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Home , Crown colony, Microstate, Tourism in the Caribbean

Visions in Leisure and Business

Volume 14 Number 4 Article 4

1996

Anguilla: A Success Story?

Paul F. Wilkinson York University

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Recommended Citation Wilkinson, Paul F. (1996) ": A Tourism Success Story?," Visions in Leisure and Business: Vol. 14 : No. 4 , Article 4. Available at: https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/visions/vol14/iss4/4

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at ScholarWorks@BGSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Visions in Leisure and Business by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks@BGSU. ANGUILLA: A TOURISM SUCCESS STORY?

BY

DR. PAUL F. WILKINSON, PROFESSOR

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES YORK UNIVERSITY 4700KEELE STREET NORTH YORK, ONTARIO MJJ 1P3

ABSTRACT More than any other community, the Anguillans [sic )1 have Anguilla is a Caribbean microstate the sense of home. The land has been that has undergone dramatic tourism growth, theirs immemorially; no humiliation passing through the early stages of Butler's attaches to it. There are no Great tourist cycle model to the "development" houses2 ; there arenot even ruins. (32) stage. This pattern is related to deliberate government policy and planning decisions, including a policy of not having a limit to INTRODUCTION tourism growth. The resulting economic dependence on tourism has led to positive Anguilla is a Caribbean island microstate economic benefits (e.g., high GDP per that has undergone dramatic tourism growth, capita, low unemployment, and significant passing through the early stages of Butler's localinvolvement in the industry). (3) tourist cycle model to the "development" stage. This pattern is related to deliberate Significant further growth in tourism, government policy and planning decisions, however, could lead to considerable including a policy of not having a limit to environmental stress in both biophysical tourism growth. The resulting economic (e.g., water, sewage, electricity) and social dependence on tourism has led to positive (e.g., expatriate labour, multinational economic benefits (e.g., high Gross corporations) terms. In order to avoid such Domestic Product [GDP] per capita, low problems associated with a path toward unemployment, and significant local mass tourism even on a small scale, the involvement in the industry). government should adjust its tourism policy and planning to create a "consolidation" The question arises, however, as to whether stage that would prepare this fragile island this new-found prosperity represents a system for a "stabilization" stage of little or "success story." An analysis of the history modest growth. of the Anguillian tourism sector and its related policy and planning context

37 demonstrates that the significant economic are regarded as among the finest in the benefits resulting from tourism may be world. offset by negative environmental and social impacts if growth of the sector continues on The island's eel-like shape led both the its current path. Caribs and the Spanish to use their words for "eel" to name the island: Malliouhano. The paper begins with a brief description of and Anguilla (40). On his second voyage in the physical and historical setting of 1493, Columbus sighted the island, but no Anguilla, followed by its economic attempt was made by the Spanish to development, the growth of the tourism colonize it, perhaps because of the presence sector, the development of tourism policy of the Caribs, who had taken over the island and planning, and finallyconclusions. from the some time around 1200 AD. The first European settlers were English from nearby St. Kitts, followed by THE SETTING Irish invaders in 1688 who were fleeing from Cromwell and religious persecution. One of the five remammg British Other than unsuccessful invasion attempts dependencies in the English-speaking by the French in 17 45 and 1796, the island Caribbean, Anguilla has an area of 91 km2 remained at peace until 1969 when 300 (excluding several small offshore British troops invaded the island in the wake . which are uninhabited), with maximum of the colonial government's refusal to dimensions of 25 x 5 km, and is the most become independent of Great Britain. northerly of the . (See Figures 1, 2.) Its nearest neighbour--the The early settlers tried to establish a Dutch-French dependencies of St. plantation system similar to other Caribbean Maarten-St Martin--is only eight km to the islands, but it failed to take hold because of south. the poor soil, erratic rainfall, and the consequent low quality and quantity of This coral-limestone island, which is sugar and cotton. sheltered by a number of healthy coral reefs (well-suited to snorkelling and Scuba­ Sugar-cane used to grow in some diving), is flat (the highest point being 65 m places, but even in the days of slavery asl) and rocky. Vegetation·is sparse due to it was never an island of plantations. low levels of rainfall (ranging from In 1825, nine years before the 550-1250 mm) and consists mainly of abolition of slavery in the British low-lying xerophytic (drought-resistant) Empire, there were about three plants. There are several small saline hundred white people and three ponds, but no sources of freshwater other hundred free coloureds, people of than ground water. The mean monthly mixed race. Between them they kept temperature is 27°C, with monthly ranges about three thousand Negroes. The from 23-30°C; moderated by the northeast Negroes were a liability. On other trade winds, the average relative humidity is Caribbean islands Negroes were let off a pleasant 75%. There are 33 beaches on Saturdays to work on their own (comprising about 20 km of shoreline) of plots. In Anguilla they were turned white or light pink sand, several of which

38 loose for half the week to forage for but formal separation from St. Kitts- themselves. (32) did not occur until 1978 when, by a British Order-in-Council at the request of the Droughts and famines were not uncommon Anguillian people, Anguilla again became a in the nineteenth century (34 ). Plantation Crown in the form of a Dependent owners had begun a long history of : "What many regarded as turning out-migration by allowing many slaves to back the hands of time, the Anguillians searchfor work in such places as the nearby heralded as the first step to real political British and Antigua, and as freedom" (40). The secession movement far south as . The slaves then was both a quest for identity and a search bought their freedom and that of their for local control over increased economic familiesand returnedto Anguilla to settle on development: "... the 'better life' which lands that eventually were deserted by Anguillians had to seek abroad would be plantation owners. By the time of brought home to Anguilla's shores after a emancipation in 1834, the island's periodof managing their own affairs. There population consisted of free people and would be no more need to roam the region independent landowners (40). Until the and indeed the world to secure the benefits 1970s, the economy remained basically of a modern society" (22). dependent on salt production and fishing, with remittance income from Anguillians The Government consists of a living abroad either temporarily or representing the British Crown and a Chief permanently being a major factor. Minister and other Ministers appointed from the elected members of the Legislative Because colonial rule of small islands was Assembly. The legal and legislative system difficult to manage effectively from is based on that of Britain, supplemented by London, "federations" were established by local statutes. There is no income tax, the British Government. Anguilla and St. corporate tax, or currency exchange control; Kitts were brought together as such a as a result, there is a small but growing federation in 1871, with Nevis being added offshore banking industry. in 1882. Feeling ignored and misunderstood, Anguilla petitioned in 1875 With a resident population of only 8960 in and 1958 for direct British rule and finally 1992 (25), there is virtually no population declared itself independent in 1967 just as growth due to the traditional out-migration the three-island unit of St. to neighbouring islands, North America, and Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla was granted statehood. the ; while the exact The matter remained in dispute until 1969 number is unknown, there are probably when there were rumours that international more Anguillians living in other gangsters were about to descend on than reside on the island. A peculiar feature Anguilla. The British Government sent a of Anguilla is the absence of a clearly paratroop battalion to the island, an identifiable urban area: "Anguilla is ... an "invasion" which delighted the Anguillians island of numerous small settlements--in (41 )--although regional political leaders effect, a true village society. It has no large denounced what they considered British capital town.... Where settlements have recolonization (37).3 Subsequently, a developed, the population is dispersed in separate, direct administration was formed, mixed residential patterns with little

