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A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Principal Editors Graeme Kelleher, Chris Bleakley, and Sue Wells

Volume IV

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority The World Bank The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Manufactured in the United States of America First printing May 1995

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.

This publication was printed with the generous financial support of the Government of The Netherlands.

Copies of this publication may be requested by writing to: Environment Department The World Bank Room S 5-143 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. WORLD CNPPA MARINE REGIONS

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Contents

Introduction 1 Objective 2 Methodology 2 Selection of Priority Areas 3 Priorities for Conservation 3 Summary of Results 5 Priorities for Marine Biodiversity Conservation 8 General Recommendations 8 The Way Forward 11 14. South Pacific 13 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 13 Assessment of Existing MPAs 24 Assessment of Management 29 Priority Areas and Recommendations 32 Conclusion 47 Appendix 14.1 Island Domain Occurrence 48 Appendix 14.2 Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia Convention) 49 Bibliography 50 15. Northeast Pacific 55 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 55 Assessment of Existing MPAs 75 Priority Areas and Recommendations 84 Appendix Priority Areas by Biogeographic Region 97 Bibliography 104 16. Northwest Pacific 107 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 107 Assessment of Existing MPAs 114 Priority Areas and Recommendations 121 Conclusion 127 Note 12-7 Bibliography 127 17. Southeast Pacific 131 Biogeography anrd Marine Biodiversity 131 Assessment of Existing MPAs 136 Priority Areas and -Recommendations 144 Bibliography 150 18. Australia and New Zealand 153 Austrai a 153 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 154' Assessment of Existing MPAs 163 Assessment of Representation of Biogeographic Regions 165 Priority Areas and Recommendations 166 iv A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

New Zealand 171 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 1 72 Assessment of Existing MPAs 183, Priority Areas and Recommendations 185 Appendix 188 Bibliography 198 Contributors 201 Index 205 Map Supplement Acronyms

AIMS MAB Australian Institute of Marine Science Man and the Biosphere Programme

CITES MARPOL Convention on International Trade in Endan- International Convention for the Prevention gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora of Pollution from Ships

CNPPA NGO Commission on National Parks and Pro- Nongovernmental Organization tected Areas (IUCN) PADU GBRMPA Protected Areas Data Unit Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority SSC GEF Species Survival Commission Global Environment Facility TNC GIS The Nature Conservancy Geographic Information System UNDP HDU United Nations Development Programme Habitats Data Unit UNCED ICLARM United Nations Conference on Environment International Center for Living Aquatic Re- and Development source Management UNEP IMO United Nations Environment Programme International Maritime Oirganization UNESCO IUCN Unitied Nations Educational, Scientific, and The World Conservation- wUntion 'Cultral Organization

LME WCMC Large Marine Ecosystems World Conservation Monitoring Centre

MPA WWF Marine Protected Ate, World Wildlife Fund

Data Note Billion is a thousand million; trillion is a million million.

v Acknowledgments

This study could not have been Clive Wilkinson (Australian Institute of completed without the active and Marine Science). generous participation of members of Technical, editorial and the CNPPA Marine Network who administrative support was provided by committed their time and energies to a number of individuals over the course this project, mostly without monetary of the report's preparation. The high- recompense. Their valuable quality color maps were prepared by contribution far exceeded the financial Jeff Lecksell (World Bank), with data support provided by the institutions from Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA) and the involved, making publication of this WCMC and technical support from four volume study a highly cost- Puneet Kishor and Petter Nyborg, also effective and timely effort. Individual of the World Bank. Editorial and authors who contributed to the administrative support was provided by preparation of regional reports are listed staff of the GBRMPA Canberra Office: in the relevant regional section. Amanda Cohen, Maria Hawke, Helen The principal editors, Graeme McGregor, and Allison Pearson. Kelleher, Chris Bleakley and Sue Wells, Assistance with references and research and World Bank staff who contributed was provided by GBRMPA Library staff to and supervised production of the in Townsville, Australia: Karen Adler, publication, Colin Rees, Marea Rozel Brown, Clare Cappa, and Suzie Hatziolos, and Jan Post, would like to Davies. In Washington, indexing of the acknowledge the strong support and four volumes was prepared by Jeanne assistance provided by many people Moody (Beaver Wood Enterprises), and from the organizations that cooperated Charlotte Maxey and Cynthia St6«ck in preparing this study. In particular, (World Bank) coordinated the final recognition is given to the following design and composition of the individuals: publication. Danny Elder (Marine and Coastal The editors are grateful to Jan Post Areas Program, IUCN), Jeremy and Carleton Ray for providing photos Harrison (Protected Areas Data Unit, for the cover and accompanying poster WCMC), Richard Kenchington (External map and to Tomoko Hirata (World Services Section, GBRMPA), Bing Lucas Bank) for the cover design. Finally, (former Chair, CNPPA), Carl Gustaf GBRMPA, the World Bank, and.IUCN Lundin (Land, Water and Natural would like to express their sincere Habitats Division of the Environment thanks to the Government of Sweden, Department, World Bank), Jeff through Sida, for their support in McNeely, (Biodiversity Program, carrying out the study, and the IUCN), Ken Newcombe (Global Government of the Netherlands for Environment Coordination Division of their generous support for publication the Environment Department, World costs.. Bank), Adrian Phillips (Chair, CNPPA), Dave Sheppard (Protected Areas Program, IUCN), Mark Spalding (Habitats Data Unit, WCMC), and Introduction

This introduction is a summary of the com- conflicting uses of resources, damage and prehensive introductory chapter in Volume destruction of habitat, and other harmful con- I. It provides a summary of the background, sequences of human development. Biodiver- methodology, results, major conclusions and sity is especially at risk. Conserving marine recommendations of the four volumes of biodiversity is therefore a priority. this publication. An abbreviated summary of Since 1986 the IUCN Commission on Na- the major results of the 18 regional'reports is tional Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) also included. The full descriptions and full has been promoting the establishment and summaries of the results are included in the management of a global representative sys- introductory chapter in Volume I. tem of marine protected areas (MPAs). The The marine environment is critical to the, four volumes of this publication represent natural and cultural heritage of the world. the conclusion of the latest phase of Not only do many marine areas support a CNPPA's program and have been prepared great diversity of plants, animals, and natural through the collaboration of IUCN-CNPPA, habitats, but the oceans play 'an essential the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority role in climatic cycles and other global'proc- (GBRMPA), the World Bank, and many esses. Mari'ne ecosystems and resources are other organizations and individuals (acknow- fundamentail to-the sustainable development ledged in the' contributors' section of each of coastal countries, providing food, miner- volume). This publication documents the als, pharm"'aceuticals; construction materials, biogeographic and ecological chatracteristics and a vast range of other products. in each of 18 Marine Regions of the world They often support growing tourism ana and sumiari'zes the range of marine biodi- recreation industries and play a vital role in versity within each region and the major transport and in the culture and lifestyle of threats to its conservation. Based on a com- coastal people. However, marine ecosystems prehensive set-of selection criteria, including throughout the world face increasingly seri- ecological, social and economic factors, ma- ous threats from pollution. overexDloitation, rine protected area sites of national and re- 2 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

gional priority for the conservation of ma- Supporting information will be provided rine biodiversity are proposed in each re- for each of the regions, including: gion. These sites include existing MPAs in . An overview of the marine biodiversity need of improved management as well as and biogeography in each region, particu- new areas proposed to fill in the gaps in bio- larly as they, relate to MPAs geographic representation within the exist- . Available data on existing MPAs in each ing marine protected area system. region, including assessments of their rep- The following definition has been resentativeness and management effective- adopted by IUCN for the term "marine pro- ness tected area" (IUCN 1988): . Justification-for the selection of priority Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, areas together with its overlying water and associ- . Identification of further information re- ated flora, fauna, historical and cultural fea- quired for completing a network of MPAs tures, which has been reserved by law or to cover each region's marine biological other effective means to protect part or all of and geographic diversity. the enclosed environment.

METHODOLOGY OBJECTIVE The CNPPA has divided the marine areas of The, aim of the report is to identify priority the world into 18 marine regions, largely on areas for the establishment and management the basis of biogeographic criteria, but for of a global representative system of MPAs. It practical reasons also considering political provides strategic guidance to governments, boundaries. In 1990, working groups were aid agencies, and others working to conserve established in each region, consisting wher- marine biodiversity conservation and achieve ever possible of both marine resource man- sustainable use of the marine environment. agers and marine scientists. The aims of the The. report also offers recommendations that working groups have been to: address priority issues for the establishment . Summarize the main physical and biologi- and effective management of MPAs. cal characteristics of the marine environ- One of the prime objectives of this report ment was to produce maps of the 18 bio- . Divide each marine region into its con- geographic regions into which the CNPPA stituent biogeographic zones has divided the world, showing the loca- * Make an inventory of existing MPAs tions of: . Identify gaps in the representation of the * Existing MPAs biogeographic zones in MPAs * Existing MPAs characterized as to national * Identify areas of national or regional prior- and regional priority for management ity for the establishment of new MPAs or strengthening for management strengthening and sup- . Proposed new MPAs of national priority port to existing MPAs or regional priority. . Determine other recommenclations tor establishing or improving the management Both existing and proposed MPAs are de- of MPAs in each marine region. picted on the accompanying maps as a point representing the center of an area. For pro-. WorKsnops were held in the East Asian posed MPAs, this may be a well-defined lo- Seas (February 1993), the Baltic (June 1993), cation or a general focal area for, biodiversity North West Pacific (September 1993), the conservation requiring further investigation. South Pacific (October 1993) and_Latin Amer-- Introduction 3 ica (January 1994) regions to allow marine PRIORITES FOR CONSERVATION resource managers and marine scientists to cooperate in the identification of priorities. Priorities in this report have been identified In some regions this was the first time that for regional and national areas using avail- these two groups had cooperated in this able data.' Only limited information has been way for any purpose. available on some subjects in some regions Information from the Protected Areas Data and countries, and the report reflects this Unit and Habitats Data Unit at'the World variability in data. Recommendations on the Conservation Monitoring Centre has been management of individual MPAs require de- made available to GBRMPA and the World tailed assessment of these sites. Unfortu- Bank for this project, and these organiza- nately, the limitations of time and resources tions now maintain an identical computer- meant that such assessments were beyond ized database on MPAs. This database, the scope of this report. which has been substantially edited and up- The report concentrates on the subtidal dated for the purpose of this report by the marine environment in coastal areas and Bank and GBRMPA, has been used to gener- does not attempt to assess intertidal, estu- ate maps showing the location of MPAs arine, and wetland areas. In some instances, worldwide, each region's biogeographic clas- a lack of available information on the sification scheme, and the location of prior- boundaries of protected areas that appear to ity areas for the conservation of marine have marine components made it difficult to biodiversity of global significance. determine the extent of any marine environment: It was therefore decided to identify only those areas that include a significant SELECrION OF PRIORITY AREAS subtidal -marine component. Whenever possible national priority areas The criteria used to identify priority areas in were identified by national representatives this report-were developed by Kelleher and and regional priority areas were identified Kenchington (1992) and have been adopted by the regional working group leader. This by the International Maritime Organization process of identification stretched over three for use in the identification of Particularly years and every effort was made to incorpo- Sensitive Sea Areas and by the parties to the rate contributions from marine resource man- Helsinki Convention for identification of a agers and marine scientists in each country. system of marine protected areas for the Bal- The selection of sites was to some extent tic Sea. subjective, and the lack of information and a Priorities were identified primarily on the well-tested and accepted global bio- basis of ecological and biogeographic crite- geographical classification system makes the ria using available data. Other, equally irn- determination of priorities between regions portant,' criteria were used to provide difficult. However, priorities in each region additional justification for or against the se- have been identified within the framework lection of a particular area and to help de- of a biogeographic classification system con- cide the feasibility of establishing and sidered appropriate for that region. successfully mianaging a marine protected Many nations are carrying out programs area. All priority areas were therefore as- for conservation'and development of the ma- sessed as having a reasonable chance of suc- rine environment. As far as possible, the pri- cess as a marine' protected area. orities identified in this report are consistent Within these guidelines, each working with expressed national priorities, as identi- group applied the specific criteria shown in fied by national representatives or in docu- Box 1 for the'-selection of priority areas. ments such as National Environmental 4 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Box 1. Criteria for Selection of Priority Areas

Biogeographic criteria inhabitants, appreciation by tourists and * presence of rare biogeographic qualities others or as a refuge nursery area or or representative of a biogeographic source of economically important species). "type" or types * unique or unusual geological features. Social importance * existing or potential value to the local, Ecological criteria national or international communities be- * an essential part of ecological processes cause of its heritage, historical, cultural, or life-support systems (for example, is a traditional aesthetic, educational or rec- source for larvae for downstream areas) reational qualities. * area's integrity, or the degree to which the area either by itself or in association Scientific Importance with other protected areas, encompasses * value for research and monitoring. a complete ecosystem * the variety of habitats international or national significance * presence of habitat for rare or endan- * potential to be listed on the World (or na- gered species tional) Heritage List, declared a Bio- * nursery or juvenile areas sphere Reserve, or included on a list of * feeding, breeding or rest areas areas of international or national impor- * rare or unique habitat for any species tance, or is the subject of an international * genetic diversity (is diverse or abundant or national conservation agreement. in species terms). Practicality/or feasibility Naturalness * degree of insulation from external de- * extent to which the area has been pro- structive influences tected from, or has not been subject to, * social and political acceptability, degree human-induced change. of community support * accessibility for education, tourism, rec- Economic importance reation * existing or potential contribution to eco- * compatibility with existing uses, particu- nomic value by virtue of its protection larly by locals (for example, protection of an area for * ease of management or compatibility recreation, subsistence, use by traditional with existing management regimes.

Action Plans or National Conservation information from management experience, Strategies. community education, research and monitor- Priorities for marine biodiversity conserva- ing should be taken into account in making tion will change in the future as further infor- decisions and taking action. Regular review mation becomes available, as experience and updating of the priorities identified in and education increase the awareness of this report is therefore to be welcomed. communities and decisionmakers about the It its beyond the scope of this report to role and importance of marine environments deal with issues relating to broader coastal and ecosystems, and as the priorities identi- zone management. However, the close inter- fied in this report are acted upon. This new action between marine environments and be- Introduction 5

Table 1. Number of Subtidal MPAs, by Marine Region Marine Region Number of MPAs Percentageof Total

1 Antarctic 17 1.3 2 Arctic 16 1.2 3 Mediterranean 53 4.0 4 Northwest Atlantic 89 6.8 5 Northeast Atlantic 41 3.1 6 Baltic 43 3.2 7 Wider Caribbean 104 7.9 8 West Africa 42 3.2 9 South Atlantic 19 1.4 10 Central Indian Ocean 15 1.1 11 Arabian Seas 19 1.4 12 East Africa 54 4.1 13 East Asian Seas 92 7.0 14 South Pacific 66 5.0 15 Northeast Pacific 168 12.8 16 Northwest Pacific 190 14.5 17 Southeast Pacific 18 1.3 18 Australia/New Zealand 260 19.9 Total 1,306

tween the land and sea imposes an urgent SUMMARY OF RESULTS need for the integration of protected area management and an overall conservation In terms of the number of MPAs, there are strategy in the coastal zone. This is a central significant disparities between marine re- challenge to governments and organizations gions (Table 1). working in coastal areas. MPAs are success- There is also wide variation in the size of ful only if they are managed as part of MPAs. The mean size of the MPAs invento- broader programs that provide for manage- ried is over 100,000 hectares. However, this ment of all uses of the sea and adjacent number is greatly skewed by a relatively land. Large, multiple-use MPAs covering small number of very large MPAs; a truer re- complete ecosystems are a major step to- flection may be given by the median size, ward this goal. They can be examples of ef- which is 1,584 hectares. Table 2 shows the fectively protected Large Marine Ecosystems distribution of MPAs according to size (LMEs). Smaller reserves, which are often classes. community-based, also need to incorporate Biogeographic classification systems have management of land-based activities that af- been adopted for use in 17 of the 18 marine fect the viability of the MPA. regions, the exception being the Antarctic re- Although this report is concerned with gion, for which there is no general agree- sites of regional importance for marine biodi- ment on an appropriate classification versity, it recommends that all countries system). These systems have been used in within a region should attempt to conserve a assessing the degree to which existing MPAs biogeographically representative set of sites represent the major biogeographic types in at the national level in accordance with Reso- each marine region. Table 3 lists the number lution 17.38 of the IUCN General Assembly. of zones in each region that have at least 6 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 2. Distribution of MPAs For the zones that have MPAs the mean by Size Class number of MPAs, per zone is approximately Size Number of MPAs eleven. This number is skewed by a large number of MPAs in relatively few zones. 1-10 41 The median number of MPAs per bio- 11-100 175 geographic zone is four. 101-1,000 226 Table 4 shows the number of bio- 1,001-10,000 242 geographic zones in relation to number of 10,00-100,000 206gegahcznsireaintnubro 100,001-1,000,000 79 MPAs, according to frequency classes rang- > 1,000,000 22 ing from 0 to 26 or more. unknown 315 The recommendations of the IVth World Total 1,306 Congress on National Parks and Protected ,______Areas (IUCN 1993) call for 10 percent of each biome of the world to be included in protected areas. Although the lack of an ac- one MPA and the number that have no cepted global classification system makes MPAs. comparison between marine regions diffi- Across all marine regions 118 out of 150 cult, broad conclusions may be drawn about zones (about 79 percent) have at least one the extent to which MPAs achieve this objec- MPA, while 32 (about 21 percent) zones tive. have no MPAs. Two marine regions (North- In the great majority of cases the area, of west Atlantic and East Asian Seas) have each marine biogeographic zone that is in- MPAs in every zone. All the remaining six- cluded in MPAs is much less than 1 percent teen ,marine regions have at least one zone of its total area. Furthermore, most of the with no MPAs. biogeographic zones are large areas that in-

Table 3. Representation of Biogeographic Zones Number of Biogeograpbic Number of Biogeographic Marine Region Zones uith at kast one MPA Zones witb no MPAs 1 Antarctic 2 Arctic 4 1 3 Mediterranean 8 2 4 Northwest Atlantic 10 0 5 Northeast Atlantic 5 1 6 Baltic 8 1 7 Wider Caribbean 5 1 8 West Africa 4 1 9 South Atlantic 4 1 10 Central Indian Ocean 4 2 11 Arabian Seas 8 5 12 East Africa 3 2 13 East Asian Seas 8 0 14 South Pacific 12 8 15 Northeast Pacific 8 1, 16 Northwest Pacific 7 1 17 Southeast Pacific 3 3 18 Australia/New Zealand 17 2 Total 118 32 Introduction 7

Table 4. Frequency of MPAs Table 5. Management Level of MPAs In Biogeographic 'Zones ManagementLevel Number of MPAs MPAs perZone Number of Zones High 117 0 32 Moderate 155 1-5 60 Low 111 6-10 22 Unknown 923 11-15 9 Total 1,306 16-20 6 ______21-25 9 26+ 12 answered without information on the extent Total 150 to which MPAs are achieving their conservation objectives. However, data on management effectiveness are sketchy. The difficulty of obtaining such information points to the clude a range of different ecosystem types. general absence of evaluation of manage- More detailed information on the range of ment effectiveness. Although field surveys ecosystem types present in each zone and in could not be carried out to supplement avail- each MPA would be required to determine able existing data, it has been possible to as- the extent to which the biodiversity of each sess the management of 383 out of 1,306 zone is "represented." However, there must MPAs (29 percent). The management level be doubts about the extent to which MPAs has been classified according to the follow- of a median size of 1,500 hectares can pro- ing scheme: tect a representative sample of the biodiver- . High: Generally achieve management ob- sity of a large zone, particularly given the jectives interconnectedness of the sea and the de- * Moderate: Partially achieve management gree to which material (pollutants, larvae, objectives and so on) and impacts are transferred. * Low: Generally fail to achieve manage- From the available information on the ment objectives size, number and distribution of MPAs according to biogeographic type, it is clear Table 5 shows the numbers of MPAs as- that the coverage of existing MPAs falls well sessed as having high, moderate or low man- below a target figure of 10 percent of all ma- agement level. rine biomes. About one-fifth of the marine About 31 percent of those MPAs for which biogeographic types identified have no data were available were assessed as having MPAs. Although there is sure to be a degree. a high management level and generally of commonality of biogeographic types be- achieving their management objectives. tween some marine regions, these gaps The reasons for MPAs failing to achieve would appear to be significant at the re- their management objectives vary between gional scale. marine regions. However, there are some There are a few very large MPAs, but commonly recurring themes that can be sum- most are relatively small areas of less than a marized as: few thousand hectares. Many are threatened a Insufficient financial and technical re- by activities beyond their boundaries that sources to develop and implement man- are beyond the scope of existing manage- agement plans ment control. . Lack of trained staff Questions about the degree of protection . Lack of data on which to base manage- provided to marine biodiversity cannot be ment decisions including information on 8 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

the impacts of resource use and the status MPAs sites have been identified as being of of biological resources regional priority for the conservation of ma- * Lack of public support and unwillingness rine biodiversity. Of these, 73 (47 percent) of users to follow management rules, are existing areas that require support for im- often because users have not been mean- proved management and 82 (53 percent) are ingfully involved in establishing these proposed new MPAs. rules . Inadequate commitment to enforcing management GENERAL RECOmENDATIONS * Unsustainable use of resources within

MPAs The recommendationa U113LL publication * Impacts from activities in land and sea ar- specifically. address priority issues for the es- eas outside the boundaries of MPAs, in- tablishment and effective management of a cluding pollution and overexploitation, global representative system of marine pro- lack of clear organizational responsibili- tected areas for the protection and sustain- ties for management, and absence of coor- able management of the world's marine dination between agencies with biodiversity. responsibilities relevant to MPAs Key recommendations are outlined below, * Lack of clear organizational responsibili- with the full text provided in the introduc- ties for management and absence of coor- tory chapter of Volume 1. The recommenda- dination between agencies with tions are based on an analysis of the 18 responsibilities relevant to MPAs. regional reports and a synthesis of the recommendations contained in these reports. Achieving effective management of existing MPAs is of equal priority to the estab- 1. Achieving Integrated Management lishment of new areas. In most regions a of the Marine Environment significant number of MPAs exist only on paper with no management plan and no man- The establishment and management of agement activity of any sort. MPAs should occur within regimes that provide for integrated management of all uses of the adjacent land and sea areas. Thus, PRIORITIES FOR MARIE BIODiVERSiTY wherever possible, management of MPAs CONSERVATION should*be coordinated with the management of adjacent land areas. A listing of regional priority areas for all re- Management responsibilities for MPAs gions covered in a volume is included in a must be clearly defined to avoid duplication table at the end of each volume. This is fol- and competition between agencies. These re- lowed by a serious of regional maps.with sponsibilities must be accompanied by insti- digitized information on the location of each tutional and administrative mechanisms to of these sites. National and regional priority ensure coordination of agencies with respon- areas for each Marine Region are included in sibilities relevant to the marine environment. the relevant regional report. Achievement of ecological sustainability In all, 640 MPA sites have been identified should be the overriding goal of MPA man- as being of national priority for marine biodi- agement. versity conservation. Of these, 232 (36 per- The Large Marine Ecosystem and UNESCO cent) are existing areas that require support Biosphere Reserve models should be ap- for improved management and 408 (64 per- plied where practicable in establishing and cent) are proposed new MPAs. In total, 155 managing MPAs. In particular, a large multi- Introduction 9 ple-use MPA may provide the basis for inte- MPA management priorities. Providing infor- grated and sustainable management of a mation of practical use to managers for the complete marine ecosystem, with the advan- protection and management of marine biodi- tage that coordination of regulating different versity should be a primary objective of all human activities can be automatically these systems. achieved when management responsibility rests with one agency. 3. Securing Community Support

2. Ensuring the Application of Science Where there is continuing use or custody of to Management marine resources by local people, whether an effective MPA can be established will de- Increased research and monitoring are re- pend largely on the voluntary acceptance of quired to assist in making MPA management management measures locally. MPA manag- decisions. Available funds should be di- ers should therefore devolve some responsi- rected toward those areas of research that bility to local users, including involvement have a high likelihood of answering manage- in planning and participation in management questions. ment programs. the establishing of an effec- The development of long-term monitoring tive MPA will depend very largely on program for all MPAs should be a priority. A voluntary acceptance of management meas- fairly broad sweep will be needed for moni- ures, including involvement in planning and toring the changes brought about by the var- participation in management programs. The ied human activities and for providing use of traditional knowledge and skills in the enough information to develop appropriate management of MPAs should be encouraged. management responses. This will require de- MPAs must provide for the continued wel- veloping techniques that can be easily under- fare of people affected by their creation. stood and widely applied. Community support will depend on the de- Research is needed on the existing and velopment of management plans that are, to planned uses of the marine environment the extent feasible, compatible with tradi- and their likely effects. Such basic informa- tional or customary practices for the use and tion is essential to keeping these activities conservation of marine resources. MPAs compatible with the overriding goal of eco- should be used for the economic well-being logical sustainability. of coastal communities by providing a sus- There are two fundamental principles in tainable flow of benefits as well as achieving ensuring effective application of science to conservation objectives. Where appropriate management: to management objectives and within the Managers and scientists must work to- limits of ecological sustainability, tourism gether in the identifying the environ- and fisheries should be encouraged to pro- mental problems to be addressed by the vide sustainable financial benefits to local scientific methods. communities. . Managers and scientists must work to- Ongoing consultation with local communi- gether'in designing the research programs ties is required to determine economic, so- for addressing such problems and in inter- cial, cultural and conservation priorities and preting and applying the results: to determine how MPAs can help achieve these priorities. MPAs should be integrated Any further' developments in bio- and compatible with ecological, social, and geographic classification resulting from this economic objectives at both the national and research o'r monitoring can proceed in'paral- local levels. Local communities must be con- lel with the irnplementation of immediate vinced of the importance of using marine re- 10 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

sources sustainably and of the need and agencies should commence a coordinated benefits of taking action to protect marine scientific and administrative effort to ensure biodiversity. This will require conducting in- that existing MPAs meet their management formation campaigns to raise the profile of objectives. MPAs and marine biodiversity conservation Programs that aim to support MPAs must and incorporation of a strong marine compo- provide sufficient financial and technical re- nent in environmental education. sources over a time frame long enough to allow for effective implementation, monitor- 4. Developing the Human Capacity ing, and review of management plans. to Manage 6. Identifying Sources of Funding International and other support for capacity development in marine management should Sufficient resources need to be mobilized for emphasize the development of training ca- the development and implementation of pacity within regions and countries. Such an management plans, for regulatory statutory approach involves "training the trainers" and review processes, interpretation, education, the establishment of regional and national training, volunteer programs, research, moni- training centers that can undertake further toring, surveillance and enforcement pro- training to produce a multiplier effect. grams. It is unlikely that governments alone -Training should extend to all levels, from can provide these resources now or in the field staff to senior managers with the aim of future. equipping MPA managers with the skills re- Sustainable financing for MPAs, therefore, quired for their job. Training is'required to must be developed if they are to function increase the political awareness of the bene- well in the long term. This will require inno- fits of effective MPA systems. vative approaches and partnerships. Exam- There is a demand for a network in which ples include revenue generation from taxes managers of MPAs can share and learn from or "rent" from resource uses such as fisher- each other's experience and discuss and re- ies or tourism, as well as taxes on develop- view management priorities. ment projects that result in losses of marine or coastal biodiversity. In some countries the 5. Achieving a Balance Between Planning, establishment of trust funds has proved to

Implementation and Evaluation - be a -useful tool. Partnerships with -NGOs and the private sector, which leverage man- In total, 1,306 MPAs have been identified as agement skills and investment capital for in- established in all of the marine regions. come generating enterprises consistent with Available data suggest that the number of conservation objectives should also be ex- MPAs that fail to achieve their management plored. objectives is high. -One reason for this is that Research should be carried out to evaluate the resources and emphasis on planning - and-publicize the economic benefits of MPAs typically exceeds that given to imple- MPAs and the feasibility of integrated conser- mentation of management. There is even vation and.development. (CNPPA is carrying less attention given to evaluation of the suc- out such research.) cess of management. In cooperation -with local communities Effective implementation, monitoring and and other groups, managementvagencies review are essential for MPAs to achieve should identify and establish facilities to pro- their management goals, and should be part mote ecotourism in MPAs and make use of of all MPA management programs. MPA- MPAsas a tool for fisheries management. IntrodlutliOn 11

Many developing countries will require fi- tions such as the GEF, World Bank, United nancial assistance to establish national MPA Nations Development Programme (UNDP), systems, and there is a clear role for the in- regional banks, bilateral organizations, and ternational community to provide such sup- nongovernmental sources. port. However, in some cases the most Many of these agencies provide funding effective use of resources might be made primarily on a national basis. It follows that through the use of a regional fund or system the development of proposals for priority of national environmental funds, particularly MPAs in developing countries should have a where there is a diversity of small govern- strong national focus and that all such pro- mental and nongovernmental organizations posals must be developed and implemented managing MPAs. with the full involvement and support of the relevant national government authorities and other appropriate organizations and individu- Tim WAY FORWARD als. The importance of this principle has been recognized in this report, which has This report recommends priority areas and been developed with very wide participation actions for the creation of a global repre- of national representatives. Although in the sentative system of MPAs. It is intended to majority of cases proposals probably will be provide strategic guidance to the Global En- country specific, in some instances they may vironment Facility (GEF), World Bank, and be developed using regional institutions that other organizations for investment in marine have national support, such- as the South Pa- biodiversity conservation. The next phase cific Regional Environment Programme must focus on the development and imple- (SPREP) and the Coordinating Body for the mentation of specific proposals for the crea- Seas of East Asia (COBSEA). This pragmatic tion of new MPAs and for improved approach has advantages in promoting coor- management arrangements. for inadequately dination between country efforts and in managed existing MPAs. Sites of highest pri- some cases may be more efficient in terms ority in each region are identified in this re- of administrative effort. port. At the same time, in some regions or International organizations such as IUCN countries, additional investigation is required and CNPPA that already have a broad con- to refine priorities or.to begin filling in the stituency of both governmental and nongov- gaps in knowledge that will make it possible errmental organizations can also be used to set priorities. effectively. This report proposes that IUCN It can be expected that developed coun- and CNPPA mobilize this constituency to tries will take the initiatives and provide the consult with the governments of the develop- funding for further developing their national ing countries where the priority areas identi- MPA systems, using funds and resources of fied in this study occur. It will be necessary their own. By identifying priorities, this re- to establish national working groups of sci- port will help such countries make the most entists and-managers to ensure coordination efficient use of their resources. and cooperation between the management Few developing countries have the hu- and scientific communities. NGOs and com- man or financial resources that are required munity.groups should also be represented in to create, and effectively manage new MPAs. the process. The purpose of the consult- These countries will require assistance inter- ations will be to develop proposals for im- nationally in terms of both expertise and the plementing the priorities that meet the provision of funds. Possible sources of those criteria of funding organizations and that are funds include international financing institu- compatible with national social and eco- 12 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Box 2. Priority Actions for the Establishment of a Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

1. Develop and implement projects to ad- plied for carrying out monitoring and research dress the priority areas and other recommen- in MPAs; achieve effective community support dations in this report. and participation in management of MPAs and 2. Establish national representative systems strengthen the capacity and effectiveness for of MPAs which, as far as possible, encompass planning, administration and day-to-day man- complete ecosystems or habitats and which agement. are integrated with national policies and effec- 8. Carry out training programs that develop tive mechanisms for coastal zone management. the capacity for MPA management in regions 3. Develop institutional arrangements to and countries. These programs should train achieve integrated management of each MPA trainers and develop training curricula and and provide coordination mechanisms to en- use these as a basis for regional- and country- sure that adjacent land and sea areas are man- based curricula and training. aged in a complementary way. 9. Establish a global network to support ma- 4. Actively involve local communities and marine resource managers, based on existing re- rine resource users in the planning, manage- gional networks. ment and maintenance of MPAs. 10. Carry out further investigations to address 5. Bring managers and scientists together to biogeographic and other information gaps nec- conduct integrated, multi-disciplinary, manage- essary for the identification of priority areas as ment-oriented research and monitoring pro- part of the global system of marine protected grams to provide a rational basis for selection, areas. planning and management of MPAs. 11. Mobilize domestic resources for marine 6. Commence a coordinated effort to system- protected area management from such atically monitor the effectiveness of existing sources as natural resource taxes and levies, MPAs. user charges, joint ventures with the private 7. Develop and disseminate tools and guide- sector, trust funds and endowments, and eco- lines that can be widely understood and ap- tourism.

nomic developmental priorities. The develop- nities. A flexible mechanism also must be ment of national and local management ca- found to reflect, for example, progress in re- pacity must be key to all proposals. fining the identification of biogeographic ele- These activities will need to be comple- ments that will most likely reveal the need mented by a suite of other actions if a sys- for additional MPAs to create a more repre- tem of MPAs is to be developed that sentative system of MPAs. To begin this proc- effectively represents the biogeographic ess, the study has identified various priority zones of the world's seas and contributes to actions for the establishment of a global rep- the maintenance of marine biodiversity as resentative system of marine protected ar- well as to the well-being of human commu- eas, outlined in Box 2. MARINE REGION 14 South Pacific

Chris Bleakley, editor

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE (not including Hawaii and the islands of BIODIVERSITY Chile) consist of only 550,000 square kilometers of land with about 5.2 million inhabi- The following section draws on information tants. However, the figures drop to merely presented by Holthus and Maragos (1992) 8,7,587 square kilometers of land area and and other sources as noted. 2.2 million people if Papua New Guinea is The South Pacific Marine Region extends excluded. In contrast to the small land areas, from Palau and Papua New Guinea in the most of these island states encompass enor- west to Easter and Sala y Gomez Islands of mous sea areas within their Exclusive Eco- Chile in the east. The northern boundary in- nomic Zones (EEZs), resulting in very small cludes the Hawaiian Islands and Wake and land to sea area ratios (Table 14.1). Johnstone atolls of the United States and the Almost all the Pacific Islands are entirely Northern Mariana Islands. The southern coastal in character. That is, all parts of the boundary lies north of the subtropical is- island influence, or are influenced by proc- lands of Australia (Lord Howe and Norfolk esses and activities occurring on coastal Islands) and New Zealand (Kermedec Is- lands and in coastal waters. The countries lands), which fall within the Australia/New and territories of the South Pacific region Zealand Marine Region. It should be noted have large coast to land ratios, a strong de- that in including the Hawaiian Islands and pendence of their economies on coastal re- Wake and Johnston Islands this definition sources, with a concurrent lack of an inland differs slightly from the definition of the economic base and with their population "South Pacific Region" used for the area fall- concentrated along the coast. The only clear ing within the South Pacific Region Environ- exception in the region is Papua New ment Program. Guinea, which has a more dispersed popula- Sprawled across some 29 million square tion and economic base. kilometers of the Pacific Ocean, the 22 is- The marine environment, particularly land countries and territories of the region coastal areas, are of great significance to Pa-

