,” hearing before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, October 28, 2003, p. 10, which indicates that since 1995 the southern Gulf States cumulatively imported armaments valued at USD 83.3 billion versus USD 2.9 billion for Iran—at a ratio of roughly 30:1. Notes ● 255

45 . Interview with Badeeb. 46 . Sadat Azimi, pp. 138, 140. 4 7 . I b i d . , p p . 1 5 1 – 1 5 3 . 48 . Gwen Okruhlik, “Saudi Arabian-Iranian Relations: External Rapprochement and Internal Consolidation,” Middle East Policy, vol. x, no. 2 (Summer 2003): pp. 118–119.

9 Saudi Arabia’s and Iran’s Quest for Stability after 9/11 1 . Telephone interview with Mohammad Javad Zarif, former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations, New York, July 6, 2009. 2 . Discussion with Nail Al Jubeir, former press secretary of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia to Washington, DC, February 17, 2005. 3 . Telephone interview with a former ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Islamic Republic of Iran who did not wish to be identified, Riyadh, November 25, 2013. 4 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Abtahi, former vice president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Montreal, September 12, 2006. 5 . Interview with a former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia who did not wish to be identified, Tehran, December 28, 2003. 6 . Interview with Abtahi. 7 . See Saeed Badeeb, Iranian Terrorism: Facts and Evidence (Jeddah: Knowledge Corporation, 2013), pp. 20, 37–38. 8 . Telephone interview with Alireza Nourizadeh, Iranian dissident and political analyst, September 29, 2008. 9 . See Guido Steinberg and Nils Woermer, “Sources of Tension in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Regional Perspective: Exploring Iran and Saudi Arabia’s Interests in Afghanistan & Pakistan: Stakeholders or Spoilers—A Zero Sum Game? Part 1: Saudi Arabia,” CIDOB Policy Research Project, April 2013, p. 5. 10 . “naghofteha sirous nasseri az mozakerat hastei [Cyrous Nasseri’s Untold Accounts of Nuclear Negotiations],” fararu , 27 dei 1393/January 17, 2014. 11 . Discussion with Nasser A. Al Braik, former ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Islamic Republic of Iran, Riyadh, December 9, 2011. 12 . “Naghofteha sirous nasseri.” 1 3 . M o h a m e d E l B a r a d e i , The Age of Deception: Nuclear Diplomacy in Treacherous Times (New York : Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt and Company, 2011), pp. 128, 132. 1 4 . “hassan rouhani: europaiha be ma goftan hamsayeghanetan ra saket ya ghaneh konid [Hassan Rouhani: The Europeans Told Us to Silence or Satisfy Our Neighbors],” BBC Farsi, June 11, 2012; see: http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian /iran/2012/07/120711_l23_lp_neighbours_rowhani_hh.shtml . 256 ● Notes

15 . “mousavi lari dar mored rahbar [Mousavi Lari on the Supreme Leader],” fars, 9 mordad 1391/July 30, 2012; see: http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/iran /2012/07/120730_l39_mousavi-lari_nuclear_khamenei.shtml/ . 1 6 . H u s s e i n M o u s a v i a n , The Iranian Nuclear Crisis: A Memoir (Washington : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2012), p. 164, cited from Hassan Rouhani, “National Security and Nuclear Diplomacy,” Center for Strategic Research, 2012, pp. 205, 231, 353. 17 . “ba dar ghozasht fahd, amir abdullah padeshah arabestan shod [With the Passing of Fahd, Abdullah Becomes King of Arabia], kayhan , 10 mordad 1384/August 1, 2005. 1 8 . E l B a r a d e i , p . 1 9 4 . 19 . Interview with Abd al-Muhsin Al Akhlas, former minister of social affairs, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, December 5, 2011. 20 . Interview with Manuchehr Mottaki, former foreign minister of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, July 1, 2008. 2 1 . E l B a r a d e i , p p . 9 8 – 9 9 . 22 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 18 and 20, 2006. 23 . Interview with Abtahi. 24 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 23, 2007. 25 . “Khamenei Advises Arabs to Avoid Dangerous Traps of Arrogant Powers,” mehr , January 9, 2007. 26 . Interview with a former ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Islamic Republic of Iran who did not wish to be identified, Riyadh, December 3, 2014. 27 . Interview with Ahmadinejad, September 23, 2007; interview with Abtahi. 28 . Interview with Abtahi. 29 . “sanad montasher nashodeh az mohtava molaghat khatami ba feroun mesr [Unpublished Document on Details of Khatami’s Meeting with Egyptian Pharaoh],” fars , 5 azar 1991/November 25, 2012. 30 . Discussion with an Iranian government source who did not wish to be identi- fied, New York, June 2, 2008. 31 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 24, 2008. 32 . Steinberg and Woermer, “Sources of Tension,” p. 8. 33 . “mashaei ham tahdid be efsha asami afrad khas kard [Mashaei Too Threatened to Disclose Names of Special People],” farda , 11 mordad 1389/August 2, 2010. 34 . “hashemi rafsanjani va check sefid emzah dictator saudi [Hashemi Rafsanjani and Blank Check Signed by Saudi Dictator],” fars, 8 mordad 1391/July 29, 2012. 35 . “Poll Takes the Pulse of the Middle East,” NPR , February 25, 2007. 36 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, November 27, 2011. Notes ● 257

37 . Statement by HRH Prince Turki al-Faisal, GRC Gulf and the Globe Conference, December 5, 2011. 38 . “Saudi Arabia Says Iran Talks Waste of Time,” al-arabiya , June 26, 2012.