39 distinction between low and high income declining economic trend emerged towards areas" (25). Major districts where small the end of the 1970s when Government pockets of the population have settled policy began to emphasize the development include The Valley (which is also the main of tourism. The Government spearheaded shopping, commercial, and administrative the rapid growth of economic activity centre), Stoney Ground, Island Harbour, through investment in a number of large South Hill, Blowing Point, and West End. infrastructure projects which complemented investment by the private sector in hotel, construction, and other tourist-related THE ECONOMY activities. Funds for private sector development were derived mainly from Limited growth occurred in Anguilla during external sources due to inadequate levels of the 1970s as production in salt, the main savings in the public sector and the absence economic sectoruntil 1980, stagnated and as of an entrepreneurial class. Official lobster output generally declined. By 1987, financing has been in the form of budgetary the manufacturing sector accounted for only and capital grants and, more recently, 0.5% of GDP, as a result of the virtual concessionary loans, while private inflows collapse of the salt industry due to high-cost have been mainly in the form of direct production, an economic downturn in the investment in the tourism sector. main market of , and large swings in production levels (5). Emerging as the main economic activity and Despite minor upswings in 1989 and 1990 as the principal growth sector, the tourism (16), there appears to be a continued sharp sector has also been the vehicle for decline in fishing, but it cannot be improved performance in other sectors, ascertained whether this development is notably construction and services (7): "The related to an increase in unrecorded exports, expansion of the economy ... is directly a decline in resources (related to related to the growth of tourist related over-fishing, increased fishing by foreign activitieswhich stimulatedhigh growth rates vessels, and increased recreational fishing) in other sectors of the economy, especially or a lower level of activity by fishermen (5). construction, transport and hotel and restaurant" (16). Since 1984, the economy Given that there are only 15 km2 of arable has grown rapidly and steadily (16): the land on the island (19), there is little GDP increased from US$11.4M in 1982 to agricultural production, except for recent US$56.5M in 1993, with real growth rates increases in com due to higher levels of averaging over 10% pa. Now among the precipitation (5) and vegetables through highest in the Caribbean, the GDP per capita experimental plots using drip irrigation and at current prices increased from US$1991 in pond reservoirs ( 16). Overall, the situation 1984 to US$7500in 1993. in fishing and agriculture suggests little potential for internal linkages between these The Government has consistently realised sectorsand tourism (29). surpluses on its recurrent operations since the termination of British budgetary assis­ As a result of this lack of exports, Anguilla tance in 1983, as a result of not only the has a comparatively large trade deficit for strong tourism industry, but also improved such a small population. A reversal in the revenue collections and, to a lesser extent

40 (because of increases in civil service TheGovernment has stated that it intends to wages), the control of expenditure growth deal with the resource scarcity problem by (5). After tourism receipts, the second most encouraging the private sector to help meet important contribution to GDP derives from the Government's main development remittances from nationals living abroad, objectives, which are capital aid flows mainly from the United Kingdom, and to a lesser extent from other ... the correction of any social and donors including Caribbean Development economic imbalances which may exist, Bank (CDB) concessional loan funds, and and the harnessing of the resources of foreign private investment (19). It is the towards building a stable expected that external aid flows will have a society and a sound economy. The continuing major role in Anguilla's private sector is expected to be the development (19). main engine of growth. GOA's role will be largely to provide the Based on what it calls optumsttc but supportive infrastructural facilities and well-founded forecasts for growth in the policy framework which will tourism, Laventhal and Horwath (29) encourage greater private sector conclude that involvement in economic activity. (4)

Despite its lack of traditional The fact that private investors have been wealth-generating resources, Anguilla responding to this call to assume a critical appears well-placed to benefit greatly role in improving the living standards of from its tourism potential. Although Anguillians demonstrates the confidence leakage of tourism spending is large that exists in the economic future of the and will probably grow with time, the island. The Government believes that its country can probably look forward to major responsibility, therefore, is to full employment and a fiscal situation maintain or increase this level of confidence which should allow it to finance its (5; E. Gumbs 1989, pers. comm.). · In an own development thus, from a donor attempt to increase local participation in the standpoint, freeing aid capital for more growing tourist market, Government effective use elsewhere. However, the emphasis in manufacturing is currently on government will be under considerable handicraft production, but it remains a very pressure due to the scarcity of minor industry (19). domestic resources, notably of private capital, and labour. If it fails to There are, however, potential constraints on control market forces in the best the continuation of the trends in growth. interests of the local population, they Anguilla is in a unique situation in the risk finding themselves mere Caribbean, for there are signs that the spectators in a process which in the growing level of economic activity long run could lead to destruction of (particularly in tourism and construction) the natural environment and a puts considerable strain on the labour force. dangerous degree of alienation of the While unemployment was estimated at only local population. 5% in 1993,4 there is a degree of seasonality

41 in employment, mainly related to the septic tanks. Recognizing the limited tourism industry. Construction--which potential for expanded catchment and cistern accounts for about 12% of GDP--has been production, the reports recommend that the vibrant largely because of major tourism, Government begin planning a desalination airport, government, and hospital plant, probably a multiple-flash distillation developments. In fact, the construction of system utilizing waste heat from the diesel the hospital had to be delayed in 1988 units at the power plant, and that it consider because of the lack of available labour. The the phase-out of reverse osmosis plants at growth of agriculture continues to be hotels because they create a brine constrained by the limited availability of concentrate discharge problem. While these labour, largely because of intense and other major changes have not yet been competition from other sectors; the problem implemented, the Government continues to is exemplified by the fact that the majority seek Canadianand British aid to upgrade the of farmers in Anguilla are between 50 and water system (R. Hodge 1991, pers.comm.). 60years old. While the Government has indicated There are also constraints on development repeatedly that it wants to diversify the due to the limited land base and the economy, the COB ( 6) warns that availability of electricity ( the island has no diversification would put stress on limited indigenOUS energy SOurCeS)5 and Water. human and natural resources. While While 50% of the island's water needs are Anguilla's economy appears to be stronger met by the public sector from ten public than many other countries in the region, the wells ( the use of which is more or less at limits imposed by small size are reflected in their maximum), there is widespread use of its vulnerability to external forces, e.g., the cisterns; moreover, a government-operated Gulf War,the American recession (25). reverse osmosis desalinization plan is inoperative due to technical problems. In In recognition of these problems, the fact, it has been argued that the Government undertook two significant Government'spolicy of small hotels is partly steps. First, in 1992 it entered into a based on water requirements; building three-year project agreement with United regulations require hotels to be Nations Development Program (UNDP) for self-sufficient in water by installing reverse execution of a program dealing with the osmosis desalination plants which use "Management of Natural Resources and the seawater from shoreline boreholes as feed Environment." The first result is an water (25). The seriousness of the water environmental profile which provides a situation is highlighted in the final reports basic resource management framework for (11-12) of a Canadian International the island (25); later, there will be an Development Agency (CIDA)-funded "Environmental Manifesto" which will be project begun in 1983 examining water · directed at a wider audience. The project is resource planning and system design which designed to address a basic problem: "how note rising levels of nitrates in groundwater can a very small place with very limited due to chemical pollution arising from some resources, a small government and a small combination of agricultural fertilizer and/or private sector adequately deal with the animal wastes, plus wastewater effluent management of commonly-shared run-off from domestic and commercial resources?"(25).