13 14 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 14.1 Pacific Island Developing Countries and Territories-Land, Sea Areas Sub-region Land (square kilometers) Sea (square kilometers) Land:Sea (percent)

Micronesia 3,218 8,800,000 0.036 Polynesia 8,733 13,200,000 0.066 Melanesia (including 542,231 5,500,000 9.850 Papua New Guinea) Total 554,182 27,500,000 2.01

Source: Wauthy 1986 cific Island peoples, cultures and economies. tibn of marine environments and resources Coral reefs are the major feature'of shallow could be avoided or reduced through inte- marine environments in the insular Pacific. grated coastal management and planning They are of substantial ecological and' eco- that promotes' a comprehensive, multisec- nomic importance since their productivity toral, integrated approach to the use and and biological diversity provide the natural conservation of coastal areas and marine re- resource base for fisheries and tourism. In sources and is compatible with the tradi- turn, fisheries and tourism are major sources tional and cultural characteristics of Pacific of food, employment and foreign currency Island nations. Marine Protected Areas income. For some Pacific Island countries (MPAs) can play an important role for the these industries represent the sole opportu- conservation of marine biological diversity nity for significant economic development. in the insular Pacific within such overall pro- In many countries reefs are also important in gramrs for coastal management and planning. indigenous customary culture. In the insular Pacific coral reefs and other Oceanography marine habitats are increasingly threatened by land-based development on the coast Except where noted information in this sec- and overexploitation. Coastal areas are the tion is adapted from Wauthy (1986). location of the overwhehiing majority of hu- Map 14 shows the major currents in the man habitation and the target of most forms South Pacific region. The North Equatorial of economic development. This develop- Current is fed in the east by the California ment often has immediate impacts on the Current, and the return flow of the North marine environment, and with unsustainable Equatorial Counter Current and in the Cen- and often destructive fishing techniques and ttal Pacific by a branch of the North Pacific the impacts of tourism activities, is increas- Current. This' current flows west as a broad ingly resulting in the degradation of marine and powerful current that covers a zonal habitats and the biological diversity they sup- band between 8-10°N and the Tropic of Can- port. In addition, coastal marine areas now cer to the west of 180°. The South Equatorial face the threat of possible sea level' rise due Current flows as a broad westerly 'current be- to global warming. tween the Tropic of Capricorn and 10°S. These problems are becoming widespread The Equatorial Current flows west be- and in some areas urgent, as the potential tween 5°N and 5°S and is generated by the for sustainable development of coastal' areas entrainment force of the east winds that and resources and the conservation of ma- come from the Southern Hemisphere and rine biological diversity are permanently reach'the equator (mainly the tradewind of compromised. The degradation'and deple- the Easter anticyclone). Centered on the Marine Region 14: South Pacific 15

equator beneath this westward flow is an ceed one year. The phenomenon is accom- easterly subsurface jetstream that is knowr. panied by an eastward propagation of warm as the Cromwell Current or Equatorial Under- waters, variation in the sea level, displace- current. In addition to this subsurface east- ment of the low atmospheric pressure zones ward movement of water, there are two and drought in the westem areas. A further easterly flowing equatorial counter currents, consequence of this phenomenon is the dis- observable at the surface between 3°N and appearance of the equatorial upwelling that 8°N (North Equatorial Counter Current) and is usually rich in plankton that support ma- north of 10°N (South Equatorial Counter rine life; with the result that fish catches de- Current). cline (ADB/UNDP/SPREP 1992). The South Pacific region is characterized Nutrients flow into the region from areas by very warm surface waters of low annual of upwelling off the coast of Peru and Cali- thermal amplitude. The temperature on the fornia. These waters quickly become impov- southem boundary descends to only 22°C in erished as they are warmed at the surface the austral winter south of New Caledonia and nutrients are consumed by photosynthe- and near Australia, and remains above 24°C sis. On the equator, the divergence in the in the northern winter north of the Marianas. westward surface flow of the Equatorial Cur- It is above 28°C throughout the area in the rent as a result of the earth's rotation causes Northem Hemisphere'in the northem sum- some upwelling of subsurface water, colder mer and above 26°C south of the equator in and richer in nutrients. the southern summer. Temperatures higher However, the waters of the South Pacific than 29°C are found over almost half the Region are nutrient poor relative to most South Pacific region in ,each hemisphere dur- other regions. There are subtropical anticy- ing the respective summers. Some cooling clonic gyres in both the north and south in takes place throughout the year in an equa- which the surface iayer of the ocean is prac- torial belt east of the dateline, due mainly to tically devoid of nutrients and consequently equatorial upwelling and, to a lesser extent, supports very little marine life. Coastal wa- westward advection by the Equatorial Cur- ters are higher in nutrients as a result of rent of the colder waters of the eastem weathering, leaching and runoff from is- Pacific. lands. These inputs play an important local- Surface water salinity throughout the re- ized role in sustaining coastal marine gion varies between a minimum of less than ecosystems, but are of a magnitude to influ- 34 0/00 and a maximum of above 360/00. The ence ocean-wide nutrient levels only in the minimum occurs in the western parts of the Melanesian region. region aro und Micronesia where precipitation significantly exceeds evaporation. Maxi- Coastal Geography and Geology mum salinities are associated with subtropical gyres in the north (around the The South Pacific includes a multitude of Marianas 1islands) and south (east of French small islands scattered over a vast expanse Polynesia).where evaporation is intense and of ocean. Islands are mostly grouped in ar- exceeds moderate precipitation. chipelagos that form Micronesia in the north- An important long-term meteorological in- west and Polynesia in the east. These fluence on the region is the El Nifio oscilla- groups.contrast with the larger islands of tion. In the western Pacific, the marine Melanesia, which extend from Fiji to New currents an'd their heat content undergo Guinea and form part of the structural mass marked seasonal and interannual variations. of the Australian contihent. The oceanr circulation can reverse itself in The sea is the dominant feature of the re- the equatorial zone for periods that can ex- gion: In Micronesia, islands represent only 16 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas an infinitesimal fraction of the ocean area; to determined by the structure and history of a lesser extent the same is true also for Poly- the island substrate. Islands in the Pacific nesia where the remoteness from continents may be classified into four general types: at- accentuates the impression of isolation; it is olls, raised coral islands, volcanic islands less marked in island Melanesia, where there and continental islands. It is possible to find is almost 100 times as much land area as in intermediates between these types, such as a Micronesia. volcano surrounded by an atoll-like lagoon Island arcs form an almost continuous and barrier reef, or elevated reef attached to chain of islands or shallows stretching from a continental or volcanic island (Dahl 1984). New Zealand, through Tonga, the Solomon Most islands have been formed as a result of Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, Palau either volcanic activity or coral reef develop- and the Marianas to Japan. This is the area ment. of such adjacent seas as the Tasman Sea, Atolls are formed by the accumulation of Coral Sea, Solomon Sea and Philippine Sea. sand and rubble from weathered coral and Seamounts support archipelagos such as Fiji, other debris associated with the growth of Vanuatu, New Caledonia and the Loyalty Is- coral reefs on submerged volcanic cones. lands, while ridges (such as Lau Ridge) iso- They often follow linear groupings associ- late plateaux where the depth exceeds 2,000 ated with volcanic activity. These islands meters (Northern Fiji and Chesterfield) and may be only a few meters above sea level, even 4,000 meters (New Guinea Basin, Solo- and usually either entirely or partially en- mons Basin, New Hebrides Basin, Fiji Basin close a central lagoon or form small islets and Coral Sea Basin) (Wauthy 1986). around its edges (Elder and Pemetta 1991). The island arcs are bounded on the east Raised coral islands are islands or parts of by deep trenches, the most distinctive of islands composed of raised coral platforms which are the Marianas Trench (10,915 me- or limestone, elevated by tectonic activity. ters), Palau Trench (8,050 meters), Bougain- Raised reefs usually present a steep coast- ville Trench (9,103 meters), New Hebrides line, in some places with plunging cliffs and Trench (9,165 meters), Tonga Trench in others ringed with coral reef (Schwartz (10,882 meters) and Kermadec Trench 1982). These islands include types with an (10,047 meters). overlying noncalcareous soil derived from To the east of the island arcs seamounts volcanic ash or alluvial deposits and those in the form of ocean ridges stretch over con- with little or no overlying soil (Dahl 1980). siderable distances. Their width varies from Volcanic islands are among the highest in 200 kilometers to 500 kilometers and they the Pacific and generally have a steep off- are more or less parallel, running in a NW- shore gradient, dropping rapidly to the SE direction. These seamounts sometimes ocean depths. There may be many grada- form the basements of atolls (Carolines, Mar- tions of ecosystems present, ranging from shalls, Kiribati and Tuvalu, Tokelau-Cook, pioneer communities to dense vegetation, Line Islands and Tuamotu-Gambier). Other depending on the age of the substrate. less extensive relief features created by vol- These islands are usually surrounded by canic activity form the basements of more highly productive fringing or barrier reefs isolated island groups (Society Islands, Sa- (Elder and Pemetta 1991). moa, Marquesas, and Hawaii). Continental type islands such as Papua The type of island on which a biological New Guinea are composed of sedimentary, community occurs is a major determinant of metamorphic, igneous or other rocks of con- the marine ecosystems present. For exam- tinental origin and are typically of large size ple, many reef forms and lagoon types are and complex landform (Dahl 1980). These is- Marine Region 14: South Pacific 17

lands are characterized by the presence of grove swamps are common (Dahl 1984) or better developed drainage basins, higher vol- where steep shoreline topography or season- umes of freshwater runoff and greater levels ally cold water temperatures prevent reef de- of nutrient input into coastal water than velopment or coral growth. other island types. Within the central Indo-Pacific, coral faunas are essentially homogenous at both ge- Ecosystem Diversity neric and species level (Veron 1986). The most obvious trend is the decreasing diver- The broad patterns of biological diversity in sity of scleractinian corals from the western the South Pacific region are generally Pacific, adjacent to the Indo-Malayan center known (see Dahl 1979 and 1980; of coral reef evolution and diversity, to the IUCN/UNEP 1986; and Springer 1982). The central and eastern Pacific, and from the diversity of marine organisms decreases equator horth and'south to more temperate from west to east across the Pacific Ocean, waters (Table 14.2). largely as a function of the decrease in habi- The east-west trend may be a result of the tat diversity and species distribution away prevailing westward currents preventing east- from the center of biological diversity for the ward dispersal of many corals. The main Indo-Pacific in the Indonesia area. The distri- easterly tropical current (the North Equato- bution of coral genera, mangrove species rial Counter Current) flows north of the and seagrass all exemplify this situation. Re- equator, missing most reef areas. gional patterns of coral and mangrove diver- With the decrease in diversity away from sity clearly indicate the importance of the the western Pacific center of diversity there Southwest Pacific, and Papua New Guinea is also a noticeable increase in levels of en- in particular, as the high diversity area at the demism. Hawaii is very isolated from other region level. The southwest islands of Palau reefs and has a marginal northern tropical lo- also fall within the high diversity area (Holthus and Maragos 1992). Table 14.2 Maximum Number Coral Reefs of Hermatypic Coral Genera Maximum The following infornation is based on Number of UNEP/IUCN (1988) and other sources as Coral Genera Area noted. Coral makes up a great proportion ot Pa- 70 Papua New Guinea cific islands, either by active growth of the 60 Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New reef itself or by accumulation of reef debris 50 Gilbert Islands, Guam, Saipan by mechanical forces such as waves and cur- Islands, Mariana Islands, rents. Coral growth is influenced by oceano- 40 Marshall Islands, Samoa, Cook graphic factors such temperature, salinity, 30 Tahiti Society Islands McKean currents a'nd wave force, as well as by sub- Islands, Kanton Islands strate type' 20 Pitcaim, Oeno Atoll The majority of the South Pacific Islands 10 Wake Islands, Midway Islands, Hawaii, Line Islands, Tonga, fall within the 20°C isotherm that defines the Marquesas Islands lirnits of t'rpical waters suitable for coral limitsof trbpica) waters suitable for c9ral Note: Figures are based on distribution ranges of reef devefopment. Coral reef ecosystems are coral genera, not totals actually recorded for a given dominant in shallow coastal waters except site or country. along sedimentarv coastlines where man- Source: Veron 1993. 18 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas cation; it has an impoverished fauna but sup- provinces. Seagrasses are present in the ports a greater number of endemic species western and central Pacific, reaching the than other areas to the southwest. Hawaii in limit of their distribution in Kiribati, Wallis turn has greater reef development and diver- and Futuna, Western Samoa and Niue and sity than reefs further east in the Galapagos being absent in the following terrestrial bio- or eastern Polynesia. Other marginal areas geographic provinces in the South Pacific for coral growth occur to the south of the re- Marine Region: Tuvalu-Tokelau, Phoenix- gion and include the Kermedec Islands, Nor- Line-Northern Cook, Cook-Austral, Society Is- folk and Lord Howe Island (Veron 1986). lands, Tuamotu, Marquesas and In the Tuamotu and Society Island groups Pitcairn-Gambier-Rapa. diversity is fairly high and there are a wide variety of reef types, but further east in the Mangroves Marquesas reef diversity is poor. The Line Is- lands (part of Kiribati) probably serve as a Mangroves are a common coastal ecosystem source for much of the coral reef biota of in the western part of the region but be- the eastern Pacific (UNEP/IUCN 1988). The come increasingly scarce eastward and are reefs of the central Pacific tend to be more absent in the eastern part of the region ex- strongly dominated by algae rather than cor- cept where they have been introduced. Man- als as in the west (Veron 1986). groves reach their natural eastern limit in the Coral reefs provide fishery and other re- Central Pacific in American Samoa, where sources on which many Pacific Island com- the local form of the red mangrove Rhizo- munities depend. In addition to finfish, a phora mangle samoensis is recognized by wide range of other species are taken includ- some authors as a distinct species (Scott ing mollusks, crustaceans, turtles, corals, 1993). Naturally occurring mangroves reap- shells and algae. Particularly for the small is- pear in the eastern Pacific along the coast of lands and for the coastal people of Pacific Is- Central America, the north coast of South land developing countries, fish from reefs America and on offshore islands such as the and lagoons are a primary source of subsis- Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island. tence protein (ADB/UNDP/SPREP 1992). The most widespread Pacific genus is Coral reefs also provide an important focus Rhiziphora, with Rh. mucronata reaching for the growing tourism industry in the re- only to western Melanesia, and Rh. apicu- gion. lata and Rb. stylosa extending further east. The sustainability of coral reefs is threat- Rh. stylosa has been introduced into the Soci- ened by activities such as destructive fishing ety Islands, but no mangroves reach the with poisons and explosives, pollution, al- Cook Islands. Rh. mangle, from Pacific Cen- ienation by land reclamation, mangrove de- tral America, has found its way to Fiji and struction, sedimentation, contaminated Hawaii. Of the other important genera, ground water seepage and coral collection. Bruguierais found in Melanesia and reaches east through Fiji and Samoa; Lumnitzera has Seagrass Beds a similar range. Sonneratia and ,Ceriopsdo not spread east of Melanesia; but Avicennia, Seagrass beds, like mangroves, become less stopping short of Fiji, reaches south to New frequent and poorer in species from west to South.Wales, Australia and northern New east across the South Pacific. They are impor- Zealand (Schwartz 1982). Mangrove diversity tant feeding areas for fish and endangered also decreases from east to west (Table 14.3). species such as dugong and sea turtles. Mangroves are important as critical breed- Dahl (1980) recorded the presence of sea- ing habitats and food sources for many im- grass beds in major terrestrial biogeographic portant marine species in coastal waters. In Marine Region 14: South Pacific 19

Table 14.3 Distribution of Mangrove enclosed shores are found in estuaries Taxa where wave action is absent allowing the Number of formation of accumulations of fine silt and Mangrove Species Site clay. Often poorly oxygenated, with a layer of sulphide mud near the surface; animal life 30 Papua New Guinea is found chiefly at the surface. 19 Solomon Islands Dahl (1980) noted the presence of 11 New Caledonia, Vanuatu beaches, defined as shorelines with unstable 10 Palau, Yap sand or rubble deposits, in all major terres- 7 East Caroline Islands, Tonga,' GuamC s T trial biogeographic provinces in the South 4 Samoa, Kiribati, Marshall Pacific. Islands 2 Saipan, Tuvalu Rocky Shores 1 Nauru Source: Schwartz 1992. Rocky shorelines, defined by Dahl (1980) as "noncalcareous or uplifted calcareous shorelines without significant reef development, including both the intertidal zone and subtidal euphotic region" are less common in the the South Pacific, mangroves play an impor- South Pacific than in other parts of the tant role in protecting coastlines, supplying world, but where they do occur they may be fuelwood, and supporting significant subsis- ecologically distinctive and support species tence fisheries. Since coastal land is scarce not found elsewhere on the island. Rocky on islands mangrove swamps are frequently shores are gerierally present on raised lime- filled in or otherwise developed (Dahl 1986). stone and volcanic islands, but are absent from many of the 'low island types. Soft Shores Community structure is greatly influenced by the degree of wave exposure. On wave In tropical areas soft shores intermingle with exposed shores grapsid crabs, oysters, hard substrates, as with the pockets of sedi- snails, slugs, limpets, barnacles and anemo- ment forming seagrass beds in the moats nes can be found, with a short turf of brown and flats of reefs. Morton (1990) classified algae present on the sublittoral fringe. On soft shores according to the degree of expo- more sheltered shores barnacles, rock oys- sure or shelter. ters, mussels occur, often with luxuriant High-energy, open shores such as many brown algae growth (Schwartz 1982). coral cays are exposed to wave attack, sediments are mobile and generally course- Lagoons grained. Fauna is less diverse than that of protected flats but individual species may be The region has a great variety of lagoons numerous: MIedium- to low-energy, pro- ranging from open lagoons little different tected shores are found in the shelter of from the surrounding ocean to completely reefs, in the mouths of estuaries, and usually closed lagoons with a variety of water salini- consist of fine sand and organic matter. ties, or to coastal lagoons and estuaries with These are:the richest of soft habitats: the sur- heavy terrestrial influences, These conditions face is litteied with faecal castings, spoil often result in unique combinations of spe- from diggings and other signs of activity. Sea- cies and ecosystems, sometimes with a small grasses may cover the intertidal and man- number of species occurring in great abun- groves rnay also be present. Lowest-energy, dance. 20 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Species Diversity zone between the Cook Islands/Society Is- lands area and Pitcairn Islands/Easter Island The following section draws on information area, and the Lord Howe, Norfolk and Ker- presented by Holthus and Maragos (1992) medec Islands area outside the region. A and other sources as noted. high proportion of those islands that support As noted above species diversity de- endemics are high islands (Springer 1982). creases from west to east across the Pacific The most common kind of shorefish ende- Ocean, largely as a function of ecosystem di- mism in the South Pacific is Type 3. These versity and species distribution decreasing are mostly on high islands and only a few away from the center of biological diversity low island examples. The Hawaiian Islands, for the Indo-Pacific in the Indonesia area. Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands are considered by Springer (1982) to appear to Endemism have the highest levels of marine endemism of any island or island group in the Pacific Highest levels of endemism are found region. The same pattern applies to the reef around isolated islands, notably the Hawai- corals in the Central Pacific. ian Islands, Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands (Springer 1982). Some endemics are Rare and Endangered Species limited to a few islands or island groups within a limited area, particularly in the A number of higher level marine organisms Cook Islands/Society Islands area, the Pit- are of particular interest because they are cairn Islands/Easter Islands area. Beyond the rare, threatened or endangered. These in- margins of the South Pacific Marine Region clude marine turtles, salt water crocodiles as defined in this report, the Kermedec Is- and dugong. The occurrence of these ani- lands share endemics with Lord Howe and mals reinforces the general marine biological Norfolk Islands. Many of the islands that sup- diversity pattern of the region, that is the im- port endemics are high islands and single is- portance of the Southwest Pacific. Knowl- lands or island group endemics are found edge of the status and distribution of marine mainly around these islands (Springer 1982). turtle, crocodile and dugong populations Relative to terrestrial organisms, there is within their ranges is limited. Outside of the much less endemism among marine flora center of diversity (Melanesia and Palau), du- and fauna in the South Pacific region. This gongs, crocodile and nesting hawksbill tur- reflects: (a) the better function of sea water tles are very limited in occurrence. as a medium for the transport, dispersal and migration of organisms and (b) the low level Invertebrates information available on marine biological diversity in the region. Springer (1982) de- Many invertebrates also show the pattern of scribes three kinds of shorefish endemicity: decreasing diversity from west to east across Type 1, widely distributed endemics occur- the Pacific and high endemism around iso- ring in numerous island groups or widely lated islands, including mollusks (such as separated groups; Type 2, endemics limited the genus Strombus (Abbott 1960)). Mollusk to a few islands or island groups within a endemism is thought to be 42 percent and limited area; and Type 3, single island or is- 20 percent for Easter Island and the Marque- land group endemics. sas respectively (Randall 1978; Rehder 1968). Type I endemics have been less well docu- Hawaii has a particularly high level of ende- mented, due to their widespread nature. mism in many invertebrate groups, with an Most Type 2 endemics are confined to the overall marine invertebrate endemism of 32 Marine Region 14: South Pacific 21 percent, but also low diversity (Kay and Sites of high endemism reflect those identi- Palumbi 1987). fied for mollusks (see above). Fish ende- Giant clams are particularly important re- mism is 29 percent, 27 percent and 10 sources in the Pacific (Lucas 1988). Two spe- percent for the Hawaiian Islands, Easter Is- cies of giant clam are widespread in the land and the Marquesas, respectively (Sprin- Indo-Pacific; four species are restricted to ger 1982; Randall 1992). Hawaii has the greater Southeast Asia in the western Pacific; highest level of endemism for inshore fish in two species have very limited ranges: Hip- the Indo-Pacific, with 77 endemics, but low popusporcellanusthat includes Palau, and diversity with a total fish fauna of only 680 Tridacna tevoroa known only from Fiji and species (440 inshore fish) compared with Tonga. Other marine and small island inver- 817 in the Marshalls and 2000 in the Philip- tebrates (such as coconut crab, pearl oyster, pines (Hourigan and Reese 1987). McAllister helmet shell, trumpet shell, green snail, and others (N.d.) identify New Caledonia conch shell and trochus) are economically and Hawaii as important sites of endemism important for both commercial and subsis- for reef fish and Palau and Tahiti as sites of tence uses but have been heavily depleted high diversity. Rapa also has a high level of by human exploitation and may be locally endemism (5.5 percent) in its shorefish rare or extinct. fauna (Randall 1992).

Fisb Repties

The total fish fauna of the Pacific region is Six species of marine turtle are found in the an estimated 4,000 species (Kulbicki 1992). South Pacific. The green and hawksbill have Springer (1982) reviews the biogeography of the most widespread distributions; the flat- marine organisms, particularly shore fish, in back the most restricted. The Southwest Pa- the Pacific Basin. The distribution of shore cific is the most important area although fish families also clearly demonstrates the de- some species, particularly the green turtle, crease in diversity away from the center of also have a number of important nesting is- high diversity in Southeast Asia and the rela- lands well outside the regional center of di- tionship of diversity to the Pacific Plate versity. These include atolls in the northern boundary. More specific studies have demon- Marshall Islands, Yap outer islands (FSM) strated this for surgeon fish (Daizell 1989), and western Society Islands (French Polyne- deep reef slope fish (Dalzell and Preston, in sia). Marine turtles appear to nest preferen- press) and the spider shell (Abbot 1960). tially on islands and atolls with little or no These examples again illustrate the high di- human population or activity. This may be a versity of the Southwest Pacific, especially response to exploitation by humans for hun- along the Pacific Plate margin and west of dreds or thousands of years and behavioral the "Andesite line.", adaptation to avoid disturbed or inhabited From the Indonesia-Philippines area there islands. are two gradients of decline in species diver- A Regional Marine Turtle Conservation sity of reef fish. The sharpest gradient is east- Program was developed in 1990 and has un- ward, with the number of reef fish declining dergone a number of revisions, the latest of from approximately 2,500 in the Philippines which was June 1993. The Program is imple- to 460 in Hawaii and 125 at Easter Island. mented by SPREP in collaboration with its The second path of decline is northward or member countries. It aims to identify impor- southward from the equator, this gradient tant breeding and feeding sites and encour- not as strong as,the longitudinal one. age countries to protect and manage these. 22 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 14.4 Occurrence of Marine Turtles, Crocodiles and Dugong In the South Pacific Region Logger- Olive Leather- Salt Water County/Terrltory Green Hawksbill bead Ridley back Crocodile Dugong

American Samoa N/F N/F* Cook Islands N ------Federated States of Micionesia N/F N/F - F Fiji N/F N/F F - F Y - French Polynesia N/F N*/F - Kiribati N/F F, FP F- Marshall Islands N/F N Nauru New Caledonia N/F N/F N/F - - - Y Niue Northem Mariana Islands N*/Fs F - F- - - Palau N/F N/F - F - Y Y Papua New Guinea N/F N/F F N-/P N Y Y Pitcairn Islands F- Solomon Islands N/F N/F F N*/F N Y Y Tokelau - N*/F - Fe Tonga. N/F N - Tuvalu N/F F - Vanuatu N N - - - Y Y Wallis and Futuna F N/F - FP Western Samoa F N/F - FP

* Sporadic sightings. N Nesting population. F Feeding population. Y Present.

Table 14.4 shows the occurrence of rep- Marine Mammals tiles in the South Pacific Region. A Marine Mammals Conservation Strategy Birds for the South Pacific has been completed. A baseline document on marine mammals in Information on coastal wetland and shore- the region and a field guide for the identifi- birds in the region can be obtained from cation of different species of whale are be- Scott (1993). Information on seabirds in the ing prepared in conjunction with the region is available in Garnett (1984) and Har- IUCN/SSC Cetacean Group (Fuayao, per- rison, Naughton, and Fefer (1984). A num- sonal communication). ber of important breeding sites have been There is very little information on tne clis-. identified (see Gamett 1984, table 5; Dahl tribution of whales and dolphins in the Cen- 1980). traVSouth Pacific Region. Marine areas The South Pacific Avifauna Program was important for the conservation of cetaceans developed in 1990 under the auspices of have yet to be identified, other than the ef- SPREP. A large number of bird population forts under way to establish a National Ma- and habitat surveys in several countries of the rine Sanctuary for Humpback whale habitat region have received assistance under this in the Hawaiian Islands. The endemic Hawai prograni-(Fuavao, personal communication). ian monk seal is limited in nesting and feed- Marine Region 14: South Pacific 23 ing to a few islands in the NW Hawaiian Is- in many ways unique in spite of certain bio- lands, which are protected as part of the Ha- geographic affinities. waiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. In The shallow marine life of the tropics is addition, the waters to a 18.3 meter depth still too poorly known to allow definition of around the islands in the refuge have been many local centers or levels of species ende- designated as critical habitat for the monk mism. seal. The dugong occurs in Papua New Maragos (1992) reviews biogeography and Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New previous biogeographic zonations of the re- Caledonia and Palau (see Table 14.4). gion. Until recently, the most comprehensive, systematic biogeographic classification Biogeographic Classification was that of Dahl (1980) that was based on an early version of the classification by Hay- The following information is drawn from den, Ray, and Dolan (1984). In 1991 the Holthus and Maragos (1992) and Dahl South Pacific Regional Environment Program (1980). (SPREP), the US Agency for International De- While pelagic ecosystems and migratory velopment, WWF, The Nature Conservancy, species extend across the South Pacific, the the East West Center and the US Fish and shallow coastal ecosystems are separated by Wildlife Service collaborated and sponsored the great distances between islands and the a program to develop an ecosystem classifi- limited viability of transported individuals or cation for the Pacific (Maragos 1992). The reproductive stages. Currents are particularly South Pacific Ecosystem Classification Sys- important in transporting organisms capable tem has three elements covering the marine, of colonizing other coastal areas, as are the terrestrial and freshwater environments of stepping stones provided by islands, reefs the South Pacific. and shallow seamounts. A basic framework has been developed The Indo-Malaysian archipelagos on the for the marine component of the proposed western margin of the Pacific are the centers system and this will be field tested and fur- of the greatest species diversity in most ma- ther developed in the future (Maragos 1992). rine organisms, with gradients of decreasing When finalized it will provide a valuable numbers of species across the Pacific from tool for identifying marine conservation pri- west to east and from the warm tropical wa- orities in the region. ters to the more temperate areas to the north Pending finalization of the system the and south. The diversity of coastal marine broadest level of the South Pacific Ecosys- ecosystems-at any point on these gradients tem Classification has been adopted for use also depends on the size of the islands, the in this report (Holthus and Maragos 1992). variety of habitats (rocky or sedimentary The classification determines three catego- coastlines, fririging or barrier reefs, estuaries ries of island types (Island Domains) for the and lagoons) and the importance of terres- South Pacific region: trial influences. Even atolls can have lagoons * Atoll (Low Island) Domain open to the sea or closed, with high or low . With mangrove and seagrass (a. Arid/ salinity from evaporation or precipitation. phosphate; b. Non-arid) Since coral reefs and islands are structures . Without mangrove and seagrass (a. Arid/ that are themselves built by biological activ- phosphate; b. Non-arid) ity, they can go through evolutionary stages * High Limestone Island Domain of development, maturity and senescence in * High Non-limestone Island Domain. interaction with changing sea levels. All of this adds to the complexity of marine bio- Low islands are subdivided into two areas: geographic patterns, in which each island is those areas with mangrove and seagrass and 24 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas those without. Within both of these types of tected areas extend into the marine environ- low islands there is an additional type, the ment. For those that do, information is gener- arid/phosphate reef islands. ally lacking on how far into the marine This classification does not divide the re- environment the boundaries extend. gion into discrete biogeographic zones. How- There are many fisheries management ar- ever, it does classify islands based on factors eas in the region that have been designated important to biological diversity and ecologi- to protect certain species or groups of spe- cal function. Appendix 14.1 outlines the oc- cies through seasonal or permanent bans on currence of these Island Domains harvest of those species or through gear re- throughout the region. strictions or other regulation. Some of these To complement this system and to reflect are legislated areas while others are pro- the broad regional trends in marine biologi- tected through traditional or local controls. It cal diversity the classification proposed by has not been possible to review fishery man- Dahl (1980) is also outlined below. This sys- agement areas in this document. However, a tem divides the region into units that reflect thorough assessment of these should be un- these trends in a practical way. A total of 20 dertaken as part of comprehensive efforts biogeographic zones have been identified for marine biodiversity conservation in the (see Map 14) and described (see also Dahl region. 1979). It should be noted that the classifica- There is generally a lack of information tion covers only the area served by the on the boundaries, area and depth of MPAs South Pacific Commission and therefore in the Pacific. More importantly, there is omits the Hawaiian Islands and Wake and very little information on the habitat and spe- Johnston islands. Furthermore, the classifica- cies diversity contained in existing MPAs tion includes (zone VI) Lord Howe, Norfolk and on the management of and, threats to and the Kermedec Islands that fall within the the area. Australia/New Zealand Marine Region. American Samoa

ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS Existing MPAs: a_ Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary National MPA Systems >_ Rose Atoll national Marine Sanctuary _O American Samoa National Park Detailed information on national legislation, management and other relevant topics can Cook Islands be obtained from IUCN (1991), UNEP/IUCN (1988), IUCN/UNEP (1986) and Existing MPAs: ADB/UNDP/SPREP (1992) and is not repro- 'O Aitutaki Trochus Sanctuary duced here. A preliminary list of MPAs for 'w Palmerstone Trochus Sanctuary the South Pacific region is provided by a_ Manuae Trochus Sanctuary Holthus and Thomas (1991) and updated and expanded here for each country based Suwarrow Atoll National Park was estab- on the work of Holthus and Maragos (1992). lished in 1978 but does not include any ar- The MPAs listed include those protected eas below high water mark (IUCN 1991). areas that are wholly marine or combined Traditional rules and practices called ra'ui terrestriaVmarine areas where it is clear that are applied by village leaders and enforced the boundaries extend into the marine envi- by the Island Council and are aimed at con- ronment. There is still some uncertainty as servirig food resources or at cultural safe- to whether some primarily terrestrial pro- guards. Ra'ui may be used to restrict access Marine Region 14: South Pacific 25 to lagoons and reef areas for conservation. reserve has been questioned several times With the exception of the northern atolls, by UNESCO-MAB. A multidisciplinary scien- this traditional system has weakened consid- tific mission is planned for 1994 and could erably (ADB/UNDP/SPREP 1992). provide the basis for reactivation of its status The Cook Islands completed a State of the and management (Vernaudon, personal com- Environment Report in 1992 and a National munication). Environmental Management Strategy in 1993 The lagoon at Scilly has been classed as a (SPREP 1993a). reserve since 1971. Under the territorial program for protection of sea turtles protection FederatedStates of Micronesia has been provided for the whole of Scilly and Bellinghausen lagoons since 1992. Existing MPAs: Additional coastal protected areas for wp Trochus sanctuaries around Pohnpei which it was not possible to confirm the ex- _ Kosrae Island istence of a subtidal marine component include: The ships in Truk Lagoon have been des- . Eiao Island Nature Reserve ignated as a historical monument. * Ilot de Sable (Motu One Reserve) The FSM completed a State of the Environ- . Motane Reserve ment Report in 1992 and a National Environ- * Ile de Hatutu mental Management Strategy in 1993 (SPREP 1993b). Guam

Fiji Existing MPAs: "A Haputo Ecological Reserve Area Existing MPAs: " Orote Ecological Reserve Area None recorded with a subtidal compo- >O Guam Territorial Seashore Park nent, although possibly several with interti- War in the Pacific National Historical dal component. Park Traditional fishing rights owners are poten- tially important for marine conservation, al- Additional coastal protected areas for though owners of these rights are which it was not possible to confirm the increasingly using them for short-term eco- existence of a subtidal marine component nomic gain (ADB/UNDP/SPREP 1992). Tradi- include: tionally rights extend to the seaward edge of * Pati Point Natural Area the outer reefs (Kunatabu 1983). . Anao Conservation Reserve Fiji is currently developing a National Envi- ronmental Management Strategy Hawaiian Islands

Frencb Polynesia (France) Existing MPAs: '_ Kealakakua Bay MLCD (Hawaii) Existing MPAs: a_ Lapakahi MLCD and State Historical O Atoll de Taiaro Biosphere Reserve/Re- Park (Hawaii) serve Integrale W. A. Robinson '_ Waialea Bay MLCD (Hawaii) '_ Reserve territoriale de Scilly (Manuae) "O Hulopoe Bay-Palawai and Manele Bay- Kamao MLCD (Lanai) Since the death of W. A. Robinson the re- a_ Honolula and Mokuleia Bays MLCD serve he initiated at Taiaro has not been ad- (Maui) ministered and its status as a biosphere >_ Molokini Islet MLCD (Maui) 26 A Global Representative System of Marine. Protected Areas

Haunama Bay MLCD (Oahu) Additional coastal protected areas for m4w Pupukea Beach Park MLCD (Oahu) which it was not possible to confirm the - Waikiki MLCD (Oahu) existence of a subtidal marine component Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Ref- include: uge and MFMA (NWHI): This area in- . Malden Island Wildlife Sanctuary cludes includes five 'Natural Areas" * McKean Island Wildlife Sanctuary (site account in IUCN 1991). * Phoenix Island Wildlife Sanctuary Hilo Bay MFMA (Hawaii) . Vostock Island Wildlife Sanctuary uOw Puako Bay and Reef MFMA (Hawaii) a Starbuck Islande Wildlife Sanctuary Kailua Bay MFMA (Hawaii) a Birnie Island Wildlife Sanctuary

-Ow Manele Boat Harbour MFMA (Lanai) v Kahului Harbour MFMA (Maui): This in- MarsbaUl Islands cludes three separate areas.

