Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on the Deterioration of Concrete Infrastructure
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Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on the Deterioration of Concrete Infrastructure Part 1: Mechanisms, Practices, Modelling and Simulations – A Review This report was prepared by Xiaoming Wang, Minh Nguyen, Michael Syme, Anne Leitch of CSIRO’s Climate Adaptation Flagship, and Mark G. Stewart of the University of Newcastle, based on the research of ‘An Analysis of the Implications of Climate Change Impacts for Concrete Deterioration’, co-funded by Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (DCCEE) and CSIRO Climate Adaptation National Research Flagship (CAF). Part 1: Mechanisms, Practices, Modelling and Simulation – a Review; Part 2: Modelling and Simulation of Deterioration and Adaptation Options; Part 3: Case Studies of Concrete Deterioration and Adaptation. Citation Wang, X., Nguyen, M., Stewart, M.G., Syme, M., Leitch, A. (2010). Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on the Deterioration of Concrete Infrastructure – Part 1: Mechanisms, Practices, Modelling and Simulations – A review. Published by CSIRO, Canberra. ISBN 9780 4310365 8 For Further Information CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Dr Xiaoming Wang Phone: 03 92526328 Fax: 03 92526246 Email: [email protected] Project Expert Panel Prof Mark Stewart (The University of Newcastle) Prof Priyan Mendis (University of Melbourne) Prof Hong Hao (University of Western Australia) Prof Sheriff Mohamed (Griffith University) Dr Shengjun Zhou (AECOM) Dr Daksh Baweja (Durability Committee, CIA) Ms Komal Krishna (CCAA) Dr Frank Collins (Monash University) Copyright and Disclaimer © 2010 CSIRO To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means except with the written permission of CSIRO. Important Disclaimer CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements based on scientific review and research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained in it. Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................VI 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 10 1.1 Climate Change..................................................................................................... 11 1.2 Concrete Structures under a Changing Climate.................................................... 12 1.3 Research Outline................................................................................................... 14 2. MECHANISMS OF CONCRETE DETERIORATION................................ 15 2.1 Chloride-induced Corrosion ................................................................................. 15 2.2 Carbonation........................................................................................................... 17 2.3 Sulfate Attack ....................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Alkali–Aggregate Reaction, Alkali–Silica Reaction and Alkali–Carbonate Reaction................................................................................................................ 19 2.5 Freeze–Thaw Cycles............................................................................................. 20 3. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR REDUCING DETERIORATION PROCESSES .......................................................................................... 21 3.1 Environmental Exposure....................................................................................... 23 3.1.1 General Exposure Classification ....................................................................................... 23 3.1.2 Maritime Environmental Exposure ................................................................................... 26 3.1.3 In-Ground Environmental Exposure ................................................................................. 29 3.2 Material Design to Reduce Deterioration ............................................................. 29 3.2.1 General Structures............................................................................................................. 31 3.2.2 Maritime Structures........................................................................................................... 36 3.2.3 Above-ground Structures .................................................................................................. 39 3.2.4 In-ground Structures.......................................................................................................... 40 3.3 Cover Design to Prevent Deterioration Processes ................................................ 41 3.3.1 General Structures............................................................................................................. 42 3.3.2 Maritime Structures........................................................................................................... 45 3.3.3 Above-ground Structures .................................................................................................. 45 3.3.4 In-Ground Structures......................................................................................................... 47 3.4 Environment Design to Mitigate Deterioration Processes.................................... 48 3.5 Maintenance to Mitigate Deterioration Processes ................................................ 50 3.6 Development of Advanced Reinforced Concrete ................................................. 53 3.6.1 Stainless Steel Reinforced Concrete.................................................................................. 53 3.6.2 Reinforcement with Fibre-reinforced Polymer.................................................................. 56 i 3.6.3 Fibre-reinforced Concrete ................................................................................................. 56 3.6.4 Development of Other Reinforced Concrete ..................................................................... 57 4. MODELLING CONCRETE CORROSION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE .59 4.1 Atmospheric CO2 and Global Warming................................................................59 4.2 Carbonation-induced Corrosion............................................................................62 4.2.1 Carbonation Depth Models................................................................................................ 62 4.2.2 Corrosion Propagation....................................................................................................... 64 4.3 Chloride-induced Corrosion..................................................................................65 4.3.1 Chloride Penetration Models............................................................................................. 66 4.3.2 Corrosion Propagation....................................................................................................... 68 4.3.3 Effect of Time on Corrosion Rate ..................................................................................... 69 4.4 Time to Severe Cracking/Spalling ........................................................................69 4.4.1 Time to Crack Initiation .................................................................................................... 69 4.4.2 Crack Propagation ............................................................................................................. 70 4.4.3 Time to Severe Cracking ................................................................................................... 71 4.5 Effects of Corrosion Mitigation/Adaptation .........................................................71 4.5.1 Options for Mitigating Carbonation-induced Corrosion ................................................... 72 4.5.2 Options for Mitigating Chloride-induced Corrosion ......................................................... 72 5. SUMMARY ...............................................................................................75 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................77 REFERENCES .................................................................................................78 List of Figures Figure 0-1 Population and transport infrastructure in Australia .................................................. 10 Figure 2-1 Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures............................................ 15 Figure 2-2 Electrochemical cell at rebar surface induced by chloride penetration..................... 16 Figure 2-3 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete ..................................................................... 16 Figure 2-4 Corrosion and spalling induced by carbonation ........................................................ 17 Figure 2-5 Carbonation caused by the penetration of CO2 and water........................................ 18 Figure 2-6 Concrete structure