42 Second, the Government has hired a In terms of absolute number of tourists, consulting firm to begin a long-term however, Anguilla remains one of the strategicplanning process. In its firstreport, smallest destinations in the Caribbean. In Mokoro Ltd. (31) focuses on the limited 1980, of 30 destinations in the region, it had resource base and the fragility of the island the smallest number of tourist arrivals, while system and notes specific pressures on in 1993 it had risen only to 28th. With the resources: increased numbers of tourists exception of a significant increase in rank as using beaches and the coastal environment, a destination for visitors from the United conflicting uses of marine resources, the States over this time period, it ranks need for upgrading solid waste disposal similarly low for its other major practices, lack of control over livestock (extra-regional) markets of Canada and grazing, overfishing of inshore waters, and . In contrast to these figures on the need for better management of the relative ranking of Anguilla as a destination marine environment. It will take some time, when compared to other Caribbean however, before the impacts of this planning destinations, Anguilla is clearly becoming process are seen. absolutely more popular in its major markets. Its market performance compared to other destinations has been significant: · THE TOURISM SECTOR between 1980 and 1993, American visitors to Anguilla increased by 1222.2%, the The following section provides a history of highest figure for American tourists to 29 the evolution of the tourism sector. Growth Caribbean destinations, while Anguilla saw has been rapid, foreign interests dominate the third largest increase for Europeans at the hotel sector (although establishments 350.0%, and the seventh largest increase for remain relativelysmall), and the island has a Canadians at 88.0%.7 This increase in the growing international reputation as a luxury number of Americans has resulted in the destination-fostered by a favourable tax United States being the dominant market situation. Concerns about marked since 1982; however, the Caribbean remains seasonality are resulting in encouraging the an important market. Along with the United development of particularmarket niches. Kingdom, these three markets account for a very high market concentration ratio of 87.4 (i.e., 87.4% of stayover tourists came from Tourist Arrivals these three markets).

Ranking firstin growth since 1980 in tourist Because the island's Wallblake Airport can arrivals among 30 countries in the handle only small aircraft, 90% of all Caribbean region, Anguilla has seen its tourists arrive by ferry from nearby St number of stayover tourist arrivals jump Martin.• The principal air gateways to from 4800 in 1979 to 36,700 in 1993, an Anguilla are St. Maarten (for international increase of 664.6%,in contrast to the overall flights from the United States and Europe) Caribbeanfigure of 94.4%. Another way of and Antigua (for Canada, United Kingdom, expressing this growth is through the and Europe); connections from St. Maarten number of tourist arrivals per 1000 local are primarily by ferry, while Antigua population per year: from 863 in 1980 to requires a connecting flight. There are no 4087 in 1993. direct scheduled flights from Wallblake

43 outside of the Caribbean. The expansion of Accommodations W allblake to accommodate larger planes is unlikely, given the small size of the current Related to the increased number of tourists airport site and the proximity of St. has been a growth of the accommodation Maarten. stock, from 150 rooms in 1980 to 978 in 1993. In the same period, the number of To the stayover tourists must be added an rooms/km2 rose from 1.6 to 10.7 and the even largerabsolute number of excursionists number of tourist rooms per 1000 local who visit the island for a day from St population rose from 22.9 to 108.9. This Martin. The growth in their numbers has growth in the accommodations stock has been even more dramatic: from 1297 in been paralleled by a near doubling in 1979 to 73,700in 1993--a 5569.2% increase average length of stay from 5.5 to 10.3 or 8207 arrivals per 1000 local population, nights. This combination of factorsresulted both figures being higher than for any other in a region-leading 1103.8% increase in the Caribbean destination. This expansion has annual number of tourist nights, from been fueled by greatly improved and 31,400to 378,000. increased ferry service in recent years, including the provision of night service. Establishments are quite small, with the Excursionists are mainly attracted to the fine largest hotel having 52 rooms and the beaches and reefs, as there is no duty-free average being about 27 rooms. About half shopping and only simple handicrafts. of the tourists stay in the 13 hotels ( only two While their per capita expenditure is much of which are Anguillian-owned), with the less than stayover tourists, they are an rest being split between private or important source of income for taxis, unregistered accommodations and restaurants, dive operations, etc., but data on apartment/guest houses (which are mostly their expendituresare not available. Anguillian-owned).

There is no marina in Anguilla and no With twin themes of exclusiveness (and, anchorage that is protected during hurricane thus, intended distinctiveness) of Anguilla weather; consequently, yacht tourism is and the amenities of specific hotels, it is minimal (except for day-trip visits by boats ironic that many of the hotels have themes from neighbouring islands) and cruiseship and attractions that have little to do with tourism is non-existent. Anguilla (13). For example, the Casablanca Resort claims that "as time goes by . .. you When all three types of visitors are must remember this"--Rick's Cafe aggregated, Anguilla's position as a rapidly Americane [sic] recreates the fabled but expanding destination becomes even clearer. fictional international rendezvous, complete Between 1980-1993, total visitor arrivals with Moroccan dancers (which were not, increased 1246.3% to 110,400 or 12,294 however, featured in the original cinematic visitor arrivalsper 1000 local population. Rick's) and "Sam" on the Baby Grand. On an island without French influence, one small hotel is named La Petite Maison d'Amour. The Anguilla Great House--on an island with no great houses--has a gallery of Haitian art. Cap Juluca's Pimm's Restaurant

44 offers continental and Mediterranean and negative. For example, the small local cuisine, while Coconuts Restaurant offers population could not meet the employment Mexican quesadillas, Texas-size needs of the sector, but would clearly hamburgers, the "original" Swiss cheese benefit economically. On the other hand, fondue, and a "pastarama." Connell argues increased construction and the electricity that, in seeking an elite, international and water demands of an expanded market, the Anguillian tourism industry has accommodation stock would put great itself become international, abandoning any pressure on the environment. focus on the specific features of Anguilla, though not, of course, excluding references to the Caribbean-icon and setting for the Expenditures tourism experience (13 ). Visitor expenditurehas risenfrom US$1.0M Despite the growing number of tourists, the in 1979 to US$43.3M in 1993. While still average annual occupancy rate of tourist having one of the smallest total visitor rooms appears to be low, with the only expenditures (29th in 1980 and 25th in available figures being for 1989 and 1990, 1993) in the region, this 4230.0% increase when, the rates for hotels were 58.0% and was the greatest in the Caribbean. · 67 .0% and the rates for guest houses and Similarly, estimated visitor expenditure per apartment/villas ranged from 22-29% (17). capita of local population rose 1880.9% (Similarly, the rates for small hotels were from US$199 in 1980 to US$4822 in 1993. earlier estimated to be as low as 15% [19].) Clearly, much of this growth is related to the The only annual occupancy rate available is increasing numbers of tourists, but it is also 57 .0% for1989. a function of most of the accommodation stock being aimed at the high end of the Seasonality is another major problem. The market: of 31 countries in the Caribbean COB (4) notes that the average occupancy region in 1987-88, Anguilla ranked seventh rate for the summer months is 42% highest in average winter room rates at compared to 87% in the winter months. US$133.80/night and fourth highest in Similarly, de Albuquerque and McElroy average summer rates at US$108.00 (14). ( 15) calculate an index of seasonality in (The 23.9% difference between winter and tourist arrivals of 1.467 in 1988 for summer rates is quite low, ranking 24th in Anguilla, the fifth highest figure for 23 the region. This raises the question of destinations in the Caribbean. In 1993, the whether there is a cause or an effect index was 1.429, still one of the highest in relationship between high summer rates and the region. the apparently low summer occupancy rates.) If the number of tourists and their average length of stay continues to increase, there Obviously, the economy is increasingly would be phenomenal pressure on the being dominated by tourism, as gauged by existing accommodation stock (even if several measures. Visitor expenditure rose occupancy rates were significantly raised) as a percentage of GDP from 21.1 % in 1982 and demands for its expansion--which could to 62.3% in 1993. Not all of this result in extreme changes in biophysical, expenditure, however, remains in the social, and economic impact, both positive Anguillian economy. The heavy depen-