-Ow Waikiki-Diamond Head MFMA (Oahu) Existing MPAs:

-Ow Waimea Bay and Recreational Pier No areas were recorded. MFMA (Kauai) Two protected areas established prior to " Hanamaulu Bay and Ahukini Recrea- independence (Bikar Atoll and Bokakk/ tional Pier MFMA (Kauai) Taongi Atoll) are no longer recognized, but Kure MFMA (Northwest Hawaiian it is thought they will be reinstated when Islands) new legislation is enacted. Both areas in-

.Ow Cape Kinau and La Perouse Bays State clude turtle nesting beaches and seabird Natural Area (Maui) colonies but not the surrounding reefs

-Ow Coconut Island Marine Life Refuge (SPREP 1993c). '(Oahu) - Eaton (1985) records that property rights "Om Kalaupapa Nationai riistoncal Park to the marine environment traditionally ex- (Molokai): (site account in IUCN 1991). tended out as far as the area where people " Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical could stand to fish. Park (Hawaii): (site account in IUCN The Marshall Islands has completed a 1991). State of the Environment Report and Na- Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National His- tional Environmental Management Strategy. torical Park (Hawaii): (site account in IUCN 1991).

-OW Ahihi-Kinau State Natural Area Reserve Nauru (Maui) Existing MPAs: Additional coastal protected areas for No areas were recorded. which it was not possible to confirm the UNEP/IUCN (1988) report the presence of existence of a subtidal marine component customary iights of reefs that resirict overhar- include: vesting of exploited species. * Milolii Reef State Park (Kauai) * Nualolo-Kai Reef State Park (Kauai) New Caledonia (France)

Kiribati Existing MPAs: _O Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore Existing MPAs: de l'Ilot Maitre: Only the reefs are now "Ow Kiritimati (Christmas Island) Wildlife protected (site accounts in IUCN 1991; Sanctuary UNEP/IUCN 1988). Marine Region 14: South Pacific 27

_O Reserve Speciale Toumante de Faune _o Ngerumekaol Grouper Spawning Area Marine: (site accounts in IUCN 1991; _ Trochus Sanctuaries (21) UNEP/IUCN 1988). _O Reserve Speciale Marine Yves Merlet: The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve (site accounts in IUCN 1991; is established under the Palau National UNEP/IUCN 1988) Code, which also includes provisions for the _ Parc Territorial du Lagon Sud: This establishment of the Ngerumekaol Grouper park includes five separate island areas Spawning Area. There are also a number of (Amedee, Bailly,- Canard, Laregnare, State Ordinances' under which Trochus sanc- Signal); details of marine components tuaries have been aeclared (IUCN 1991). are needed. Palau is currently producing a National Environmental Management Strategy. The Additional coastal protected areas for draft strategy includes the development of a which it was not possible to confirm the system of preserves to insure adequate pro- existence of a subtidal marine component tection of wildlife habitat and watershed ar- include: eas, determination of carrying capacities * Reserve Speciale de Faune de l'ile de and sustainable harvest of natural resources, Pam: This area includes reefs and man- and designation of areas suitable for devel- groves; (site account in IUCN 1991). opment. * Reserve Speciale de Faune de l'Ilot Lepre- dour: This reserve includes mangroves; Papua New Guinea (site accounts in IUCN 1991; Scott 1993). • Southerm Botanical Reserve: Some of the Existing MPAs: five sections, such as Cap Ndua,'contain _ Talele Islands Nature Reserve and Pro- coastalmarine habitat. vincial Park: (site account in IUCN 1991) Niue _ Nanuk Island Provincial Park: (site account in IUCN 1991) Existing MPAs: _O Bagiai Wildlife Management Area No areas were recorded. (WMA): (site account in IUCN 1991) _ Long Island WMA: (site account in Northern Mariana Islands IUCN 1991) _4 Maza WMA: (site account in IUCN Existing MPAs: 1991) No areas were recorded. _ Ndrolowa WvA: (site account in IUCN Several coastal protected areas exist, and 1991) it is not clear whether these include intertidal areas. These' areas are Asuncion Island, Additional coastal protected areas for Guguan Island, Maug Island and Uracas Is- which it was not possible to confirm the land Preserves, reserved for cultural and rec- existence of a subtidal marine component reational use, declared under the include: Constitution (IUCN 1991). . Baniara WMA 9 Garu WMA: (site account in IUCN 1991) Palau * Sawataetaie WMA: (site accounts in IUCN 1991; Scott 1989) Existing MPAs: * Tonda WMA: Ramsar Site; (site account in _O Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve IUCN 1991; Scott 1989) 28 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

An MPA at Horseshoe Reef (Tahiro, Aioro) There is a long-standing system of re- Marine Park is not yet fully established; (site source management based on traditional cus- account in IUCN 1991)., UNEP/IUCN (1988). tom (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Tokelau's The wildlife management areas are re- opportunites for development are entirely served at the request of land owners and re- marine based. main under their direct control (IUCN 1991). The customary tenure system traditionally Tonga contains many forms of resource management and conservation and includes marine Existing MPAs: areas out to the reef dropoff (UNEP/IUCN _ Fanga'uta and Fangakakau Lagoons 1988). Marine Reserve _4 Ha'atafu Beach Reserve Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom) _ Hakaumam'o Reef Reserve _ Malinoa Island Park and Reef Reserve Existing MPAs: _4 Monuafe Island Park and Reef Reserve No areas were recorded. _O Pangaimotu Reef Reserve Henderson Island, the largest island in the Pitcairn group, has been declared a World Additional coastal protected areas for Heritage Site. It is not clear that this designa- which it was not possible to confirm the tion includes marine areas around the island. existence of a subtidal marine component include: Solomon Islands * Eua' National Park: All land below high water mark is Crown property and there Existing MPAs: is a long-established tradition of common No areas were recorded. use of marine resources (UNEP/IUCN Customary tenure over natural resources 1988). is a fundamental consideration for nature conservation in the Solomon Islands. Efforts Tuvalu to establish protected areas have had limited success to date because'they have not ade- Existing MPAs: quately considered traditional attitudes to- No areas were recorded. ward land and natural resources and the Marine resources represent this country's unwillingness amongst local people to be sole opportunity for substantial economic permanently alienated from their lands. development. The Solomon Islands has completed a State' of the Environment Report and a Na- U.S. Unincorporated Territories tional Environmental Management Strategy. As part of the Government's development Existing MPAs: of environmental responses it is planned to _O Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge revise the Fisheries Act to empower prov- _ Howland Island National Wildlife Ref- inces to establish marine reserves and to uge take other necessary steps to protect man- _O Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge groves, coral reefs and other coastal re- "_ Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge sources. Vanuatu Tokelau Existing MPAs: Existing MPAs: _ President Coolidge and Million Dollar No areas were recorded. Point Reserve Marine Region 14: South Pacific 29

t_ Narong Marine Reserve (1991, 16°06'S, Table 14.5 Number of MPAs in the 167°28'E, 160 hectares) South Pacific by IUCN Management Category UNEP/IUCN (1988) record the presence of IUCNManagement a wide variety of traditional practices that Category Number of MPAs help protect marine resources, including seasonal custom "tabu" applied in areas where I 3 fish are known to be breeding, and conserva- II 1 tion of dugong and turtles. Traditional rights III 1 extended out as far as resources could be ex- IV 29 ploited by fishing or diving (Tuaurakoto v 7 1984). Vil 2 Vill 5 WaUis and Futuna (France) I X 0 Unallocated 17 Existing MPAs: Total 65 No areas were recorded.

Western Samoa

Existing MPAs: MPAs considered to be Category V, includ-

-_ Palolo Deep Marine Reserve ing a number of historical parks, and there are five number of Category VIII, Multiple Traditionally Samoans have elaborate cus- Use Management Areas. There are also four toms of ownership and control of fishing MPA's in Category I-Strict Nature Reserves. rights, extending to fish in reef, lagoon and Table 14.5 shows the number of MPAs in mangrove areas (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Accord- the South Pacific by IUCN management cate- ing to the constitution all land below high gory. water mark is public land, although the his- A broad classification of management torical traditional rights remain a significant level shows that the overall level of manage- factor. ment of MPAs in the region is moderate-low outside those that are in French or U.S. ar- Easter Island and Sala y Gomez (Cbile) eas (Table 14.6). The level of management was classified according to the extent to Existing MPAs: which each area was assessed as achieving No areas were recorded. conservation objectives. Rapa Nui National Park includes only terrestrial components of Easter Island. International Initiatives Relating to MPAs

World Heritage Convention ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT There are three states party to the World Management of the existing MPAs in the re- Heritage Convention in the South Pacific Ma- gion is assessed by Holthus and Maragos rine Region. These include France (which (1992). The majority of MPAs in the region has territories in French Polynesia, New Cale- have been established to achieve nature con- donia and Wallis and Futuna), the United servation objectives. The greatest number States (Guam, Hawaii, American Samoa, the fall into IUCN Management Category IV- Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Is- Managed Natural Areas. There are seven lands and the U.S. Unincorporated Territo- 30 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 14.6 Management Level in the South Pacific (Apia Convention); and of MPAs in the South Pacific the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the Management Level Number of MPAs South Pacific. Region (SPREP Convention). High 28a The latter is of particular importance for Moderate 6 MPAs as it is focussed particularly on the ma- LOW .13 rine environment. Together, the two comple- Unallocated 18 mentary conventions provide a regional Tota' 65 environmental base for national and regional environmental.programs. The conventions a. All French or U.S. areas. are two pillars of an environmental framework for the Pacific. Other pillars are the SPREP Action Plan and the SPREP Work Pro- gram. These initiatives are described in Ap- ries) and the United Kingdom (Pitcairn Is-. pendix 14.2. land). WCMC (1991) report that Fiji is close to becoming a party to the convention. The South Pacific Biodiversity Within the region there are no World Heri- Conservation Program (SPBCP) tage Sites that include a marine component. The designation of Henderson Island (Pit-. The following description is adapted from cairn Islands) is focussed on the terrestrial Reti (1993b). components of this islands (IUCN 1991). The SPBCP is a five year, US$10 million Global Environment Facility (GEF) project Ramsar aimed at establishing and initially managing a series of large, diverse Conservation Areas The states that are party to the World Heri- (CAs) in which human activities will be tage Convention are also party to the Ram- guided to protect important ecological fea- sar Convention. No Ramsar sites were tures and to enable sustainable use of the identified as extending into the marine envi- area's natural resources. Ancillary 3bjectives ronment. will be concerned with supporting the same objectives through provision of information, UNESCO Man and the Biospbere Prgrmne species protection, regional policy analysis and educational programs. There are three states participating in The involvement of local groups is funda- UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) mental to the success of the SPBCP. Hence Programme. These are France the United the establishment and management of con- States and the United Kingdom. servation areas will involve working very The Atoll de Tiaro in French Polynesia is closely with local communities and land the only marine Biosphere Reserve in the owning groups. Representatives from these. region. groups are expected to work together with government officials, NGOs and others Regional Initiatives Kelating to MPAs through CA Coordinating Groups or similar management structures in the planning and The following description is adapted from implementation of CA work plans and man- ADB/UNDP/SPREP (1992). agement strategies. The most significant environmental con- The SPBCP is likely to play a key role in ventions in the South Pacific region are the efforts to establish a representative system of Convention on the Conservation of Nature MPAs in the South Pacific. Further informa- Marine Region 14: South Pacific 31 tion about the SPBCP is provided in the Rec- amount of coastal area and the very high ommendations section of this report. species and habitat diversity of Papua New Guinea means that this country cannot be National Environmental Management considered as having adequate coverage. Strategies The government has carried out a conservation needs assessment in Papua New The development of National Environmental Guinea, identifying 30 areas as priorities for Management Strategies (NEMS) for countries marine biodiversity conservation. in the Pacific is being carried out by SPREP The absence of information on the habitat with financial assistance from the Asian De- and species contained in MPAs hampers the velopment Bank. The NEMS is a practical determination of whether marine ecosystems document that aims to identify the major en- are effectively represented at any scale. How- vironmental issues in each country and the ever, based on the information available, priority environmental programs that are re- there are two kinds of Island Domain (see quired to address them. There is a strong em- above) for which the associated marine ar- phasis on the identification of clear, fully eas may have some degree of effective cov- costed programs in each document. erage (Holthus and Maragos 1992). The NEMS have been developed in each - The first category is the Low Islands with- country through extensive incountry consult- out mangrove and seagrass. Shallow reef ation and gathering of relevant background and lagoon habitats are contained in the ma- information. The end result is a document rine component of Rose Atoll National Wild- that "belongs" to the government and peo- life Refuge, the marine component of the ple of each country. The effective implemen- Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, and tation of NEMS will be essential for two atolls protected in French Polynesia sustainable development of the region and (Manuae/Scilly Atoll Reserve and W.A. Ro- will involve all relevant organizations. To date NEMS have been completed for the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micro- Table 14.7 Representation of nesia, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands and Biogeographic Zones of the South Western Samoa. NEMS for other countries Pacific Area by MPAs will be developed in the future. Number Number Zone of MPAs Zone of MPAs Assessment of Representation of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs I 6 XI 1 II 0 XII 4 The following assessment is provided by III 0 XIII 4 Holthus and Maragos (1992). IV 4 XV 3 The overall lack of MPAs in the Cen- v 2 XVI 3 traVSouth Pacific region is apparent from Ta- VII 0 XVII 0 ble 14.7. Without considering the vin 6 xvIii 2 management context, the only political enti- IX 4 XIX 0 ties that might be considered to have ade- X 0 XX 0 quate numbers of MPAs are the Hawaii, Other 1 Hawaii 25 Tonga, New Caledonia, Guam, American Sa- Note: Zone VI of this classification includes Lrod moa and the U.S. Unincorporated Territory Hoew, Norfolk and the Kermedec Islands and falls in islands. the Australia/New Zealand Marine Region. The MPA Although there appear to be quite a few in this zone (Kermedec Islands) lies outside the South MPAs in Papua New Guinea, the immense Paciftc Marine Region as defined for this report. 32 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas binson-Tairao Atoll Integral Reserve). Marine fication, but within the IUCN-CNPPA South elements of Wake Atoll and other low is- Pacific Marine Region. Twenty-five of these lands in the Hawaiian Islands National Wild- areas are located in Hawaii and one on life Refuge are also protected. Johnston Atoll. The second Island Domain with poten- tially adequate protection is the arid/phosphate Low Islands. Shallow reefs PmoRTry AREAS AND RECOmmENDATIONS surrounding three of these islands are protected in the U.S. Unincorporated Territories National Priorities for the Establishment (Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands National and Management of MPAs Wildlife Refuge). Even in these two instances the lack of In some countries and territories particular data on the flora and fauna of each area sites have been identified that are consid- makes it impossible to carry out a complete ered to be important for the establishment assessment of the degree of representation and management of MPAs for that particular of the communities of each Island Domain. country or territory. A list of such areas has The area that stands out as having the been prepared on the basis of available in- most substantial degree of protection is the formation and the criteria for selection of Hawaiian Islands, where there are a total of MPAs outlined in the introduction, and in 25 MPAs, and where there is a relatively consultation with representatives of the high level of management in comparison to countries and territories concerned. The other parts of the region. Other political enti- individuals involved in this process are listed ties with a high degree of protection in at the end of the report. The areas identified some areas include New Caledonia, French in each country are described below. These Polynesia, American Samoa and Guam. descriptions present information available Apart from these possible exceptions, a to the contributors to this report; the levels representative sample of marine biological of information available for particular sites diversity of any biogeographic area in the re- vary. gion cannot be considered as being effec- It should be pointed out that many coun- tively protected by existing MPAs. It should tries and territories are presently carrying be noted that the two Low Island types men- out activities that will lead to further elabora- toned above are well outside the center of tion of conservation and development priori- diversity in the southwest portion of the re- ties. Priorities for the establishment and gion and thus may not cover the repre- management of MPAs may change in the sentation of the coastal marine areas of future as a result of these activities. In par- these island types on a regional scale. ticular, the South Pacific Biodiversity Conser- An assessment of representation using the vation Program is in the process of classification proposed by Dahl (1980) is out- identifying areas for biodiversity conserva- lined in Table 14.7. tion, and this will include marine areas. The Of the 20 zones proposed by Dahl (1980), SPBCP is in the early stages of identifying only 12 include one or more MPAs. Eight of Conservation Area proposals and it is likely the zones include no MPAs. Regions I-V and that further marine areas will be identified in XIII represent relatively high biodiversity ar- the future. eas in the South Pacific. These regions in- -clude a total of 16 MPAs, with two regions American Samoa including no MPAs. There are 26 MPAs located outside the Improved management is recommended for "South Pacific Area" covered by Dahl's classi- existing MPAs. Marine Region 14: South Pacific 33

Existing MPAs that require management and these identify important areas. Priority support: sites for mangroves and coastal wetlands _ Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary are identified in Scott (1993). SPREP/IUCN _*w Rose Atoll national Marine Sanctuary (1989) included a recommendation that _O American Samoa National Park Oroluk atoll should be designated as a reserve. A number of mangrove sites have Proposed new MPAs been recommended for protection on None identified as priorities. Pohnpei and Kosrae (Devoe 1992). Other recommendations are outlined in UNEP/IUCN(1988). Cook Islands Existing MPAs that require management Existing MPAs that require management support: support: 'O Kosrae Island (5.11°N, 162.88°E): None identified as priorities. There is a coral reef platform extending 2-5 kilometers out from the "high" Proposed new MPAs: volcanic portion of the island. Wilson _~ Manuae Island (19.26°S, 158.91°W): and Hamilton (1992) record good coral This is a 7.4 square kilometer atoll with growth (average cover of 50 percent of two coral sand islets, surrounded by the bottom at healthy, open-ocean continuous reef. It is a turtle nesting reefs) with high diversity (180 species site (Brandon 1977) and a possible site recorded for the entire island). A MPA for the establishment of a protected has been established following a pro- area that would combine conservation posal developed by the East West Cen- with sustainable fisheries and tourism ter, Environment and Policy Institute development. (Described in for the Kosrae State Government that UNEP/IUCN 1988.) includes the establishment of marine _O Raratonga (21.23 0S, 159.78°W): This 67 -onservation areas between Walang square kilometer high volcanic island is and Utwe. The area provides for sus- surrounded by fringing reefs of widths ,ainable subsistence fishing and tour- varying from a maximum of 1,000 me- ism development in the surrounding ters on the east coast to a minimum of areas 200 meters on the west and north coast (Dahl 1991). There are 41 coral Proposed new MPAs: genera recorded (Paulay 1985). With a No areas were identified as priorities. population of about 10,000, it is subject to overfishing all around the island. A system of closed areas and Fiji other controls overfishing gear and effort is recommended to allow fish Existing MPAs that require management populations to recover. (Described in support: UNEP/IUCN 1988; Dahl 1991.) The are no existing MPAs in Fiji.

Proposed new MPAs: Federated States of Micronesia There are numerous recommendations for MPAs in Fiji (see IUCN 1991; UNEP/IUCN Coastal Resources Management Plans are 1988; Dahl 1980; Scott 1993; Watling 1985) being prepared for Pohnpei, Yap, Kosrae that includes many internationally and 34 A Global'Representative System of Marine Protected Areas regionally important sites for marine biodi- French Polynesia versity, particularly for coral reefs and mangroves. Recommendations in SPREP/IUCN SPREP/IUCN (1989) recommended as a prior- (1989) include the establishment of marine ity the improved management of existing reserves around Yadua Taba Crested Iguana protected areas, including marine protected Sanctuary, at Tai and Levuka Islands and areas at Scilly and Taiaro. Further recommen- around Namenalala Island. dations are included in IUCN (1991), p Great Astrolabe Reef (18.75°S, UNEP/IUCN (1988) and Dahl (1980). 178.5°E): A rich and diverse barrier reef extending northeast and northwest Existing MPAs that require management of Kadavu island to encompass a num- support: ber of small volcanic islands. A re- _o Scilly Atoll (16.50°S, 154.66°W): Lo- search station has been established by cated in the leeward islands of the Soci- the Institute of Marine Resources of the ety Islands, this atoll is approximately University of the South Pacific. (De- 550 kilometers west of Tahiti. It is a cir- scribed in UNEP/IUCN 1988.) cular, semi-enclosed atoll with barrier _* Yadua Taba Island (16.84°S, reef on the western side and patch 178.28°E): A small (0.7 square kilo- reefs in the lagoon. It was designated meter) volcanic island surrounded as a reserve in 1971 with prohibition of by Yadua fringing reef. A terrestrial the exploitation of flora and fauna, and sanctuary has been established to has been protected under the territorial protect crested iguana (Brachylophus program for the protection of sea turtles vitiensis) and is described in IUCN (along with Bellinghausen lagoon) since (1991). (Briefly described in UNEP/ 1992. (Described in UNEP/IUCN 1988.) IUCN 1988; recommended for estab- 'O Taiaro (W. A. Robinson Atoll) (15.700S, lishment of marine reserve by 144.57°W): This is a circular closed at- SPREP/IUCN 1989.) oll (2,000 hectares) located in the 'Tai and Eluvuka Islands: These Tuamotu Archipelago 540 ENE of Ta- small islands (10 and 2 hectares) are hiti. Abundant coral fuana are found within Nadi Bay with fringing and on the outer reefs (IUCN 1991), al- patch reefs. Recommended for the though reefs on the sheltered western establishment of a marine reserve by side have a much richer and more di- SPREP/IUCN (1989). The area is an verse coral and mollusk fauna (Cheva- important tourist location and these is- lier and Salvat 1976). Few coral species lands 'are given a high priority for con- are present in the lagoon, which is sig- servation (Anon 1985). (Described in nificantly more saline (43 pp) than the UNEP/IUCN 1988.) surrounding ocean (UNEP/IUCN 1988). _~ Namenalala Island (17.11°S, 179.100E): The site is of historical interest as it This is a volcanic island (43.2'hectares) was the center of a small but flourish- located within Namenlala barrier reef. ing Polynesian kingdom' in the 1700s. It also has fringing reefs, turtles and Established as a strict reserve in 1972 seabird nesting colony (Dahl 1991), and as a biosphere reserve in 1977. fishing and tourism resorts. Whales Since the death of W. A. Robinson the have been sighted close to island peri- reserve he initiated at Taiaro has not odically (Singh, personal communica- been administered and its status as a tion). (Briefly described in UNEP/IUCN biosphere reserve has been questioned 1988; recommended for establishment several times by UNESCO-MAB. A mul- of marine- reserve by SPREP/IUCN tidisciplinary scientific mission is 1989.) planned for 1994 and could provide Marine Region 14: South Pacific 35

the basis for reactivation of its status Proposed new MPAs: and management. (Described in IUCN _Ow Luminao Barrier Reef (13.47°N, 1991; UNEP/IUCN 1988.) 144.65°E); The barrier reef extends for 2.5 kilometers along the west coast of Proposed new MPAs: Guam, ranging from a width of 240 me- Tetiaroa (17.00°S, 149.57°W): This atoll ters at the eastern end to 620 meters at of the Iles-du-Vent, Society the western end. There is a diverse Archipelago, is situated 50 kilometers coral community including 160 species to the north of Tahiti and consists from within 45 genera, and a wide vari- of 13 small islands around a closed ety of fish species (UNEP/IUCN 1988). lagoon. The islands are owned by The western end of the barrier reef has Marlon Brando while the marine areas the greatest species richness and sur- are part of the public domain. The face coverage of any reef on (Guam. area's relative proximity to the islands The area is popular with recreational of Tahiti and Moorea and frequent visi- users. UNEP/IUCN (1988) list dredging tation by tourists are resulting in over- and the impact of industrial activities exploitation and degradation that as potential threats. (Described in threaten its viability. Several-protection UNEP/IUCN 1988.) proposals have been developed over the last 20 years but it has been diffi- Hawaiian Islands cult to reach consensus among all interested parties. No information available.

Activities are under way for the devel- Kiribati opment of coastal zone management initiatives in other areas (ten priority coastal Priority areas are described below. areas have been identified by an informal working group). This would involve con- Existing MPAs that require management sultation with local inhabitants and may support: prove to be an effective way of approach- No areas were identified as priorities. ing the conservation of biodiversity in the densely populated island lagoons that Proposed new MPAs: are under the influence of economic The government of the Kiribati has pro- development (Vernaudon, personal composed the establishment of two new MPAs munication). under the South Pacific Biodiversity Conser- vation Program (Fuavao, personal communi- Guam cation): _o Naa (northern Tarawa) Recommendations are included in - Cook Islet (Kiritimati) UNEP/IUCN (198) and Scott (1993). SPREP/IUCN gave high priority to the con- All islets in Caroline Atoll except three duct of a comprehensive review of terrestrial have been recommended as Wildlife Sanctu- and marine ecosystems and the develop- aries. Caroline Atoll and Vostok are two of ment of a Environmental Conservation Plan the highest priorities. to include protected areas. m Caroline Atoll (10.00°S, 150.25°W): This 380 hectare atoll, has numerous is- Existing MPAs that require management lets around a shallow elongated la- support: goon. A fringing reef extends 800 None identified. meters off the southern end. The cen- 36 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

tral lagoon is shallow and contains biogeographic isolation (IUCN 1991). abundant living coral and fish. Green Fish diversity is greater than in other ar- turtle breeding area and Coconut crabs eas of the Marshall Islands. The island and Giant clams are abundant is an important breeding ground for (Teeb'aki, personal communication). marine turtles (Chelonia mydas) and (Described briefly in UNEP/IUCN 1988). seabirds. The atoll was recognized as a - Vostok: Described briefly in protected area up until 1986 and has UNEP/IUCN (1988). 24 hectare small been identified as an important area in flat triangular island with no lagoon. A the National Environmental Manage- fringing reef extends 500 meters off- ment Strategy (NEMS) (SPREP 1993c) shore on the north, southwest and completed by the Marshall Islands. southeast sides. Coconut crabs are This Strategy also highlighted a need abundant. The island is considered as to develop a legal framework for pro- having outstanding value due to its un- tected areas that is sensitive to the Mar- altered state (Wilson, personal commu- shallese system of land tenure. nication) (10.08°S, 152.38°W). (Described in IUCN 1991; briefly in UNEP/IUCN 1988; see also Thomas The following areas have also been identi- and others 1989.) fied as being of significance: Bokaak (Taongi) Atoll (14.62°N, * Line Group: Malden Atoll, Starbuck Atoll, 168.95°E): The atoll is the most north- Washington Atoll, Kiritimati, Outlying is- erly of the Marshall Islands. The shal- lets with Kiritimati low lagoon includes many patch reefs * Phoenix Group: Birnie Island, McKean and the coral fauna is healthy but gen- Island, Enderbury Island and Phoenix erally depauperate and of low diver- Island sity, possible due to the atoll's extreme isolation. The atoll supports abundant MarshaUIslands seabird and shorebird populations, is important for some migratory species The two previously protected areas should and is the only known breeding be reestablished once appropriate legislation ground for Christmas Island shearwater has been enacted. Other recommendations (Puffinus nativitatus) and possibly also are available in Dahl (1986) and, for the for Bulwer's petrel (Bulweria bulwerni). northern atolls, Thomas and others (1989). Reef fish are abundant but of low diversity. (Described in IUCN 1991; briefly Existing MPAs that require management in UNEP/IUCN 1988; see also Thomas support: and others 1989.) No areas were identified as priorities. Nauru Proposed new MPAs: -4- Bikar Atoll (12.08°N, 170.10°E): Bikar No information available. is the second-most northern atoll of the Marshall Islands, lying some 320 New Caledonia kilometers south of Taongi. Although the coral fauna is generally depauper- No information available. ate and shows signs of frequent storm damage, the species present are not Niue found elsewhere in the Marshall islands, possibly indicating a degree of No information available. Marine Region 14: South Pacific 37

NorthernMariana Islands numerous patch reefs are present (Birkeland and Holthus 1989). The site At this stage no priority sites have been iden- has high coral species diversity. Sedi- tified. However, the Department of Natural mentation limits coral growth at Resources, through its Division of Fish and around a 50 meter depth. All seven of Wildlife, is taking the lead in establishing a the known giant clam species Tridacni- marine conservation area working group dae are found and approximately 200 that includes people from the various gov- fish species occur, although these rep- ernment agencies and community groups. resents only 20 percent of the total The first task of the group, currently being number found in Palau. Hawksbill carried out, is to conduct a survey among (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green marine resource users and with the results turtle (Chelonia mydas) are present of this survey to: (a) identify resource-re- and Hawkbills nest on the islands. lated problems in the marine environment, The area is included within a Wildlife (b) assess how well the establishment of Preserve that is managed by the na- MPAs might address these problems, (c) tional government. A management identify appropriate areas to be designated plan has been prepared and recom- as MPAs (one option under consideration is mended for adoption by SPREP/IUCN to establish them adjacent to the already es- (1989), who also suggested the area tablished Wildlife Conservation Areas), and as possible candidate for World Heri- (d) determine the best approaches to estab- tage status. (Described in UNEP/ lish and manage these areas (Graham, per- IUCN 1988; IUCN 1991; see also sonal communication). Birkeland and Holthus 1989.)

