Tamaira, 2015

Frames and Counterframes ——————————————————————————————————— Envisioning Contemporary Kanaka Maoli Art in Hawai‘i Andrea Marata Tamaira February 2015 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University © Andrea Marata Tamaira All rights reserved 2015 Declaration —————————————————————————————— Except where specific reference is made to other sources, the work presented in this thesis is solely that of the author. —————————————————— Andrea Marata Tamaira February 2015 iii Dedication —————————————————————————— This thesis is dedicated to my husband Carl Franklin Ka‘ailā‘au Pao and our daughter Te Rerehau ‘Ailā‘au Helena Hanisi Pao-Tamaira, without either of whom this work would not only not have been completed, but it would never have been started in the first place. iv Acknowledgements —————————————————————————— It was Plato who said that the “beginning is the most important part of every work.”1 While this indeed may be true, the statement does not account for the laborious process through which such work takes shape. Nor does it acknowledge the many contributions of kindness and support along the way by those who rally the worker toward completion. Yes, beginning is an important part of every endeavor, but the end is only ever reached through the committed assistance of a community of people. First and foremost I am indebted to my husband Carl F.K. Pao for his enduring support and encouragement over the course of not only this doctoral project but the many years of study that have preceded it. There was a time when I thought pursuing advanced study was an undertaking as impossible for me as flying to the moon. Over the years, however, Carl convinced me to believe otherwise and for that and so many other everyday acts of love and kindness he has shown me, I am grateful. I extend my deepest thanks to my smart, sensitive, and funny little girl Te Rerehau, who over the course of my research has had to endure long periods of my absence, whether it was because I was taking part in conferences elsewhere in the world or fulfilling residency obligations at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia. Of the three and a half years I have spent pursuing doctoral study, I have been apart from my family for a total of six months. I owe everything to Carl and Te Rerehau for their fortitude, courage, and patience during this journey on which we have all been fellow travelers, even if at times separated by considerable distance. To Alan Howard and Jan Rensel, my parents, friends, and mentors, I owe so much. Both have been a constant source of wisdom and guidance, especially during the most turbulent periods of my research. I am indebted to Jan, in particular, who cast her expert editorial eye over this thesis in the final stages of production. For a writer, there is nothing so reassuring as knowing your work is in safe, experienced, and loving hands. I am grateful for friends who have been a critical life support for my family and me throughout this doctoral journey. They are Katherine Higgins, Jen Wilbur, Diana Fontaine, Jan Becket, Lesley Wright, Annie Kirk, Rhonda McBean, Kiani Maile McBean, Rick Crago, and Laura MacMillan Crago. Much gratitude goes to my father Constantine Wharerangi Tamaira. Even as a young child growing up in New Zealand I knew what an incredibly hard worker my 1 Plato, The Republic Of Plato: Second Edition, trans. Allan Bloom, 2nd ed. (Basic Books, 1991), 54. v father was, whether he was in the wool shed shearing sheep, constructing fences in the rural backblocks of Taihape, or laboring in the meat works. My father never made it past high school, but the work ethic he instilled in me has been a source of sustenance and strength during this long and arduous undertaking. Ka nui toku aroha ki a koe, e Pāpā. During the early phase of this research I benefitted immensely from the insights of three fine scholars at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Paul Lyons, Noenoe Silva, and Tara Kabutaulaka. I am grateful to Terence Wesley-Smith and David Hanlon, also at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, both of whom have always maintained an interest in my academic development. Much thanks to Stacy L. Kamehiro at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) for opening up opportunities for me to share my scholarship with a wider audience outside of Hawai‘i and for trusting me to create and teach two courses at UCSC while she was on sabbatical leave. For a fledgling academic like myself, such opportunities are invaluable. I am deeply thankful to Herman Pi‘ikea Clark—my friend, brother, and mentor— who has been one of my most ardent supporters. Over the years he has provided me with wise and gentle counsel as well as inspired me to think deeply about my responsibilities as an indigenous scholar within and outside of the academy. He is the kind of thinker I aspire to be. This thesis would have been nothing without the many individuals who agreed to share their perspectives and thoughts with me. I am indebted to the Hawaiian artists who shared their