45 dence of the tourism industry on imported to Government policy.9 A development of goods and services is indicated by the fact this size would necessitate increasing the that Laventhal & Horwath (28) estimate a capacity of the airport to handle wide-body leakage rate of 63.4%. Anguilla's lack of aircraft--an unlikely event, as noted above-­ significant alternative merchandise exports or a vastly increased ferry service to St is indicated by the fact that in 1987 there Martin. was a ratio of 7.8: 1 between estimated visitor expenditure and the value of merchandise exports; Anguilla clearly has a TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING "one-industry" economy. Such large expenditures, however, indicate Anguilla's Explanations for the success of the relatively healthy fiscal situation, as Anguillian tourism sector focus on the estimated visitor expenditure was equal to advantages arising out. of Anguilla's late 440.0% of external debt in 1992 (although start, its superb beaches, its image as a fresh this percentage had fallen dramatically in newcomer compared to other islands in the the few years previously). Finally, the region, and the simultaneous tourism boom Government (16) states that the hotel and in neighbouring St Martin/St. Maarten restaurant sector, the major contributor to which resulted in up-graded sea and air the GDP, accounted for 33.3% of the GDP transport facilities making nearby Anguilla or US$18.8M in 1992 at current prices, an more accessible. Equally important, how­ increase from23.2% or US$2.9M in 1984. ever, was

In 1985, it was estimated that the tourism ... the calculated and orderly evolution sector employed 600 people directly and of a positive tourism development 600 indirectly (10); a 1992 estimate was policy by the Anguillian Government, 1000 people directly and more than 1000 helped shape both the physical and indirectly (25), while a 1993 estimate of economic framework and the market­ directjobs was 1064 (8). ing strategyfor thenew tourism sector. The policy aimed at an up-scale market niche of discriminating (later Future Development called "green") visitors who favored a low-key, high-quality non-urban,small There have been several proposals in recent island setting.(25) years to build huge resorts. One called for 3000 condominiums on the north end of the Such a policy worked, it is argued, because island; however, the time limit on the of the environmental "truthfulness" of the development proposal has lapsed--it Anguilla tourism product and from the sales probablywas a case of speculation. Another . package offered for that product, both of proposal from a consortium of French, which were based on two factors: Anguilla British, and American companies calls for a provides a proper backdrop for an idealized, US$420M development on Scrub Island tropical island experience; and Anguillians consisting of 2200beds in two hotels and 30 have a culture inseparable from the villas, a yacht harbour, restaurants, shops, landscape and its surrounding seascapes residences for staff, etc.; however, the (25). Indeed, with respect to the effective­ proposalcalls for acasino, which is contrary ness of the marketing effort, Mather and