Palau Proposed new MPAs: 4 Ngeremdu Bay: This area has the larg- Palau is considered to have the richest reefs est area of mangroves in Palau. The in the Pacific with the highest species diver- area has been proposed as a protected sity (UNEP/IUCN 1988); 300 species of coral area by the authorities in Palau al- have been recorded. The country is carrying though it is not expected that much out a program to educate the community progress will occur with this progress about the need for biodiversity conservation in the next few years (Fuavao, per- and the importance of conservation areas. sonal communication). Suggestions will then be made about possible areas that could be designated for biodi- Papua New Guinea versity conservation (Otobed, personal communication). Papua New Guinea has recently completed a Conservation Needs Assessment under- Existing MPAs that require management taken by the Department of Conservation support: and Environment and the Biodiversity Sup- >_ Ngerukewid (Ngerukeuid) Islands port Program comprising WWF, the Nature (7.250N, 134.37 0E): This group of Conservancy, and the World Resources In- raised, undercut limestone islands, stitute with funding from USAID. A report are mostly very small, covering an has been prepared that identifies 30 prior- area of 2.6 square kilometers. The ity areas for conservation of the marine en- main islands share a common reef vironment, and watersheds critical to the platform and ridges of scattered coral health of these areas. The need to develop growth connect many of the islands; participatory conservation and develop- 38 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ment models appropriate to Papua New Proposed new MPAs: Guinean culture and conditions is empha- _ Gulf: The area has shallow intertidal sized, as is the need to consult landowning and soft-bottom habitats, with man- clans. grove communities that comprise im- This list includes 30 coastal and marine portant nursery areas for prawns, ecosystems, and 5 watersheds, which are barramundi, and other commercially sites of high biodiversity important for con- important species. It is possibly threat- servation action. Four of these areas include ened from overfishing, oil exploration, existing MPAs while the remaining 26 areas and pipeline. are proposed for conservation. "_ Galley Reach: This is a highly productive area of mangrove forests, wet- Existing MPAs that require management lands, and reef, threatened by support: - development and exploitation based in a_w Maza/Fly Delta: This area has man- nearly Port Moresby. grove and associated nursery habitats > Papuan Barrier and Lagoon: This is bar- with seagrass beds, green sea turtle for- rier reef, coastal lagoon, and managing habitats, and dugong habitat. It grove-habitat for hawksbill turtles, is possibly threatened by overfishing reef fishers, corals, and marine inverte- and river-borne pollutants. The area in- brates. This area of high diversity faces cludes Maza Wildlife Management Area. threats from dynamiting, overfishing, 'w Manus Complex: The area includes and eutrophication from sewage efflu- reefs and lagoon complexes, seagrass ent emanating from development near beds, and seabird rookery islands, Port Moresby. with green tree snails, reef fish, pela- Dumoulin: This reef in proximity to the gics, and sea turtles. This is an area of southern dropoff (potential upwelling), high beta diversity with highly diverse which is largely unknown, provides reefs that are seriously threatened from habitats for giant clams. dynamite, fishing and by phosphate Rossel Island: These reef systi ms, la- mining on seabird islands. The area in- goons, isolated island areas, and an up- cludes Ndrolowa Wildlife Management welling area, are largely unknown Area' biologically and face possible threats "sOw RabauVDuke of York: The area in- from foreign poaching. cludes mangrove, seagrass, reef and Pocklington Reef: This extensive reef offshore deepwater areas with thermal system, thought to be relatively pris- vents. Threats arise from proximity to tine, is isolated by deepwater from all Rabaul town and from timber opera- other reef systems in Milne Bay. This tions in watersheds above the coast. reef may show affinities to the New Area includes Nanuk Island Provincial Georgia reef system. Park. >_ Morobe Coast: This ia an area of man- "O_ Volcanic Chain-Manam to Long: This groves, sea walls, leatherback turtle area has volcanic islands, reef walls, nesting beaches, and fringing reefs, and sea mounts, sea turtle nesting with the potential for community-initi- beaches, and upwelling areas. Pelagic ated conservation action. An area of fish congregate at the sea walls and high beta diversity facing threats from sea mounts. Threats arise from overfish- nearby Lae town, especially logging of ing and overharvesting of sea turtle coastal hill forests. eggs. Area includes Long Island Wild- _ Tufi Coastal Fjords: The area has coral life Management Area. fjords, fringing reefs, mangrove, sea Marine Region 14: South Pacific 39

walls, thermal vents in an environment *aK South Coast Bougainville: This is an unique in Papua New Guinea, with area of reefs and associated habitats, high potential for nature tourism. with swamp forest, which differs from "0- Trobriand Reef and Drop: There are ex- that on the mainland. Fauna are largely tensive coral reefs, habitats for hawks- unknown, and this area contains reef bill turtle, beche-demer, giant clams, systems in proximity to deep open dugongs, green sea turtles, coral reef ocean waters. fish, and invertebrates. The area is " Borone Bay: This is a largely unknown largely unsurveyed, but thought to be area with unusual hydrology coupled highly productive reef systems. with steeply sloped shore falloff, facing "4- Fullerborne: These are raised limestone threats from logging and mining in up- islands, mangrove and associated nurs- land areas. ery areas, and seagrass beds, with high Hermit Islands: The islands have exten- habitat and structural diversity and fac- sive, discrete patch reefs with sea tur- ing threats from large-scale logging op- tles and a highly productive area of erations. rich fisheries. The reef areas are far

'0' Talasea: This features reef and soft-bot- from population centers, but threats ex- tom marine habitats, nesting beaches ist from poaching and overfishing. Un- for leatherback turtles. controlled tourism in the western "ow Tigak Islands: These mangroves, sea- islands may represent a potential threat grasses, reef, and the deepwater man- as well. grove lagoon are are highly productive " Cape Cretin: This is an area of ancient fishery areas. Beta diversity is very high, reef faces. and threats arise from dynamite fishing. Vyitiaz Straits: These reefs, with steep "Ow Mussau Island: This marine system inland in proximity, are threatened by cludes reef systems and seagrasses, land use practices. some parts of which are relatively pris- - Madang Lagoon: This area has coral tine due to traditional practices of is- reefs, lagoon islands, and mangrove landers, but now threatened by patches, with coral and fish species. dynamite fishing. This is a well-studied area, species- Tanga/Tabar/Feni Islands: These is- rich, with high habitat diversity that lands have subsea volcanic formations, faces threats from commercial develop- mineral-rich areas, and isolated island ment in Madang town, as well as log- systems that may be very important for ging and dynamiting. endangered vertebrates such as sea tur- '4' Laing Island: This is a reef system and tles. This is an area of diverse habitats marine research station,'threatened by and unusual geomorphology, possible dynamiting and by copra plantation threatened by nearshore and offshore wastes. overfishing. " Sepik Delta: This is an area of man- "' Southern New Ireland: This is an area grove and brackish lake systems-a. of fringing reefs. highly productive area with a unique Buka: This reef and lagoon complex hydrology and habitat for crocodiles. has soft-bottom communities and' coral Threats arise from watershed mis- reef fish, but otherwise largely un- management and introduction of ex- known. Buka Channel comprises a otic fish. unique habitat in Papua New Guinea "o Vokeo and Islands: These are small is- but is threatened by overfishing and land systems in association with deep poor land use practices. water. 40 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

_4 Northwest Coast: This area has sandy (Sheppard, personal communication). beaches with largely unsurveyed fauna. (Described in UNEP/IUCN 1988; Scott This area contains interesting current 1993; see also Baines 1985b; Stoddart regimes and bottom topography and 1969.) 0 productive waters, and is threatened '.' Rennell Island (11.65 S, 160.33°E): This by overfishing and coastal logging. 86-kilometer, raised coral atoll has a cliffed central depression. Most of the This list of 30 areas covers basically all im- eastern half is covered by Lake Te portant marine areas that have been identi- Nggano (largest lake in the Pacific). fied by the Department of Environment and There is fringing reef probably all Conservation as requiring immediate atten- round island with only small breaks don (Kula, personal communication; see and a barrier reef across Kanggava also Agardy and Pernetta 1993). Bay. Proposed as a World Heritage Site (SPREP 1993d). (Described in Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom) UNEP/IUCN 1988.) * Indispensable Reefs No information was available. - Arnavon Island _ Ortega Pasage Solomon Islands _ Are'Are Lagoon and Maramasike Passage. Proposed new MPAs: There are no existing MPAs in the Solo- Coastal environmental management is a mon Islands. priority action identified in the Solomon Is- lands NEMS and a number of priority sites Proposed new MPAs: have been identified. _" Marovo Lagoon (18.66°S, 158.00°E): The lagoon is located in 'Western Prov- Tokelau ince, bounded by New Georgia on the, Vangunu , Hele Bar and on the east by Existing MPAs that requite management a chain of islands between Vangunu support: and Nggatokae. The lagoon is 35 kilo- There are no existing MPAs in Tokelau. meters long across its NE-SW axis, and 50 kilometers long in its eastern sec- Proposed new MPAs: tion. The eastern and outer limits are > Teahagaloa (9.83-s, 171.42 0W): There raised barrier reefs. There are numer- are important areas of reef flat on ous reefs at varying depths throughout Fakaofo (site account in Scott 1993; the lagoon with vigorous growth be- Dahl 1991). The atoll has windward low low water mark. Mangroves are and leeward atoll reefs and lagoon. found in estuaries shoreward of many " Akunonu Atoll (9.17°S, 171.920W). The fringing reefs and on many of the la- reef areas are to be protected (IUCN goon's islets. Dugong and giant clams 1991). This an atoll with windward and have been recorded. A traditional sys- leeward atoll reefs and lagoon and 24 tem of reef-lagoon tenure applies islets. throughout the area. Proposed as a 't Atafu (8.670S, 172.67°W): This is an atoll World Heritage Site (SPREP 1993), the with 42 islets, triangular reef and lagoon. area is presently threatened by logging (See SPREP/IUCN 1989; Dahl 1991.) Marine Region 14: South Pacific 41

Tonga _ Malinoa Island Park and Reef Reserve (21.03°S, 175.12°W): This reserve com- Highest priority is given to improved man- prises a small island with fringing reef. agement of the six existing MPAs in Tonga. Giant clams are present (Tridacna maxima) and the area is reported to Existing MPAs that require management be the only turtle nesting site on the support: Tongatapu group, although the species _Ow Fanga'uta and Fangakakau Lagoons Ma- concerned is not identified. The area rine Reserve (21.17°S, 175.17°W): This was established as a reserve in 1979, area comprises the main lagoons situ- but UNEP/IUCN (1988) report that ac- ated in the center of Tongatapu, a shal- tive management has not yet been im- low, almost enclosed estuarine plemented. (Site account in IUCN embayment separated form the ocean 1991.) by a complex system of reefs and chan- _O Monuafe Island Park and Reef Reserve nels. Mangroves are present along (21.100S, 175.130W): This reserve com- much of the shoreline. Diversity of cor- prises a small sand island surrounded als decreases from 10-15 genera at the by a sheltered lagoon reef. It is situ- lagoon entrance to one genera further ated at the confluence of two main into the lagoon. Ninety-six fish species water currents that provide for good have been recorded. Overfishing is re- coral growth. All coral species known ported in IUCN (1991) as is localized to occur in Tonga are present and the disturbance by removal of mangroves, reef to the south and west of Manuafe land reclamation and rubbish dump- Island is considered to be one of the ing. The area was established as a re- richest in the vicinity on Tongatapu serve in 1974. (Site account in IUCN and a good example of sheltered reef 1991; see also Zann, Kimmerer, and development (UNEP/IUCN 1988). The Brock 1984.) area was established as a reserve in pw Ha'atafu Beach Reserve (21.070S, 1979, but UNEP/IUCN (1988) report 175.33°W): This reserve comprises a that active management has not yet beach with lagoon and fringing reef. been implemented. (Site account in Giant clams (Tridacna maxima) are IUCN 1991.) present (McCoy 1980). It is a popular u'w Pangaimotu Reef Reserve (21.12°S, recreation area. The area was estab- 175.15°W): This reserve comprises a lished as a reserve in 1979, shallow reef, bounded on the north- UNEP/IUCN (1988) and IUCN (1991) em, seaward side by the deep Piha Pas- report that active management has not sage; the reef is best developed on the yet been implemented. (Site account in northern side. At least 12 genera of IUCN 1991.) coral are present at the reef edge with '_ Hakaumama'o Reef (21.00°S, extensive eelgrass beds and man- 175.20°W): This is an isolated exposed groves. Giant clams are present (Th- barrier and algal reef. Giant clams are dacna maxima). The area was present (Tidacna maxima). The area established as a reserve in 1979. was established as a reserve in 1979, UNEP/IUCN (1988) report that active UNEP/IUCN (1988) report that active management has not yet been imple- management has not yet been implemented and that the area is heavily mented. (Site account in IUCN 1991.) used for tourism, fishing and coral col- 42 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

lection. (Site accounts in IUCN 1991; with mangroves. Thirty-six coral spe- UNEP/IUCN 1988.) cies were recorded in the lagoon in 1983, with highest diversity occurring Proposed new MPAs: in the deep channels that receive Although highest priority is given to exist- ocean water. Over 200 demersal fish ing MPAs a further 8 areas are proposed as species and 400 mollusks have been candidate sites for MPAs. These are outlined described from the lagoon. (Site ac- below (descriptions from UNEP/IUCN 1988): count in UNEP/IUCN 1988; see also . Nomuka Lagoon Buckley 1985.) . Mala - Vaitupu (7.48°S, 178.83°E): This low, * Tuungasaki: This is an island in the Vava'u coral atoll (3.9 square kilometers) has group (2.8 hectares), with well-developed two islets and broad fringing reefs. fringing reef and turtle nesting. (Briefly described in UNEP/IUCN 1988; . Maninita: This is an island in the Vava'u Dahl 1991.) group. * Vakaeitu: This is an island in the Vava'u US. Unincorporated Territories group, with limestone, flat-topped, reefs connecting with Noapapu and islet off No information was available. Langitau. • Mounu Vanuatu . Favevai/A'A/Nuku • Uoleva: This is an island in the Ha'apai Existing MPAs that require management group (300 hectares), with limestone. support: No areas were identified as priorities. Tuvalu Proposed new MPAs: Existing MPAs that require management >0- Malekula: This is a limestone and vol- support: canic island (1,166 square kilometers) There are no existing MPAs in Tuvalu. surrounded by isolated, raised reefs with wooded cays. There are raised Proposed new MPAs: coral terraces in the northwest. The is- _ Fualopa, Fuafatu, Vasafua, Puagea and land is bordered on the east by fring- Tefala: The government of Tuvalu has ing reefs. The offshore islands of proposed the establishment of a MPA Akhamb, Maskelynes and Uri island under the South Pacific Biodiversity have been identified as being of par- Conservation Program which would in- ticular significance (Bani, personal com- corporate these islands and surround- munication). (Described in ing reefs. UNEP/IUCN 1988.) 1-O Reef Islands (13.580S, 167.500E): These Various recommendations are outlined in islands are located in the northern part UNEP/IUCN (1988), including the following of the Banks Group, between Mota areas: Lava and Ureparapara Islands. The is- _~ Kosciusko Bank (10.40 0S, 179.33°E): To lands consist largely of raised coral. the north of Niulakita has been suggested Turtles are reported to feed in large as a possible reef reserve (Dahl 1980). numbers in the central lagoon (Guil- ,'4w Fanafuti Atoll (8.500S, 179020'E): This cher 1974). (Site account in atoll has 30 islets and a central swamp UNEP/IUCN 1988.) Marine Region 14: South Pacific 43

"$w Cooks Reef (17.04°S, 168.17°E): The Western Samoa reef is situated 5 kilometers west of Emae and 25 kilometers south of Epi. Recommendations are included in Dahl It consists of a roughly triangular reef (1980), IUCN (1991), UNEP/IUCN (1988), on which the swell breaks, enclosing a Scott (1993), Pearsall and Whistler (1991). lagoon. It is a reported feeding ground for marine turtles (Guilcher 1974). (De- Existing MPAs that require management scribed in IUCN/UNEP 1988.) support: -*'4- Elephant Island: A Sustainable Re- _O Palolo Deep Reserve (13.82°S, source Management System project has 171.75°W): Palolo Deep is a hole been initiated under the Profitable Envi- about 200 meters in diameter within a ronment Program of the USAID, with fold in the fringing reef that surrounds the long term goal of making this is- Pilot Point. The forereef slope and ex- land a MPA (Fuavao, personal commu- tensive submarine terraces have rich nication). coral cover. SPREP (1985) reports the "Ow- Epi Island: This is a volcanic island presence of many corals and abundant with coral reefs, up to 500 meters wide fish and invertebrates. According to along the north side. (Described in IUCN (1991), the site is affected by pol- IUCN/UNEP 1988.) lution, siltation, illegal fishing, and the _ Tongoan: This is a steep, volcanic is- presence of sea urchins and the crown- land surrounded by narrow fringing of-thorns starfish (Acantbasterplanci). reef. (Briefly described in IUCN/UNEP It was established as a reserve in 1979. 1988.) (Site account from UNEP/IUCN 1988; _ Laika Island IUCN 1991.)

Proposed new MPAs: Wallis and Futuna w Saanapu/Sataoa: Work is well under way for the preparation of a long term Existing MPAs that require management project plan for coastal mangroves for- support: est that would make this area the coun- There are no existing MPAs in Wallis and try's second MPA. Futuna. _ Falealupo Preserve >_ Tafua Peninsula Preserve Proposed new MPAs: "P Aleipata and Nu'utele Islands (14.02°S, SPREP (1982) recommended protection 171.42°W): This is a group of four unin- for Alofi Island, while the establishment of a habited islands at the :eastern end of system of marine reserves was identified as Upolu Island. Nu'etele has two small a priority by SPREP (1985a). developing reefs, Nu'ulua has one; "Om~Alofi Island (14.45°S, 178.08°W): This these reefs are in good condition. The is a small (18.5 square kilometer), reefs of Namu'a and Fanuatapu extend mountainous volcanic island off Fu- for approximately 1.6 kilometers. Fish tuna, with a small patch of fringing are abundant and there is a small popu- reef. Dahl (1991) noted that it had lation.of Hawksbill turtles (Eretmocbe- been one of the least disturbed high is- lys-imbnicata). It is a nesting area for lands in Polynesia, though now. subject seabirds, especially boobies. There has to timber cutting and extensive land been some damage by crown-of-thorns clearing. starfish (Acantbasterplancii).The area 44 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

is important for local fishermen. It was development of a representative system of recommended by SPREP/IUCN (1989) MPAs could focus on ensuring that marine for the establishment of a National areas of each type of Island Domain are rep- Park. (Site account in IUCN/UNEP resented, perhaps initially within broad geo- 1988.) graphic groupings of the region, that is, southwest, northwest, central, east, Hawaii Easter Island and Sala y Gomez and subtropical south. A long-term goal might be for each country to protect a repre- Existing MPAs that require management sentative sample of the Island Domains that support: are present in that country. However, the There are no existing MPAs in Easter identification of such sites would require a Island and Sala y Gomez. more detailed assessment of each regional grouping or country than can be achieved Proposed new MPAs: within the scope of this report. Such an ap- Two sites have been recommended as proach might guide future activities that are MPAs (27°08'S, 109033'W (IUCN 1991; encouraging the establishment and manage- UNEP/IUCN 1988)): ment of MPAs in the South Pacific. 4 Anakena (on the north shore) The marine environment is important for - MotLu Nui/Iti (on the southwest point) . all Pacific Island countries and territories. However, marine ecosystems play a dispro- Regional Priorities for the Establishment portionately larger role in the well-being of and Management of MPAs certain countries, notably those composed entirely of the relatively low-diversity atolls The following is based on Holthus and Ma- and low-islands such as the Marshall Islands, ragos (1992). Kiribati, Tuvalu and Tokelau. Conservation The lack of data on marine ecosystems, of the marine biological diversity of these ar- habitats and species in the South Pacific eas is of particular importance. makes it very difficult to determine the areas There is sufficient data to identify coun- of highest regional priority for the conserva- tries and island groups of high diversity and tion of marine biological diversity. The iden- endemism in the region and to identify tification of regional priority areas for a broad priorities on this basis. Areas of high system of MPAs that would ensure the con- diversity include Papua New Guinea, the servation of a representative sample of all Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, marine ecosystems, habitats and species Palau, Fiji and the Federated States of Micro- within the region is not possible at this nesia. Areas of high endemism include the point. It has been estimated that a systematic Marquesas Islands, Easter and Sala y Gomez assessment and identification of regional pri- Islands and the Hawaiian Islands. ority areas for MPAs, even through an exist- Parts of the region have been identified as ing program such as the South Pacific being of high priority for marine biodiversity Biodiversity Conservation Program, would conservation based on an assessment of the take between two and three years (Fuavao, following factors (Holthus and Maragos 1992): personal communication). . the relative importance of marine ecosys- However, the level of information on the tems to humans presence and occurrence of each type of Is- * the identification of areas of high marine land Domain is fairly good. Island Domain biological diversity and endemism, and has a major influence on the presence of ma- the extent to which these areas are pro- rine ecosystems, habitats and species. The tected in effectively managed MPAs. Marine Region 14: South Pacific 45

Other Recommendations through the traditional owners or custodi- ans. The need to secure public support for The following recommendations are made protected areas in the South Pacific has been with the aim of promoting the establishment recognized for over a decade, yet there are of a representative system of MPAs for the few examples of MPAs (or terrestrial pro- South Pacific region. tected areas) where this is the case. In recent years the work of Pacific nations Most efforts to establish MPAs in the within the South Pacific Regional Environ- South Pacific have been motivated largely ment Program (SPREP) and other programs by government, yet the implementation of including the Forum Fisheries Agency and these areas requires the cooperation of local the IUCN Marine Protected Area Programme people, particularly in view of the land ten- have established a high degree of under- ure situation. This situation clearly points to standing amongst governments and decision- a need to establishing partnerships between makers that the protection of the natural governments and local people, recognizing resource base provided by healthy marine the role of government in providing finan- and coastal environments is essential to the cial, technical and other support, and in en- long-term well-being of the peoples of the suring consistency with national policy Pacific. The issue is to identify the means to objectives, and the role of local communi- achieve this protection. ties, often through community and local or- Marine protected areas have a significant ganizations, in providing local enforcement. role to play in protecting key sites and rais- As far as possible such partnerships need to ing consciousness of the need for and bene- build on, rather than replace, existing institu- fits of marine conservation. The tional structures and decisionmaking proc- effectiveness with which they may address esses at both the government and this role depends on two human factors. community levels. The first is community involvement in, or at Securing community support for MPAs least acceptance of, their establishment and will require the development of manage- management. The second is implementation ment plans that are compatible with, and of effective measures to manage factors out- based to the extent possible and feasible on side the marine protected areas. traditional practices for the use and conservation of marine resources. Customary tenure Community Involvement systems in many Pacific countries and territories extend over substantial areas of the Few protected areas can survive in the face coastal marine environment. Commonly, ma- of a generally hostile public, and this is true rine areas out to the seaward edge of the also for MPAs in the South Pacific, where reef are under some form of traditional ten- most marine areas have a long history of ure, and rights may be claimed exclusively ownership and use by local people. Effec- by a particular village or kinship group (Ea- tive management is largely dependant on ton 1985). In tradition the ecological contin- voluntary acceptance of the management re- uum between island and reef is recognized gime, if not active support and participation and is administered uniformly (Baines in management. In traditional communities 1985a). Traditional rights commonly include where there is continuing ownership or cus- the right to fish, the right of access and pas- tody over terrestrial and marine environ- sage, and the right to use stretches of beach mental resources there is very little as landing places. possibility of establishing effective protected Traditional practices in the South Pacific areas and regimes unless this is done also include marine conservation measures 46 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas such as closed areas and other fishing con- MPAs can contribute to the economic well- trols and restriction on the use of particular being of Pacific Island communities by pro- marine species. These self-regulatory mecha- vidin'g a sustainable flow of benefits as well. nisms have been weakened with the weak- as achieving conservation objectives. Unless ening of traditional authority and the local communities receive some tangible dominance of the cash economy. The intro- benefits from the establishment of MPAs, duction of western legal systems has re- there is likely to be opposition toward their sulted in the imposition of a new system of' establishment and unwillingness to follow legal rules in many areas, typically that land management regimes. and sea below sea level has become govern- It follows that ongoing consultation with ment or "Crown" property.. However tradi- local communities will be,required to deter- tional systems are still enforced'to varying mine economic, social, cultural and conser- degrees in many areas; in some cases the vation priorities, tQ allow an assessment of use rights have been explicitly recognized how MPAs can help achieve these priorities. by governments, in others these rights exist The long-term sustainability of MPAs will de- de facto. The establishment and manage- pend upon their integration with ecological, ment of MPAs in the South Pacific must be social and economic objectives at both the undertaken with due regard for custorniary national and local level. tenure systems, traditional knowledge and practices in designing and implementing Developing the Capacity to Manage management plans. In many cases these systems are likely to provide the most effective Acceptance of the need for Protected Areas basis for establishment of MPAs. and broader management strategies appears to be growing but its realization depends Broader-BasedResource Management upon human resources to implement plans and strategies within the South Pacific Re- Attempts to establish MPAs may prove to be gion. The availability of committed and futile unless they are within a regime that skilled people is the key to the success of ac- provides for overall management of all uses tions to establish and manage community- within the coastal zone. The management of owned protected areas in the South-Pacific MPAs in the region does not adequately deal (Reti 1993). Increased funding, strong institu- with the impacts of human activities in adja- tional arrangements and specially tailored cent land and water areas although these ac- control measures will be ineffective unless a tivities may have serious effects on the pool of trained human talent for protected species and habitats ostensibly under protec- area development and management expands tion. A coastal zone management strategy rapidly. Training and the development of in- that should address these issues is currently country capability for coastal management being prepared by SPREP. are fundamental requirements for develop- In the South Pacific there is a strong link ment of the capacity to manage marine re- between economic development and the pres- sources on sustainable basis. ervation of biological diversity. Poverty is po- tentially the greatest threat to sustainable use The South Pacific Biodiversity of the marine environment, as economic ConservationProgram (SPBCP) necessity often forces individuals and communities to make short-term decisions to unsus- The SPBCP concept of Conservation Area tainably exploit marine resources. As the projects, involving management of large ar- predominantly coastal populations increase eas encompassing complete marine ecosys- in the future these pressures will also increase. tems, providing for sustainable use of Marine Region 14: South Pacific 47 resources, strong community participation ties and individuals over protracted periods. and with an overall goal of ecological sus- In the case of marine environments there is tainability, is the optimal approach for a also a need for particular skills and knowl- MPA. The SPBCP provides the ideal opportu- edge that indicate the need for a specialist to nity and mechanism to address the chal- work on a marine programs for the SPBCP. lenges identified above in establishing an effective network of MPAs in a way that'is consistent with the social, economic and cul- CONCLUSION tural characteristics of the South Pacific. The model of the SPBCP could also find use out- The need to protect and conserve coastal side those countries in the region that are eli- marine environments is increasingly ac- gible'for support under this program. cepted in the South Pacific. For the foresee- Obtaining local information and securing able future countries in the region will the commitment of land owners, residents, continue to need support in terms of fi- resource users and other potential partners nance, resources and expertise in order to are essential to the SPBCP. In the marine en- establish and staff sustainable management vironment this can be a particularly complex regimes for marine resource management and time consuming process that will re- and for marine protected areas as compo- quire trained officers working with communi- nents of those regimes. 48 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

APPENDDIx 14.1 ISIAND DOMAIN OCCURRENCE Higb Islands Low Islands High No Higb Non- Mangrotes/Mangroves/ Arid Countnyaerritory Limestone limestone Seagrass Seagrass Phosphate

Southwest Pacific Papua New Guinea / / / Solomon Islands / / / Vanuatu / New Caledonia / / /

Northwest Pacific Palau-Main Islands / / Palau-SW Islands / Guam / / Northern Mariana Islands / Federated States of Micronesia / /

CentralPacific Fiji , / Nauru / Marshall Islands / Tuvalu / Kiribati-Gilbert Islands / / / Kiribati-Phoenix Islands Tokelau / Niue / U.S. Unincorporated Territories / Tonga / / American Samoa / / Western Samoa / Wallis and Futuna /

East Pacific Cook Islands-Northern / Cook Islands-Southern / / French Polynesia-Society Islands / / French Polynesia-Toumotu Islands / French Polynesia-Austral Islands / French Polynesia-Gambier Islands / French Polynesia-Marquesas Islands / Pitcairn Islands / / Kiribati-Line Islands / / Easter Islands-Easter and Sala y Gomez Islands / Marine Region 14: South Pacific 49

APPENDIX 14.2 CONVENTON ON THE The South Pacific Regional Environment CONSERVATION OF NATURE IN THE SOUTH Action Plan PACIC (APIA CONVENTION) The Action Plan provides a framework for a The Apia convention focuses on the protec- regional approach to environmental issues tion of primarily terrestrial plants, animals, addressing the unique needs and concerns and areas of historic and cultural signifi- of the countries and people in the South Pa- cance. It is focussed on nature conservation cific, and enhancing their environmental ca- and provides for the designation of pro- pabilities. The Action Plan was recently tected areas (national parks and reserves). reshaped, and a new plan for the period Parties to the Convention are obliged to no- 1991-95 was approved by the Fourth SPREP tify SPREP of the status of protected areas Intergovernmental Meeting in July 1991. and of the flora and fauna protected, includ- The Plan's goal is "to assist South Pacific ing endangered species. The Convention al- countries to protect and improve their lows for appropriate arrangements to be shared environments and manage their re- made for the customary use of species and sources to enhance the quality of life for pre- areas in accordance with traditional cultural sent and future generations." practices. The Apia Convention entered into force on Action Strategy for Nature Canservation June 26, 1990. The following countries are in the South Pacific Region party to the convention: Cook Islands, Fiji, Australia, France, Western Samoa and Tonga. The Action Strategy grew from the Third South Pacific Conference on Nature Conser- The SPREP Convention vation and Protected Areas held in Vanuatu in September 1985 and is being revised fol- This convention and its protocols focus on lowing the Fifth Conference held in Tonga the prevention and control of pollution of in October 1993. The Strategy recognizes the marine and coastal environments. The provi- importance of the human dimension in natu- sions of the SPREP Convention cover only ral resource conservation in a region where those terrestrial areas that are essential to much of the population is directly depend- the protection of marine and coastal environ- ent on the sustainable use of natural re- ments. Thus, the Apia and SPREP Conven- sources. Most of these environmental tions are complementary. In addition to resources, and the rights to use them, are provisions for control of various forms of communally owned; therefore, strong em- marine pollution the Convention calls on par- phasis is given to encouraging nongovem- ties to preserve species and habitats, particu- mental and local community participation in larly those which are rare or endangered. all facets of natural resource conservation The Convention entered into force in Au- and management. Similarly, the strategy rec- gust 1990 and the following 12 countries are ognizes the strong potential of traditional now parties: Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, knowledge and custom to assist in develop- France, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, New ing sustainable resource use practices appro- Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon priate for the special circumstances of Islands, Tonga, United States and Western Pacific Island countries. Samoa. 50 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

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MARINE REGION 15 Northeast Pacific

Miles Croom, Robert Wolotira, and William Henwood

BiOGEoGRAPHY AND MARIN upon encountering the continental shelf of BioDivERIsrry North America. The northward flowing portion, the Alaska Current, and the southward The Northeast Pacific Marine Region is de- flowing portion, the California Current, domi- fined as the marine and coastal waters from nate coastal regions and spread cool temper- the Bering Strait in the north, down the west ate water across a usually narrow coast of North America including the Aleu- continen'tal shelf in a long arc from Point tian Archipelago, the Gulf of Alaska, and the Conception in Southern California to the nearshore ("inside") waters of the Alexander westernmost Aleutian Islands in Alaska. Cold Archipelago; the Straits of Juan de Fuca and temperate water also influences the exten- Puget Sound; San Francisco Bay; the South- sive continental shelf area of the eastern Ber- ern California Bight; the Golfo de California ing Sea from the Aleutian Islands all the way (or Sea of Cortez); the waters surrounding to the northern boundary of the Northeast Baja California; and the waters along the Pacific Marine Region at Bering Strait. While west coast of Mexico to its border with Gua- the eastern Bering Sea shelf is associated temala. with the region, temperatures in this northern latitude area are sufficiently cool that sea- Oceanography sontal ice cover occurs. Far to the south, an extension of the Equatorial Counter Current The oceanography of the Northeast Pacific flows northward along the coast of Central Marine Region is varied and is influenced America and brings warm tropical water up either by the cool North Pacific Drift or the the coast of Mexico to the mouth of the Gulf warm Equatorial Counter Current. The cool of California and the southern tip of Baja water mass of the North Pacific Drift flows California Sur. There, it is diverted mostly eastward across the North Pacific Ocean mid- away from North America to become part of latitudes and splits into northward and south- the North Equatorial Current. A portion of ward flowing cool temperature currents this warm water, however, continues north-

55 56 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ward along the Baja California coast as far islands, while those portions of the region as Southern California, forming a gyre in the north from the Alaska Peninsula and south Southern California Bight that is bounded to from Cape Flattery are much less complex. the west by the cool California Current that Unconsolidated Tertiary and Quarternary flows past Point Conception. Except for sediments occur throughout the region pockets of cool water upwelling just south along with Cretaceous sediments in parts of of the United States-Mexico border, coastal Alaska, with volcanic rock dominating the waters from Point Conception to the south- Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska Peninsula ern tip of Baja California Sur and the entire coast, as well as elsewhere in scattered pock- Golfo de California are warm temperate. ets. Glaciation occurred throughout the Tidal ranges vary widely within the re- northern part of the region from upper Bris- gion, with a maximum of about 10 meters in tol Bay to Puget Sound, mostly during the Cook Inlet on the northern coast of the Gulf late Pleistocene. of Alaska, decreasing to only 0.3 meters in Norton Sound near the northern boundary Ecosystem and Species Diversity of the region and to about 1.5 meters off Mexico at the southern boundary. Ecosystems of importance to overall marine In the northern Gulf of Alaska and Bering biodiversity that are found within the North- Sea the continental shelf is very wide, typi- east Pacific Marine Region include tidal cally greater than 100 kilometers in width in marshes and eelgrass beds; sand and mud- the Gulf and often greater than 400 kilome- flats; upwelling and mixing areas; and interti- ters in the eastern Bering Sea. To the south dal, subtidal, benthic, nearsurface and of these regions, the 200 meter isobath is midwater habitats. In the northern reaches generally close to shore, rarely more than 75 of the region important ice cover-related kilometers off the coast; in some areas of habitats such as polynyas, recurrent shore Southern California and the Aleutian Islands lead systems, and ice edges are present. In it is less than 10 kilometers offshore. the central parts of the region ecosystems grade from temperate to subtropical types, Coastal Geography and Geology becoming tropical in the south of the region along the coast of Mexico where ecosystem The Northeast Pacific Marine Region has diversity generally is extremely high. Within been shaped by various episodes of volcanic the southern provinces of the region, tropi- activity, metamorphism, glaciation, erosion cal habitats such as mangroves, coral reefs, and mountain building, resulting in a wide rocky shores, sandy beaches, oceanic valleys range of coastal landforms and reliefs, from and canyons, estuaries and coastal lagoons steep fjord coastlines to cliffs and headlands, provide habitat for a striking variety of gently rolling lowlands, rocky and sandy species. shorelines, wide tidal flats, estuaries and del- Mexico is recognized for its high marine tas. Coastal relief varies but is mostly high, biodiversity values. However, this important especially along the entire mountainous arc biodiversity has not been adequately pro- from the westernmost Aleutian Islands to tected in the past, and it is currently under Vancouver Island, low along the Bering Sea great pressure from the increasing demands coast, and ranging from 0 meters along the of the growing human population along the featureless flats of the Yukon River Delta to coast of Mexico (Almada-Villela and Con- over 2,000 meters along the fjord-strewn treras-Balderas 1991). Revisions of Mexican coast of the Gulf of Alaska. The central por- biodiversity in the past have often concen- tion of the region has a complex, heavily in- trated on terrestrial habitats and species (Ra- dented coastline frequently dotted with mos 1987; Flores-Villela and Gerez 1988; Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 57