10 Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Gulf Geopolitics: The Case of Iraq 1 . Telephone interview with Abdul Rahman Al Hadlaq, director general of Ideology Security Directorate at the Ministry of Interior of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, December 14, 2011. 2 . “monazereh kavakbian va mottaki piramoun mozakereh ba amrika [Kavakbian– Mottaki Debate on the Issue of Talks with the US],” kayhan, 27 aban 1391/ November 17, 2012. 3 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Fatollahi, former political deputy to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, New York, September 23, 2008. 4 . “estekhbarat arabestan dast arteshihayeshan ra ro kard [Saudi Estekhbarat reveals the Hands of Armed Forces],” tabnak , 4 sharivar 1388/August 26, 2009. 5 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 18, 2006. 6 . Interview with a former ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia who did not wish to be identified, Tehran, December 28, 2004. 7 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 23, 2008. 8 . I b i d . 9 . “From the Swamp to Terra Firma: The Regional Role in the Stabilization of Iraq,” ReliefWeb report, p. 15; see: http://reliefweb.int/node/283034. 10 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, November 27, 2011. 11 . Interview with Ali Asqhar Khaji, former special envoy on Iraq at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Tehran, January 4, 2005. 12 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 23, 2008. 13 . Saud al-Faisal, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, September 24, 2005; see: http://www.saudiembassy.net. 14 . Interview with Manuchehr Mottaki, former foreign minister of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, July 1, 2008. 15 . “Foreign Minister Discusses Iraq, Iran and US Public Diplomacy in Interview,” Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, September 22, 2005; see: http://www.saudi- embassy.net . 16 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Fatollahi, former political deputy to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, New York, September 24, 2009. 17 . Interview with Mottaki. 18 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 24, 2009. 258 ● Notes

19 . Prince Turki al-Faisal, “A Voice of Peace: A Move towards Stability,” University of Scranton, November 28, 2006; see: www.susris.com/2006/11/30 . 20 . Interview with Mottaki. 21 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 23, 2007. 22 . Interview with Mottaki. 2 3 . I b i d . 24 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 23, 2008. 25 . Interview with Mottaki. 26 . “From the Swamp to Terra Firma,” p. 16. 27 . “mizgerd heyat tahririyeh ba ayatollah hashemi rafsanjani [Roundtable between Editorial Board and Ayatollah Hashemi Rafsanjani],” faslnameh motaleat beinolmellali , no. 4, bahar 1391/2012, pp. 1–28. 28 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 25, 2009. 29 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 23, 2008. 30 . “ghaedeh baray bi sobat kardan iraq [Paradigm to Destabilize Iraq],” mehr , April 14, 2009. 31 . “namadhayeh iran setizi hanooz dar iraq barchideh nashodeh [Symbols of Hostility with Iran in Iraq not Removed],” tabnak , September 4, 2009. 32 . “moj naaramiha dar arabestan [Wave of Unrests in Saudi Arabia],” rajanews , August 8, 2009. 3 3 . “arabestan saudi dar radif ijad naamni dar iraq [Saudi Arabia in Line to Destabilize Iraq],” tabnak , August 16, 2009. 34 . “Saudi Rejects Charges of Inciting Iraq Insurgency,” Gulf Times, August 19, 2009. 35 . Interview with Ahmadinejad, September 25, 2009. 36 . “godrat yaftan mojadad eslah talaban dar iran [Return of Power to Reformists in Iran],” kayhan , November 26, 2009. 37 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 24, 2009. 38 . Interview with Ahmadinejad, September 25, 2009. 3 9 . I b i d . 40 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 24, 2009. 4 1 . I b i d . 42 . Interview with Ahmadinejad, September 25, 2009. 43 . Interview with Awadh Al Badi, advisor to Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Washington DC, June 1, 2012. 44 . Interview with Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud. 45 . Interview with Hussein Amir Abdullahian, deputy foreign minister for Arab and African affairs, Tehran, June 15, 2014.

11 Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Levant Geopolitics: The Cases of Lebanon, Syria, Palestine 1 . Interview with Abd al-Muhsin Al Akhlas, former minister of social affairs, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, December 5, 2011. Notes ● 259

2 . Abdullah Shiri, “Saudi Arabia, Iran Cooperating on Crises,” Associated Press, February 3, 2007; Edward Wong and Damien Cave, “Number of Civilian Deaths Highest in July, Iraqis Say,” New York Times, August 16, 2006. 3 . Interview with Manuchehr Mottaki, former foreign minister of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, July 1, 2008. 4 . Frederic Wehrey, Theodore W. Karasik, Alireza Nader, Jeremy Ghez, Lydia Hansell, Robert A. Guffey, Saudi–Iranian Relations since the Fall of Saddam: Rivalry, Cooperation, and Implications for U.S. Policy (R AND: National Security Research Division, 2009), pp. 27, 83. 5 . Interview with Al Akhlas. 6 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 23, 2007. 7 . Interview with Mottaki. 8 . Prince Turki al-Faisal, “Region in Crisis: A Call for American Leadership and a Lasting Peace,” Washington, DC, July 31, 2006. 9 . Interview with Mottaki. 10 . Interview with Abdulaziz Sager, chairman of Gulf Research Center, Riyadh, November 30, 2011. 11 . Interview with Mottaki. 12 . Prince Turki al-Faisal, “A Voice of Peace: A Move towards Stability,” University of Scranton, November 28, 2006; see: www.susris.com/2006/11/30 . 13 . Safa Haeri, “Saudi Arabia to Iran: Don’t Interfere in Arab Affairs,” Iran Press Service , January 24, 2007. 14 . Interview with Mohammad Ali Fatollahi, former political deputy to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, New York, September 23, 2008. 15 . Interview with Mottaki. 16 . Interview with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of the Islamic Republic of Iran, New York, September 25, 2009. 1 7 . I b i d . 18 . “Lebanese President Visits Iran,” irna , November 25, 2008. 1 9 . “hoshdar ekhvan al-muslemin be malak abdallah az ghatl am shiayan dast bard- arid [Muslim Brotherhood Warning to King Abdullah to End Mass Killing of Shi‘is],” kayhan , November 4, 2009. 20 . “From the Swamp to Terra Firma: The Regional Role in the Stabilization of Iraq,” ReliefWeb report, p. 14; see: http://reliefweb.int/node/283034 . 21 . Interview with Hussein Amir Abdullahian, deputy foreign minister for Arab and African affairs, Tehran, June 15, 2014. 22 . Discussion with Hisham Ahmed, political analyst and professor of political science at Saint Mary’s College of California, Moraga, October 28, 2008. 23 . Interview with Fatollahi, September 23, 2008. 2 4 . “ C l a s h e s a s B a h r a i n i s A n s w e r H i z b ’ a l l a h C a l l , ” Kuwait Times , December 20, 2008. 25 . “didar mahramaneh amniyati arabestan [Saudi Secret Intelligence Meeting],” tabnak , May 27, 2009. 26 . “moghavemat lebanon haghaniyat dar ein mazloomiyat [Lebanon’s Resistance Is Legitimate and Innocent],” jomhuri eslami , August 8, 2009. 260 ● Notes

2 7 . “tahlil new york times darbareh safar hosni mubarak be keshvarhayeh arabi baad az didar ba larijani [New York Times Analysis of Hosni Mubarak’s Trip to Arab States after Meeting with Larijani],” jomhuri eslami , December 29, 2009.