knowledge with me during formal interview sessions, including Solomon Enos, Carl F.K. Pao, John “Prime” Hina, Estria Miyashiro, Kaili Chun, Kapulani Landgraf, ‘Īmaikalani Kalahele, Drew Broderick, Bob Freitas, Cory Taum, Maile Andrade, Meleanna Meyer, Marques Marzan, and Haley Kailiehu. Other key research participants included Joe Rohde, John Condrey, Maile Meyer, and Noelle Kahanu. I am also grateful for the help provided by several people at the Aulani, A Disney Resort & Spa, including Elliot Mills, Todd Apo, and Kahulu De Santos. Over the course of several residencies at the Australian National University, I have been fortunate to experience the warmth, friendship, and support of many fine people, including Michelle Antoinette, Katherine Lepani, Matt Thomlinson, Rachel Morgaine, Siobhan Mcdonnell, Ana Dragojlovic, Rebecca Monson, Karen Tu, Nikki Mariner, Nicholas Mortimer, Fleur Adcock, Rose Whitau, Maria Haenga-Collins, and Jo Bushby. It has been a privilege to be associated with two of my doctoral peers—my brothers-in- scholarship, as it were—Areti Metuamate and Latu Latai, for whom I have so much vi respect. I am also very grateful for being welcomed in as an affiliate member of the Australian Research Council Laureate Project Engendering Persons, Transforming Things: Christianities, Commodities, and Individualism in Oceania, of which Professor Margaret Jolly is the esteemed Laureate Fellow. This thesis would never have been realized if it was not for the five women who helped me “birth” it into existence. My deepest gratitude goes to Professor Margaret Jolly, Dr. Katerina Teaiwa, Dr. Anna-Karina Hermkens, Dr. Katherine Higgins, and Dr. Karen Kosasa. I have benefitted so much from the steady guidance, support, and care these marvelous wāhine have given me and it has been a distinct honor and privilege to work with them. Along with the intellectual and emotional support I have received from so many people over the last three and a half years, my doctoral aspirations would have been heavily impeded had I not had the generous financial support of the Australian National University’s Vice-Chancellor’s Scholarship for Doctoral Study. I am grateful for the investment that has been made in me and, over the course of my research, I have endeavored to ensure that such an investment has been well earned through my commitment to the research and to the people who are part of it. vii Note on Language ——————————————————————— Throughout this thesis I use the terms Kanaka Maoli, Native Hawaiian, and Hawaiian interchangeably to refer to the indigenous people of Hawai‘i. In keeping with contemporary orthographic conventions, I also use diacritical markers, including the ‘okina (glottal stop) and the kahakō (macron). However, where these markers are not included in the sources I cite, I defer to the original. As a special note on “Kanaka Maoli”: I include the macron (i.e., Kānaka Maoli) to indicate its use as a plural noun, but when used as a singular noun and adjective, I omit the macron. I have purposefully chosen to not italicize Hawaiian-language words in this thesis based on my own conviction that to do so signals them as foreign against the English-language text. However, where Hawaiian words are italicized in cited sources, I hold to the original. viii Table of Contents —————————————————————————— Page(s) Declaration……………………………………………………………………………...iii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………iv Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………...v–vii Note on Language……………………………………………………………………..viii List of Illustrations…………………………………………………………………..x–xii Abstract……………………………………………………………………..................xiii Epigraphs………………………………………………………………………………xiv Prologue……………………………………………………………………………….1–6 Introduction: In Hawai‘i……………………………………………………………………………7–25 Figures……...26–28 Chapter One: Frames on Hawai‘i…………………………………………………………………29–59 Figures……...60–64 Chapter Two: Sovereignty Frames………………………………………………………………...65–98 Figures……….....99 Chapter Three: Visual Sovereignty Frames and Counterframes……………………………........100–138 Figures…...139–150 Chapter Four: Through the Keyhole: Encountering Hawai‘i at Aulani………………………...151–203 Figures…...204–220 Chapter Five: Visual Sovereignty: Out of the Frame on the Wall……………………………...221–259 Figures…...260–267 Chapter Six: Conclusions and Future Beginnings......................................................................268–273 Figures.......274–275 References……………………………………………………………………….276–289 ix List of Illustrations ————————————————————————— Note: Accompanying figures are located at the end of each chapter. Introduction: In Hawai‘i 1. Fig. 0.1 Detail of the Queen’s quilt. 2. Fig. 0.2 The Queen’s Quilt (1895). 3. Fig. 0.3 “Ku‘u Hae Aloha” (“My Beloved Flag”) (1895). Chapter One: Frames on Hawai‘i 4. Fig. 1.1 American flags raised over ‘Iolani Palace at the annexation ceremony, August 12, 1898. 5. Fig. 1.2 “A Trifle Embarrassed.” Puck Magazine. August 3, 1898. 6. Fig. 1.3 “Which Will Win?” The Wasp. August 27, 1887. 7. Fig.

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