WCMC 1988; and McNeely and others 1990). sonal movements of both air and water Recent revisions on aquatic biodiversity and masses by winds and currents. These are es- coastal ecosystems have been carried out by sentially two-dimensional characterizations, Almada-Villela and Contreras-Balderas and unlike biomes, which are ecologically (1991), and more fully by Salazar-Vallejo defined, these oceanic realms and coastal re- and Gonzalez (1993). In addition, the IUCN gions do not include the third dimension- Species Survival Commission (SSC) Coral the ocean depths-so that much of the Reef Specialist Group is carrying out a ocean biota is excluded (Thome-Miller and global review of the conservation status of Catena 1991). The description of coastal bi- reef fish, including important associated spe- otic provinces within coastal regions is also cies and habitats, and this review also exam- derived largely from Hayden, Ray, and Do- ines Mexico in detail (Almada-Villela, in lan (1984); however, modifications to the prep). coastal provinces have been made by the Approximately 1,034 fish species have authors. These modifications are based been reported for the Pacific Coast of the mainly on the observed distributions of fish Americas (Escobar and Arenillas 1987) while and invertebrate fauna, which in turn are some 600 species have been reported for controlled by climatic, oceanographic (espe- the Atlantic Coast (Chaplin and Scott 1972). cially temperature), and geomorphic factors Fish diversity in the Golfo de California (Sea (Goliko and others 1990). of Cortez) is extremely high, including deep- The framework proposed by Mondor and sea and pelagic fish. This area alone sup- others (1991) for a hierarchical subdivision ports a fish fauna of over 800 species, 271 of of the, Northeast Atlantic Marine Region is ap- which are classified as reef fish (Thomson plied here to the Northeast Pacific Marine and others 1979). and is summarized in Table 15.2 below. Map The Northeast Pacific Marine Region is 15 illustrates the proposed coastal bio- known for its wide variety of marine mam- geographic provinces. The Northeast Pacific mals, ranging from walruses, sea otters, and Marine Region, as delineated by IUCN for other endangered and threatened species in this study, includes waters from four of the the northern part of the region to the highly oceanic realms identified by Hayden, Ray, endangered vaquita in the Golfo de Califor- and Dolan (1984): Variable Eastward Cur- nia. rents; Weak and Variable Currents; Strong Table 15.1 lists the threatened and endan- Equatorward Currents, and Strong Westward gered species in the Northeast Pacific Marine and Equatorward Currents. Within the oce- Region. anic realms, the coastal realms have been subdivided into the following regions: Sub- Biogeographic Classification polar; Temperate; Subtropical, and Tropical. Within the coastal regions, the following The biogeographic classification system provinces have been identified: Beringian, used here to describe the Northeast Pacific Aleutian, West Coast Fjords, Oregonian, Mon- Marine Region is based on the work of Diet- tereyan, San Diegan, Cortezian, Mexican, rich (1963), who defined boundaries on the and Panamanian. basis of temperature, salinity, and surface current patterns. Within the larger marine The NortheastPacific Marine Region realm, the oceanic realms and coastal regions are those described by Hayden, Ray, As noted above, the Northeast Pacific ma- and Dolan (1984), which are delineated on rine region incorporates waters from four the basis of physical and chemical proper- oceanic realms that are described on the ba- ties including salinity, temperature, and sea- sis of temperature, salinity, and current pat- 58 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 15.1 Threatened and Endangered Species In the Northeast Pacific Marine Region United State? Canade Marine mammals Gulf of California harbor porpoise, "vaquita" or "conchito" (Phocoena sinus) Southern sea otter (Enbydra lutris nereis)-Pacific Northwest (U.S.) to Baja California (Mexico) populations / Steller's sea lion (Eumetopfasjubatus) / Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsend) / Blue whale (Balaenopteramusculus) / Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) / Finback whale (Balaenopterapbhyalus) / Grey whale (Escbricbtius robustus) , Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Right whale (Balaena glacialis) i Sei whale (Balaenopteraborealis) I Sperm whale (Physeter macrocepbalus) / Marine-associatedbirds Short-tailed albatross (Dfomedea albatrus) / Spectacled eider (Somateriafiscber) / Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis) / American peregrine falcon(Falcoperegrinusanatum) / Arctic peregrine falcon (Falcoperegrinustundrius) / Bald eagle (Haliaeetusleucocephalus)-Pacific Northwest (U.S.) to Baja California (Mexico) populations / Aleutian Canada goose (Branta canadensisleucopareia) W/ Marbled murrelet (Brachyrampbus marmoratusmarmoratus) / / Westem snowy plover (Cbaradriusalexandrinus nivosus)-U.S. and Mexico populations within 80 kilometers of the coast / California clapper rail (Rallus longirostrisobsoletus)-Califomia (U.S.) population / Light-footed clapper rail (Rallus longirostris lvipes)-Califomia (U.S.) population / Yuma clapper rail (Rallus longirostrisvumanensis)Califomia- Arizoria (U.S.) Colorado River population / Califomia least tern (Sterna antillarum broum / Reptiles Green sea turde (Chelonia mydas)-breeding colonies on Pacific coast of Mexico / Leatherback sea turtle (Democbelys coriacea) / Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) / Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)-breeding colonies on Pacific coast of Mexico / Fisb Chinook salmon (Oncorbyncbus tsbawytscba)-Sacramento River (U.S.) winter run / Sockeye salmon (Oncorbyncbus nerka)-Snake River (U.S.) population / Delta Smelt (Hypomesus transpacyflcus) / a. Recognized as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of the United States. b. Recognized as endangered or threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. darine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 59

Table 15.2. Proposed.Biogeographic Classification of Northeast Pacific Marine Region Into Second and Third Order Marine Regions for Planning Global Network of MPAs First Order (Marine Region) Second Order (CoastalRealm) Third Order(Provinces)

Northeast Pacific Realm Subpolar Beringian Aleutian West Coast tlords Temperate Oregonian Subtropical Montereyan San Diegan Cortezian Tropical Mexican Panamanian

terns. Within the oceanic realms, four temperature. Along the west coast of North coastal realms, as defined by Hayden, Ray, America, water temperatures can range from and Dolan (1984), apply to this report. a low of 5°C to a high -of 15°C. Coastal upwelling is an important factor in the distribu- Subpolar CoastalRealm tion and abundance of marine life. As a These waters are a mixture of Arctic water result of the variability of environmental con- that originates in the upper 200-300 meters ditions, boundaries between provinces are of the Polar Basin; Pacific Ocean water flow- often ill defined. For the purposes of this re- ing northward through eastern and central port, the Temperate Realm extends from Aleutian Islands passages; cool, relatively lower Queen Charlotte Sound southward to freshwater remaining from'the previous win- Cape Mendocino. ter's ice cover, and freshwater from the extensive river systems of western Alaska from SubtropicalCoastal Realm the Yukon to Bristol Bay. Ice covers the sea The waters of this realm are fairly stable; surface in the northern portion of this realm water temperatures typically fall within the for four to seven months of the year. North 16-18'C range and show very little variation Pacific weather patterns in this realm are vig- with either season or latitude. Because condi- orous and exert a strong influence on the tions are so stable, the biota of this realm is oceanographic and biological processes oc- especially sensitive to changes induced by curring here. For the purposes of this report, climatic disturbances such as El Nifno. Salini- the Subpolar Realm reaches from the Bering ties typically fall within a range of 32-35 Strait southward as far as Queen Charlotte parts per thousand, although embayments Sound. along the Pacific coast are often hypersaline due to low runoff and evaporation. The Temperate CoastalRealm warm coastal waters are of southern origin, Temperate regions are the most variable of and they are contained 'near shore by the all realms, being subject to' relatively great cold, southerly California Current. For the seasonal fluctuations of temperature. Biota purposes of this report, the Subtropical are therefore also highly variable, since bio- Realm extends fromr'Cape Mendocino south- chemical processes are strongly affected by 'ward to Bahia Magdalena, Baja California 60 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Sur, and includes Gulf of California waters is transitional between polar and subpolar; north of a line between La Paz and Bahia an isolated pocket of this province occurs at Topolobampo. the headwaters of Cook Inlet (see below). This province is characterized by gener- Tropical CoastalRealm ally shallow water (rarely exceeding 50 me- The waters of this realm are characters) and gradual shelf gradients. Much of teristically quite warm, averaging 200C or the area was above sea level during periods more year round. Salinities average 32-35 of glaciation. The continental shelf is excep- parts per thousand. Coastal biota is domi- tionally broad, up to 400 kilometers, and nated largely by invertebrate communities as- this is the only coastal area of the United sociated with rocky shores and cliffs, as well States where the shelf extends beyond the as with sandy beaches. Mangrove swamps limits of the Exclusive Economic Zone (the also occur but are much less common than "200 mile limit," or EEZ). Much of the shelf on the Atlantic coast, and these Pacific man- sediments are mud and sand, to the south, groves support less fauna than those on the and hard or rocky north of St. Lawrence Is- Atlantic because of the greater tidal ranges land. The coastal morphology is mostly that leave the roots dry for long periods of open lowland and rolling hills, classified by time during low tide (West 1977). For the Bailey (1989) as various types of Polar Tun- purposes of this report, the Tropical Realm dra Domain. The coast is interrupted by a runs from Bahia Magdalena, Baja California very few extremely shallow embayments Sur (including Gulf of California waters and by even fewer estuaries. Mudflats occur south of a line between La Paz and Guay- along most of the coastal plain south from mas), southward to the border of Mexico the Yukon River, with high relief, cliffed, and Guatemala. rocky promontories occurring along northern Norton Sound (Dolan and others 1972). Subpolar MarineRegion 1-Beringian Norton Sound is the major coastal embay- Province ment, and it is strongly influenced by the Yu- kon River. Coastal vegetation consists almost The Beringian Province lies off the north- entirely of watersedge (Carex spp.) and cot- eastern coast of Alaska within the Arctic Re- tonsedge (Eriophonum spp.) tundra, with gion described by Briggs (1974). The pockets of spruce-birch (Picea-Betua)and al- northern limit is the Bering Strait; the south- der (Alnus) thickets along Norton Sound em boundary is defined by the north- (USGS 1970). emmost extent of major seasonal warming The Beringian Province is dominated by by North Pacific subsurface water that enters wind-driven currents and sea ice (except at the Bering Sea through eastern Aleutian Is- the southern boundary). The surface is ice- lands passages (Ekman 1953). This southern covered for up to six months of the year, boundary is defined by an arc across the and bottom water temperatures rarely ex- north central Bering Sea from the mainland ceed 2-3°C at depths greater than 50 meters near Nunivak Island to the northernmost (Fleming and Haggerty 1966; Wolotira, Sam- point of the continental shelf and then to Si- ple, and Morin 1977). Warming and mixing beria's Cape Olyutorski. A tongue of cool of nearshore waters is largely dependent on water, remnant from the previous winter's wind action (Muench and others 1981). ice cover, extends south between Nunivak Is- Shorefast ice freezes to the bottom to depths land and the Pribilof Islands. While present of a few meters and may cause scouring and every year, the size of this cold water mass partial removal of epibenthic fauna during is variable from year to year. This province winter. Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 61

Polar species and subpolar species with Substantial breeding colonies of seabirds an affinity for low temperatures are found in occur in this province, including major colo- the Beringian province, thus characterizing nies of black-legged kittiwake (187,000 the province as transitional. The ice-free pe- birds), the northern fulmar (400,000), com- riod, July to October in the very northern mon and thick-billed murres (1.4 million Bering Sea, permits the intrusion of boreal combined), the crested auklet (1.3 million), fauna such as Pacific cod, arrowtooth floun- and the least auklet (3.4 million) (NOAA- der, Alaska plaice, longnose dab, yellowfin USFWS 1991). Other avian fauna includes sole, and Pacific halibut. The epibenthic the shorttailed and sooty shearwater, black community is dominated by invertebrates, es- brant, common loon, scoters, rocky sandpi- pecially echinoderms such as asterid seastars per, parakeet auklet, and the red phalarope. (Wolotira, Sample, and Morin 1977). Unlike The red-throated loon, black turnstone, and provinces to the south, fish comprise only a pelagic cormorant breed in the coastal areas relatively small proportion of the biomass, of the province, and more than one-half of some 15 percent to 33 percent of the total the northeast Pacific breeding population of (Wolotira, Sample, and Morin 1977; Sample the mew gull, some 9,000 birds, is found and Wolotira 1985). Some arctic inverte- within this province. brates occur here, such as the opilio tanner The northern portion of Cook Inlet, above (snow) crab; the ridged crangon, sand, and the Eastern and Western Forelands, is in- tank shrimps; the northern Neptune whelk, cluded within this coastal province. The wa- and bivalve mollusks such as the chalky ma- ters here are typically very brackish, and the coma and Greenland cockle. Abundant ma- fish community is dominated by anadro- rine fish include saffron and arctic cod and mous species, including the subpolar Bering Pacific herring seasonally). Other marine fish cisco and the only notable population of saf- include several arctic sculpins (antlered, arc- fron cod south and east of Norton Sound. Al- tic staghorn, shorthorn, fourhom, and bellig- though we have no data on invertebrates, erent sculpins), pricklebacks (pignose many of the other fauna of this area depend eelblenny, fourline snakeblenny, and arctic on the same kind of brackish water condi- shanny), two pleuronectid flatfish (Bering tions that support much of the biota occur- and arctic flounders), capelin, and sand ring on the Arctic shelf (Briggs 1974; smelt. Several anadromous species occur in Thorson 1957). Therefore, because the wa- this province, including rainbow smelt, Ber- ters of northern Cook Inlet are characteristic ing cisco, and all five eastern Pacific salmon; of the subpolar and the fish fauna, at least, the province contains the northernmost siz- differ dramatically from that of adjacent wa- able population of sockeye, coho, and chi- ters to the south or elsewhere in the Gulf of nook salmon. This transition province is the Alaska, this region has been included within southernmost limit for species such as the the Beringian Province. The coastline of this opilio tanner crab and Bering flounder, and area is mainly mudflats subject to extreme it is the northern limit for bairdi tanner crab tidal fluctuations. Coastal vegetation is pri- and the red and blue king crabs. Polar marily black spruce and spruce-birch forests bears, walrus, ribbon, bearded, and ringed (USGS 1970) and is classified by Bailey seals inhabit the province; cetacean visitors (1989) as Continental Dark Evergreen Nee- include the bowhead, beluga, fin, minke, dleleaf Taiga (Polar Domain, Subarctic Divi- gray, orca, and humpback whales. The right sion), the only coastal region in the world whale, though rare, may be seen feeding in with this classification. This portion of the this province, and the blue and sperm province is notable, among other reasons, whales may occasionally appear. for its population of beluga whales. This con- 62 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas centration of belugas is the only one occur- nental shelf during two to five months of the ring outside the Bering Sea and arctic seas, year. In the Gulf of Alaska, in addition to and the population has its typical river con- the Alaska Current/Stream, the Alaska centrations only in the northernmost rivers Coastal Current flows as a narrow jet of low of Cook Inlet. salinity water along the coast from British This province is not represented in the sys- Columbia to Unimak Pass (Hood 1987). In tem of marine protected areas in the United general, the wind regime along the western States. Gulf of Alaska produces downwelling at the coast (Reed and Schumacher 1987). Surface Subpolar MarineRegion 2-Aleutian temperatures in the Bering Sea generally Province range between 6 and 12°C in summer and - 1.5 and 2.0°C in winter. Average water tem- The Aleutian Province is a cold-temperate peratures at 50 meters range from 1.6 to coastal area that extends from the southern 5.0°C in summer and -1.5 to 0°C in winter boundary of the Beringian Province (essen- (Otto and other s 1981, 1982, 1984; Stevens tially the boundary of the Low Arctic Subre- and MacIntosh 1989). Water temperatures gion (Briggs. 1974)) south to Cape Spencer are usually warmer in the Gulf of Alaska, in southeast Alaska. The southern boundary and sea ice forms only in northern Cook In- of this province is poorly defined, but it is let. In the Gulf, surface temperatures range based on the approximate dividing line be- between 10-14°C in summer and 1.0 to 8°C tween areas of abundance for subpolar,spe- in winter, while water temperatures at 50 cies (walleye pollock, atka mackerel, several meters are about 4-10°C in summer and 2- sculpins, red and blue king crabs and north- 6°C in winter (Ingraham and others 1976). ern pink and sidestripe shrimps, and temper- Sediments in the province are mainly ate forms (such as widow rockfish, Pacific gravel and muddy sand in the nearshore wa- whiting, petrale sole, ocean pink shrimp, Pa- ters of the Bering Sea and most of Bristol cific geoduck, pinto abalone, and several Bay. Sand is more common offshore, and a species of algae) (NOAA 1990; Scagel 1962). mixture of muddy sand and mud is found at This province is influenced by the North depths greater than 50 meters (NOAA Pacific Current, which bifurcates along the 1988a). The Gulf of Alaska has sediments of west coast of North America at about 50°N. muddy sand with rock from the Aleutian Is- and then flows.in a wide band north and lands to Cook Inlet, mud and a mixture of westward as the Alaska Current. Off Kodiak mud-gravel-rock from Kodiak Island to Cape Island the current narrows and accelerates, Spencer, and pockets of mud adjacent to ar- becoming the Alaska Stream and continuing eas of recent glacial activity such as the its flow westward, parallel to the continental Kenai Peninsula and from Icy Bay to Cape shelf edge (Reed and Schumacher 1987). Por- Spencer (USGS 1970). tions of this water mass turn northward and That portion of the coastal province over- flow through the eastern Aleutian Island, lying continental shelf is greater in this than passing into the eastern Bering Sea. The cur- in any other Nearctic province (Lynde 1986). rent continues to flow northward, paralleling Most of the continental shelf area lies within the shelf edge, while offshoots move east- - the Bering Sea part of the province, extend- ward onto the continental shelf north of Uni- ing some 320 kilometers offshore; in the mak Island and travel counterclockwise Gulf of Alaska the shelf is 80-160 kilometers through Bristol Bay and thence northwarc wide, narrowing to no more than 8 kilome- Eastern Bering Sea waters are also heavily in- ters wide throughout the Aleutian Islands. fluenced by sea ice, which covers roughly .The coastal topography and geology of half of the surface waters overlying the conti- the province is highly variable; the Bering Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 63

Sea is an exception. Throughout the eastern the Alaska Peninsula coast; mainly alder Bering Sea, the coast is composed of recent thickets, dryas meadows (Dryas-Carex- deltaic material; it is typified by mudflats Betula), and barrens on Kodiak Island and along the north coast and by low-relief the southwest coast of Cook Inlet; and coastal plain to the south. The remainder of mostly a mixture of spruce-hemlock (Tsuga- the Aleutian Province coastline is mostly Picea)forests, dryas meadows and barrens rocky, mountainous and cliffed, derived from Afognak Island and the Kenai Penin- from a variety of geologic origins. The Aleu- sula to Cape Spencer (USGS 1970). tian Islands and Alaska Peninsula are com- This province contains an enormous vari- posed of recent volcanic rock; glacial or ety of marine life. Hundreds of fish species glacial-fluvial material is found along the are present, including many in very high north and east shorelines of Cook Inlet, the abundance: walleye pollock, Pacific cod, Pa- Copper River Delta, and in the Malaspina cific halibut, yellowfin, flathead, and rock Glacier area. Elsewhere, the composition is soles, arrowtooth flounder, sculpins (Myoxo- mainly of older, resistant material. Fjordal cepbalus spp. and Hemilepidotus spp.), Pa- embayments dominate the coasts of the cific herring, and all five species of Aleutian Islands, the Kodiak Islands group, Northeast Pacific salmon. Marine mammals and the north coast of the Gulf of Alaska occurring in the province include the sea ot- from the Kenai Peninsula through Prince Wil- ter, commonly seen in the intertidal zone liam Sound. Active glaciers occur near the from the Aleutian Islands to southeast coast from western Cook Inlet south to Cape Alaska; the northern fur seal, which has Spencer; some extend to the water's edge. large rookeries in the Pribilof Islands; the Estuaries are found in only a few locations Steller sea lion, which has rookeries from such as the head of Bristol Bay in the Bering the Pribilof and Aleutian Islands through the Sea and in northern and eastern Cook Inlet. Gulf of Alaska; and walrus, which maintain While most of the Gulf of Alaska coast is substantial haulouts for bulls on Round and rocky, other shoreline types are not uncom- Walrus Islands (NOAA 1988b). Ribbon, mon. Mudflats occur at the Copper River bearded, and harbor seals are inhabitants. Delta and from Malaspina Glacier to Yakutat Large cetaceans that feed in the province in- Bay. Pocket beaches are dispersed along the clude gray, beluga, minke, fin, right, blue, south coast of Kodiak Island and from the orca, sei, short-finned pilot, and humpback southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula north- whales. Smaller odontocetes include Dall's ward into Cook Inlet. Sandy beaches are porpoise, harbor porpoise, and Pacific white- found in the Yakutat Bay region (Dolan and sided dolphin. others 1972). Some 250 species of coastal and marine The landward coastal areas are classified birds inhabit the province, many in substan- by Bailey (1989) mostly as marine divisions tial numbers. Over 18 million seabirds live of the Humid-Temperate Domain (mainly along this province's coast, and extensive Upland Marine Division), Oceanic-Meadow, colonies of the following species are pre- or Forest Tundra, with extensive coniferous sent: commron and thick-billed murres (4.3 forests from northern Kodiak Island east and million birds, combined), forktailed storm southward. Dominant vegetation includes petrel (2.9 rmillion), Leake's storm petrel (2.8 cottonsedge (Enphorum) and watersedge million), tufted puffin (2.5 million), crested (Carex) tundra in the Bering Sea; Aleutian auklet (1.2 million), northern fulmar (1 mil- meadows (Calamagrostis-Anemone)and lion),.black-legged kittiwake (nearly 1 mil- heath (Empetrum-Vacinium) and barren lion), horned puffin (900,000), Cassin's ground in the Aleutian Islands; alder (Alnus) auklet (400,000), and parakeet auklet thickets, Aleutian heath and barrens through (300,000) .(NOAA-USFWS 1991). Nearly the 64 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

entire world population of red-legged kitti- species in their northern range. The south- wake is found in the Aleutian Province em boundary is drawn at Puget Sound, pri- (130,000 birds), and over three-fourths of marnly on the basis of the distribution of the Northeast Pacific breeding population of demersal fish, especially sculpins. For exam- glaucous-winged gull (290,000),. red-faced ple, of the 65 temperate sculpin species cormorant (62,000), arctic and Aleutian terns found along the Northeast Pacific coast, only (14,000 and 10,000, respectively), and whisk- ten have ranges that extend south of Puget ered auklet, (4,000) occur here. Other avian Sound, whereas for 17 subpolar sculpins species characteristic of the province include (with centers.of distribution in the Bering white-wing scoter, rhinoceros auklet, pigeon Sea or Gulf of Alaska), only one ranges guiliemot, homed grebe, redthroated and south of the Sound. common loons, red-neck grebe, pelagic cor- The Alaska Coastal Current strongly influ- morant, bald eagle, and black turnstone. ences the West Coast Fjords Province as it This province is represented in the na- flows northward along the continental shelf. tional program of marine protected areas by Tidal movement is strong in inside waters, the Alaskan Maritime National Wildlife Ref- especially in restricted passages. Water tem- uge, which encompasses the nearshore wa- peratures are fairly constant throughout the ters surrounding the Semidi Islands and year, 8-14'C at the surface along the outer Afognak Island. The waters from Cape coast with cooler minimum temperatures Douglas to Cape Kubugaki are included likely in the headwaters of the northernmost within Katmai National Park. The Becharof fjords). Average seasonal temperatures at a National Wildlife Refuge includes the waters 50-meter depth range from 7.900C to 9.250C of Puale Bay. The Alaskan Peninsula Na- (Churgin and Halminski 1974. Observed tional Wildlife Refuge includes some waters water temperatures suggest that some up- of Cold Bay. The State of Alaska has desig- welling is likely to occur along the west nated 21 State Marine Parks in this province; coast of Vancouver Island. these areas typically range in size from As suggested by the name, this province is around 100 hectares to perhaps 3,000 dominated by fjordal embayments and rocky hectares. coastlines. Only a few small estuaries are found in the province, although the entire SubpolarMarine Region 3-West Coast southern Strait of Georgia-Puget Sound re- FjordsProvince gion is often considered a form of modified estuary (a semi-enclosed fjordal embayment This province is bounded by Cape Spencer with extensive freshwater input). The geo- to the north and Vancouver Island and logical composition of the province is pre- Puget Sound on the south. It includes the dominantly of older resistant material except nearshore ("inside") waters of the Alexander in Georgia Strait and Puget Sound where gla- Archipelago and extends south through the cial-fluvial material is found. Mudflats often Straits of Georgia into Puget Sound. The wa- occur at the very head of fjords, especially ters of the Straits of Juan de Fuca have not in the southern part of the province. Deltaic been included within this province because deposits are found at the mouths of the ma- geomorphologically the area between the jor mainland rivers such as the Stikine in coast of Vancouver Island and the Olympic southeast Alaska and the Skeena and Fraser Peninsula is more typical of the Oregonian in British Columbia, as well as in the Skagit Province described below (USGS 1970). The and Snohomish in Puget Sound in Washing- West Coast Fjords Province is a transition ton. This extremely rugged coastal province zone containing some subpolar fauna in is characterized by a very narrow continen- their southern ranges and some temperate tal shelf. Seaward of the coastal islands the Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 65 shelf is sometimes less than 8 kilometers more commonly the California sea lion (at wide, although it is more typically 16-32 the northern end of their range), Steller sea kilometers wide. In inside waters the shelf lion, and harbor seal (NOAA 1988b). Some- width is highly irregular, varying from 48-80 what less often seen are the northern ele- kilometers in width between offshore island phant seal and northern fur seal. groups and the mainland to less than 2 kilo- The West Coast Fjords Province contains meters elsewhere. Many fjords in the Alexan- over seven million seabirds, including cen- der Archipelago have nearly vertical shore ters of abundance for alcids such as Cassin's faces. auklet (2.8 million birds), rhinoceros auklet Sediments in inside waters are mainly (nearly 700,000), Ancient murrelet (nearly mud and rock in the Alexander Archipelago, 600,000), and Leach's storm petrel (2.8 mil- and mud, mud-sand, and rock elsewhere' lion) (NOAA-USFWS 1991). Most centers of The seabed in outside waters is a mixture of abundance of the bald eagle occurs in this sand, gravel, and rock with numerous rocky province. Other species with significant pinnacles. breeding populations (more than 10 percent This coastal region is classified by Bailey of the total) within this province include the (1989) as part of the Marine Division of the fork-tailed sotrm petrel, glaucouswinged Humid-Temperate Domain and is primarily gull, pelagic and double-crested cormorant, Oceanic Forest-Tundra with some conifer- pigeon guillemot, and black oystercatcher. ous and mixed coniferous-hardwood forests Other avian fauna includes the black-footed on the offshore island groups in British Co- albatross, northern fulmar, and short-tailed lumbia (Queen Charlotte Island and the shearwater, which are open-ocean residents, west side of Vancouver Island). Coastal vege- as well as sanderling, western grebe, black- tation is typically hemlock-Sitka spruce for- legged kittiwake, brant, surf scoter, common ests in southeast Alaska (with some dryas murre, and Pacific loon. meadows and barrens), Sitka spruce-fir-hem- This province is represented in the Cana- lock-cedar along the British Columbia coast, dian system of marine protected areas by and spruce-Douglas fir throughout most of the marine component of the Pacific Rimn Na- Puget Sound (USGS 1970; Canada 1974). tional Park Reserve. Smaller coastal marine Several hundred fish species occur here in- areas are protected by provincial Ecological cluding very abundant marine forms such as Reserves. These include Baeria Rocks, Port walleye pollock, Pacific cod, numerous rock- Chanal, Ten Mile Point, Satellite Channel, fish (Sebastes spp.), Pacific halibut, petrale Oak Bay Islands, Griffin Island, Race Rocks, sole, arrowtooth flounder, lingcod, Pacific Harvey Islands, Checleset Bay, Robson herring, and Irish lords (Hemilepidotus Bight, Pine/Storm/Tree Islands, and Brack- spp.), as well as anadromous species such man Island. Additional marine waters are in- as Dolly Varden, char, steelhead, and all five cluded in the following Provincial Parks: Northeast Pacific salmon. Marine mammals Desolation Sound, Copeland Islands, Mon- utilize these waters mainly for feeding and tague Harbour, Newcastle Island, Octopus Is- migrating. Species commonly seen in the lands, Princess Louisa, Rebecca Spit, province include sei, humpback, orca, gray, Thurston Bay, Pirates Cove, Plumper Cove, minke, short-finned pilot, and fin whales. Sidney Spit, and Winter Cove. Large cetaceans seen less commonly or far- Within the U.S. system, the province is rep- ther offshore include the sperm, blue, and resented by Glacier Bay National Park. To- right whales. Cetaceans include harbor por- gether with the Glacier Bay Admiralty Island poise, Dall's porpoise, Pacific whiteside dol- Biosphere Reserve, Glacier Bay itself and the phin, and common dolphin. Isolated waters from Cape Spencer to Sea Otter populations of sea otters occur here, and Creek out to about 5.5 kilometers are pro- 66 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas tected. Padilla Bay National Estuarine Re- (Churgln and Halminski 1974). At a depth of search Reserve represents coastal waters in 50 meters, temperatures range from 8.3- Puget Sound. The state of Washington has 10.0°C during the coldest season (usually designated 19 State Marine Parks; these ar- July to September) and are 10.1-10.6°C dur- eas range in size from about 65 hectares to ing the warnest period (October to Decem- as large as about 1,500 hectares. ber) (Churgln and Halminski 1974). The coastline is predominantly mountain- Temperate Marine Region 1-Oregonian ous with steep, sloping headlands. The prov- Province ince is characterized geologically by older resistant material. Shorelines are a mixture The Oregonian province extends from the of pocket beaches, sandy beaches, sandy Strait of Juan de Fuca and the outer coast of beaches wit rocky headlands, and some Washington south to Cape Mendocino, Cali- open sandy beaches (Dolan and others fornia. This province is clearly distinct from 1972). The sole exception occurs at Cape the Aleutian Province, as it contains fauna Mendocino, where rocky shoreline marks that require warmer water temperatures than the southern boundary of the province. are afforded north of Cape Spencer; how-. Sediments are somewhat mixed, but are ever, some species characteristic of this prov- mostly sand with pockets of rock nearshore ince do occur in the West Coast Fjord, and rock, gravel, and mud-sand offshore. Province to the north when conditions allow. The continental shelf is uniformly narrow, The dominant oceanographic influence in averaging less than 32 kilometers wide every- the province is the cool,.southerly California where and extending only some 56 kilome- Current. During late fall, in September and ters offshore at its widest point at Tillamook October, this current flows quite near the Head, Oregon. coast, but for most of the year it remains Coastal vegetation is dominated by Large- more offshore (Briggs 1974). In the winter leafed Coniferous Evergreen (Dolan and oth- months of,November to February, the David- ers 1972). This area is classified as part of son Current flows its northerly course be- the Humid-Temperate Domain by Bailey tween the Califomia Current and the (1989), having marine western coniferous mainland. Upwelling occurs seasonally, from and mixed forests down to central Oregon February to September, driven by the prevail- (Coos Bay). and oceanic forest-tundra south ing northwesterly winds. Upwelling is a very of.there. The dominant forest types are important factor in the high productivity .. spruce-cedar-hemlock along the Oregon and seen here; indeed, the rates and volumes of Washington coasts, and cedar-hemlock- upwelling observed in this province are Douglas fir or coastal redwood forests (Se- greater than anywhere else along the west quoia) along the California coast. coast of North America. The importance of Faunal communities are temperate and upwelling in affecting the occurrence and less boreal than assemblages further north. distribution of organisms may be seen in the Within the sculpin family of fish, charac- pockets of cold-temperate fauna which are teristic species of this province include cabe- found as far south as the northern coast of zon, rosylip sculpin, brown Irish lord, Baja California, sustained by the cool, nutri- threadfin sculpin, thornback sculpin, darter ent-rich waters cycled up from. the depths. sculpin, longfin sculpin, and saddleback Water temperatures are fairly constant sculpins. These species have their center of throughout the year. Average surface water distribution within the Oregonian Province, temperatures range between 8.8° and 10.7°C but their range extends north and south into in winter and 13,4-14.8 0 C in summer adjacent transitional provinces. The limit of Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 67 distributions in the West Coast Fjord Prov- grebes; brant, surf and white-wing scoters; ince to the north varies by species, but red phalarope, and sanderling. Year-round nearly all these species have Point Concep- residents include the rhinoceros auklet, tion (or the nearby Channel Islands) as the tufted puffin, and pelagic cormorant. southern limit of their range. Other fish spe- This province is represented at the federal cies typically found in the Oregonian Prov- level by the Flattery Rocks National Wildlife ince include Pacific whiting, lingcod, widow Refuge, the Willapa National Wildlife Ref- rockfish, petrale sole, arrowtooth flounder, uge, the Copalis National Wildlife Refuge, English sole, and Pacific herring, as well as the Quillayute Needles National Wildlife Ref- the anadromous steelhead, chinook, chum, uge, the Oregon Islands National Wildlife and coho salmon. Some common inverte- Refuge, Three Arch Rocks National Wildlife brates are ocean pink shrimp, Dungeness Refuge, South Slough National Estuarine Re- crab, and the introduced Pacific oyster. search Reserve in Coos Bay and Redwood Marine mammal visitors to the province in- National Park. The State of Washington has clude the gray whale, which migrates close one State Marine Park, and the State of Ore- to shore; minke, fin, sei, humpback, and gon has designated five Intertidal Nonfood orca whales are more commonly seen in wa- Permit Areas. The State of California has des- ters over the continental shelf, and blue and ignated seven State Underwater Parks and sperm whales can sometimes be observed in Areas of Special Biological Significance. shelf and high seas waters. Smaller cetaceans include the harbor porpoise, found near- SubtropicalMarine Region 1- shore; the Pacific white-sided dolphin, Montereyan Province common dolphin, and Dall's porpoise are seen in continental shelf waters. The Califor- The Montereyan Province is transitional be- nia sea lion and harbor seal are coastal resi- tween temperate and subtropical. Its bounda- dents; the northem elephant seal and ries are Cape Mendocino to the north and northem fur seal, and sometimes the Steller Point Conception to the south. The province sea lion (mostly females), spend time feed- is usually classified as a cold-temperate area, ing here during the winter and early spring although Hubbs (1974) observed the close (NOAA 1988b). association of this province with the adja- Avifauna is diverse, but there are fewer cent warmer water San Diegan Province to nesting birds than in provinces to the north; the south, especially for a wide variety of about 1.5 million seabirds breed here rockfish (Sebastes spp.) and surfperches. (NOAA-USFWS 1991). Large breeding colo- Hubbs notes further that there is a substan- nies are present for the common murre tial overlap due to strategies for taking ad- (700,000 birds) and Leach's storm petrel vantage of temperature discontinuities. That (460,000), while significant breeding colo- is, the range of warm water fauna dimin- nies (more than 10 percent of the Northeast ishes to the north and lies mainly in pro- Pacific total) are present for westem gull, tected, warmer bays and estuaries, whereas double-crested and Brandt's cormorants, cooler water fauna occur, sometimes in Caspian tem, and black oystercatcher. The rather patchy distributions, to the south in ar- Oregonian Province is the winter home for eas of upwelling or in colder, deeper water. numerous other species such as the north- The province is influenced by the southem fulmar, sooty shearwater, and black- erly Califomia Current, but during the late footed albatross, which range over the open fall and winter months, November to Febru- ocean. Coastal visitors include the common ary, the warmer Davidson Current surfaces loon; red-necked, homed, and westem and forces the Califomia Current offshore 68 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

(Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1942; includes redwood forests (Sequoia-Pseudot- Tchemia 1980). Upwelling occurs near Point suga) in the north and near Santa Cruz, and Conception during spring and early summer, coastal sagebrush (Salvia-Eriogonum) and pockets of upwelling are occasionally backed by California oaks (Quercus spp.) found elsewhere, as in the Monterey Canyon from Monterey Bay to Point Conception. area. Surface water temperatures are gener- The vegetation surrounding San Francisco ally 11-14°C during winter and 13-15°C dur- Bay is a mixture including pine-cypress ing summer (USGS 1970; Churgin and (Pinus-Cupressus) and mixed evergreen (Ar- Halminski 1974). Water temperatures at 50 butus-Pseudotsuga) forests, oak, chaparral meters are remarkably constant, averaging (Adenostoma-Arctostaphyl os-Ceanothus), 10-11°C during the coldest period of the fescue-oatgrass (Festuca-Danthonia),and year (April-June) and 11-12°C at the warm- California steppe (Stipa) (USGS 1970). There est (October-December or January-March). are no forests along the southern half of the Over a 50 year period, seasonal tempera- coast of the province. tures at 50 meters varied less than 1.5°C be- As a transition zone, the Montereyan Prov- tween the average maxima and minima ince displays a variable array of species as- (Churgin and Halminski 1974). semblages depending on the season, despite The continental shelf is very narrow in the relatively constant water temperatures. this province, often less than 16 kilometers Typically, subtropical species occur here in wide. The shelf is widest in the area of the spring and summer, and temperate species Farailone Islands, where it is some 40-48 in winter. Some coastal pelagic fish exhibit kilometers wide. The coast is composed of this behavior, such as the chub mackerel mostly older resistant material; the shoreline and Pacific bonito. Both species are found is largely irregular, mountainous headland; year-round south of Point Conception; they cliffed coastline with pocket beaches, and move northward in the spring, the former as some open, sandy shoreline, notably the far as Cape Mendocino and the latter some- north beach at Point Reyes and the low re- times to the Columbia River. California hali- lief Monterey Bay area. Low relief beaches but is a temperate, nonmigratory flatfish that interspersed with rocky headlands also oc- is found extensively along the coast of south- cur along the southernmost coast of the ern California and northern Baja California. province from Cape Buchon to Point Con- However, it is also commonly found in ception (Dolan and others 1972). Several em- Tomales Bay north of San Francisco (NOAA bayments, estuaries, and esteros are found 1990). Of the 22 species of sculpins found from San Francisco Bay northward; there are south of Point Conception, over 33 percent no enclosed embayments to the south. were not found farther north than Cape Men- Sediments are mainly sandy from Cape docino (Wolotira, unpublished data). In con- Mendocino to San Francisco Bay; in San trast, the rockfish (Sebastes spp.), which are Francisco Bay the sediments are mudsand; relatively deepwater fish, Point Conception mud-sand and rock occurs from Monterey is apparently not a biogeographic barrler. Of Bay south to Estero Bay, and sediments are species of rockfish that occur north of Point sandy south to Point Conception. Conception, over 70 percent (40 species) Coastal vegetation is described as Small- also occur south of there. However, those leafed Evergreen Angiosperm Shrub and 40 species, nearly 50 percent (19 species) oc- Brushland (Dolan and others 1972). Bailey cur no farther north than Cape Mendocino (1989) classified this region as Humid-Tem- or Humboldt Bay. Other typical marine fish perate domain, Western Oceanic Mixed include lingcod, English sole, Pacific herrin Sclerophyll Forests and Shrub of the Mediter- and the anadromous steelhead and chinook ranean Lowland Division. Characteristic flora and coho salmon. San Francisco Bay and Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 69 the associated Sacramento-San Joaquin River The State of California has designated 15 system represent the southernmost areas of MPAs in state coastal waters, including: Julia abundance for spawning Pacific herring (in Pfeiffer Burns Marine Park, Point Lobos Eco- the Bay) and for coho and chinook salmon logical Reserve, Bodega Marine Life Reserve, (in the rivers) (NOAA 1990). Salt Point Underwater Park, Ano Nuevo Sea- This province is host to a relatively large shore Reserve, Carmel Bay State Park, Fort number of rare, threatened, or endangered Ross Underwater Park, California Sea Otter species, including the sea otter, which is resi- Seashore Reserve, and Hopkins Marine Life dent here, as is the harbor seal. Seasonal pin- Reserve. niped residents include the Califomia sea lion, northern elephant seal, and Steller sea SubtrpicalMarine Region 2-San Diegan lion, the latter in small (and declining) num- Province bers. Seasonal transients include the northern fur seal and Guadalupe fur seal. The San Diegan Province is a subtropical Numerous cetaceans are regular visitors as zone extending from Point Conception they migrate through the province, such as southward to Bahia Magdalena, Baja Califor- the blue whale, gray whale, humpback nia Sur. whale, fin whale, right whale, sperm whale, The province is influenced by extensions pygmy sperm, beaked whale, short-finned of the Equatorial Counter Current and, to a pilot whale, orca, and the false killer whale lesser extent, by the California Current. (at the northern end of its range) (NOAA North of Point Conception the California Cur- 1988b). Small cetaceans include the season- rent flows relatively close to the coastline. ally resident Dall's porpoise, Risso's dolphin, As the coastline turns eastward, however, northern right whale dolphin, harbor por- the California Current continues to flow poise, and Pacific white-sided dolphin; sea- southward, so that its influence on the coast sonally transient small cetaceans include the diminishes. Along the upper half of Baja Cali- bottlenose dolphin and the common dol- fornia Norte (down to approximately Punta phin (Heimlich-Boran 1988). This province Baja, 30°N) upwelling occurs seasonally, is also home to significant numbers of drawing deep water from the California Cur- seabirds. The Farallon Islands supports the rent to the surface. The warm water exten- largest seabird rookery south of Alaska, sup- sion of the Equatorial Counter Current flows porting some 400,000 birds, including com- northward along the coast from lower Baja mon murres, Brandt's and pelagic California Sur into the Southern California cormorants, tufted puffins, phalaropes, and Bight where it becomes the Southern Califor- oystercatchers. Least terns, Forster's tern, nia Gyre. Briggs (1974) points out that the Caspian terns, snowy plovers, western gulls, combination of an abrupt curvature of the pigeon guillemots, and the endangered clap- coast southward from Point Conception and per rail are among the coastal and shore the presence of the outer islands of the birds that nest in the province. Southern California Bight tend to insulate This province is represented in the U.S. most of the Bight proper and adjacent system of marine protected areas by Cordell coastal waters to the south from the cooling Bank National Marine Sanctuary, Gulf of the influence of the California Current. Water Farallones National Marine Sanctuary, Mon- temperatures are consistently warm, with sur- terey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Gold- face waters averaging 15-16'C during the en Gate National Recreation Area, Point coldest periods (January-March) and about Reyes National Seashore, San Francisco Bay 19°C in the warmest (July-September) (Chur- National Wildlife Refuge, and Elkhorn gin and Halminski 1974). Surface tempera- Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve. tures at areas of upwelling are commonly 70 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

3-9°C cooler than surrounding waters Eugenia is of older, resistant material; Isla Ce- (Briggs 1374). Temperatures at 50 meters are dros is an offshore continuation of that for- only slightly cooler than at the surface, aver- mation. Bahia Magdalena is primarily aging 12-14°C during the coldest months composed of low resistant material and is en- (April-June) and 13-15°C during the warm- closed by sandy barrier islands. Sediments est (October-December). The thermal re- are mostly sand or mud-sand along the main- gime of marine waters in the province is land; shelf sediments are mud in the South- relatively constant; annual minima and max- em California Bight and offshore (more than ima differ by only 3-4°C at the surface, by 40 kilometers) everywhere in the region. less than 1.5°C at 50 meters, and by less The coastal upland is considered part of than 1°C at greater depths (Churgin and the Lowland Mediterranean Division of the Halminski 1974). Humid-Temperate Domain, north from Ba- Tectonically the Pacific coast of Baja Cali- hia San Quintin, and Subtropical Desert Divi- fornia is classified as a collision coast with a sion of the Dry Domain south of there narrow continental shelf. The continental (Bailey 1989). Coastal vegetation is shrub shelf is very nalTow in the northern reaches and brush flora, consisting prirnarily of chap- of the province, widening into substantial arral (Adenostoma-Arctostapbyl os- shelf formations at Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino Ceanothus) along the Southern California and north of Bahia Magdalena. Its width is Bight, and desert flora, including coastal no greater than 30 kilometers along the Cali- sagebrush (Sal via-Erigonum) along the Baja fornia coast and averages less than 15 kilo- California coast with pockets of chaparral meters. It is even narrower around the (USGS 1970). islands in the Southern California Bight. Off Of the approximately 16 coastal lagoons Mexico, the shelf gradually broadens to found in this province, fewer than 50 per- about 140 kilometers at Bahia Sebastian cent contain mangroves, although there is Vizcaino, narrows again substantially at an important mangrove community at Bahia Punta Eugenia, and then widens to a maxi- Magdalena. This is mainly attributable to the mum of 115 kilometers in a broad bight be- high relief physiography and climate of the tween Punta Abreojos and Bahia Magdalena. west coast. Its physiography includes cliffed Coastal geomorphology varies from moun- or narrow shorelines, steeply inclined tainous, cliffed coastline with pocket coastal plains with a reduced intertidal area beaches or sandy beaches with rocky head- bordered by mountain ranges with eleva- lands in the north to mangrove swamp or tions up to 3,000 meters. The climate is drier sandy beaches along a coastal plain in the and colder than that of the Gulf of Mexico. south to Bahia Magdalena (Dolan and others The northwest coast of Mexico has an arid 1972). The California coast north of about Ti- climate with less than 500 millimeters of an- juana is composed mainly of low resistance nual rainfall (Lankford 1977; Flores-Verdugo material; the northern Baja California coast and others 1992). According to Pennington has a mixture of older resistant (Ensenada to and Sarukhan (1969), northern limits for Bahia San Quintin) and low resistant (Bahia mangrove communities (Rbizophora man- San Quintin to Punta Blanco) material gle, Lagunculariaracemosa and Avicennia backed by rolling hills. The shoreline here is germinans) on the Pacific coast of Baja Cali- a mixture of rocky, sandy, and pocket fornia have been found around 28 degrees beaches. Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino is also and 29 degrees north latitude. Furthermore, composed of a mixture of older, more resis- according to Sanchez (1963), quoted by Flo- tant and recent, low resistant material; the res-Verdugo and others (1992), mangroves shoreline contains both sandy beaches and spread discontinuously southward, border- pocket beaches. The promontory at Punta ing several coastal lagoons along the Pacific Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 71

coast from Mexico, Central America and. Co- National Marine Sanctuary, and Channel Is- lombia and reach their southern limit at Zaru- lands Biosphere Reserve. Coastal waters are milla, Peru. represented the Tijuana River National Estu- This coastal province is a very important arine Research Reserve; the state of Califor- site for breeding, nursery, feeding, and rest- nia has designated the Point Mugu Seashore ing habitat for a rich and diverse marine and Reserve and San Diego Coast Seashore Re- avian flora and fauna, particularly among serve for protection as well as 13 smaller ma- the coastal islands. Many tropical and sub- rine life refuges and Areas of Special tropical species have the northern range of Biological. Significance. This province is rep- their distribution here, and many temperate resented in the Mexico system of marine pro- species have the southern limit of their tected areas by El Vizcaino Biosphere range in the province. Characteristic marine Reserve, Isla de Guerrero Negro Cetacean mammal species that breed here are the Sanctuary, Isla Cedros faunal Reserve, and northern fur seal and northern elephant seal, Isla Guadalupe Special Biosphere Reserve. which breed on the Channel Islands, as does the California sea lion and Steller sea Subtropical Marine Region 3-Cortezian lion. Resident species include the harbor Province seal, harbor porpoise, bottlenosed dolphin, and, offshore, the common dolphin, striped The Cortezian Province is found entirely dolphin, and Risso's dolphin. These large ce- within the Golfo de California (Gulf of Cali- taceans have the southern limit of their distri- fornia), an elongated marine basin with an bution in the province: gray whale (except approximate area of 181,000 square kilome- for breeding and calving grounds in the ters located within the States of Baja Califor- Cortezian Province at the same latitude), fin nia Norte and Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa and whale, right whale, and sei whale (NOAA Nayarit. The southern boundary of the prov- 1988b). Small cetaceans at the southern limit ince lies along an imaginary line between of their range in the province include Dall's Cabo san Lucas, B.C.S., and Cabo Corrientes, porpoise, Pacific white-sided dolphin, and Jalisco (Bourillon and others 1988). Zoo- harbor porpoise. Small cetaceans at the geographically it is considered a tropical ma- northern limit of their normal distribution in- rine area that comprises the whole of the clude the striped dolphin and the bottlenose Golfo de California and the southernmost tip dolphin (although bottlenose wander north- of the Baja California Peninsula to Bahia ward during periods of warm water). Magdalena (Ekman 1953; Ibarra-Obando The avian fauna of the province displays 1990). Its fauna includes many species in similar properties of distribution. Birds at the common with the San Diegan Province. southern limit of their distribution include Being semi-enclosed, the Gulf of Califor- the California and Western gulls, northern nia waters have fairly limited exchange with fulmar, black-legged kittiwake, willet, red- the open Pacific. Circulation within the Gulf throated loon, surf scoter, least tern, snowy is seasonally influenced by reversing winds plover, black oystercatcher, rhino auklet, pi- and solar radiation. Upwelling, determined geon guillemot, Brandt's cormorant, brant, by the divergence of Ekman transport, oc- and horned grebe. Among the birds that curs alternately along the eastern and west- nest and breed in the region are the least ern coasts, driven by northwesterly winds in tern, elegant tern, snowy plover, and the en- winter along the eastern coasts and by south- dangered brown pelican. erly winds in summer along the western This province is represented in the U.S. coasts. This upwelling causes surface and system of marine protected areas by Chan- nearsurface waters to stream across the nel Islands National Park, Channel Islands mouth of the Gulf, partially isolating the 72 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Gulf proper from waters of the tropical east- The central area of the Gulf, between the em Pacific. The principal difference between southern end of the Grandes Islas and Bahia the waters inside the Gulf and those of the Topolobampo and La Paz, has intermediate adjacent open Pacific is the presence of a characteristics between the north and south high-salinity water mass at or near the Gulf's of the Gulf. In this area, the oceanic basins surface. This water is formed by evaporation are deep, the greatest in the whole Gulf be- in the upper Gulf and appears to be modi- ing the Cuenca de Guaymas (Guaymas Ba- fled by mixing with subsurface waters from sin) with a length of approximately 220 the eastern tropical Pacific (Hammann, kilometers and depths of up to 2,000 meters. Baumgartner, and Badan-Dangon 1988). Recent research has revealed the presence While evaporation exceeds inputs, surface of hydrothermal vents, which so far have salinity beyond embayments ranges only be- shown a variety of life forms. Two large ba- tween 34.9 and 35.9 parts per thousand, as, sins are joined sequentially, "Carmen" and compared with salinities of about 34.6 parts "Farallon," with depths of 2,700 and 3,150 per thousand in the open sea to the west meters respectively. The southem portion, (Brinton, Fleminger, and Siegel-Causey 1986). from Topolobampo and La Paz to the Gulfs Tides are mainly semidiurnal, with tides in mouth is more oceanic. Main oceanic valleys the Upper Gulf among the largest in the are found at 2,400 meters. There are three world, reaching more than nine meters in basins: "La Paz," which is relatively shallow; spring. These tides result from the funnel- "Pescadero," with depths of 3,700 meters; shaped Gulf and the gradual decline in the and a small but deep basin at "Mazatlan" bottom relief in the northern part that create (Bourillon and others 1988). large intertidal areas of up to 5 kilometers Due to its geographic orientation, the wide. These physical conditions impose Golfo de California is excluded from the in- great demands on the biota of the area, fluence of the main currents in the Eastern which results in the exclusion of many spe- Pacific, the California Current and the North cies from the mouth of the Gulf (Bourillon Equatorial Current. These currents meet near and others 1988).. the Gulfs mouth, from which point they are The upper Gulf of California, or roughly diverted to the west. Inside the Gulf, there one-third of its total length, is separated are local circulation patterns, while the re- from the lower Gulf by two large midriff is- gion of the mouth is strongly influenced by lands and an irregular sill. Most of the upper the waters of the Pacific Ocean and tides are Gulf is shallower than 200 meters. Due to its substantial. Tropical storrns seasonally cause complex topography, the area of the Gran- great waves. In July and August, storms des Islas is unique in the world. It has five travel in a generally southeast-northwest di- main oceanic basins, namely "Delfin," with rection and hit southern Baja California and depths over 900 meters; the long and nar- the Islas Revillagigedo. At other times of the row 'Salsipuedes" 12 kilometers by 120 kilo- year, most storms travel northeastward and meters and with depths up to 1,400 meters; affect the area from the Golfo de Tehuan- "San Esteban," "Tiburon," and "San Pedro tepec up to northern Guaymas (Bourillon Martir" with similar depths as Delfin. Water and others 1988) circulation is dominated by strong tidal cur- Surface waters at the sill are typically rents. The waters of the Grandes Islas region cooler year-round than those of the lower are among the most productive in the Golfo Gulf because of strong tidal mixing (Ham- de California, where the divergence of Ek- mann, Baumgartner, and Badan-Dangon man transport occurs (Bourillon and others 1988). Seasonal variations in surface tempera- 1988). tures are extreme; in the northern part tem- Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 73 peratures range only between 140C in Febru- Humid Temperate Domain's Mediterranean ary and 30°C in August, and in the southern Division that stretches down from interior part between about 200C and 30°C (Brinton, California. The southwest coast is classified Fleminger, and Siegel-Causey 1986). We by Bailey (1989) as Mountainous Subtropical have no specific information on water col- Desert, while the northern and eastern umn temperatures, but we can draw analo- coasts are classified as Western Oceanic gies with data from the Gulf of Mexico Semi-Desert. Terrestrial vegetation is classi- (NOAA 1985). Given the parallels of surface fied by Dolan and others ( 1972) as large temperature ranges for both gulfs and the leafed desert evergreen angiosperm, but similarities of their ichthyofauna, it is highly Axelrod (1958) separated the upper and likely that temperatures at depth are similar: lower coasts at about 27°N into the Sonoran 20°C in winter and 25°C in summer at 50 me- Subtropical Desert vegetation (the upper ters; 19.5°C in winter and 20°C in summer at half) and Tampicoan Tropical Thorn Scrub 100 meters; and 15°C in winter and 15.5°C (the lower half). in summer at 200 meters (Churgin and The Golfo de California is extremely pro- Halminski 1974). ductive and has unique oceanographic char- Coastal geomorphology of the Cortezian acteristics, especially in the area of the Province is a mixture of recent volcanic, low- Grandes Islas. It has submarine valleys and resistant and old, resistant materials along canyons in excess of 3,500 meters deep, ba- the Baja Coast, and mainly recent volcanic sins with complex topography, upwelling ar- and low-resistant materials along the main- eas along the west coast during the summer land coast. On the eastern side, along the and the east coast during the winter. There coast of Sinaloa, there are mainly alluvial de- are no rivers on the Baja California penin- posits from the Pleistocene, and granite, dio- sula, but there are several important ones on rites, schist and gneiss from the Mesozoic. the coasts of Sonora and Sinaloa. There are Further north, in the province of the Sono- approximately 100 islands and a similar num- ran desert, there is a wide surface of allu- ber of islets found from the vicinity of the vium with rocky and.metamorphic volcanic delta of the Rio Colorado up to 21°N latitude deposits from the Paleozoic and Mesoioic. (Bourillon and others 1988). The Upper Gulf area, which includes the Rio Rocky shores mark the central and lower Colorado Delta and the Lago Salado, has al- Baja California coast and most of the islands. luvial deposits that cover the marine depos- There are hundreds of miles of gently slop- its from the Tertiary and marine r6cks from ing sandy beaches interrupted by short the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Along Baja Call- stretches of rocky headlands along the main- fornia, there are rocky granitic strata from land.'Both coastlines have numerous coves, the early Mexozoic as well as eruptive rocks bays, lagoons and estuaries bordered by from the Tertiary and limestone from the Ce- mangroves and salt marshes. The lagoons in nozoic. In the Golfo de California itself, the upper Gulf exhibit higher salinities at there is an irregular base at a depth of 6,400 their heads than at'their mouths ("negative- meters in the Upper Gulf area near the inter- estuaries or "esteros"). Estuaries in the lower national border. Rocks found there are from Gulf are fed by freshwater-rivers at'their the Cenozoic and represent deposits from heads and are considered "positive." The the Rio Colorado (Bourillon and others construction of the Hoover Dam in 1935 and 1988). the resulting demands for water for agricul- The coastal upland is considered part of tural use have dried up the lower Rio Colo- Bailey's Dry Domain, except for the north- rado, which empties into the'Gulf. western part which is a continuation of the Evaporation has turned the delta into a nega- 74 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

tive estuarine system, and formerly brackish the more recently arrived (post-early 1980s areas are now hypersaline (Thomson and El Nifio) Pacific sardine. Some shellfish others 1979). forms are penaid blue and brown shrimps The fauna of the Cortezian Province is an (Penaeus stylirostrisand P. californiensis, re- interesting combination of subtropical and spectively), giant squid (Dosidicusgigas), Pa- tropical forms. Hubbs (1960) indicated that cific spiny lobster (Panulirusinterruptus), much of the fauna originally moved into the and other spiny lobsters (Panulirusgracilis). region from outer Baja coastal waters during Several cetaceans are associated with this the Wisconsin and earlier ice periods. At that province. The vaquita is endemic to the time, water temperatures were sufficiently northem Gulf, and the northem portion of cooled so that many cool temperate/sub- the Gulf is also an area of abundance for tropical species were displaced southward minke and Bryde's whales. The southem and were able to pass around Cabo San Lu- portion of the Gulf is a major wintering area cas into the Gulf. Subsequent warming for gray whales, with calving occurring in trapped these forms in the Gulf, just as some lagoons north of Topolobombo. Other many Pleistocene relics are trapped in the year-round residents include the fin and biogeographically analogous Gulf of Mexico short-finned pilot whales (NOAA 1988b). (Hedgpeth 1953), undergoing varying de- Among reptiles, the sea turtle Lepidochelys grees of differentiation from their ancestors. olivacea is found in this province. According to Flores-Verdugo and others This province is represented by 11 marine (1992), the northemmost extent of man- protected areas in Mexico's system. These ar- groves on the Pacific coast occurs in this eas include a part of the El Vizcaino Reserva province. Several small areas of Rbizopbora de la Biosfera, he Cajon del Diablo Reserva mangle, Lagunculariaracemosa and Avicen- Especial de la Biosfera, the Isla Rasa Reserva nia germinans communities have also been Especial de la Biosfera, the Isla Tiburon Re- reported from the eastem coast of Isla serva Especial de la Biosfera, and the Islas Tiburon, Punta Perla (at 29012' N, 113036' del Golfo de California Reserva Especial de W) and near the eastem mainland coast of la Biosfera. the Golfo de California at Estero Sargento tidal channel (at 29017' N, 112019' W) Tropical Marine Region I-Mexican (Ramirez-Barcia and Lot-Helgueras 1990). Province Typical fish and (a few) invertebrates of the Cortezian Province include the California The Mexican province is the northernmost butterfly ray, round stingray, basking and true tropical province within the Northeast hammerhead sharks, homyhead and dia- Pacific Marine Region. It extends from the mond turbots, spotted sand bass, several go- southem boundary of the San Diegan and bies (Quietula spp., Gillicbthys spp., Ilypnus Cortezian provinces and ends in the south in spp.), pipefish and midshipmen (Hubbs the Golfo de Tehuantepec at about 95°W lati- 1960), sierra (Scomberomus spp.), totuava tude. This province is characterized by a col- (Totoaba macdonaldf), dogfish (Mustelus lision coast resulting from the opposed spp.), and several snappers (Lu yanus spp.) movement of the American and Cocos Plates and porgies (Sparidae). Other pelagic forms physiographically expressed by the Middle include yellowtail, mullets (Mugil spp.), Mon- American Trench, which marks the line of terey sardine, thread herrings (Opisthonema collision and the uplifted Sierra Madre Occi- libertateand 0. bulleri), Japanese sardine, dental, Sierra Madre del Sur and their south- chub mackerel, anchoveta, pineapple sar- em Mexico-Central America continuation dine (Oligoplites spp.), Spanish mackerel (Inman and Nordstrom 1971; Lankford (Scornberomorusspp.) (Arvizu 1987), and 1977). It has a narrow continental shelf, Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 75 rocky shores and cliffed shorelines that pro- Camracho, Playa Mexiquillo, Playa Mis- vide only a limited intertidal area for the es" maloya, Playa Piedra de Tlacoyunque, and tablishment of mangroves. There are Playa Teopa. approximately 14 coastal lagoons that occur behind wave-constructed sand barriers on Tropical Marine Region 2-Panamanian the inner continental shelf margin. The cli- Province mate is semiarid to arid, resulting in lagoons with ephemeral inlets (Flores-Verdugo and Only a small portion of this tropical prov- others 1992). ince lies within the Northeast Pacific Marine This exposed section of the Pacific coast Region, beginning at the Golfo de Tehuan- of Mexico is typically subjected to seasonally tepec and, for the purposes of this report, changing wave regimes: northern hemi- ending at the border between Mexico and sphere swell from October through March Guatemala. This province is also geologi- and southern hemisphere swell from April cally a collision coast but with a wide conti- through September. Both sets of swell have nental shelf and extensive alluvial plains. been observed simultaneously during the Climatic conditions vary from semiarid to spring-autumn transition. Exposed sections subhumid, with high runoff. There are well- of coast are high energy areas with long pe- developed mangroves for most of the entire riod waves (typically of 12 to 15 second du- 300 kilometers of coast; these occur on allu- ration) and deep-water heights of up to' vial plains (Chantuto-Teculapa-Panzacola sys- three to four meters. Tropical cyclones origi- tem) and behind sand barriers such as those nate in the Gulf of Tehuantepec area and at Laguna La Joya. Where arid conditions be- either move directly westward or follow a gin to prevail, such as in the northwest near northwest course parallel to the mainland the Mexican province boundary, a loss in coast, occasionally extending into the Baja rmangrove structure is observed (Laguna Su- California area. Tides are predominantly perior) (Flores-Verdugo and others 1992). semidiurnal with high ebb velocity (Lank- Wave and tidal regimes are similar to that of ford 1977). the Mexican province. A faunal species of note in this province is This province is represented by three ma- the endemic echinoderm of the Luididae rine protected areas in Mexico's system. family Leptasterias latiradiata,which is a liv- These areas include La Encrucijada Biotopo ing fossil. This species only occurs on the Naturai y Tipico and the Playa de Puerto coasts of Oaxaca and Chiapasand thus Arista Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection. should also be included in the Panamanian province (Salazar-Vallejo and Gonzalez, N.d.). ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS This province is represented by 13 marine protected areas in Mexico's system. These The number ot existing MPAs in'the countries MPAs include El Veladero Parque Nacional, of the region is shown in Table 15.3. The lo- Isla Isabela Parque Nacional, Lagunas de cation of these 'areas is shovwn by Map 15. Chacahua Parque Nacional, Chamela Re- search Station Private Reserve, Cabo San Lu- Description of National MPA Systems cas Reserva Marina, and the following Reserve Zones for Sea Turtle Protection: CanaAa Playa Ceuta, Playa Cuitzmala, Playa de Esco- billa, Playa de la Bahia de Chacahua, Playa Various levels of protection for MPAs exist de Maruata y Colola, Playa de Tierra Col- in Canadian waters. At present, the only orada, Playa El Tecuan, Playa El Verde agency with responsibility for the estab- 76 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 15.3 Number of Existing MPAs Conservation Areas Policy by Parks Canada. in the Northeast Pacific Marine Commercial exploration, extraction or Region, by Country development of non-renewable resources Count-y Number of MPAs and ocean dumping are not permitted within the marine conservation area. Canada 29 Fisheries will continue in marine United States 108 conservation areas, subject to protecting the Mexico 30 ecosystem, to maintaining viable fish stocks Total 167 and to attaining the purpose and objectives of the conservation area. Indiscriminate methods of fishing and the use of gear that is destructive to the sea bed will be minimized. A zoning system will provide increased protection for sensitive areas, such lishment and management of MPAs is Parks as spawning grounds, breeding colonies, Canada, through its National Marine Conser- calving, resting, and feeding and wintering vation Areas System. The other programs areas. Research will be permitted and mentioned below generally protect some ma- aboriginal hunting and fishing rights will be rine waters as a means of enhancing the pro- honored, subject to the protection of the tection of a terrestrial component, rather ecosystem and the maintenance of viable than as a specific objective. One exception populations of wildlife. A zoning system is the National Wildlife Area program, which provides for complete preservation areas, is beginning to delve into the protection of low impact activity areas and multiple use marine systems (the Isabella Bay proposal). areas. The main problems in establishing MPAs in Canada lie in the multiplicity of jurisdictions, NationalParks with Marine Components which must be taken into consideration (IUCN Category II): This park was when dealing with control of an area (fed- established under the National Parks Act to eral, provincial, aboriginal) or a particular ac- represent the 39 natural regions of Canada. tivity such as fishing or navigation (various Several coastal National Parks have a marine federal and provincial agencies). In addition component, the boundaries of which are the active cooperation of the local communi- generally headland to headland. It is ties is an essential component and no MPA managed by Parks Canada essentially as in can be effective without it. The heightened (a), although most fisheries are being or awareness of the need for MPAs, particularly have been phased out in the parks. by coastal communities, brought on by the collapse of a number of fisheries is one of ProvincialParks (IUCN Category II): The the greatest opportunities available to accel- park was established under provincial erate the establishment of various types of legislation. Only parks whose main mandate MPAs in Canadian waters. involves the preservation or conservation of specific areas are included here. In general, NationalMarine Conservation Areas the same management principles found in (IUCN CategoryII): This area is presently National Parks apply here as well. established under the National Parks Act (a National Marine Conservation Areas Act National Wildlife Area (IUCN Category is pending) to represent the 29 marine IV/Category I exceptionally): This park was regions of Canada and is managed established under the Canada Wildlife Act to according to the National Marine preserve and maintain important or unique Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 77 lands for wildlife, particularly migratory While the Migratory Bird Sanctuaries are a birds. It is managed by the Canadian powerful tool to protect nesting, breeding Wildlife Service with the emphasis placed and molting migratory species, these Sanctu- on habitat protection. National Wildlife aries protect habitat only incidentally. Hu- Areas may be managed to increase the man activity is prevented in areas important area's value to wildlife. Many activities may to breeding, nesting and molting birds only be allowed (grazing, hunting, fishing, as long as the birds are present. Thus, while research, recreational), on a case-by-case these Sanctuaries protect sea and shorebirds, basis as long as these activities are deemed they may not adequately protect habitat im- compatible with wildlife research, portant to other marine species when migra- conservation and interpretation. Commercial tory birds are not present. exploration, extraction or development of Furthermore, while the role of provincially non-renewable resources are generally protected areas is recognized as being impor- prohibited. tant, some environmentalists have expressed concerns about the type and extent of recrea- MigratoryBird Sanctuary (IUCN Category tional activities allowed in some sites de- IV): The park was established under the voted to conservation. Migratory Birds Convention Act to protect migratory birds. It is managed by the Canadian Wildlife Service. Hunting or United States disturbance of migratory birds or their nests and eggs is strictly prohibited within these The designation of MPAs in the United areas. Other activities (hunting, agricultural, States is a complicated matter of jurisdic- recreational, research) may be permitted as tional hierarchy (federal, state, or local), pub- long as the birds are not affected. Commercial lic support and participation, availability of exploration, extraction or development of resources to implement effective manage- non-renewable resources may be allowed ment strategies, and resolution of conflicts under permit. among competing user interests. Typically, the federal government designates the larg- Wildlife ManagementAreas (IUCN Category est MPAs, followed in order by states and IV): Established under provincial or then local jurisdiction. However, the degree territorial legislation to protect important of protection is not necessarily a function of wildlife areas, several uses may be allowed size; in fact, often smaller MPAs, because of under permit. the vulnerability of the resources for which the MPA was designated or because of the Existing MPAs in Canada include many ar- greater ease in enforcement and manage- eas that have both terrestrial and marine ment, have more stringent controls than do components. In some instances, this marine larger MPAs. However, the practice of zon- component is not the primary focus of man- ing within large MPAs is being incorporated agement and the contribution of many of into the management plans of the newer, these sites to marine biodiversity conserva- larger MPAs. tion must be viewed with this in mind. There is one entirely marine area, the NationalMarine Sanctuaries(IUCN Category Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park, that still II): At the federal level, the identification, requires the passage of legislation through designation and management of MPAs is the Canadian federal and Quebec provincial achieved under the authority of the Marine governments, although it currently operates Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act. as a Marine Conservation Area. This Act empowers the Secretary of 78 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Commerce to designate discrete areas of ihe understanding and acceptance of the need marine environment for their conservation, for wise use of coastal resources. recreation, educational, ecological, historical, research, and aesthetic values. The primary NationalParks (IUCN Category I): Other goal of designation is to protect significant federal programs also have rather more resources, although compatible and limited ability to designate and protect sustainable uses of resources are allowed MPAs. Usually these designations are insofar as the primary goal of resource undertaken in conjunction with terrestrial protection is not compromised. Over the 20 preserves as a way to ensure the availability year history of the National Marine of habitat and forage for land-based species. Sanctuary Program, some 13 National Marine For example, the National Park Service of Sanctuaries have been designated. These the Department of the Interior has a few MPAs'range in size from very small (65 MPAs designated in conjunction with hectares) to very large (in excess of National Parks (Glacier Bay National Park 1,087,800 hectares), and for values ranging being a prime example in the Northeast from historical to aesthetic to ecological. The Pacific Marine Region). Act has also been used as' a tool by some focus groups to thwart the ability of other National Wildlife Refuges (IUCN Category I1): special interests and user groups to obtain Also within the Department of the Interior, access to particular resources, rather than to the Fish and Wildlife Service sometimes protect and comprehensively manage protects littoral waters as part of their sensitive ecosystems. All National Marine National Wildlife Refuge sites. In the Sanctuaries have site-specific regulations to Northeast Pacific Marine Region, the Alaska ensure the protection of special resources Maritime Refuge is an important example of through controlled access or use of such MPAs. renewable resources. Zoning of areas for At the state level, Alaska, Oregon and Cali- different purposes is being implemented in fomia all have laws for establishing MPAs the larger sanctuaries. within their waters. Washington at present has' no state law designed for establishing NationalEstuarine Researcb Reserves (IUCN MPAs. CategoryIV): Designated under the authority of the Coastal Zone Management Act and Alaska managed by NOAA, these estuarine areas The state of Alaska designates MPAs under are protected primarily for their potential as three designations: state refuges, critical habi- coastal research areas. Operated as joint tat areas, and state sanctuaries. These areas federalstate partnerships, National Estuarine are generally designated in conjunction with Research Reserves are managed on a terrestrial areas and are set aside for their watershed' basis, with informal influence value as habitat for the preservation and pro- applied to alter human activities in adjoining tection of fish and wildlife. These areas are terrestrial areas for the improvement of usually managed for multiple uses, but such habitat functioning in the MPA. Human uses uses are controlled to prevent habitat are controlled, and some manipulation of changes that would be harmful to the flora habitat for restoration or enhancement or fauna, or their habitat, within the MPA. purposes is allowed. Over the years, National Estuarine Research Reserves have State Refuges (IUCN CategoryIV): The focus become important for their educational is on a particular species or species group. value and have significantly improved public Conservation efforts may include Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 79 rehabilitation or restoration of habitat. Uses marine resources. For example, the Depart- of refuge areas are controlled to prevent ment of Ecol6ogy has primary responsibility adverse changes in habitat values. Human for oil and gas development issues and is activities are controlled to prevent also the lead agency for the state in devel- displacement of animals from their natural oping the state's policy on the proposed habitat or interruption of seasonal behavior designation of the Olympic Coast National (for example, nesting). Human uses, Marine Sanctuary. The Department of Wild- including recreation and harvest of life has jurisdiction over seabirds and shore- renewable resources, are permitted so long birds, marine mammals and game fish. The as they are in keeping with the primary Department of Fisheries has responsibility reason for establishing the refuge. for commercial and recreational fisheries and shellfish harvesting. The Department State Sanctuaries(IUCN Category IV): These of Natural Resources leases and manages are set aside to protect habitat used by aquatic lands and protects and manages species for particular life functions such as aquatic and marine flora. The Parks and feeding, nesting, hauling out, or migration. Recreation Commission is delegated the Uses of the area are closely controlled or authority under the Seashore Conservation prohibited in order to prevent deleterious Act. over certain aspects of ocean beach impacts to habitat or disturbance of the management. protected species. Recreational access is controlled by permit, and use or harvest of Oregon the wildlife is also closely controlled. The State of Oregon has established what is arguably the most comprehensive approach State CriticalHabitat Areas (IUCN Category in the United States for managing its territo- IV): Protective emphasis is placed on rial sea. The Ocean Resources Management habitat areas essential for supporting Act of 1987/1991 sets forth the following leg- critical life cycle functions or large islative policy: concentrations of one or more significant * Conserve the long-term values, benefits populations. Critical habitat areas may be and natural resources of the ocean both complete ecosystems or well-defined areas within the state and beyond by giving specifically needed by fish or wildlife for clear priority to the proper management certain functions such as nesting, and protection of renewable resources spawning, or overwintering. over nonrenewable resources. Encourage ocean resources development Wasbington that is environmentally sound and eco- The State of Washington does not have an nomically beneficial to adjacent local gov- integrated ocean management program; emnents and to the state. however, it does designate and operate State . Provide for efficient and coordinated Marine Parks. Its State Coastal Zone Manage- ocean resources management through im- ment Program incorporates elements of its provement of the state's coastal manage- Shoreline Management Act, State Environ- ment program and statewide land use mental Policy Act, and the Environmental Co- program. ordination Procedures Act. These laws * Assert the interests of this state as a partner confer authority on various state agencies to with federal agencies in the sound man- regulate certain activities and to conduct agement of the ocean resources within planning activities that are instrumental in the United States Exclusive Economic improving and maintaining the quality of Zone and on the continental shelf. 80 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