Conclusion * Portions of this chapter were previously published in the journal Middle East Policy .

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Index

Abbasid (750–1517), 24, 27, 29 Abtahi, Mohammad Ali, 142, 148, Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (Ibn Saud), 32–6, 155, 164 –5 43–51, 53–60, 62–6 Abu Dhabi, 43, 52, 65, 69, 94, 98, 105 Abdullah bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, Adham, Kamal, 82, 90 , 162–4 Afghan–Soviet War, 141 and Ahmadinejad, 164, 165, 168, Afghanistan, 146, 148, 163, 175, 193 215–16 Northern Alliance, 146, 153, 157 and Arab-Israeli conflict, 220, US invasion of, 153–8, 220 221, 224 Afro-France , 90 and Iran’s nuclear program, 158, Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 5, 12, 18, 162–5, 167–9, 174, 211 159, 162–9, 172–3, 176–7, 180, and Iraq, 190, 195 188–90, 192–4, 196–200, 208, and Israel, 155 213, 215–16 and Lebanon, 207–9, 214–16, 218 Airborne Warning and Control peace plan of, 221, 224 Systems (AWACS), 116 as Prince, 1–2, 11–12, 18, 83, 113, Al Akhlas, Abd al-Muhsin, 163, 131, 137–9, 142–4, 148, 158 206, 207 and Rafsanjani, 165, 168, 192–3 Alam, Mozafar, 61–2 and reconciliation with Saudi Algiers Agreement, 91, 100, 102–3, Shi‘is, 196–7 114, 125 and reform, 154 Ali, Muhammad, 31 regionalism of, 167 Ali bin Hussein, 45–6 and Rouhani, 169–70 Allawi, Ayad, 181, 197–8 and Saudi–Iranian détente, 137–9, allied powers (WWI), 33, 183 142–5, 148 allied powers (WWII), 42, 57 and Syria, 204–5, 211, 214–16 Amini, Ali, 78, 80 takes of management of state, 137 Al Ammar, Saad, 14 Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, 189 Anglo-Russian Convention, 40 Abdullahian, Hussein Amir, 200–1, Annan, Kofi, 204 218–19 Aoun, Michel, 212 266 ● Index

Al Aoun, Salman, 115 , 18, 126, 132, 138, Arab Cooperation Council, 124 159–60, 162, 164, 169, 223 Arab federation, 72–5, 95, 97 Ali Montazeri, 112, 120, 122–3, 126 and King Khaled, 92, 103–4, 110, Ali al-Sistani, 175, 182, 184, 113, 115, 118 193, 200 , 85–6, 110 Azizollah Khoshvaght, 166 Organization of Islamic Hassan Tabataba’i Qomi, 55–6 Cooperation, 11, 85, 120, 131, Kazem al-Husseini al-Haeri, 182 139, 143, 146–7, 158, 164, 171, Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi, 112 208, 224 Mohammad Fazel Lankarani, Arab–Iranian Friendship 133, 141 Organization, 90 Mohammad Reyshahri, 193 Arab–Israeli War (1948), 65, 73 Mohammad Taqi Mesbah Yazdi, 180 Arab–Israeli War (1967), 86–9, Muhammad Baqir Behbahani, 180 118, 155 Muhammad Baqir al-Hakim, Arab–Israeli War (1973), 90–1 136, 181 Arab League, 62–3, 67, 70–1, 75, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, 114 78, 92, 114, 124, 155, 158, 186, Muhammad Hussein Kashif 207–8, 210–13, 221–3 al-Naini, 32 Arab National Liberation Front, 77 Ruhollah Mostafavi Mousavi Arab nationalism, 74 Khomeini, 10, 26, 81, 105, Pan-Arabism, 47, 63 109–12, 114, 117–18, 120–3, 126, Arab sheikhdoms. See Bahrain; Kuwait; 142, 180, 220 Oman; ; Ras al-Khaimah; Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi, 81 ; (UAE) Baath Party Arab Spring, 2, 6, 17, 19, 216, 217, 227, Iraq, 10, 77, 80, 81, 89, 103, 111, 232–3, 237 115–17, 121, 176 “Arabian Gulf,” use of the term, 4–5, Saudi Arabia, 73, 87 70–1, 88, 94, 99. See also Persian Syria, 68, 77, 80, 89, 176, 211–12, Gulf 216, 229 Arafat, Yasser, 93, 220 Badeeb, Saeed, 141, 237 Aram, Abbas, 85 al-Badr, Muhammad, 75, 76 Asiri, Ali Awad, 219 Badr Brigades, 129 al-Assad, Bashar, 198, 204, 210, Badr Organization, 184–5, 190–1 211–12, 214–19, 224, 229–30 Baghdad Pact, 67–73, 79 al-Assad, Hafez, 5, 90, 92, 119–20, 122 Bahrain, 3, 17, 29, 32, 43–4, 49–50, al-Atassi, Hashim, 68 52, 61, 70, 93–9, 116–17, 124, Atatü rk, Mustafa Kemal, 42 133, 139, 217, 227–9, 236 Al Attiyah, Hamad bin Ali, 172 balance of power, 2, 4–6, 10, 12, al-Awfi, Muhammad Atiq Awayd, 175 15–17, 50–1, 70, 95, 137, 174, ayatollahs, 81 205, 230–3 Abd al-Aziz al-Hakim, 186, 191, 194 Cold War era, 77, 79–80, 87, Abdul Ghasem Kashani, 61, 64, 65 91, 93–9 Ahmad Jannati, 140 and Iran–Iraq War, 114 Index ● 267

Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Iran, 104, Chalabi, Ahmad, 136, 158 127, 135, 137 Chamoun, Camille, 72 revisionist state, 40, 51 chemical and biological weapons, 118, status quo power, 14–16, 19, 50–2, 121, 123–4, 134, 161–2, 164, 97, 110, 165, 206, 215, 217 218–19, 229 and US withdrawal from Iraq, Chemical Weapons Convention, 162 187–201 Cheney, Dick, 163, 211 Ban Ki-moon, 198 China, 88, 121, 165, 174, 230–1 Bandar bin Sultan, Prince, 118, 119, Christopher, Warren, 134 188, 204–5, 207–8, 210–11 Clinton, Bill, 138–40, 145 Banisadr, Abolhassan, 117 Clinton, Hillary, 171, 190 banking industry, 48, 62, 100–1, 118, Cold War, 6, 9, 57, 126 149, 210 Arab Cold War, 71–9, 246n19 Barzani, Masoud, 136, 197 and Nasser, 66–78, 80, 82–3, 86–7, Basra, 26, 58, 90, 184–5, 190–1 89–90 Bazargan, Mehdi, 110–11 Cooperation Council for the Arab Bedouins (badu), 21, 27–8, 31, 36, States of the Gulf. See Gulf 47, 72 Cooperation Council (GCC) Biden, Joseph, 198, 214 bin Laden, Osama, 111, 127, 147, 156 Declaration, 130 Al Braik, Nasser, 18, 144, 159 decision making, 15–16, 18, 166 Bremer, L. Paul, 158, 176 détente, 131–3 Britain. See Great Britain dual containment and power Brown, Gordon, 168 imbalances, 133–5 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 114 Saudi–Iranian rapprochement, Bush, George H. W., 129 135–50 Bush, George W., 154, 160, 206 Djam, Fereydoun, 96 administration, 164, 165, 188, 194 Douste-Blazy, Philippe, 209 and Annapolis conference, 222 dual containment policy, 11, 133–6, and Lebanon, 206, 208 139, 145 and Syria, 203, 204 Iran Libya Sanctions Act, 140 visit to Riyadh, 171 Dulles, John Foster, 66 (934–1055), 25 Egypt, 59, 63–78, 90–2, 101, 105, 130, caliphate, 34, 45, 86, 109 217–18, 220–7, 229 and early Islam history, 21–4, 27 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 61, 70 Umayyad, 23–5, 28 Eisenhower Doctrine, 70, 72–4, 79 Camp David Accords, 92, 105, 113 ElBaradei, Mohamed, 160, 162 Carter, Jimmy, 10, 92, 103–4, 113 Carter Doctrine, 114 Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia, 83, 91, Central Asian Republics (CARs), 132, 100, 102–4, 110, 113, 118–20, 134–5 123–4, 129, 131–2, 137, 142, 144, Central Treaty Organization 146, 148, 162, 172 (CENTO), 73 Fahim, Mohammad Qasim, 154 268 ● Index

Faisal II, King of Iraq, 65, 68, 74, Al Hadlaq, Abdul Rahman, 175 76, 86–92, 95, 97–9, 101, 103, haj (pilgrimage to Makkah), 9, 11, 22, 105, 113 24–5, 30–1, 34–6, 46, 47, 53–5, Faisal bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, King 58–9, 71, 78, 113, 120, 122–3, of Saudi Arabia, 76–7, 80, 82–3, 132, 134, 138, 144, 169, 190, 193 85–105, 148, 162, 172 umrah (haj out of season), 22, as Prince, 35, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61–2, 158, 192 64, 66, 70, 74–5 al-Hakim, Omar, 194–5, 197, 200 Faisal ibn Turki, , 31–2 Hamad Bin Jassim Bin Jaber Farouk, King of Egypt, 66 Al Thani, 208 , 93, 220–2, 224 , 132, 163, 207, 220–5 Fatimid dynasty (909–1171), 25, 27, 29 Hamdanid dynasty (890–1004), 25 Fatollahi, Mohammad Ali, 12, Hanbal Abu Abdullah al-Shaybani, 176, 182–3, 185–7, 190, Ahmad bin Muhammad bin, 29 195, 197–8, 222 Hanbali School (Sunni), 24, 27, 29, 35, fatwa, 93, 128, 141, 162, 165–6, 48, 196 182, 197 al-Harbi, Khalid bin Ouda bin Ferdowsi, Abol-Ghassem, 5, 243n16 Muhammad, 156 Fereidoun, Hussein, 163 Hariri, Rafik, 203–5, 207, 209–11, Ford, Gerald, administration of, 213–15 10, 104 Hariri, Sa’ad, 205, 213–15 forward military strategy, 11–12. Al Harrasi, Zahir, 197 Contrast with over-the-horizon Hashemi Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar, 11, policy 120, 122–6, 127–9, 131, 134–45, 161–3, 165, 168–9, 192–3 Gates, Robert, 171 Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mehdi, 137 Gaza Strip, 64, 87, 213, 221–3, 225 , 33, 34–5, 44, 50, 62–4, Al Geishi, Jamil, 143 66, 67–8, 72, 115, 183 Gharib, Ziauddin, 74 Hizbullah, 119, 122, 125, 137, 150, al-Ghita, Ja’far Kashif, 31–2 163, 203–16, 219, 222–5 Golan Heights, 91, 101, 118, 119, 218 Hizbullah al-Hijaz, 140–1 Great Britain, 33, 40–5, 49–50, 52, Hoveida, Amir Abbas, 89–90 56–7, 59, 63, 70–1, 93, 96–8, Hoveida, Habibollah, 34–6, 45–6, 100, 161, 185 53, 55 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Hussein, King of , 72, 92 116–17, 119–22, 124, 126, 128–9, Hussein, Saddam, 5, 10–12, 77, 89, 132–5, 139–50, 167–76, 187–94, 100, 103, 114–17, 123–9, 136, 197–8, 229 147, 164, 175–81, 188 Gulf War, 10–11, 126–30, 132, 135, Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif, 34, 44–5, 63 146, 178, 185, 199 Ibn Saud. See Abd al-Aziz Al Saud Hadi, Abd Rabbu Mansur, 218 ibn Saud, Muhammad, 3, 30 Hadi, Mohammad Ali, 127, 131 ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi al-Din , 24, 26–7, 31, 121, 180 Ahmad, 29 Index ● 269 ideology, 54, 74, 76, 110–11, 115, 155, See also individual leaders; ayatollahs 180–1, 197, 199, 207, 232, 234–6 Iran–Iraq War, 1, 5–6, 10–11, 130, and decision making, 16 131, 134–7, 162, 166, 172, Shi‘i-Sunni, 16–17 178–81, 199, 220 ikhwan (Wahhabi single brotherhood ceasefire agreement, 10, 123–6 movement), 33–6, 43–7, 53–4, 59 and King Fahd, 118, 123–4, 128, and Battle of Sabilla (1929), 46 131, 134, 137 imamate, 23–5 and Saudi Arabia, 114–26 International Atomic Energy Agency “war of the cities,” 123 (IAEA), 135, 159–62, 164–8 Iran–Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), 140, International Court of Justice (ICJ), 143 60, 147 Iraq invasions, 3, 29, 34, 76, 93 Coalition Provisional Authority of Afghanistan by Soviets, 111 (CPA), 158, 176, 182–3 of Gaza by Israel, 222–3 constitutional process, 181–7 of Iran by Iraq, 10, 112, 114–15, 179 coup of February 1963, 77 of Iraq by US, 2, 12, 15, 157–8, Dawa Party, 114, 136, 183, 186, 190 175–82, 203 Hizb al-Fadhila (Islamic Virtue of Kuwait by Iraq, 10, 124–6, 128 Party), 184–5 of Lebanon by Israel, 119, 206–7 Iraq Study Group, 187 Iran Iraqi Islamic Party, 186 coup of 1953, 61–2, 65, 68, 69 Iraqi National Alliance (INA), 186, Fadayan (political party), 60 194–5 Freedom Movement Party, 81, Iraqi National Congress (INC), 136 110–11 Iraqi Security Forces (ISF), 191 and Gulf War, 126–30 National Concord Front, 191 Islamic Revolution, 5, 10, 21, 81–2, Provincial Powers Act, 191–2 90, 93, 104, 109–12, 114 sanctions against, 11, 131, 136, 150, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps 177 (IRGC), 118–19, 124, 125, 129, Sunni awakening, 188–9, 191, 195 131, 140, 160, 168, 223 United Iraqi Alliance (UIA), 183, Mojahedin Khalq Organization 188, 194 (MKO), 110–11, 229 US invasion of, 2, 12, 15, 157–8, National Front (political party), 60, 175–82, 203 61, 64–5, 73, 80 See also Gulf War; Hussein, Saddam nuclear program, 15, 134–5, 157–74, Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, 65, 94 211, 233 ISIS/IS. See of Iraq and Qods Force, 182 Sham (ISIS, also Islamic State) sanctions against, 122, 127, 138–9, Islam 145, 163–70, 200, 239n1 azan (Islamic call to prayer), 27, 58 SAVAK (secret service), 82, 92–3 early history, 23–8 Tudeh (political party), 60, 61, 81, and evolution of political Islam, 110–11 28–32 White Revolution, 82 five pillars of, 25 270 ● Index