46 Todd (30) note that, using public sector generally executed on a case-by-case expenditures only, in terms of expenditure basis, usually at the highest levels of growth of national tourism organizations government, and may overlook the from 1986-1990 compared with the increase serious environmental, social, and in the number of stopover arrivals, public infrastructure implications of sector promotion of Anguilla ( along with development projects. (25) that of and the ) was the most effective of all destinations in Basic legislation is in place (e.g., the 1943 the Caribbean. Building Ordinance providing for building regulations and an approval process, the 1949 Town and Country Planning Act The Policy and Planning Context establishing a Planning Authority), but current legislation makes no provision for Local attitudes toward land have had a the preparation of land use plans; in fact, strong effect on shaping the Anguillian there is not even a map of current land use. policy and planning context. Thereis a long Despite a 1977 government "green paper" tradition of private ownership, with 95% of which argued strongly for the need for a the island's area being privately-owned, but development plan (for reasons related to 70% of ·the 9000 parcels of private land are development control, development potential less than one hectare in size. There is a identification, conservation, and congestion prevailing view among Anguillians that prevention), several attempts to remedy this landowners are entitled to use privately-held situation were not enacted by the land as they choose; as a result, the Government (e.g., the 1966 Land imposition of development control measures Development Control Ordinance providing is often strongly resisted, with attempts by for development planning functions and Government to introduce regulations or requiring preparation of development plans, guidelines to control growth or manage the 1968 Outline Physical Development resources being perceived as a loss of Plan produced under the auspices of the individual rights and personal UNDP, technical assistance from the British over private property (25). As a result, Overseas Development Agency (ODA) for the preparation of a land use plan for The Land development in Anguilla has Valley). The only exceptions were the occurred largely in an ad hoc and implicit acceptance of the overall physical unregulated manner, in the absence of development strategy and detailed proposals an official land use policy and an for nine tourism development areas established tradition of development proposed by Searle (39) (see below) and the control. This is a pattern prevalent 1991 Land Development Control Ordinance throughout the OECS countries, where in which the Government, under pressure governments generally function resulting from several major development without a formally accepted proposals, "seems to have accepted the framework for planning. Therefore, position that the right to develop private decisions about changes in land use property is not unconditional and should not and approval of major development be at an unreasonable cost to an individual's activities tend to be based on neighbors, the community as a whole, or the short-term considerations; they are environment" (25). 47 This history has resulted in a Government "Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources planning infrastructure that has come under and the Environment" to improve severe criticism from several sources, coordination between departments, an including the COB (4): Environmental Advisory Committee, a "National Environmental Policy," and Anguilla's poor planning mechanism reorganization and upgrading of the has been reflected by ad hoc project Physical Planning Unit (25). Nevertheless, implementation, and the absence of a the Government has been involved in clear strategy for prioritising projects. planning for the tourism sector since 197 6 This has resulted in inefficient when the faltering economy forced it to resource utilisation and a strain on recognize tourism as a route to economic labour.... [T] technical assistance development. provided in the past has had limited success because of inadequate arrangements for counterpart Early Government Involvement personnel.... As the traditional industries of salt and The delays in project implementation fishing began to falter, the Government likely to be imposed by labour began to recognize that tourism was a shortage and the capacity constraints potential route to economic development. of both the electricity and water The Shankland Cox Partnership, selected by supplies highlight the need for the British ODA to prepare a tourism improving the island's development development plan, provides the first outline planning machinery. of Anguilla's tourism development potential The DPU [Development Planning (39). The report recognizes the need for Unit] is unable to adequately perform developing the island's infrastructure, its role because of the small size of the including an island-wide water system staff.... (which did not exist at the time) as well as infrastructure for electrical distribution, The Physical Planning Unit in the sewage disposal, roads, and communica­ Department of Lands and Surveys has tions. It recommends the creation of marine recently obtained technical assistance from reserves, a "coastal land development UNDP to prepare a National·Land Use Plan authority" to control growth in the coastal and local plans for four important growth zone, and education and training programs areas (The Valley, Blowing Point, Sandy to prepare Anguillians for tourism-related Ground, and Island Harbour). The project employment. Despite its far-reaching has the following objectives: suitability and recommendations, some of which remain capability criteria for land development and valid to this day, the plan was far too location; a coherent and comprehensiveland complex--conceptually and financially--for use policy; and a framework for evaluating, Anguilla at that time (25) and only its guiding, managing and coordinating public recommendations on infrastructure were and private sector development (25). The implemented. environmental profile· project has also made major recommendations concerning policy The first direct involvement by the and planning, including the creation of a Government in tourism was a Marketing 48 Plan designed in 1976 to attract both foreign to be accomplished through public and investment and tourists through an private sector co-operation and a vigorous advertising campaign. Tourism promotion campaign in a set of target development was encouraged in part markets (i.e., Europe, United States, through an intensive program of Canada, and Venezuela) which is diverse infrastructure development. By 1979, the enough so that adverse economic and Government felt that enough investment had political climates in any one market source been attracted to the island, so this aspect of cannot affect tourism toodrastically. marketing was dropped, while the modest (and quite successful) advertising campaign Promoting a tourism image of "small and continued (21). selective," the Plan clearly states that development and marketing are being aimed at the upper end of the tourist market, in Laying the Policy and Planning order to attract tourists with relatively long Foundations average lengths of stay and high daily expenditure. While the Plan covers only a With the rapid growth of tourism, in the short time period, it seems fair to suggest 1981-1983 Tourism Plan--the first formal that it either achieved its objectives directly tourism plan for the island--the Government or confirmed a path which soon met many (21) presents the following objective: of them: increased local and foreign invest­ ment, decreased unemployment, increased To enable the people of Anguilla to tourist arrivals, market diversification, and benefit from the development and consolidation at the upperend of the market. promotionof tourism, by optimising tourism's contribution to the national Less successful, however, was the economy with particularemphasis on: implementation of a number of actions that were to be taken, including marine a. The quality of lifeand the conservation, careful control. of development of the community development projects, training programs, b. The enhancement and reorganization of the Department of preservation of Anguilla's cultural Tourism, creation of a Hotels Licensing traditions Board and a Tourist Advisory Board, c. The conservation of Anguilla's research, and a licensing system for related naturalresources services (e.g., car hire, handicrafts) in order d. The generationof employment to maintain standards and to encourage local opportunities investment in such services. None of these e. Thecontribution towards steps was accomplished, largely due to the Anguilla's revenue lack of finances and trained personnel and, in the case of marine conservation, public The intentions are to emphasize the pressure (D. Carty 1991, pers. comm.; J. potential of the tourist industry and its Hastings 1991, pers.comm.). capacity to contribute to national development and to try to ensure that a With the rapid growth of tourist arrivals in sufficient level of investment is secured to the mid-1980s, the Government recognized maximise the potential of tourism. This is its lack of ability to manage the industry. 49 As a result, in a report prepared in response recognises that a carefully planned and to a technical assistance request from the executed tourism policy is essential to Government, the Caribbean Tourism the future prosperity of the island. It Research and Development Centre (CTRC) will generate both foreign exchange (10) prepared a Short-Term Action Plan for and general revenue, reduce the tourism sector. Its purpose was seen to unemployment and improve the be aquick analysis of the situation, followed standard of living. Government by actions that could be taken almost realises that an increasing exposure of immediately to correctproblems and to meet the people of the island to outside needs: influences may produce adverse ethnic and sociological effects, and these will • problems: air and ferry access problems, becarefully monitoredand minimised. being relatively unknown as a destination, limited budget and untrained staff, lack of The ultimate aim "through careful complementary tourism attractions, standard manpower planning, is to provide full and of service not always matching the quality continuous employment for all Anguillians" of the accommodation (20). The Policy (20) ends by emphasising that tourism can "if carefully planned and • needs: production of collateral promotion regulated, become the lifeblood of the material, brochure on "hide-away" tourism, island ...." appointinga tourism advisor, establishing an information booth in St. Maarten (for day Recognising that the size of Anguilla, its excursionists), inventory and development workforce, and its related services cannot for complementary tourist attractions (e.g., supportmass tourism, the Policy emphasizes historic buildings, Amerindian sites, caves), the Government's intention to encourage institutional strengthening of the Depart­ up-scale developments in hotels, villas, and ment of Tourism. apartments with the intent of maximising the earning of foreign exchange and increasing Proposalsare developed in the report to deal Government revenue through indirect with all of theseitems; however, little action taxation. was taken, perhaps because most of the recommendations were seen by Government No maximum limit is set on the number of as involving long-term rather than tourist rooms, but short-termactions. The pace of development will be carefully monitored to avoid excess Setting the Policy Path capacity, and a limit will be placed on the size of individual hotels and/or For the information of the Anguillian people villa/apartment complexes, to ensure and as a guide forinvestors, the Government that smaller personalised hotels are felt that it needed a formal policy on which created in keeping with the island's it could base its actions for the next several up-market image. These hotels will be years (E. Gumbs 1989, pers. comm.). low rise in character, and not more Therefore, it (20) issued a Tourism Policy in than three floors ... high. The 1985 which maximum number of roomsin any one 50 development will in future be limited. joint ventures with overseas investors are (20) possible. Time-sharing developments are specifically prohibited (because of. the The Policy (20) recognises Government's failure of several such projects in the rolein a numberof areas: region) and condominium projects are to be carefully controlled (because of their • directing and controlling the development notoriously-low occupancyrates in general). and standards of the tourist industry through Overseas investors are warned that, while statutory, economic, social, ecological, and Anguilla has no income or corporation tax physical planning measures and there are no foreign exchange restrictions, the Government has extensive • adopting an active role in the industry, powers to restrict speculative dealings in including marketing and sales promotion real estate or property. and encouraging investment in the private sector Clearly, many of the Policy's objectives were met: virtually full employment, • ensuring adequate infrastructural planning up-scale hotel development, improved and provisionof supportservices marketing, co-operation betweenprivate and public sectors in investment. It also called • encouraging the co-operation of private for detailed research which would provide a and public sectors strategy for achieving the many aspects of the policy; the result was the 1987 Hastings • ensuring that the benefits of tourism are · Report(23). spread throughout the society On the other hand, the Government's • encouraging local employment in the intentionto becomemore active and capable industry in planning and development control was not met. In particular, the Policy c�ls for • preserving and enhancing the natural the preparation of a physical development environment plan, to include the zoning of areas of special development for tourist facilities, • using tourism as a means of inter-sectoral including national parks, marine parks, linkages historical-cultural sites, and environmental protection. Such a plan has never been • requiring that developers provide on-going formulated, resulting in ad hoc decisions on staff training and that expatriate work a proposal-by-proposal basis. Moreover, the permits be granted for limited periods of COB (7) notes that the growth in hotel tiine. development that followed the 1985 Short-Term Action Plan's release was not ThePolicy (20) forcefully states that casinos always consistent with Government's stated will not be permitted. objectives in the Tourism Policy (e.g., While welcoming both local and foreign controlling the development of the industry investment, Anguillian ownership and and optimising contribution to the domestic control of the tourism industry is preferred economy through full local participation in and local investment is to be encouraged; all areas of the industry). Finally, attempts 51 at linkages with other sectors have achieved up-market destination, a strategy aided by few results, as witnessed, for example, by a proximity to the United States as the main relativelyhigh level of merchandise imports. tourist market and to St. Maarten, a popular international destination. Major hotel Many of the Tourism Policy's objectives are developments10 in recent years have been in repeated in the National Development the 4-5 star range and have been operating at Strategy 1986-1991, in which the full or near-full capacity throughout the Government (19) clearly states that winter season ( 4 ); many have already expansion of the tourism industry is a undertaken modest expansion programs to primary goal. This goal is supported by meet demand. In contrast, smaller hotels objectives dealing with competitiveness, (which represent about 20% of the island's decreased seasonality, high standards, total room accommodations) are generally expansion constrained by local labour force locally-owned and have operated at capabilities, and inter-sectoral linkages. In extremelylow rates of occupancy (estimated order to meet its development goal, the at 15%) even during the peak season (19). Government has chosen not to formulate a The Government has, therefore, recently macro-economic development plan, accorded special attention to small hotels preferring to use Throne and Budget which face extremely low occupancy levels Addresses to declare its intent to influence becauseof several problems: the economy's productive capacity within a policy framework which emphasizes • they are not equipped to meet the increased tourism revenues, higher living requirements of up-market tourists standards, and employment for Anguillians (19). To a great extent, this policy • they do not have the financial resources framework has been successful, as measured for overseas promotion by high employment, a strong fiscal position, and steady investment in public • many arepoorly managed (5). sector services. The related operational strategy is two-fold: (a) the upgrading of Accordingly, the Government is attempting economic and social infrastructure as the to secure soft fundingto upgradethese basis for attracting foreign private sector facilitiesand expand overseas promotionto tourism investment, and (b) the include specialisedmarkets, e.g., sports and encouragement of greater local participation Scuba-diving clubs.11 In addition,the Inns in all areasof the industry. of Anguilla Association, a private-sector organization representing small This latter point is somewhat problematic, establishments, was formedin 1990 to given the Government's marketing strategy implement a joint marketingand reservation of promoting the island as a luxury system to encourage up-grading and to destination for upper-income visitors; as a increase occupancyrates (A. Edwards 1991, result, local ownership and managerial pers. comm.). involvement is higher in the service industries than in luxury hotels ( 19). Since This shift in emphasis will not be without 1987 (based on recommendations by difficulties in the marketing of what has Hastings (23]), the Government has been called "the best-kept secret in the exclusively promoted the island as an Caribbean" (35). In recent years, there have