• Promote research, study and under- programs within the state for designating standing of ocean processes, marine life MPAs is based on an ecosystem-wide ap- and other ocean resources to acquire suffi- proach to integrated management of marine cient scientific inventory information nec- resources. essary to describe and understand the long-term impacts of the proposed action Mexico on resources and uses of the ocean and nearshore area. The situation regarding protected areas in * Encourage research and development of Mexico in general has been rather complex new, innovative marine technologies to due to the fact that responsibilities for pro- study and utilize ocean resource. tected areas, up until recently, have been * Ensure that the council will work closely shared among several government institu- with coastal local governments to incorpo- tions. Most protected areas included terres- rate wherever possible elements of the lo- trial ecosystems with only a few containing cal comprehensive plan. marine or coastal areas. The establishment of aquatic faunal refuges had been carried This legislative policy is intended to be ap- out by virtue of the Fisheries Legislation of plied to the entirety of the ocean and near- 1972 and 1986, while island protection was shore waters lying along the coast of the responsibility of the Secretaria de Gober- Oregon from the border with the state of nacion. In the past, the protected areas sys- Washington to the north and the border tem had been unable to protect adequately with the state of California to the south. the natural richness of the country due to Within this area of approximately 1,000 lack of legislation and resources for manage- square miles, a zoning plan will be implement (Vargas Marquez 1984; Alcerreca and mented. This plan will identify areas for ap- others 1988; WCMC 1988; IUCN 1992). propriate levels of protection, depending on However, in 1986, the National System of factors such as the environmental setting, Protected Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas threats from human activities, and manage- Protegidas, SINAP) was created under the ment objectives (research, education, control- National Program for Ecology of the Ministry led access or use) As a result, smaller areas for Urban Development and Ecology, now corresponding to the various categories of the Ministry for Social Development (Secre- IUCN classification will be designated within taria de Desarollo Social, SEDESOL). The cur- the larger MPA. rent law governing protected areas is the 1988 General Law for Ecological Equilibrium Calfornia and Environmental Protection (Ley General The State of California designates small del Equilibrio Ecologico y la Proteccion al MPAs under a number of state laws. Most of Ambiente) that regulates protected areas, the designations are intended to protect iden- makes legal provisions for SINAP, defines tified resources from a specific threat, such categories used and makes provisions for as pollution from oil and gas development wild and aquatic flora and fauna (SEDUE activities, deleterious effects on flora and 1989). (For a review of the Mexican system fauna caused by poor water quality due to of protected areas, see IUCN 1992). agricultural runoff. Other MPAs are desig- The General Law for Ecological Equlib- nated for the purpose of controlling human rium and Environmental Protection of March activities such as access for recreation or har- 1, 1988, administered by SEDESOL, is the vesting. However, none of the authorized backbone of ecological regulation in the Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 81 country and is an integrated approach to ing areas,,dedicated to the preservation of conservation and the commitment to tackle the aquatic ecosystems and elements, eco- related problems through the combined ef- logical research and the rational use of forts of the state and society. Under this law their resources under specific norms of there are nine categories of protected areas. ecological protection. The first seven categories are federal designa- * Area de Proteccion de Recursos Naturales tions, while the remaining two are local (SE- (Natural Resource Protection Area): These DUE 1989). The categories are: are areas destined to preserve and restore Reserva de la Biosfera (Biosphere Re- forested areas and to the conservation of serve): This is to be an area no less than the soil and water. The following areas 20,000 hectares, containing relevant bio- are found within this category: (a) forest geographic representative areas at the na- reserve; (b) national forest reserve; (c) for- tional level, of one or more ecosystems est protective area; (d) area of forest resto- not significantly altered by human action, ration and propagation; and (e) with at least a pristine area inhabited by protection area for rivers, springs, depos- endemic, threatened or endangered spe- its and in general sources for urban water cies. replenishment. . Reserva Especial de la Biosfera (Special * Area de Proteccion de Flora y Fauna Biosphere Reserve): This is a repre- Silvestre y Acuatica (Wild and Aquatic sentative area of one or more ecosystems Flora and Fauna Protection Area): These not significantly altered by man, inhabited areas contain critical habitats for the by endemic, threatened or endangered existence, transformation and develop- species. Their smaller size and ecosys- ment of species of wild and aquatic tems are the main differences with the flora and fauna. Biosphere Reserve designation. This pro- . Parque Urbano (Urban Park): These areas tected area category can be created by are for public use with natural, artificial federal, state or municipal decrees. ecosystems or nature elements dedicated * Parque Nacional (National Park): These to protect a healthy environment for rec- are to be a biogeographically repre- reation of the populace and for the pro- sentative area at a national level of one or tection of artistic and historical values more ecosystems that are significant as a and natural beauty of regional or local result of their scenic beauty; scientific, significance. educational, recreational or historic val- . Zona Sujeta a Conservacion Ecologica ues; nationally important flora and fauna; (Area Subject to Ecological Conservation): and suitability for tourist development. These areas have one or more ecosys- . Monumento Natural (Natural Monument): tems in good ecological health and are This would be an area with one or more designated for the preservation of natural natural elements of national importance, elements indispensable for ecological consisting of natural places and objects equilibrium and general welfare. that due to their unique or exceptional character, aesthetic interest, historic and The Fisheries Laws of 25 May 1972 and 26 scientific value are incorporated into a sys- December 1986, administered by the Minis- tem of absolute protection. try of Fisheries (Secretaria de Pesca), desig- * Parque Marino Nacional (Marine National nates Refugios de Fauna Acuatica (Aquatic Park): These are marine areas, beaches Faunal Refuges) as "areas where zones for and federal maritime-terrestrial neighbor- the exploitation and refuge in the closed sea- 82 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

sons are set up and where official vigilance * Lack of economic alternatives for sustain- is provided" (Vargas Marquez 1984). able development * Lack of local participation in the economic boon resulting from the use of the Assessment of Representation resources and management of the area of Biogeographic Provinces * Lack of coordination of activities in the participation of the various institutions The evaluation presented here is not based and agencies on thorough research or interviews on all . Lack of sufficient financial resources the marine protected areas that are listed. * Lack of adequate enforcement of relevant However, the authors have experience in laws or regulations identifying, selecting, and managing marine * Lack of a National Strategic Plan for Ma- protected areas and feel that the judgments rine Conservation offered have some value for improving the . Lack of diversification for the use of the global network of MPAs. resources The degree of representation in marine * Lack of environrental education programs protected areas of the biogeographic diver- * Lack of research linked to the production sity in the Northeast Pacific Marine Region is sector generally good. With the exception of the . Lack of human resources trained in con- Bering province, which is extremely remote, servation and the Panamanian province, of which * Lack of consideration for traditional only a small part is included in this region, knowledge and communities in the con- there is a good number of designated MPAs, servation planning process. and the biogeographic resources of the region are reasonably well represented. On With the exception of the Montereyan the other hand, most of these MPAs are province, which has approximately 16,250 quite small and represent very discrete square kilometers protected by MPAs, the in- coastal and nearshore biogeographic fea- ventory of MPAs in the Northeast Pacific is tures; many have only limited ability to pro- not sufficient in area to protect much of the tect threatened resources; some are not habitat critical to lifestages (particularly the adequately managed or supported by local integrity of migratory corridors) of marine communities; and there is very little evi- flora and fauna of ecological and economic dence to indicate that the inventory of MPAs value to humans. Declining harvests of fish, in the region in any way functions as a "net- rising concerns about water quality in work." coastal waters, closures of recreation areas, During the summer of 1992, a group of and uncontrolled development in some ar- leading Mexican marine scientists gathered eas speak to the need to improve and under the auspices of the WWF-US to iden- strengthen the management of some of the tify the conservation priorities for the coastal existing MPAs, to designate new MPAs in and marine environment in Mexico. A sum- presently under-represented areas, and to es- mary of the main problems identified during tablish linkages among MPAs-both ecologi- the discussions of the Gulf of California cally and programmatically-to enable them Working Group is presented below since to function in a truly integrated fashion. these problems reflect the general situation In Canada, for example, of the five sub- in the entire Mexican Pacific, and to a provinces identified by Parks Canada off the greater or lesser extent in the U.S. and Cana- Pacific Coast, only one has any degree of dian parts of the region as well: representation at present, and it is consid- Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 83

ered less than adequate. The marine compo- consider MPAs within the context of "ocean nent of Pacific Rim National Park Reserve governance," that is, a strategic and compre- provides partial representation of the near- hensive approach to regulating and coordi- shore waters of the Vancouver Island Shelf nating man's uses of ocean resources. A subprovince and would benefit from expan- truly effective MPA program can only be sion seaward. The proposed Gwaii Haanas achieved as a part of a strategy that recog- National Marine Conservation Area will pro- nizes the interrelated consequences of all of vide good representation of the Queen Char- man's activities on, and uses of, the ocean lotte Islands Shelf and Hecate Strait marine and coastal areas. The work done by the subprovinces. There is currently no repre- State of Oregon in aiming to include 12 per- sentation of the Queen Charlotte Sound and cent of waters out to 12 nautical miles in Strait of Georgia subprovinces, although MPAs reflects this vision, as does the desig- good candidate areas have been identified nation of large areas within the Montereyan and will soon be considered by govern- province by both the U. S. federal governments. ment and the State of California. Similar plan- The existing provincial marine protected ning approaches should be encouraged and areas in Canada provide excellent protection promoted in the remaining provinces in the of a number of specific marine features, region. such as seabird colonies and sea lion hau- Much work remains to be done to mobi- louts, and, in a few cases, larger areas of ma- lize the political will of the people to sup- rine waters targeted toward certain species port the designation and effective such as sea otters or orca whales. This pro- management of MPAs, recognizing that an gram serves a very important role in marine appropriate balance must be struck between conservation and should be expanded, in a the need to conserve and protect threatened manner complementary to its federal coun- resources while at the same time encourag- terpart programs, to increase site protection an,d broaden its scope to add to current levels of marine ecosystem representation. Other areas of the marine environment be- Table 15.4 Number of Existing MPAs sides nearshore waters will need to be more in Biogeographic Provinces of the actively considered when identifying and se- Northeast Pacific Marine Region lecting MPAs in the future. For example, Biogeographic Zone Number of MPAs only one oceanic site has been recommended for addition to the Northeast Pacific Beringian 0 Marine Region network of MPAs; the focus Aleutian 25 9 ~~~~west Coast Fjords 47 to date has clearly been on coastal and near- Oregonian 21 shore areas. In the future, the value of ben- Montereyan 22 thic ecosystems (for their ecological as well San Diegan 22 as economic worth) and other areas less ac- Cortezian 112 cessible or with no immediate threats, such Mexican 13g as,oceanic, pelagic, and remote areas, UnknPwnn 4 should be promoted, lest we lose the opportunity to set aside such areas before the de- Total 167 mands of human uses make such protection a. El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve includes areas muchm h memore problematic.pro c TTo achieve this re-.. within both the San Diegan and Cortezian provinces quires the drafting and implementation of and has been counted in each province but only once legislation and administrative programs that in the total. 84 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ing sustainable resource-based economic ac- Canada tivity. To do this requires education and out- reach activities that lead ultimately to public Proposed new MPAs: support for allocating scarce governmental - Blackfish Archipelago: This site is lo- resources to the long-term operation of a cated in the Queen Charlotte Strait area global network of marine protected areas. northeast of and adjacent to Vancouver Much remains to be done; but much has Island. The coastline here is complex, been achieved. Table 15.4 presents the list bold, rugged and very scenic, deeply of recommended priority areas for MPA des- indented by inlets, bays and lagoons ignation sorted by biogeographic province, a and replete with islands of various list of the priority areas arranged by country, sizes separated by narrow channels and finally a list of the highest priority areas and passages. The coastal zone is pre- for designation in the Northeast Pacific Ma- dominantly rocky with steep wooded rine Region. shorelines prevailing interspersed with pocket pebble/cobble beaches and several low relief islands. The bathymetry PRIORITY AREAS AND RECOMMENDATIONS is equally complex, with numerous shoals, troughs and deep basins, and Table 15.5 presents the inventory of priority depths range to over 500 meters, par- marine areas. In the case of the areas listed ticularly in the larger straits and inlets. for Canada and the U.S., these areas have Tides are mixed, mainly semidiurnal, been selected by the federal agency respon- with the flood coming in from the sible for designating and operating MPAs north. The area is subject to high cur- within those countries. In the case of Mex- rent velocities as the tidestreams are ico, the areas were selected by a working forced through narrow passages and group of experts sponsored by the World are often on the order of 200-300 Wildlife Fund. cm/sec, and higher within constricted The recommendations for the national inner channels. Small tidal flats and and regional priority areas for designation in kelp beds are common. the Northeast Pacific Marine Region were These waters are highly productive made by the first author, using the criteria and sustain a rich diversity of marine listed in the introduction to this report and wildlife. High-current subtidal commu- based on discussions with the other authors nities are numerous and the various and with other authorities. species of anaemones, coralline algae, hydroids, nudibranchs, sponges, crabs and polychaetes fairly carpet the bot- National Priorities for the Establishment tom and sides of these channels. Sea and Management of MPAs urchins, sea stars, rockfish, scuopins, greenlings, and octopus are also com- Those areas considered to be of national pri- mon, though more so in less rapidly ority for the establishment and management flowing waters. Pacific salmon migrate of MPAs are listed in Table 15.6. These areas through the area on their way to the have been selected from the list of areas Fraser River and other spawning sites, above (see Table 15.5) and are described be- and spawn in numerous rivers in the low. Their location is shown by Map 15. De- area. The salmon attract orca whales scriptions of other areas in Table 15.5 that and the main core area of the northern have not been selected as national priorities community is found within the site. are provided in the Appendix. Harbor porpoise, Dall's porpoise, Pa- Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 85

Table 15.5 Priority Areas, by Province Province Location Area (square kilometers)

BgLan Bering Strait 65030' N, 168030' W 7,800 St. Lawrence Island Area, Bering Sea 6300' N, 17i00' W 26,700 St. Mattew Island Area, Bering Sea 60000' N, 173°00' W 9,600 Golovnin Bay, Norton Sound 64030' N, 163°000 W 750

Aleutian/Alaskan Gulf Unimak Pass/lzembek Lagoon 54055' N, 163045' W 10,000 Trinity Islands 56034' N, 154020' W 831 Barren Islands 58055' N, 152°10' W 260 Kachemak bay, Cook Inlet 59040' N, 151020' W 890 Knight Island Passage, Prince William Sound 60°00' N, 148°00' W 1,300 Copper River Delta Region 60015' N, 145030' W 2,100

West Coast Fjords Western Chichagof Island, Outer Coast 57038' N, 136015' W 750 Admiralty Island Area 57°30' N, 134°30' W 6,500 Stikine River Delta 56040' N, 132025' W 259 Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area 51048' N-520 50' W; 3,050 (now in designation) 130049' W-132013' W Blackfish Archipelago 50030' N, 128°00' W Unknown Southern Gulf Islands/Saanich Inlet 48040' N, 123010' W Unknown

Oregonian Northwest Straits National Marine Sanctuary 47005' N-48045' N; 1,100 (now in designation) 122012' W-123012' W Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary 47°15' N-48025' N; 580 now in designation) 124025' W-124042' W Willapa Bay 46°40' N, 124°00' W 260 Heceta-Stonewall Banks 44030' N, 124025' W 1,000 Trinidad Head Area 41005' N, 124010' W 12

Montereyan Morro Bay 35020' N, 120050' W 2,000

San Diegan San Nicolas/San Clemente Islands 33015' N, 119024' W, and 2,500 32°50' N; 118025' W Cortes and Tanner Banks 32030' N, 119020' W, and 100 32°42' N, 119010' W Bahia Magdalena-Bahia Almejas Lagoon 24015' N-25°20' N; 1,500 Complex, Baja California Sur 11 130' W-1 12015 W Laguna San Ignacio-Laguna Ojo de Liebre, 2645' N, 113015' W, and n.a. Baja California Sur 27047' N, 114015' W Bahia San Quintin, Baja California Norte 30°24' N; 116°00' W 42

(Table continues on tbefollouwngpage.) 86 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 15.5 (continued) Province Location Area (square kilometers)

Cortezian Grandes Islas Region, Baja California Norte 28°10' N-29°45' N; 19,400 and Sonora 112000' W-114000' W Alto Golfo de California, Baja California 31035' N, 114°35' W 7,500 Norte and Sonora Coastal Lagoons of Sinaloa and Sonora 22°30' N-26°20' N; 20,000 105040' W-109030' Cajon del Diablo, Sonora 28°45' N; 111050' W n.a. San Blas-Teacapan-Marismas Nacionales 21°45' N-22045' w; 1,400 Lagoon System, Sinaloa and Nayarit 105023' W-105°45' W Los Cabos-Estero de San Jose-Cabo Pulmo 22°55' N-23°35' N; n.a. Corridor, Baja California Sur 109030' W-109055' W Coastal Zone and Islands of Baja California 23°10' N-26010' N; 2,000 Sur, including Bahia de la Paz 109°30' W111°20' w

Mexican Morro Ayuda-Chacahua, Oaxaca 54°44' N; 96°47' W n.a. Tierra Colorada, Guerrero 15°55' N; 98010'W n.a. Mismaloya-La Joya, Jalisco 20010' N; 105030' w n.a. Colola-Maruata, Michoacan 18016' N; 103°30'W n.a. Mexiquillo, Michoacan 18°10' N; 103°05'W n.a. Billfish Breeding Grounds 19O00 N-23 000' N; n.a. 105000'N-114 000'W

Panamanian La Encruciiada-Chantuto-Panzacola Lagoon 15°000 N-15015' N; 1,036 System, Chiapas 92030' W-93000' W La Joya-Joaquin Almaro Lagoon, South Pacific, 15050 N; 92053' W 800 Chiapas, Mexico n.a. Data not available.

cific whiteside dolphin, humpback and east of the southern end of Vancouver minke whales are also frequently en- Island. countered. Harbor seals are resident, Southern Gulf Islands: These beauti- and Steller sea lions winter over in this ful islands are characterized by area. A variety of seabirds are found in sculpted sandstone cliffs, rocky interti- the area, primarily during migration, in- dal platforms and protected harbors. cluding ducks, gulls, alcids, loons, Strong tidal currents up to 450 cm/sec phalaropes and other shroebirds. Bald create upwelling and generate tidal eagles are common. Glaucous-winged rips and whirlpools in the narrow chan- gulls, pigeon guillemots and black oys- nels that separate the islands. The bot- tercatchers nest here in small numbers. tom topography is complex with a Southern GulfIslands/Saanicb Inlet: variety of shoals, basins and small is- These two areas lie adjacent to each lets, although bathymetry rarely ex- other in the Strait of Georgia waters ceeds 200 meters. Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 87

Table 15.6 Priority Areas for the Establishment and Management of MPAs in the Northeast Pacific Marine Region, by Country Country BiogeographicProi#nce

United States Bering Strait Beringian St. Lawrence Island Beringian Unimak Pass/Izembek Lagoon Aleutian Kachemak Bay Aleutian Copper River Delta Aleutian Admiralty Island West Coast Fjords

Canada Blackfish Archipelago West Coast Fjords Southem Gulf Islands/Saanich Inlet West Coast Fjords

Mexico La Encrucijada-Chantuto-Panzacola-Puerto Arista Lagoon System, Chiapas Panamanian Grandes Islas, Baja California Norte and Sonora Cortezian Alto Golfo de California, Baja California and Sonora Cortezian Lagunas de San Blas-Teacapan-Marismas Nacionales Lagoon System, Sinaloa and Nayarit Cortezian Morro Ayutla-Chacahua, Oaxaca Mexican Bahia Magdalena-Bahia Almejas, Baja California Sur San Diegan Laguna Ojo de Liebre-Laguna San Ignacio, Baja California Sur San Diegan Lagunas Costeras de Sonora y Sinaloa Cortezian Corredor Los Cabos-Estero San Jose-Cabo Pulmo, Baja California Sur Cortezian La Joya-Joaquin Amaro, Chiapas Panamanian Zona Costera de Baja California Sur Cortezian Tierra Colorada, Oaxaca Mexican Mismaloya-La Joya, Jalisco Mexican Bahia de San Quintin, Baja California Norte San Diegan Colola-Maruata, Michoacan Mexican Cajon del Diablo, Sonora Cortezian Mexiquillo, Michoacan Mexican

The subtidal communities are varied, morants are scattered throughout the with a wide diversity of species pre- area, as are breeding sites for bald sent including polychaetes, coralline al- eagles and pigeon guillemots. Harbor gae, hydroids, anemones, nudibranchs, seals and wintering Steller's and Califor- sponges, sea urchins, crabs, starfish, nia sea lions are common, while other sea cucumbers, rockfish, sculpins, and cetaceans such as orca and porpoises octopus. The greatest variety of species are frequently observed. is found in the high current areas. Her- Saanicb Inlet: Saanich Inlet is a 24 ring, Pacific salmon, Pacific cod, ling- kilometer long embayment with steep cod, flatfish and rockfish are common. rocky shores on the western and south- The area is particularly important to mi- em coasts and low to moderate gradi- grating and wintering loons, cormo- ents along the eastern shore. The rants, grebes, murres, gulls and ducks. scenic coastline is fairly regular, with Small colonies of glaucous-winged few bays. The entrance to the Inlet gulls, pelagic and double-crested cor- does not exceed 75 meters in depth 88 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

and the bottom topography slopes whales and as a feeding and reproduc- steeply toward a maximum depth of tion area and habitat for threatened 230 meters in the central basin and is species. The area is a fishing zone for fairly regular. Shallow waters are un- the sardines Sardinops caeruleusand common and shoals are rare. Small Opistbonema libertate. The area has tidal flats are present. The Inlet is not a been given medium priority for estab- fjord in the true sense, as are the main- lishment as a marine park. Whales are land inlets. Only 40 percent of the In- the only threatened species; they use let's perimeter is made up of vertical this area as a refuge, as do sea lions. rock walls, as is typical of fjords. Fresh- The area has historical significance as a water input is negligible and tidal cur- strategic military zone from prior to rents and overall circulation are World War II. minimal, resulting in a very stable Threats to the area include the exploi- water column with a deep anoxic tation of phosphorite, aquaculture de- layer. Saanich Inlet therefore can be velopment, and the construction of a characterized as a unique environment. thermoelectric generating plant. There The subtidal fauna is diverse and in- is sedimentation due to mining of ura- cludes starfish, anemones, sponges, nium, titanium, and indio (blue). sea cucumbers, nudibranchs, sea ur- _ Bahia de San Quentin, including Isla chins and various species of fish, al- San Martin, Baja California Norte: though high current species are absent. Located 180 kilometers south Salmon spawn in the one river empty- of Ensenada, this is an area of high ing into the Inlet and rockfish and flat- species diversity as well as an impor- fish are also common. The area is an tant feeding and breeding grounds for important staging and wintering area a variety of species such as migratory for migratory seabirds and waterfowl wildfowl from Alaska. Commercial fish- and eagles nest in the area. there are ery resources include conch, sea cu- no seabird colonies. Harbor seals are cumber, bivalves (mussels, oysters) common but most other species of ma- and the red algae Gelidium. There are rine mammals are observed only occa- oyster and mussel farms especially us- sionally. ing the Japanese oyster Crassostreagi- gas. The area is protected under a Existing MPAs that require management decree authorizing mariculture. The support: area is threatened by tourism develop- No areas have been identified as priorities. ment, agricultural runoff, fishery and aquaculture developments. Three Mexico threatened species are reported; one endangered, one rare and one vulner- Proposed new MPAs: able though it is not indicated what "4 Bahia Magdalena-Bahia Almejas La- these are. goon Complex, Baja California Sur: " Coastal Lagoon of Sonora and Sinaloa: The proposed site is located northwest This site consists of a complex of 11 la- of Bahia Magdelena, Puerto San Carlos, goon systems: Ajiabampo, Topolo- in the Santo Domingo-Puerto Lopez bampo, Ohuira, San Ignacio, Mateos Canal, Comondu. Dominant Navachiste, Santa Maria La Reforma considerations in selection of the area (Bahia), Altata, Ensenada del Pabellon, include high species diversity, its im- Bahia de Ceuta, Estero de Urfas, and portance as a birthing area for gray Huizache-Caimanero. Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 89

These lagoons are areas of high bio- sources. Human health problems have diversity, both in species and in eco- been reported. systems, and are important as _o San Blas-Teacapan-Marismas Nacion- reproductive sites, nursery areas and ales Lagoon System, Sinaloa and buffer zones. They have a large carry- Nayarit: This proposed site is on the ing capacity. There are a number of coasts of Sinaloa and Nayarit. It con- endemic species, 16 marsh-dependent tains the most extensive mangrove eco- species and a wild cat, Felis notus system on the Mexican Pacific (140,000 escuinapensis.This lagoon complex hectares), which makes it the first most contains important sites on the Pacific important in Mexico and the third most migratory route, especially for ducks. important on the American Pacific. It is Approximately one million migratory unique in that it possesses 127 parallel birds have been recorded at the sand barriers covered with mangroves. Laguna de Patolandia, adjacent to There is only one other site, in Chia- La Reforma, while in Chiricahueto the pas, comparable to this in extent in the figure has been estimated at close to country. It is an important and highly two million. There are also numerous productive fishery area as well as a resident bird species and important feeding zone for migratory birds. It is mangrove formations. This area is the also a refuge for threatened and endan- only area within the Golfo de Califor- gered species. nia with an important supply of fresh- This system has unique geomorphic water. characteristics. It is an inundation zone This lagoon complex is considered that contains marshes, lagoons, man- the most productive in the entirety of groves, freshwater springs and nitrate the Golfo de California. The area is fields. It is climatically unique as fog is characterized by high primary and sec- retained by the coast. It is an area of ondary production, and there is great great scenic beauty. Important sites potential for aquaculture development, within the area include: San Blas, with particularly shrimp. The only rock for- its crocodile farm, and the Isla de mation in the area, the Sierra de Mezcaltitlan, which is an important ar- Navachiste, supports a cormorant rook- chaeological site. ery, and there are important turtle nest- A portion of this area has been de- ing sites along these coasts. clared by the Fisheries Ministry as a The area is threatened by human ac- Postlarval Reserve Zone. There is also tivities in the form of dams, agricultural a decree for mangrove protection and activities, a severe lack of control and the Mezcaltitlan area, of a 5 kilometer regulation of aquaculture development, radius, is under protection as a historic eutrophication of some lagoons due to and cultural site of scientific and geo- use of fishmeals to attract shrimp, silta- logic interest. It is threatened by tion from road construction, pollution aquaculture development in the vicin- by municipal waste, removal of man- ity, the Aquamilpa Dam, uncontrolled grove forests, and tourism. These la- agricultural and fisheries development. goons are extremely important for the >O Los Cabos-Estero de San Jose-Cabo socioeconomic welfare of the human Pulmo Corridor, Baja California Sur: population at the regional and national Cabo San Lucas-San Jose del Cabo: levels. However, there are serious con- This area has high biodiversity, particu- flicts between agriculture and fisheries larly of fish species. According to for the use of the water and soil re- Thomson and others (1979), the area 90 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

from La Paz to Cabo San Lucas harbors lent site for the study of the ecology of the richest reef-fish fauna of the Sea of this type of floral assemblage. Cortez and perhaps of the entire East- La Escobilla is a very important turtle em Pacific. This is an area of conflu- nesting site, as is Morro Ayutla. Marine ence between the waters of the Golfo turtles nesting in Oaxaca include Lepi- and the west coast. Sport fishing has dochelys olivacea, Dermochelys co- been reported for the area, which is riacea, Eretmochelys imbricataand threatened by tourism and urban devel- Chelonea agassizi.. An integrated man- opment. agement plan has been recommended Estero de San Jose: This is the only for this ecosystem.