Islam—Continued Jordan, 65, 67, 70–4, 80, 86, 91–2, 98, Golden Age (750–1258), 22 115, 121, 124, 140, 200, 229 imams, 23–32, 35, 179 Transjordan, 45, 47, 50, 63 mujtahid (Islamic jurisconsults), Al Jubeir, Adel, 236 24–6, 31 ramadan (Islamic fasting month), 59 Kennedy, John F., 75–7, 79, 80, 82 shari’a (Islamic legal code), 24, 26, Khaji, Ali Asghar, 140, 184 42, 47 Khalatbari, Abbas Ali, 99 velayat faqih (rule of Islamic Khalid, King of Saudi Arabia, 92, jurisprudence), 111–12 103–4, 110, 113, 115, 118 See also Shi‘i Islam; Sunni Islam Khalid bin Ahmed Muhammad Al Islamic , 121, 132, 220 Khalifa, 166 Islamic Revolution, 5, 10, 21, 81–2, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, 167 90, 93, 104, 109–12, 114. See also Khamenei, Ali, 18, 126, 132, 138, Khomeini, Ruhollah Mostafavi 159–60, 162, 164, 169, 223 Mousavi Kharrazi, Kamal, 144, 148, 153 Islamic State of Iraq and Sham (ISIS, Khatami, Mohammad, 1–2, 12, also Islamic State), 157, 191, 201, 142–8, 155, 158, 161–2, 164, 219, 229, 237 170, 173 Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq (ISCI, Khoeiniha, Mohammad Mousavi, previously Supreme Council 122, 127 of Islamic Revolution in Iraq), Khoja, Abd al-Aziz, 209 189–91, 194 Khomeini, Ruhollah Mostafavi Israel, 5, 63–5, 132, 134, 140, Mousavi, 10, 26, 81, 105, 109–12, 145– 6, 150, 155, 158, 164, 114, 117–18, 120–3, 126, 142, 169, 220–5, 236 180, 220 Arab–Israeli War (1948), 65, 73 Khorramshahr, Iran, 117, 243n16 Arab–Israeli War (1967), 86–9, Khouzestan, 49, 243n16 118, 155 Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd, 46–7, 50, Arab–Israeli War (1973), 90–1 54–5 and Cold War period, 70–1, 78, Kissinger, Henry, 101 81, 85–9, 91–3, 100–3, 113, Kuchak Khan, Mirza, 41 118–19, 125 Kurdish Democratic Party and Lebanon, 150, 203–8, 210 (KDP), 136 nuclear program, 145, 148, 171–3 Kurdish Islamist Party (KIP), 136 and Syria, 138, 213, 215–16, 218 Kuwait, 21, 32, 43–6, 50, 52, 54, 90, Protocol, 48 93–4, 99, 103, 136, 189, 228 and GCC, 116–17, 120–1, 124 al-Jaafari, Ibrahim, 183, 185, 190 and Gulf War, 126–30 Jafari, Shaban, 69 independence, 75 Jalili, Saeed, 165 Iraqi invasion of, 10, 124, 126 Japan, 166, 170, 174 mosque bombing (June 2015), 17 jihad (holy war), 29, 31, 44 Kuwait mosque bombing Johnson, Lyndon, 79, 87, 100 (June 2015), 17 Index ● 271