52 been intensified overseas promotion efforts • training of Anguillians for the hotel mounted by the Anguilla Tourist Board and industryto be a priority the Anguilla Hotel Association, largely aimed at the North American market due to • creating tourism development zones, budget constraints. Transportation national and marine parks, and recreation improvements have also had an impact on reserves and thereafter protecting and the growth in tourism, including the patrollingthem introduction of night-landing facilities at Wallblake Airport and the expansion of the • protecting archaeological and historical ferry service to St Martin to include a night sites service. • instituting an awareness campaign to enable Anguillians to understand the Growing Concerns for the Environment advantages and disadvantages of tourism development In orderto implement the tourism objectives of the National Development Strategy, the • instituting a campaign to combat a serious Government in 1987 adopted as official garbageand litter problem. policy nearly all of a series of proposals made by Hastings (23) for the years While some were dealt with faster than 1987-1991 related to the tourism sector (R. others, action was taken on nearly all of Hodge1989, pers.comm.): these items. For example, the hotel trade program at the secondary level was • no further hotel development projects to be upgraded and a curriculum developed to approved until the end of 1991 to avoid teach about tourism (E. Hughes 1990, pers. over-taxing the water, electricity, and labour comm.). On the other hand, litter remains a supplies seriousproblem.

• strengthening the Development Board to An exception to the Government's be able to offer economic appraisal and acceptance of Hastings' recommendations marketingservices to Anguillian investors concerns his point that, even after1991, new projects should be restricted to Anguillian • creationof a Tourist Board ownership. The Government does not agree with this recommendation, preferring a • appointing a marketing and sales mixture of Anguillian and foreign promotion officer within the Department of developments--but does believe that all Tourism developments should be small and up-scale (R. Hodge 1991, pers. comm.). • directing marketing at Canada, the Caribbean, and Europe to diversify away Perhaps most significant was the fact that fromthe dominance of the United States Government accepted Hastings' • marketing support for older recommendation that the pace of hotel Anguillian-owned hotels and guest houses development be slowed because of environmental limits; however, while the moratorium held, the Government did not 53 act on his proposals for the strengthening of resources are threatened by inshore development planning mechanisms and fishing, as well as residue and erosion institutions. Anguilla has some legislation from coastal construction, increasing which addresses planning and environmental sewage load, and mechanical damage concerns; however, much of it has not been from boat anchors and visiting enacted or enforced, e.g., Town and Country snorkellers and divers. The pace of Planning Act, Land Development development in Anguilla has created Ordinance, Litter Ordinance, National Trust an immediate need to implement a Ordinance, Heritage Buildings Ordinance. strategy for long-term development In many instances, regulations are and management of coastal resources. non-existent or out-dated; moveover, the (18) fragmented nature of the legislation would make it very difficult to implement (36). There have been several studies document­ Non-Anguillians do have to obtain a license, ing Anguilla's dependence on her marine which could include any conditions, for any resources and describing a proposed marine development, but Anguillians do not require resource management system comprising a licence to develop; moreover, building four parks and protected areas and three permits are issued by Public Works and not tourism management areas within a 27 5 km2 by the Development Planning Unit (P. multiple use reserve (out of a total marine Clarke 1989, pers. comm.). Hastings (23) area of 4700 km2), as well as two fish places great emphasis on the inadequacy of nursery areas, two commercial pons, two planning controls in Anguilla: "Despite this fisheries management zones, and one plethora of legislation there is no routine "species management" zone (1, 26, 33, 38). planning machinery in Government at the present time." He repeats the earlier In 1982, a Marine Parks Ordinance had been recommendation of Williams (43) that a passed, but there were institutional Planning Authority should be created, with difficulties which impeded implementation its own Physical Planning Unit, working of a marine parks system: small-island under a Planning Committee; a physical governments are understandably reluctant to planning officer was appointed following increase their recurrent expenses through Williams' report, but Hastings argues that creation of additional infrastructure ( 18). In this is not sufficient. order to provide an effective organizational approach to marine park management, a Even though little action was taken to Marine Parks Plan (18) was formulated in strengthen the planning process for land, the 1989, largely as a result of public concern Government took a different attitude toward over deteriorating fishing catches, increased the sea. It recognized that Anguilla's tourist recreational use of reefs, and the industry and, therefore, its economy are abandonment at anchor of several derelict directlyrelated to the marine environment: ·small ships (D. Carty 1991, pers. comm). It calls for the provision of information and Anguilla's primary attractions are its technical guidelines for coastal manage­ white sand beaches, seafood, and ment, the establishment of the mari.ne parks, underwater scenic appeal; all directly the improvement of public awareness and related to coral reefs and coastal understanding as a base of popular support habitats. But, as is common, these for resource protection and development,

54 and the amelioration of known problems of The 1992 Tourism Strategy beach erosion and visitor-caused damage to critical marine habitats. Regulations for the As a follow-up to the Hastings Report, the implementation of the Marine Parks Plan proposals of which were to cover the period were approved in June 1993, but have not 1987-1991, the Government wanted another yet been implemented (25). study which would follow the basic directions that it had subsequently adopted The Government appears to have taken as general policy, e.g., the Government these environmental issues very seriously. intention to continue to have no goal for the A Ministry of Fisheries and Marine maximum number of tourist rooms, but Resources was created as a separate entity rather to seek to direct development that is (formerly being part of the Ministry of small-scale and up-market and that has a Agriculture and Fisheries) and given high level of local involvement (R. Hedge increased responsibilities and trained staff. 1991, pers. comm.). The resulting Tourism In 1990, the Government passed a Cruising Strategy provides overwhelming (44) Permit Ordinance, which requires cruising evidence that tourism has functioned as the permits of any boat, local or otherwise, engine of economic growth of Anguilla. It wanting to anchor in one of several covers a broad spectrum of issues, similar to designated areas, either on beaches or at its predecessors, and reinforces rather than diving sites. Also, permanent moorings redirects most prior policy positions; have been set up at diving sites to minimise however, it also offers more environmental anchor damage. In addition, a Minister of specificity and addresses resource depletion, Education and Environment was appointed system overload, and environmental in 1990; new programs include the teaching management needs linked to enhancing of marine and environmental education in productivity within an industry increasingly the school system, the development of at risk of losing its "newness" attraction in curriculum materials, and the removal of the global market place. Key suggestions in wrecked ships in Road Bay and sinking the reportinclude: them off-shore to create artificial reefs (D. Carty 1990, pers. comm.). There will also - limiting hotel construction to 40 to be education programs for fishermen 50 rooms peryear; because a major obstacle to implementing - limiting hotel size ( 40 to 80 room marine parkswill be changing the views and range); practices of local fishermen; for example, - leasing, rather than selling, land to traditional fishing areas will need to be put foreigners; off-limits and anchoring techniques changed developing marine recreational to avoid damage to the reefs (M. Emmanuel facilities; 1990, pers.comm.). - discouraging the use of noisy, motorizedactivities such as jet skis; Actions also took place outside government. - developing land use planning and A National Trust was formed with funding zoning controls; from an American foundation and a Marine - encouraging building designs that Task Force formed, with members from reflectCaribbean architectural styles; boththe public and private sectors. - promoting environmental education programsat various levels; 55 completing an "environmental land-use planning and development sector-­ profile"for the island; a factor which may have considerable - completing management plans for environmental consequences if projected historic sites and parks; growth occurs in the tourism sector. There expanding marine resource appears, therefore, to be a clear need for management programs; Government to re-assess its policy not to - encouraging tourism's linkages with have an upper limit on growth in tourism other sectors; but to assess each new proposal on its own - requiring waste water treatment and merits. Continuous growth is simply not recycling; and possibleon such a small and fragile island. - developing sewage treatment forThe Valley aquiferarea. (25) Similarly, the CDB (4) notes that there are still some major issues which need to be addressed: seasonality, the low occupancy CONCLUSION levels in the small hotels/guest houses, and the need to control the rate of expansion of By most measures, the history of tourism the sector to minimise the pressures on the policy and planning in Anguilla can be existing infrastructure and on labour described as being successful in its overall availability. Although attempts have been goal of creatinga strongtourism sector as an made to secure "soft" funds for use by small economic base. In 1976, the Government, hoteliers in the upgrading of their recognising that the economy rested on establishments and to introduce differential out-migration and remittance income and pncmg, these have not significantly that its main industries (salt and fishing) had increased the summer traffic. Additionally, a precarious future, deliberately chose a the Government's moratorium on the award development path which focused on tourism of permits for new hotel projects did not in general, and up-market, small-scale, and affect plans to expand existing hotels and, as exclusive tourism in particular. Many of its a result, pressures on the labour force have goals have been achieved (e.g., high not beeneased significantly. employment, rising per capita income) as a result of being successful in attracting This situation has been recognized in recent growing numbers of tourists spending documents. For example, the Mokoro Ltd. growingamounts of money. (31) report argues that Anguilla's style of tourism has been pursued more by rejecting This path has been pursued in a continuous mass tourism, than by a concerted effort to and linked set of relatively consistent policy conserve and improve the environment on and planning documents. Not all goals and which its particular tourist market depends. objectives, however, have been achieved. There are also warnings that continued For example, local participation in the growthbased on past development modelsis tourism sector is largely confined to not possible and that Anguilla's goal should small-scale accommodation units (which be "to ensure the socioeconomic and suffer from low occupancy rates). Linkages environmental sustainability of this success to other sectors of ·the economy remain story in the longer term" (25). The Island weak. Most notable, however, has been the Resources Foundation (IRF) and Anguilla lack of significant strengthening of the Archaeological and Historical Society 56 (AAHS) (25) warn that the continued environmental protection strategy to absence of even preliminary procedures for support and contain changes in the resource inventories, conservation planning, tourism sector. (25) and environmental impact assessments has resulted in private sector development which The report goes on to make a number of has modified Anguilla's landscape and detailed recommendations concerning the coastal zone, with virtually no baseline development of an environmental manage­ resource assessments, no monitoring of ment policy framework, more and better­ aggregate or cumulative environmental trained policy and planning personnel, a effects, and no attempts to analyse the community-based resource inventory, exam­ lessons learned from the first phase of ination of tourism's linkages to the tourism growth that might help shape the environment, more emphasis on the quality next phase of development--all of which of life of Anguillians, and the development will place Anguilla's currently successful of an effective natural and cultural park "unspoiled destination" tourism strategy at system. risk. In effect, the conclusion is that tourism has Arguing that the environmental impacts done much that is positive for Anguilla, but resulting from the tourism experiences of on a small island with limited resources, other Eastern Caribbean islands is continued growth based on past well-documented (citing 2, 24, and 42), the development is simply not sustainable. report argues that the Government should Another path must be chosen. In order to take a leadership role to protect the avoid the problems associated with a path environment on which the island's existing toward mass tourism even on a small scale, tourism style and marketniche depend (25). the government should adjust its tourism policy and planning to create, in Butler's (3) The first phase of Anguilla's terms, a "consolidation" stage that would extraordinary success story with prepare this fragile island system . for a tourism is about over. What lies "stabilization" stage of little or modest ahead? The Territory now faces the growth. less glamorous tasks of taking stock, evaluating the previous effort, planning the next steps, designing a Acknowledgements product development plan, and shaping a marketing strategy that Appreciation is extended to the Social carefully provides gradual growth. Sciences and Humanities Research Council "Growth" in this context refers not of Canada for their ongoing funding support only to the number of hotel rooms or and to the Government of Anguilla and the number of tourists to fill them, but many people who assisted with this orderly growth across a broad research. spectrum, including public services and amenities, human resources, and the Territory's institutional structure. It also includes development of an

57 REFERENCES

1. C. Abernethy, Coastal Erosion in An�illa, Report for British Overseas Development Agency, 1985.

2. Anonymous, Third World Tourism: Visitors Are Good forYou, The Economist, March 11, pp. 19-22, 1989.

3. R. W. Butler, The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources, CanadianG eo�apher, Vol. 24(1 ), pp. 5-12, 1980.

4. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Annual Economic Report; An�illa 1988, , : Economics and Programming Departtnent, 1989.

5. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Economic Memorandumo n An�uilla, Economics and ProgrammingDepartment, Bridgetown, Barbados, 1988.

6. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Economic Memorandumon An�uilla, Economics and ProgrammingDepartment, Bridgetown, Barbados, 1986.

7. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Economic Memorandumon An�uilla, Economics and Programming Department, Bridgetown, Barbados, 1985.

8. Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 1993, CTO, Christ Church, Barbados, 1994.

9. Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 1989, CTO, Christ Church, Barbados, 1990.

10. Caribbean Tourism Research and Development Centre (CTRC), An�uilla--Short Tenn ActionPlan for t he Tourism Sector, Report forGovernment of Anguilla, 1985.

11. CBCL Ltd., Final Report

12. CBCL Ltd., Backm,und Report on Qptions Strate�es, and Costs

13. J. Connell, Anguilla: The Emergence of a Tourist Economy in an Island Microstate, CaribbeanG eo�aphy, Vol. 4(2), 1993.

14. V. Curtin and A. Poon, Tourist Accommodation in the Caribbean, Caribbean Tourism Research and DevelopmentCentre, Christ Church, Barbados, 1988.