Al Lagany, Gaafar, 10–11, 111, 127, Mohtashamipur, Ali Akbar, 122, 127 129, 131, 141–2 Montazeri, Ali, 112, 120, 122–3, 126 Lahoud, Émile, 203–5, 212 Mossadegh, Mohammad, 57, 60–2, Larijani, Ali, 165, 167, 188, 208, 64–5, 69 211, 224 Mottaki, Manuchehr, 163, 176, 185–7, League of Nations, 48–50, 55, 80, 96 191–8, 206–9, 212–13, 221 Lebanon, 28, 59, 63, 65, 72, 74, 80, Mousavi, Hossein, 120–1 92–3, 125 Mousavian, Hussein, 137–8 , 205 Moussa, Amr, 207, 208 and Iranian influence, 118–21 Movement of Vanguard and Israel, 150, 203–8, 210 Revolutionaries (MVM), Lebanon war, 203–21 112–13, 123 and Ta’if Agreement, 125 Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, Yazid ibn, Western hostages in, 122, 127, 139 25, 28 Lindsay, John, 85 Mubarak, Husni, 217, 224 Al Mughassil, Ahmed, 141 Madrid Peace Talks, 132, 134, Muhammad bin Fahd, Prince, 128 143, 220 mujtahid (Islamic jurisconsults), Mahallati, Mohammad, 122 24–5, 26, 31 Mahdi, Muhammad, 25–6 Muqrin bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, al-Mahdi, Yusuf, 112 Prince, 15, 193 Mahdi army, 182, 184–5, 189, 190–1 Muslim Brotherhood, 132, 179, 223, Makkah 227–9 kaaba, 22, 23, 34–5, 58–9, 138, Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, 220 192–3 Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, 89, masjid al-haram, 22, 58–9 119, 217, 229 See also haj (pilgrimage to Makkah) Muslim unity, 21–2, 32–4, 56, 71, 92 Maleki, Abbas, 123, 133 Muslim World League (rabitat al-alam al-Maliki, Nouri, 186–8, 190–1, al-islami), 85–6, 110 193–8, 200–1 myths of Saudi-Iranian relations, al-Ma’mun (Abbasid caliph), 29 234–8 Marwan, Muhammad Ashraf, 90 Mashaei, Esfandiar Rahim, 167–8 Najd, 3, 21, 26, 30–1, 43–8, 50, 53, Mashal, Khaled, 221, 223–4 54, 55, 133 McConnell, John Michael, 211 Nasrollah, Hassan, 208, 210–11, Mikati, Najib, 205, 219 214–15, 223 Mirfendereski, Ahmad, 91, 248–9n23 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 5, 66–78, 80, Mishaal bin Abdullah, Prince, 192 82–3, 86–7, 89–90 Moddares, Seyyed Hassan, 41 Nasser ol-Din Shah, 30 modernity, 47 Nategh-Nouri, Ali Akbar, 138, Moghadam, Mohammad Ali, 54, 55 142, 149 Mohajerani, Ata’ollah, 145, 147, 168 Nayef bin Abd al-Aziz, Prince, 113, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi, 114, 137, 144, 150, 188, 193 Moulana, 111 Netanyahu, Binyamin, 143, 224 272 ● Index

Nixon, Richard, 10, 91, 102 See also twin pillars policy Nixon Doctrine, 9, 90, 100 Olmert, Ehud, 221 See also Twin Pillars policy Oman, 42, 44, 48, 49, 50, 52, 65, 80, Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), 57 88, 98–9, 103, 116, 117, 171–2, North Atlantic Treaty Organization 212–13 (NATO), 157, 167 Al Omar, Nasser, 193 North Korea, 121 Organization for the Islamic nuclear weapons Revolution in the Arabian International Atomic Energy Agency Peninsula (IRO), 112, 123 (IAEA), 135, 159–62, 164–8 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Iranian nuclear program, 15, 134–5, Countries (OPEC), 79, 101–4, 157–74, 211, 233 128, 131, 230 Israeli nuclear program, 145, Organization of the Islamic 148, 171–3 Cooperation (OIC), 11, 85, 120, and low-enriched uranium (LEU), 131, 139, 143, 146–7, 158, 164, 161, 168 171, 208, 224 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Oslo Accords, 134, 220 (NPT), 135, 158–9, 167, Ottoman empire, 3, 6, 27, 29–33, 169, 171–2 35, 41, 43–5, 47–9, 51, 179–80, nuclear weapons-free zone, 172–4 243n16 Pakistani nuclear program, 145, collapse of, 33, 45, 180, 183 162, 173–4 over-the-horizon policy, 9 See also chemical and biological weapons; sanctions P5+1 talks, 165–6, 173–4 Pahlavi dynasty, 9–10, 21, 41, 53 Obaid, Nawaf, 187–8 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, 5, 9–10, Obama, Barack, 167–70, 197, 42, 57 214–18, 232 Reza Shah (Reza Khan), 4, 42, 50–1, oil 53–7, 96 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Pakistan, 11, 67, 145–6, 153–8, 162, (AIOC), 60–1 173–4, 208 Arab oil embargo (1973), 91, Palestine, 35, 44, 63–5, 71, 78, 101–2, 178 85, 91–3, 118–19, 132–3, Arabian American Oil Company 146, 150, 155 (Aramco), 62, 65, 69, 73, 78, 83, as extension of Levant geopolitics, 86, 95, 144 220–5 British Petroleum (BP), 61 Palestine Liberation Organization D’Arcy agreement, 40 (PLO), 91, 93, 118, 118–20 oil nationalization, 60–2, 65 Palestinian Legislative Council oilfields, 9, 33, 76, 94, 95, 122, (PLC), 220 139, 239n1 Palestinian National Authority price hike, 101, 103, 104, 105 (PNA), 220–2 trans-Arabian oil pipeline Paris III Conference, 209, 210 (Tapline), 63 Paris Peace Conference (1919), 44–5 Index ● 273

Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and hadith, 24, 26–7, 31, 121, 180 (PUK), 136 and ijma, 24 Persia, 2–5, 30, 48 and qiyas, 24 constitutional revolution, 32, and sunnah, 24 39–41, 49 al-Quwatli, Shukri, 63, 68 geopolitics, 39–40 Greater Syria, 63 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 134, 146 Hashemites, 33, 34–5, 44, 50, 62–4, Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi. See 66, 67–8, 72, 115, 183 Hashemi Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar influence of, 39 Rajavi, Maryam, 229 nationalism, 39 Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force Pahlavi dynasty, 9–10, 21, 41, 53 (RDJTF), 114, 118 and the Qur’an, 2–3 rapprochement, 1, 81, 135–50 renamed Iran, 39 Ras al-Khaimah, 95, 97–9, 133 Safavids, 25, 29–30, 41, 49, 180, Razmara, Ali, 60 237, 239n2 Reagan, Ronald, 118, 119 Persian Gulf realism, 17 British withdrawal from, 71, 93, 98 refugees, 119, 146, 150, 178, 222–3 Gulf order, 99 Reza Shah (Reza Khan), 4, 42, 50–1, use of the term, 4–5, 70–1, 88, 53–7, 96 94, 99 Rice, Condoleezza, 206 See also “Arabian Gulf,” use of the Rød-Larsen, Terje, 204 term; Gulf War Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 57–8 Persian Spring, 238 Rouhani, Hassan, 150, 159–61, 163, pilgrimage, 11, 54, 57, 125, 134, 179 169–70, 172, 174 and early Islam history, 23 Russia, 6, 10, 40–2, 111, 126, 132, 135 to Jeddah, 9, 12, 34–5, 59 Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, 40 to Madinah, 9, 22–3, 35, 59, 138, 144 and Iran’s nuclear program, 163, 165–7 See also haj (pilgrimage to Makkah) and Istanbul Protocol, 48 political Islam, evolution of, 28–32 and Saudi Arabia, 167 prayer and Syria, 204, 205, 219, 230 azan (Islamic call to prayer), 27, 58 and World War II, 56, 57 qiblah, 22 and Yemen, 228

Al-Qaeda, 147–8, 155–7, 175, 179–81, Sabbah, Hassan, 29 196, 217, 230, 236, 237 Al Sabban, Muhammad Sarvar, 86 Qajar dynasty, 30, 39–41, 49 Sadat, Anwar, 90 Qanuni, Yunus, 154 Sadr, Moqtada, 182, 185, 187, 189, 191, Qasim, Abdul Karim, 74–5, 77 194, 200. See also Mahdi army Qatar, 43–4, 52, 93, 94, 117, 139, 140, Sadr, Muhammad Baqir, 114 147–8, 157, 171–2, 190, 208–15, Sadr, Musa, 92–3 223, 228 Sa’ed Maraghei, Mohammad, 64–5 Qur’an, 2–3, 23–4, 26–7, 29, 132, Safavids, 25, 29–30, 41, 49, 180, 138, 180 237, 239n2 274 ● Index

Sager, Abdulaziz, 209 Sharjah, 95, 98–9, 133 Salafis, 27 Shatt al-Arab, 5–6, 48, 89, 97, 124 neo-Salafism, 157, 207 and Algiers Agreement, 91, 100, See also Wahhabism 102–3, 114, 125 Salam, Tammam Saeb, 219 as Arvand Rud, 5 Salman bin Abd al-Aziz, Prince, 83 Shi‘i crescent, 192 Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, 96 Shi‘i geopolitics, 192 San Remo Conference (1920), 33 Shi‘i Islam San Remo Resolution (1920), 183 Alawis ( who venerate Ali), sanctions, 11, 15, 86, 172 25–6, 66, 89, 93 against Iran, 122, 127, 138–9, 145, and battle of , 25, 28–9, 31 163–70, 200, 239n1 and Imam Ali, 3, 23, 25–6, 28–9, against Iraq, 11, 131, 136, 150, 177 58, 86, 109 against Syria, 204 and Imam Hussein, 25, 28–30 Al Sanousi, Osama bin Ahmad, 163 and Imam Muhammad Saqqaf, Omar, 86, 89, 97, 102 (the Mahdi), 25–6 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 168 Ismaili School (Seveners), 25, 29, 35, Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 67–75, 78 146, 192 Saud al-Faisal, Prince, 102, 120, 131, Ja’fari School, 24–5 134, 145, 148, 153, 159, 161, 170, origins of, 23–4 173, 185, 193, 210, 221 and Persian nation-state, 29–30 Saudi Arabia and Safavids, 25, 29–30, 41, 49, 180, first Saudi state, 3, 31, 43 237, 239n2 formation of, 43–8 and Sufism, 27 General Intelligence Directorate Akhbaris, 26, 180 (GID), 14–15, 90, 156 Twelver School, 25–6, 193 and Gulf War, 126–30 School, 26, 180 and Iran–Iraq War, 114–26 Zaidi School, 25, 35, 75, 77 Khobar Tower bombing, 140–1, 144 al-Shiraziyyin, 111–12, 123 and majlis al-wukala (council of shirk (acts of heresy), 27 ministers), 66, 75, 80 shrine worship, 30–1 Movement for Islamic Reform in Shultz, George, 118 Saudi Arabia (MIRA), 127, 141 Siniora, Fouad, 205, 206, 211, 214 Saudi Consultative Assembly (majlis Six-Day War. See Arab-Israeli War al-shura), 109, 137, 142, 147, 149 (1967) second Saudi state, 3, 31–2, 43 South Korea, 170 third Saudi state, 3, 32–3, 43–8, 235 State of the Union address of 2002 trade unions, 62, 82 (“axis of evil”), 154 See also Abdullah bin Abd al-Aziz Al Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), Saud, King of Saudi Arabia 193–4, 197–9 Saudi Free Princes, 75, 77, 80 Suez Canal, 70–1, 73, 78 September 11, 2001, 2, 6, 11–12, 16, Sultan bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, Crown 141, 153–6, 160, 175 Prince, 18, 83, 100, 103, 113, 118, Shamkhani, Ali, 143–4 144, 148, 167 Sharif, Nawaz, 145–6, 157 Sunni awakening, 188–9, 191, 195 Index ● 275