58 15. K. de Albuquerque and J. McElroy, Caribbean Small-island Tourism Styles and Sustainable Strategies, EnvironmentalMana�ement , Vol. 16(5), pp. 619-632, 1992.

16. Government of Anguilla (GOA), National Account Statistics, 1984-1990

17. Government of Anguilla (GOA), StatisticalRevie w of Tourism 1990, The Valley, Anguilla: Statistical Unit, Ministryof Finance, 1990.

18. Government of Anguilla (GOA), A Project toImplement a Marine Parks Pmmmme for Improved Mana�ement of Marine Resources in Anwilla, , Revised proposal, February8, 1989.

19. Government of Anguilla (GOA), Countzy Pmmmme of the Government of Anwilla 1986-1991; Section !--National Development Strate�es and Technical Coqperation ,Priorities Reportfor United Nations DevelopmentProgram, 1986.

20. Government of Anguilla (GOA), Government of An�uilla Tourism Policy, The Valley, · Anguilla: GOA, 1985.

21. Government of Anguilla (GOA), An�uilla Tourism Plan Includin�Capital and Recurrent Estimates of Expenditures, Revenue Estimates and VisitorsArrival Tar�ets; 1981-1983, GOA, TheValley, Anguilla, 1981.

22. F. M. Fahie, In Search of A Better Life: Anguilla 1967-1992. In 25th Anniversatyof the AnwillaRevolution , The Valley, Anguilla, pp. 12-13, 1992.

23. J. L. Hastings, Anwilla; Review of the TourismSector in 1986 andProposals for the · Years 1987-1991 Inclusive, Report forGovernment of Anguilla, 1987.

24. J. S. Holder, The Caribbean: Far Greater Dependence on Tourism Likely, The Courier, Vol. 122(July-August), pp. 74-79, 1990.

25. Island Resources Foundation (IRF) and Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society (AAHS), Environmental Profile--PartI; A ResourceMana�ement framework, Prepared for the Governmentof Anguilla, 1993.

26. I. Jackson, A Preliminary Mana�ement Strate�for the Utilization of the Critical Marine Resourcesof Anwilla(Drait ), Report by EasternCaribbean Natural Area Management Program, St. Croix, USVI, 1981.

27. D. Laist et al., Management of Corals and Coral Ecosystems in the United States, Coastal ZoneMana�ement Journal , Vol. 13(2), pp. 203-240, 1986.

59 28. Laventhal and Horwath,L& eward andWindward Islands TourismSector Study; Volume I, Reportfor Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency, 1986.

29. Laventhal and Horwath, L&ewardand Wi ndwardIslands TourismSector Study; Volume II, Reportfor Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency, 1986.

30. S. Mather and G. Todd, Tourism in the Caribbean, Special Report No, 455, Economist Intelligence Unit, London, 1993.

31. Mokoro Ltd., Aniuilla Strateiic Review, Interim Report

32. V. S. Naipaul, Anguilla: The Shipwrecked Six Thousand, The Overcrowded Barraccoon, Harmandsworth: Penguin, pp. 252-266, 1984.

33. D. Olsen and J. Ogden, Manaiement Plannini for Aniijilla'sFis hini Industry, Report by Eastern Caribbean NaturalArea Management Program, St. Croix, USVI, 1981.

34. C. L. Petty, A HandbookHistmy of Aniijilla, The Valley, Anguilla, 1991.

35. S. Peredo,The Marketingof Paradise,Des tinations, November, pp. 38-45, 1989.

36. Resource Systems Management International Inc. (RSMI), Caribbean Environmental PmmmminiStrateiY--Final Report; Volume 3--Backwmnd Infonnation, Report for Canadian International Development Agency, 1988.

37. B. C. Richardson, The Caribbean in the Wider World, 1492- 1992, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1992.

38. R. Salm, Aniijilla; Coral Reefs and Marine Parks Potential, Report by Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program, St. Croix, USVI, 1980.

39. D. Searle, Aniijilla; An Outline Development Plan for Tourism, Prepared by The Shankland Cox Partnership,London, 1972.

40. C. Ward and C. Carty, Discover Aniijilla, Michael Friedman, New York, 1988.

41. D. E. Westlake, Underan Eoilish Heaven, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1972.

42. P. F. Wilkinson, Tourism Policy and Plannini in the Eastern Caribbean; Aniijilla. Barbados, Dominica, and St, Lucia, Report to the Government of Anguilla, Government of Barbados, Government ofthe of Dominica, and Government of St.· Lucia, 1993.

43. M. C. Williams, Physical Plannini Aspects of a Tourism Masterplan for Aniuilla, Report forthe Governmentof Anguilla, 1986.

60 44. World Tourism Organization (WTO), United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation and Development (UNDTCD), and United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Tourism andEconomic Develo.pment in An�illa; A TourismStrate� for the 9Q's--Final Report

Footnotes

1. The properterm is Anguillians.

2. Except, incongruously, a hotel named "The GreatHouse."

3. Richardson (37, p. 195) also notes that "Members of the international news media ... were delighted to report on what they considered an event of comic-opera proportions, and Time's article of March 28, 1969 ("Britain's Bay of Piglets"), was perhaps the winner in an unannounced competition among journalists for the most humorous article title describing the event."

4. An indication of increased economic activity and migration is that unemployment was 39.2% in 1974 and 26.4% in 1984 (7).

5. The electricityservice was privatizedin 1990 in order to promote efficiencyand investment (R. Hodge 1991, pers. comm.).

6. Many of the statistics in the following section are based on data from the CaribbeanTourism Organization (8-9) and the Government of Anguilla ( 16-17).

7. The high rates of increase for Europe and Canada have other potential implications for Anguilla because European and Canadian tourists tend to have longer average lengths of stay in many Caribbean destinations than do Americans from marketing cost and tourist expenditure pointsof view.

8. The ferry dock for connections to Anguilla is located in the French part of the island, while the internationalairport is located in the Dutch part.

9. The introduction of a night ferry service, allowing tourists to travel for an evening of gambling in St. Maarten, appears to have contributed to the lack of pressure for a casino on Anguilla (J. Hastings 1991, pers. comm.).

10. It is important to note that, given the small size of the Anguillian tourism industry, terms such as "major" and "small" are relative; as noted above, the largest hotel in Anguilla has only 98 rooms.

61 11. While these specialised markets are relatively much smaller than others markets such as mass tourism, they are attractive because of potentially high per capita expenditures. For example, Laist et al. (27) report that recreational Scuba-divers in the United States spent an average of US$1151 per diving trip in 1983.

62 Figure 1 : THE CARIBBEAN N �} 0 I /::;) � \\ Bahamas I � \ ) .. • Turks & Caicos . d -. : . Virgin Is. Dominican Republic Anguilla ---r� j ! °' •• ._.-St Martin vJ - c:7-· - Cayman Is. � Puerto Rico I I i Dom1n1ca � Martiniq�e St · Kitts & Nevis I � St. Lucia �� Barbados Aruba --..a� Curac ao a�--- St. Vincent - � " � � lJ Tobago �Trinidad Is. Margarita

Venezuela Figure 2: ANGUILLA • • o <::)? • . .r, r2:·Scrub .. Is. �. . ---- Dog Is. ct::} Prickly Pear Keys Shoal

/-The i Little Bay) �· _ Wallblake* N

f � · "'i"Blowing Point Harbour ' West o s End j Ferry to St Martin km