Sunni Islam, 3, 16–34 and Hizbullah, 203–4, 222–3 and early , 23–8 and Iran, 110, 134, 139, 141, 144, and evolution of political Islam, 28–32 155–6, 187, 196, 236 Hanafi School, 24, 27 and Islamic State of Iraq and Sham Hanbali School, 24, 27, 29, 35, (ISIS), 157, 191, 201, 219, 229 48, 196 Khobar Tower bombing, 140–1, 144 Maliki School, 24 and Saudi Arabia, 130, 139–41, 144, origins of, 23–4 155–6, 177, 187, 196, 199 Shafe’i School, 24, 77, 228 September 11, 2001, 2, 6, 11–12, 16, Supreme Council of Islamic Revolution 141, 153–6, 160, 175 in Iraq (SCIRI, later Islamic Shiraz mosque bombing, 189–90 Supreme Council of Iraq), 136, and Syria, 203–4, 219 181, 183–4, 186, 189 and Yemen, 217 Syria, 5, 25, 63, 91–3, 125, 179, river, 5 181–3, 196, 198, 225, 228, trade, 9, 39, 55 229–30, 234 and economic summit, 143 Baath Party, 68, 77, 80, 89, 176, Iran-Iraq, 194, 196 211–12, 216, 229 Saudi-Bahrain, 50 and chemical weapons, 229 Saudi-Iran, 11, 59, 62, 86, 144, Cold War period, 68–78 149, 192 Free , 218, 229 Saudi-Iraq, 187 and GCC, 119–22 US domination of Asia-Pacific, 231 and Gulf War, 130 US-Iran, 129, 138–9 and Hizbullah, 203 trade unions, 62, 82 and Lebanon, 203–19 Treaty of Erzerum, 243n16 al-Nusra Front, 229–30 Treaty of Friendship, 54–5 and post-WWII period, 63–5, Treaty of Muhammara, 45 68–73, 75, 77–8, 80 Treaty of Paris, 40 Syrian National Coalition, 229 Trucial Sheikhdoms, 32, 95. See also al-Assad, Bashar; al-Assad, See also United Arab Hafez Emirates (UAE) Syria Accountability and Lebanese Truman, Harry S., 61 Sovereignty Restoration Act Tunbs (islands), 49, 52, 94–5, 97–9, (SALSRA), 203 114, 133, 218 , 32, 45, 59, 63, 66–7, 72, 158, Tajikistan, 132 217, 219 takfiri (apostates), 27, 180 Anglo-Turkish Convention, 43 Talabani, Jalal, 136, 158, 191, 195, and Baghdad Pact, 67, 72 197–8 constitutional revolution, 32 Talal bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, Prince, creation of Republic of Turkey, 77, 143 41–2 Taliban, 111, 146–8, 153, 156–7, 175 and Iran’s nuclear program, 168 Tehran Declaration, 168–9 Turkish–Israeli military alliance, 140 terrorism, 163, 180–2, 220, 229, and use of the term “Arabian 231, 236–7 Gulf,” 94 276 ● Index

Turki al-Faisal, Prince, 15, 90, 95, 110, UNSCR 1559, 203–4 115, 117, 125, 128, 144, 146, 156, UNSCR 1701, 209, 215 172–4, 184, 200, 208, 210, 218 UNSCR 2118, 229 Turkmenchai Agreement, 40 and weapons inspections, 135 Al Tuwajiri, Abd al-Aziz, 143 and Yemen, 75, 76–7 Twin Pillars policy, 9–10, 100–1 Uqair Protocol, 45 Nixon Doctrine, 9, 90 two-state solution, 118, 132, 146 velayat faqih (rule of Islamic jurisprudence), 111–12 United Arab Emirates (UAE), 32, 103, Velayati, Ali Akbar, 18, 123, 128–9, 134, 167, 171, 189, 223 132, 134, 138, 164 admission to UN, 99 Venezuela, 79 creation of, 93, 94, 97–9 Vietnam War, 79, 90, 93, 100 and Iran–Iraq War, 116–17 islands dispute with Iran, 52, 133, Al Wahaibi, Saleh bin Suleiman, 143 140, 147 Wahhabism, 43, 54, 81, 110, 116, 180 recognition of Taliban, 146 and Abd al-Wahhab, 3, 26–7, 30 See also Abu Dhabi; Ras al-Khaimah; alternative names for, 27 Sharjah early history of, 26–32 United Nations, 1, 4, 69, 221, 228 and Hanbali school, 24, 27, 29, 35 and Bahrain, 96, 97 ikhwan (Wahhabi single brotherhood and Gulf War, 126, 129 movement), 33–6, 43–7, 53–4, 59 and Iran–Iraq War, 117, 120–3 militant/radical Wahhabism, 22, 46, and Iran, 65, 117, 120–3, 146–7, 157, 50, 179, 182, 184, 228 160, 162–3, 165, 168 opposition to, 22, 27–8, 53, and Iranian hostage crisis, 111 122, 228 and Iraq, 117, 120–3, 126, 129, 136, and Saudi nation-state, 30–3, 36 176, 186, 193, 198 and Shi‘i Islam, 22, 26–32 and nuclear weapons, 157, 160, Wahhabi Revival, 32 162–3, 165, 168, 173, 174 weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), oil-for-food program, 11, 136 134, 158, 162, 166, 171–5, 203. and Paris III Conference, 209, 210 See also chemical and biological partition plan for Palestine, 63–4 weapons; nuclear weapons sanctions, 15, 163, 168 West Bank, 87, 221, 225 and Syria, 203–4 women’s rights and activism, 1–2, 42, and Tajikistan, 132 82, 142–3, 150, 193 and Tunbs and Abu Musa islands, 99 World Trade Organization and UAE, 99 (WTO), 149 UNSCR 457, 111 World War I, 33, 40, 43–4, 49 UNSCR 514, 117 World War II, 42, 55–9, 64, 96 UNSCR 522, 117 UNSCR 552, 120 Yamani, Ahmed Zaki, 102, 142 UNSCR 582, 121 Yamani, Hashim Abdullah, 149 UNSCR 598, 122–3, 125 Yemen, 3, 17, 43, 47–8, 68–9, 121, 156, UNSCR 678, 126 217–18, 228–9, 234 Index ● 277

People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen war (1962–1970), 72–3, Yemen (PDRY, ), 75–7, 87–8 87–8, 99–100, 114 Saudi–Yemeni border treaty, 47, 88 Zahedi, Ardeshir, 79, 94, 97, 99 Yemen Arab Republic (YAR, North al-Za’im, Husni, 63 Yemen), 87, 113–15, 124 Zarif, Javad, 147, 154, 158–9, 169