freshwater lake in the Baja California '_ Tierra Colorada, Guerrero: This coastal Peninsual. It has high biodiversity and area extends from Punta Maldonado to is a refuge area for migratory birds. the mouth of the Rio Marquelia. This Threats include pollution by sewage, area is the primary nesting site for the large growth of "tule," and introduction leatherback Dermochelys coriacea in of water lily thereby reducing the the world. This site is also an impor- water area. Fruit farms on the surround- tant nesting site for the Pacific Ridley ing area continuously disrupt the eco- Lepidochelys olivacea. The proposed system, resulting in a decline in fish site is a narrow beach open to the sea and crustacean species. with a steep dropoff to deep water, Cabo Pulmo.(BahiaLos Frailes): This not easily accessible and with little is the only coral reef on the coast of mangrove cover. There are two en- Baja California Sur; it has three barri- demic populations of marine turtles. It ers. There is considerable biodiversity receives some official protection from that has been affected little at present. the Ministry of Fisheries and the Navy The area has been impacted by the ex- Ministry on a seasonal basis through traction of reef fish for the aquarium turtle nesting camps. In 1986 the area trade, although some measures have was designated as a Natural Reserve been taken already to prevent this. It is for the Protection of Nesting Marine seriously threatened by tourism due to Turtles. There is commercial coastal its easy access by land and air. The fishing for shrimps and finfish. The site area is also a riverine fishing area. and its species are threatened by agri- > Morro Ayutla-Chacahua, Oaxaca: This cultural expansion, poaching of turtle system comprises Santa Elena, Morro eggs, overexploitation of resources and Ayuda, Barra de la Cruz, Puerto Angel, destructive fishing methods. Chacahua and La Escobilla in Oaxaca. _ Mismaloya-La Joya, South Pacific, Jal- The site is located 145 kilometers from isco: Located on the coast of Jalisco, Puerto Angel and 30 kilometers south- the site is a high-energy beach open to east of Puerto Escondido. The pro- the sea, bounded by dunes and overly- posed area of protection covers 1,450 ing a wide continental shelf. The most square kilometers. important turtle nesting site in the State This site is significant because it com- of Jalisco for the Pacific Ridley Lepido- prises several important ecosystems chelys olivacea, the black or East Pa- such as mangrove communities, sea- cific turtle Chelonia azassazi and the grass, marine macroalgae, and coral leatherback Dermochelys coriacea. communities. Approximately 100 spe- Three species of marine turtle show en- cies of macroalgae have been recorded demism at the population level in this from this area, which makes it an excel- area. It is a migratory route, a feeding Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 91

and reproductive area for the various sion, ecotourism and human migration species of turtle in the Mexican Pacific. from neighboring areas by poachers The site provides habitat for resident are additional threats. and migratory birds such as waders. >m Mexiquillo, Michoacan: Located on the Commercial fishing is important in the coast of Michoacan, the site is a high- area; in 1986 the site was designated as energy beach open to the sea, with a Natural Reserve for the Protection of dunes, little mangrove cover and a Nesting Marine Turtles. There is some very narrow continental shelf. Nation- protection afforded by the University ally, it is the second-most important of Guadaljara, the State Commission nesting site for the leatherback Dermo- for Ecology, and the Ministries of the chelys coriacea and the Pacific Ridley Navy and Fisheries. The site is threat- Lepidochelys olivacea. These two spe- ened by tourism development and de- cies of turtle exhibit endemism at the forestation, while the turtles are at risk population level at this site. Shrimp from poachers and the illegal collec- and finfish are fished commercially off tion of eggs. the coast. There is little tourism, as the - Colola-Maruata , Michoacan: Located site is only accessible from the south- between the Nexpa and Cachan rivers east. As with the previously listed ma- on the coast of Michoacan. This site is rine turtle nesting sites, Mexiquillo was a high-energy beach open to the sea, designated in 1986 as a Natural Re- bounded by dunes and overlying a serve for the Protection of Nesting Tur- very narrow continental shelf. There tles, but this protection is not carried are coral communities on the rocky lit- out effectively due to lack of economic toral coast with commercially impor- resources. Threats include poaching tant mollusks (Purpurapansa, for meat and eggs, and from agricul- Crassostreairidescens), lapas, lobsters ture. and finfish. It is the first most impor- 4 La Joya-Joaquin Almaro Lagoons, Chia- tant nesting site in the world for the pas: Located on the coastal plains of black or East Pacific turtle Chelonia Tonala, Tres Picos and north of Pijijia- agassizi, Pacific Ridley Lepidochelys oli- pan, the site includes the Pampa de vacea and the leatherback Dermoche- Paredon estuary, the Laguna de Buena lys coriacea. There are resident and Vista, Laguna El Mosquito, Lagunas migratory sea birds. Three species of Aqua Tendida and Pantanos de turtle show endemism at the popula- Joaquin Amaro. Very important due to tion level. The area was declared in its high biodiversity. It has four of the 1986 as a Natural Reserve for the Pro- five species of mangrove in the coun- tection of Nesting Marine Turtles, but try, an area of scrub, a desertic area to this protection is not carried out effec- the north in the border with the Golfo tively due to lack of economic re- de Tehuantepec. Endemic species sources. However, the site receives found in this system include the Chia- some protection from the State Govern- pas caiman Crocodilus chiapasiusand ment, Fisheries Ministry and the local the bird Campylorhynchus chiapensis. university. Threats to the species in the Threatened and endangered species in- area include poaching for turtles and habiting these systems include the Chia- eggs, uncontrolled fishing of some spe- pas caimanCrocodilus chiapasius, the cies such as the sea cucumber, which American crocodile C. acutus, Jabiru is carried out by Japanese fishermen. mycteria, jaguar Pantheraonca, spider Deforestation for cattle ranching expan- monkey Ateles ateles, guacamaya Ara 92 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

militaris, black or East Pacific turtle being a desertic area with oases. It is a Chelonia agassizi, Pacific Ridley Lepido- refuge zone for commercially impor- chelys olivacea, leatherback Dermoche- tant fish and crustaceans. It is also an lys coriacea, yellow casquito important area for riverine fisheries Chinosternum cruentatus and the from Guaymas. There are fishing com- three-ridge crusilla Starotypus salvinji. munities in Tastiota, where there is an Commercial species include shrimps, aquaculture development, and other mullets, crayfish and cichlids. The area neighboring areas. In 1987, the site is threatened by agricultural waste, was declared a Special Biosphere Re- sedimentation due to deforestation and serve by the Mexican Government. agriculture, pollution resulting from fer- Threats include over-exploitation of tilizers, poaching of birds, mammals species such as octopus and sea cu- and reptiles, especially sea turtle eggs. cumber and overexposure from tour- This ecosystem is adjacent to the En- ism. There is a management plan for crucijada-Chantuto-Panzacola system. the area carried out by the Centro It is similar to it because they are in Ecologico de Sonora, and there is a the semidesertic transition zone of the great deal of interest by several na- Golfo de Tehuantepec. This coast is a tional and international organizations high energy zone extremely important on this site. for nesting sea turtles. Grand Islas Region, Sonora and Baja California Norte (Islas del Golfo de Existing MPAs that require management California Reserva Especial de la Bios- support: fera): The proposed site is near Bahia Note that the title of the existing MPA fol- Kino, Sonora and Bahia de los Angeles lows (in parentheses) the name of the area. B.C.N. Municipal areas of Hermosillo, _O San Ignacio and Ojo de Liebre La- Son., and Mexicali, B.C.N. Dominant goons, Baja California Sur (El Vizcaino considerations in selection of the area Reserva de la Biosfera): These two la- include its importance as a zone of goon systems are located within the El high species diversity and endemism, Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve. Ojo de Lie- as a reproduction zone (migratory sea bre is an important upwelling zone birds, marine mammals, fish and inver- with cyclonic currents and high biodi- tebrates), as a feeding area (birds, versity. The site is a whale sanctuary cetaceans, seals), as a fishery (70 per- and a migratory bird area. Commercial cent of the national catch originates fishing for finfish is an important use from the area of the Golfo de Califor- of the area, as is the saltworks at Guer- nia), and as habitat for threatened rero Negro. There is some ecotourism species. Collection of endemic species in the area as well. Threats to the area for commerce is illegal. The area, include noise pollution, impacts of which is a Refuge Zone for Migratory shipping, and over-harvesting of shell- Sea Birds and Wildlife as well as a fish. Special Biosphere Reserve (SBR Islas _O Cajon del Diablo Sonora (Cajon del Di- del Golfo de California) under SINAP, ablo Reserva Expecial de la Biosfera): has been given one of the highest pri- Located on the coast of Sonora in the orities for restrengthening as a pro- vicinity of Isla Tiburon, this is an area tected area. of high diversity of species and ecosys- Responsibility for the islands is tems. This site is the only area in son- shared between several institutions, in- ora with rocky reef massifs, as well as cluding the Seri Indians. Isla Tiburon is Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 93

a Seri concession. A proposal for a sin- to reestablish the estuarine conditions gle official agency to coordinate, regu- of the Rio Colorado Delta. The area late and administer this site has been has been recently declared as a Bio- made by the participants to a coastal sphere Reserve by the Mexican govern- and marine workshop organized by ment, and it is hoped that this new WWF-US in June, 1992 (Almada-Villela status will add impetus for initiating and Wilcox 1992). such negotiations. Human threats include uncontrolled Human threats include alterations to tourist development, fishing for shrimp the ecosystem, such as the reduction with drag nets, overfishing of sardines, of outflows of the Rio Colorado caused lack of protection and surveillance, by diversions in the U.S and Mexico and introduction of exotic species to for irrigation, construction of ponds for the Islands. aquaculture, destructive fishing meth- '_ Sonora and Baja California Norte ods, pesticides, fertilizers, and organo- (Alto Golfo de California Reserva chloride wastes. Especial de la Biosfera): The proposed "w Coastal Zone and Islands of Baja site is located near the towns of San California Sur including Bahia de la Felipe, B.C.N., Gulf of Santa Clara and Plaz (Cabo San Lucas and Cabo Pulmo Puerto Penasco, Sonora. Dominant Reservas Marina): The proposed site is considerations include the presence of in the area of Loreto, La Paz, San Jose habitat for endemic marine species "in del Cabo and Cabo San Lucas. Domi- danger of extinction," its importance nant considerations in selection of the for reproduction of the totoaba, and as area include the presence of high spe- a highly productive fishery area, and cies diversity, reproduction, feeding its unique and irreplaceable ecological and habitat for threatened species, and characteristics. This area is the only its value for ecotourism. There is high known reproductive habitat in the species endemism. The area includes world for the endangered endemic the reef at Cabo Pulmo, the north- marine species Vaquita, Phocoena emmost coral reef in the Pacific. Ac- sinus, and the Totoaba, Totoaba mac- cording to Thomson and others (1979), donaldi. The desert pupfish Cyprino- the area from La Paz to Cabo San Lu- don maculariusis another endangered cas harbors the richest reef-fish fauna species that shares this system on the of the Sea of Cortez and perhaps the freshwater side. entire Eastern Pacific. The islands are Recommendations include the appli- officially protected as a Refuge for Mi- cation of commercial fishing controls gratory Marine Birds and Wildlife, al- especially for shrimp fishing with drag though this designation is not nets and gill nets, to avoid the inciden- enforced. However, the ecosystem is tal capture of vaquitas and totoabas, somewhat protected because of its geo- the imposition of standards for tourism graphical isolation. There is official pro- and for control of amounts and quality tection for the area of Cabo Pulmo and of water flowing from the Rio Colo- Cabo San Lucas, both of which are Un- rado. One recommendation of the derwater Parks. There are closed sea- WWF-US workshop was that diplo- sons for a variety of species including matic negotiations between Mexico shrimp and billfish. Human threats in- and the United States be reinitiated to clude the discharge of tainted water, regulate the quality and volume of industrial waste, mineral waste from water from the Rio Colorado in order mining, collection of black coral and 94 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

fish at Cabo Pulmo for commerce, and large number of endemic and threat- destruction' of the reef by anchors. Also ened species, as well as the' only for- noted as problems are poaching of en- ests of "zapaton" in the country. Three demic cacti and reptiles for export and species of marine turtles nest' on these the over harvest of mollusks, cau'sing beaches (prieta, the black or Eastern the decimation of the flying clam and Pacific; golfina, the Pacific Ridley; and many other molluscan species. the' laud, or leatherback). In addition, "w La Encrucijada-Chantuto-Panzacola- the area is also rich in freshwater spe- Puerto Arista, Chiapas (La Encrucijada cies that include the cichlid fish Cichla- Biotopo' Natural y Tropico):'This soma, which reach their maximum unique estuarine system'has been pro- diversity iri the country in this coastal posed as a Refuge for Flora and Fauna ecosystem. Endemic species include (Almada-Villela and Wilcox 1992). The Campylorhynchus chiapensis and Cro- proposed site includes the existing Eco- codilus chiapasius. Threatened species logical Reserve of La'Encrucijada (be- include Caimnan pululo Caiman cro- ing recategorized by the Institute of codilus chiapasius,American crocodile Natural History in Chiapas) and is lo- Crocodilusacutus, jaguar Panthera cated 20 kilometers from Pijijiapan, Ma- onca, jabiru mycteria, spider monkey pastepec and Huixtla, as well as the Ateles ateles, guacamaya Ara militaris, Estero Cerritos, Panzacola, Chantuto, black or East Pacific turtle ChelonTia Campon, Teculapa, Hueyate, and' the agassizi, Pacific Ridley Lepidochelys oli- surrounding swamp 'are of the Pampa vacea, leatherback Dermochelys co- on the coastal plains of Chiapas. riaced, yellow casquito Chinosternum This system as a whole is very impor- cruentatus, three-ridge crusilla Staroty- tant as a result of its extremely high pus salvinii, and white-tailed deer. floral and faunal diversity. This lagoon Threats from human activities include complex is one of the richest'floristi- 'pollutiion from agricultural waste, sedi- cally in which are found the five spe- mentation from deforestation and agri- cies of mangrove that occur in Mexico: culture, contamination by fertilizers, Rizophora mangle, k harrisoni, Lagun- poaching of faunal species, expansion cularia racemosa, Avicenia ger'minans, of coastal'aquaculture and its lack of and Conocarpus erectus. These'are the adequate planning, establishment of a best-dceveloped mangroves on the Pa- sugar mill in Huixtla, industrial process- cific coast of Mexico; they have high ing of African palms for oil extraction, dominance, large basal areas, and are and industrial processing of tobacco taller (up to 35 meters) than rnan- and coffee. groves of the Pacific coast'of Costa This system is adjacent to La Joya- Rica (Pool and others 1977; Flores-Ver- Joaquin Amaro, another area proposed dugo and others 1992). 'It'is unique be- for designation as a Marine Protected cause it has'the last remainirig tall, Area. evergreen forest, with all its' biodiversity, in the Pacific (Flo'res-Verdugo and United States others 1992). This system is comprised of five Proposea new MPAs: lagoonal bodies and an extensive - Bering Strait: The proposed site encom- swamp area that rmake it the largest in passes federal waters extending from Chiapas. The system is separated from 4.8 kilometers offshore to the intema- the sea by a sand bar. There are a tionial boundary, and from Ikpek La- Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 95

goon in the north to beyond Dolly Varden. Human uses include sub- King/Cape Douglas in the south. The sistence hunting and fishing by natives region's climate is dominantly marine of St. Lawrence Island. during non-ice periods and dominantly "_ Unimak Pass-Izembek Lagoon Area: continental during times of ice cover. The proposed site is located at the Breakup occurs in late May and extreme end of the Alaskan Peninsula. freezeup begins in late October. Domi- The area is composed of open water nant considerations in selection of the and lagoonal environments. Sea condi- area include the importance of the Ber- tions are rough due to the combined ing Strait as a critical area for marine effect of strong winds and tidal'cur- life migrating to and from summering rents. Dominant considerations in selec- grounds in the Chukchi Sea and else- tion of the area include the presence where in the Arctic Ocean.' The strait is of critical habitat supporting a produc- utilized by 14 species of marine mam- tive and diverse array of wildlife, com- mals including several endangered spe- mercially important marine resources, cies (bowhead and Gray whales) other and ecologically significant marine whales, several species of s'eals and organisms. Species diversity is high walruses. Three major seabirds colo- in the area and it would provide an nies are located on islands within the exceptional opportunity to conduct site. The benthic biomass of the Strait scientific research oriented toward region is one, of the highest (1,000 resource management concerns. gmr2) north of the Aleutian Island More than 50 million adult salmon chain. Human uses include subsistence pass through Unimak Pass repre- hunting and fishing. senting the largest run in the world 4' St. Lawrence Island Area (Bering Sea): for sockeye, coho, chum, pink and The proposed site encompasses the chinook salmon. More than 30 species water adjacent to St. Lawrence Island of groundfish and shellfish depend extending 4.8 kilometers to the north, upon the area for critical phases of east, and west'of the island and 160 there life history. King tanner crabs as kilometers to the south-southwest. The well as shrimp, halibut, yellowfin sole, formation and distribution of sea-ice is herring, razor clams, and surf clams, the major process influencing the spe- represent only a small proportion of cies living in the surroundinig waters. the commercially important fish and Dominant considerations in selection shellfish harvested in the area. The resi- of the area include the presence of nu- den't and migratory waterfowl popula- merous marine mammals and birds in- tions represent the largest seabird cluding several whales (bowhead, gray aggregation in North America. Many and beluga), seals (spotted, 'ringed, of the waterfowl have an absolute de- and ribbon) and walruses. The area pendency on the Unimak Pass area supplies the major portion of the Ber- habitat. Beluga, killer, sperm, bow- ing Sea seabird population (supports head, gray and minke whales', harbour over 1.8 million murres and auklets) seals, sea lions, otters, and walruses and supports about 34,000 nesting wa- are abundant in the offshore waters of terfowl. The benthic' bionmass to the the area. The endangered gray whale north of the St. Lawrence Islands is traverses Unimak pass. The ecosys- among the highest (1,000 gm-2) in the tem's high primary productivity is gen- Being Sea region. Anadromous fish erated by extensive kelp forests and present include salmon, arctic char and eelgrass beds in coastal lagoons. Hu- 96 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

man activities include commercial fish- maining Pacific humpback whale popu- ing, marine transportation and scien- lation. Pelagic herring, euphausid tific research. shrimp, and sand lance provide an ,,Ww Kachemak Bay (Cook Inlet): The pro- abundant diet for the nearly 3,000 ceta- posed site is entirely within state wa- ceans that migrate through these waters and covers an area of ters. Humpback, killer whales, dall approximately 890 square kilometers in- porpoises, stellar sea lions and other cluding all of Kachemak Bay. The bay whales have been observed in the site. is an estuarine system partitioned into Human uses include some commercial inner and outer bay by Homer Spit. crabbing and salmon fishing, use of Dominant considerations in selection channels for barge and boat traffic and of the area include selection of all of recreation, scientific research (hump- Kachemak Bay by the State of Alaska back whale). The island is part of the as a critical habitat area. The area sup- Tongass National Forest. ports abundant fishery resources and is > Copper River Delta Region: The pro- the largest commercial fisheries in posed site extends from the upper in- Alaska, including salmon, crab, and fluence of tidal waters along the clam harvesting. A great number and Copper River offshore to an 18.2 meter variety of marine mammals utilise the depth contour and into Orca Inlet. It area. Large populations of seabirds, also encompasses the waters around shorebirds and waterfowl utilise the Kayak Island, east to Cape Suckling, in- bay for nesting, feeding and migratory cluding Controller Bay and adjacent refuge. A variety of species of snails, tidelands. The site is made up of a se- polychaetes, and clams, including cock- ries of low-lying sandy barrier islands les and butter clams are found abun- enclosing a large shallow lagoon/tidal dantly on the bottom. Kelp beds, salt flat system and bedrock cliffs. Domi- marshes, and eelgrass beds are found nant considerations in selection of the in the area. Green algae occupies area include the importance of the area spray pools along the shore. Numerous in supporting numerous nesting birds species of marine mammals occur in and in providing a major staging area the bay including: harbour seals, dall for ducks, cranes and geese. The total and harbour porpoises, fin back, killer, annual avifauna utilisation of the area beluga and minke whales. Approxi- is estimated to be more than 20 million mately 100 species of birds, including migratory shorebirds and several thou- migratory sea birds, shorebirds and wa- sand waterfowl. The area is the only terfowl, nest, feed or overwinter in the nesting area for the dusty Canada area. Human uses include tourism, goose. The area is a-major commercial .commercial and recreational fishing, fishery. The site also supports bird subsistence hunting, trapping and fish- populations of gulls, terns, black- ing. The area has been declared a State legged kittiwakes, murres and cormo- Critical Habitat Area. rants. Kayak and Wingham Islands and _ Admiralty Island Area: The proposed Cape Suckling contain high wave-en- site consists of the deepwater channels ergy rocky shores, sandy beaches and that surround the rugged, mountain is- exposed cliffs. The intertidal life is land. Dominant considerations in selec- abundant with typical northern Gulf of tion of the area include its importance Alaska flora and fauna. Marine mam- as summer feeding habitat for the re- mals that are active in the area include: Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 97

gray, killer whales and harbour seals. APPENDIX PRIoRITY AREAS BY Human uses include commercial and BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION sport fishing, hunting, birdwatching, scientific research and historic sites. All The following areas have been recom- of the lands adjacent to the proposed mended -for marine protected areas. In the site, except a portion of Controller case of the areas listed for Canada and the Bay, are part of the Chugach National U.S., these areas have been selected by the Forest. federal agency responsible for designating and operating MPAs within those countries. Existing MPAs that require management In the case of Mexico, the areas were se- support: lected by a working group of experts spon- No areas have been identified'as priorities. sored by the World Wildlife Fund. National and regional priorities have been selected Regional Priorities for the Establishment from this list of sites. Areas are listed by bio- and Management of MPAs geographic province. Descriptions for areas described in the main text are not repeated. The areas listed below have been identified as those of highest regional priority for the Beringian establishment and management of MPAs in the Northeast Pacific Marine Region, on the . Bering 'Strait (described above) basis of the criteria outlined in the introduc- . St. Lawrence Island Area (Bering Sea): tion to this report. '(described 'above) o St. Mattews Island Area (Bering Sea): The Proposed new MPAs: proposed site consists of the waters _p Bering Strait (United States) around the Bering Sea National Wildlife >_ Kachemak Bay (United States) refuge extending 4.8 kilometers to the > Blackfish Archipelago (Canada) north and 120 kilometers to the south, en- compa'ssing approximately 9,600 square Existing MPAs that require management kilometers of Federal and State waters. support: During the winter months, ice surrounds w' La Encrucijada-Chantuto-Panzacola- the islands, generally beginning in Novem- Puerto Arista Lagoon System" Chiapas ber and persisting through May. Domi- .(Mexico) nant considerations in selection of the a_w Grandes Islas Region, Baja California area Include the presence of a natural ex- -Norte and Sonora (Mexico) tension of the Bering Sea National Wild- aw Alto Golfo de California, Baja Califor- life Refuge which incorporates the major nia Norte and Sonora (Mexico) feeding areas of wildlife on the' island. It estimated that approximately 1.5 million Other Recommendations seabirds utilise the islands and adjacent waters. The site is an important overwin- it should be noted that 10 of the 13 MPAs in tering area for birds' and several marine the Mexi6an province are "Res'erve Zones for manmmals (endangered -bowhead whale Sea Turtle Protection" (IUCN Category IV). and the more conimon spotted seal): Dur- All of these turtle nesting sites have been af- ing summer Gray whales frequent the wa- forded legal protection by the Mexican gov- ters. Dominant species of seabirds'include ernment, but these important sites should murre, northern fulmar, auklet and black- receive further protection. legged kittiwake and lesser numbers of pi- 98 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

geon guillemot, puffin, cormorant, glau- Aleutian/Alaskan Gulf cous gull, and harlequin duck. During summer, migrants passing through the . Unimak Pass-Izembek Lagoon Area: proposed sites include ribbon and (described above) bearded seals, endangered gray whales . Trinity Islands: The proposed Trinity Is- and walruses. Humpback, fin (both en- lands site is located in state and federal dangered), beluga and killer whales are waters on the Kodiak Shelf, 32 kilometers occasional seasonal migrants. Human ac- southwest of Kodiak Island. The open tivity in the area is very limited due to the coastal environment exemplified by Trin- difficultly of getting to the islands. ity Islands is subject to high wave energy, Golovnin Bay Area (Norton Sound): The seismic activity and tsunamis. Dominant proposed site includes waters of considerations in selection of the area in- Golovnin Bay and Lagoon, and a portion clude the importance of Kodiak Shelf in of Norton Sound extending out approxi- supporting a very productive food web mately 8 kilometers from Cape Darby and and richly diverse populations of ecologi- Rocky Point. The Bay and Lagoon com- cally and commercially important marine prise a unique fjord-like embayment ex- fish and invertebrates, as well as an abun- tending from a very shallow-water dance of marine mammals and birds. The eelgrass/freshwater marsh system to low intertidal area is dominated by exten- depths of 30.5 meters. Dominant consici- sive kelp forests along with red, green erations in selection of the area include and brown algae and eelgrass beds. The its importance as being representative of invertebrate fauna are characteristic of a number of Norton Sound habitats, in- subarctic/northern temperate rocky shore cluding marsh-wetland areas, sheltered la- habitats. This region supports the largest goon waters, exposed open sea coastal known harbour seal rookery (17,000) ani- and nearshore environments. Abundant mals. Twenty-three species of marine waterfowl and shorebirds utilise the wet- mammals, including stellar sea lions, dall lands' for nesting, moulting and staging. porpoises, and seven endangered species *Several marine and anadromous fish sea- (finback, gray, black right, sei, sperm, sonally reside in the waters of the site; blue and minke whales) occur within the herring are parcticularly abundant (also area. Tugidak Island and its adjacent sand lance, arctic char, whitefish and coastal waters is an important habitat for Dolly Varden are also abundant).'Wal- more than 385,000 sea birds that nest ruses, beluga whales, and seals are occa- along the coast. The area supports one of sional seasonal'users of the habitat. The the world's largest fisheries. More than 90 outer cliffs adjacent to the waters of the' million pounds, representing 40 species site support several bird colonies (6,000 of fish and shellfish occur within these -individuals), populated by cormorants, waters. Human uses include activites asso- glaucous gulls, black-legged kittiwakes, ciated with commercial finfish and shell- murres, auklets and puffins. Beluga fish industies. The area is of vital whales may be seasonally present in wa- importance to the reproduction, growth ters offshore of Golovnin Bay. Human and harvesting of king, tanner, and dun- uses include subsistence and commercial geness crabs and Pacific salmon. fishing (parcticularly gill netting), subsis- * 'Barren Islands: The Barren Islands are an tence harvesting of king crab, hunting of uninhabited group of relatively small bed- waterfowl, seals and seabird eggs by na- rock, cobble, and gravel islands situated tives. Coastal -sites have been claimed for at the entrance to Cook Inlet, approxi- mining. mately halfway between Shuyak Island Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 99 and the southern tip of the Kenai Penin- sea lions, sea otters, sei, finback, hump- sula. The coastal rocky shore and open back, minke, killer and gray whales, dall ocean environment are subject to high and harbour porpoises. The blue mussel, wave energy, seismic activity, and tsuna- Mytillis edulis contributes the greatest mis. Dominant consideration in the selec- biomass and is the most common species tion of the area include the presence of in the intertidal and subtidal habitats productive marine ecosystems containing along the exposed rocky and sheltered critical habitats for valuable fishery re- rocky shores. Several seabird colonies, ex- sources, marine mammals, birds, and ist on lands adjacent to the site, with a to- threatened and endangered species. The tal seasonal population of approximately islands contain the largest and most im- 32,000. Dominant species are petrel, portant breeding seabird colonies in the black-legged kittiwake, and glaucous- entire Gulf of Alaska (upward of 700,000 winged gull. Human uses include com- seabirds representing 55 species). Marine mercial fishing and recreation, human animals include harbour seals, sea lions impact on the area has been quite limited. and sea otters. Porpoises and seven en- * Copper River Delta Region (described in dangered whale species occur seasonally. main text) Extensive kelp and eelgrass beds occur within the nearshore tidal flats and (along West Coast Fjords with their associated diversity and abundance of.marine macro-invertebrates) * Western Chichagof Island Outer Coast: these serve as a critical feeding and nurs- The proposed Outer Coast site extends 80 ery ground for juvenile fish, crab, shrimp kilometers along the west coast of and clam species. Human uses include Chichagof and Yakobi Islands from Point commercial fishing, shipping and fisheries Leo to Cape Cross and out to the 91 me- research. The islands themselves have ter. depth contour, within 11 kilometers of been designated as a National Wildlife shore. The site is characterized as an Refuge. open, coastal environment exposed to Kachemak Bay (Cook Inlet): moderate to heavy wave action. The rug- (described above) ged, rocky coastline includes an intricate Knight Island Passage (Prince William series of protected embayments, estuaries Sound): The proposed site includes the and,steep fjords. the coastal ecosystem is sheltered, interior waters of southwestern strongly influenced by winds, tides and Prince William Sound south of Knight of freshwater runoff. Dominant considera- Island,.and the open exposed waters of tions in the selection of the area include the Gulf of Alaska offshore from cape the presence of critical habitat for large Puget to Box Island and Montague Island. populations of commercially important fin- The coast consists of very rugged bed- fish and several biogeographically repre- rock cliffs, rocky shores, and mixed sand sentative habitats, with high floral and and gravel beaches. Dominant considera- faunal species abundance and diversity. tions in selection of the area include the The proposal forms a natural offshore ex- occurance of rich marine resources repre- tension of the Tongass National Forest. sentative. of Prince William Sound, includ- The rugged sea floor serves as habitat for ing a variety of open water, sheltered and numerous algae, marine invertebrates and ice-dominated habitats. The area provides bottom fish. The exposed rocky shore a. research opportunity for studying inter- and pinnacle studded reefs are covered actions of various marine species. Marine with clumps of barnacles, fleshy red algae mammals are abundant and include Stella and brown kelp and encrusting inverte- 100 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

brates while the shallow water is domi- the Pacific side and the calmer, shallower nated by kelp forests. Many species of waters of the Strait. The waters support a bottomfish and pelagic finfish are resi- rich variety of flora and fauna, including dents of the site. Humpback whales, har- salmon, herring, halibut, rockfish (Se- bour seals and sea lions are observed in bastes spp.), and invertebrates such as the area. Human uses include a popula- mussels, crabs, starfish, sea urchins and tion of 1,500 and commerical fishery de- octopi. The area is home to over 25 per- velopment. cent of the seabirds that nest in British Co- • Admiralty Island Area: (described in main lumbia; commonly seen species include text) tufted and homed puffins, rhinoceros auk- * Stikine River Delta: The proposed site is a let, Cassin's auklet, storm petrel, and over sedimentary delta system composed of un- 67 percent of Canada's ancient murrelets. consolidated sediment, situated just north Thousands of grey whales migrate of Wrangell and southeast Petersburg. through the Marine Conservation Area wa- The site is a medium salinity estuary, con- ters each spring and summer. Also seen nected to other systems by high velocity are 10 other species of whales such as channels. Dominate considerations in se- orca, humpback, sei, finback, and minke. lection of the area include its importance Smaller cetaceans such as harbor por- as a fishing and resting area for raptors, poise are common, and pinnipeds includ- migratory waterfowl and shorebirds of ing harbor seals and the largest breeding the Pacific Flyway, the presence of com- colony of Steller sea lions on the west mercially important fish and shellfish, no- coast of Canada. tably the Pacific salmon and shrimp, and * Blackfish Archipelago: (described in main in providing opportunies for scientific text) research (estuarine processes). The sub- . Southern Gulf Islands/Saanich Inlet: merged seagrass beds and tidal marshes (described in main text) contain a rich diversity of flora and invertebrate species which form major com- Oregonian ponents of the detrital food chain. Human uses include commercial fishing (shrimp . Northwest Straits National Marine Sanctu- and salmon), research (estuarine and ma- ary: The proposed site includes a series rine). The eastern border of the site ajoins of habitats representing the extraordinary the Tongass National Forest. diversity of marine communities found Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conserva- within the Puget Sound ecosystem. The tion Area (now in designation): Gwaii site has some of the most biologically pro- Haanas, or "island of wonder and ductive areas within U.S coastal waters beauty," is located in the southern part of and includes a diverse and structurally the Queen Charlotte Islands about 640 complex intertidal zone. The proposed kilometers north of Vancouver. The pro- sanctuary is divided among three geo- posed boundaries of the Marine Conserva- graphically distinct locations within Puget tion Area encompass 3,394 square Sound. kilometers of the marine waters of the Pa- Area A-The San Juan Island-Skagit Bay cific Ocean and Hecate Strait surrounding Complex encompasses approximately 840 the Island. The area is known both for its square kilometers. It is representative of physical beauty and for its cultural signifi- rocky-shore, deepwater and shallow, em- cance to the Haida people. The site com- bayment habitats. The site has a rich di- bines attributes of a high-energy coast on versity of marine flora and Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 101 macro-invertebrate fauna. The deepwater and feeding ground for marine species. serves an important habitat for marine Nisqually Delta and Gertrude Island are mammals. Bird nesting and feeding sites important breeding areas for Harbour support the highest known concentration seal. The Nisqually is a biologically rich of nesting oystercatchers in the U.S. deltaic mud flat supporting large numbers Skagit Island contains one of the largest of waterfowl. Much of the delta is part of and least distributed stands of eelgrass on Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge. The Lhe west Coast of the U.S and therefore is waters north of the Nisqually Delta are of importance to migratory birds. Thou- critical habitats for the birds of the Pacific sands of waterfowl and shorebirds, repre- Flyway. More than 10,000 waterfowl rep- senting 165 species, colonize these bays. resenting 100 species winter in these wa- Area B-This middle area includes ters. Human uses include recreation coastal waters adjacent to Dungeness (including boating, fishing, clamming, Spit, within Sequim Bay, and adjacent to crabbing, duck hunting and birdwatch- Indian Island, including waters surrounding), intense scientific research, fossil ing Protection Island and is approxi- hunting, industrial use, commercial fish- mately 233 square kilometers. This ing and marine transport activities. division represents estuarine habitats im- . Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary: portant international as a nursery, breed- The proposed marine sanctuary would ex- ing, and feeding grounds for a large tend from Duntz Rock, 145 kilometers number of ecologically and commercially southward along the coast to point Gren- important marine species. ville. The area is representative of high Dungeness Spit has an uncommonly wave-energy, rocky shore ecosystems, rich nearshore marine macro-invertebrate but is unique as a breeding and feeding fauna (115 species). These are food for 70 ground for migratory marine birds, mam- species of demersal and neritic fish and mals and fish. The area includes offshore marine mammals. In Sequim Bay, eelgrass kelp beds, numerous pocket beaches of forms the basis of a food chain that sup- fine or coarse grained sands, and richly ports 125 species of waterfowl, shorebirds productive estuarine systems. Dominant and wading birds. Protection Island is a considerations in selection of the area in- refuge to the greatest number of nesting clude the presence of highly productive sea birds anywhere on Puget Sound. The and representative pristine coastal envi- islands east end is a major haul-out and ronments. These are important to the con- pupping area for the threatened species tinued survival of several ecologically and of harbour seals. The shallow bays and commercially important species of fish, tidal flats adjacent to Indian Islands sup- raptors and marine mammals. Human port a complex assemblage of marine uses include recreation and scientific re- macro-invertebrates that are food for Pa- search. cific cod, Pacific herring and surf smelt. . Willapa Bay, Washington State: Situated Area C-The southern most division of on the southwestern corner of Washing- the site lies to the south of Port Town- ton Staten the area represents a bay/estu- send and includes the estuarine waters of arine ecosystem that is fringed by many the Nisqually Delta and the shallow wa- shore plants. Dominant considerations in ters surrounding Anderson, McNeil, and selection of the area include the presence Gertrude Islands with an area of approxi- of habitat critical to the productivity of mately 41 square kilometers. The area rep- commercially harvestable oysters and resents an important nursery, breeding, Dungeness crabs. Species composition 102 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

and productivity are high providing op- locally important fisheries (salmon, steel- portunities for basic and applied scientific head trout, herring and anchovy). There research. A conspicuous feature of the are opportunities for scientific research, Bay is the natural system of eelgrass that public educational programs and recrea- carpets the muddy bay bottom. Thou- tional uses. Human use include scientific sands of migratory shorebirds, waterfowl research, public education, recreational and raptors are present. Migrating fish fishing, scuba diving and beachcombing. populations, migratory harbour seal and Dungeness crab populations are present. Montereyan Human uses include commercial and recreational fishing and scientific research. * Morro Bay: Situated south of the city of * Heceta-Stonewall Banks: The proposed Morro Bay in San Luis Opisbo County, site is a hard-bottom bank. Surface waters this embayment supports three habitats: are highly biologically productive due to coastal salt marsh, tidal mud flats and winds driving surface water offshore and deep water channels. The site is a heavily upwelling of nutrient rich water. Domi- used fishing port and one of the largest nant considerations in selection of the bay wildlife habitats on California's coast. area include the area's high productivity At low tide, 1,400 acres of mud tide are and importance in supporting a fishery exposed, providing a feeding ground for and a research site. Human uses include over 250 species of birds and access to an commercial fisheries and scientific re- extensive clam shellfishery resource. search. Dominant considerations in selection of * Trinidad Head Area: The area is situated the area include its importance as a rich wholly within California State waters, feeding ground for resident and migratory south of the Oregon-California border, birds of the Pacific flyway and in provid- and includes a 16 kilometer stretch of ing an exceptional opportunity for marine coast with a shallow, gently sloping wave- research, educational program develop- cut platform. The shore line is charac- ment and recreational resource manage- terized by numerous "sea stacks" ment. The salt marsh and adjacent (steep-cliffed elevated rocky islands) par- habitats of Morro Bay are relatively undis- allel to the coastal headlands or promon- turbed and provide feeding areas for 225 tories that project into the ocean. High, species of shorebirds and waterfowl. rocky scarps and sandy pocket beaches al- Some 32 species of algae have been iden- temate along this section of the northem tified in the vicinity. A total of 66 species California coast. The steep cliffs also cre- of fish and some 120 species of inverte- ate several shallow sheltered embayments brates have been recorded in the bay. which, in conjunction with the sea stacks, Four species of marine mammals have provide refuge for marine invertebrates, been sighted: the stellar sea lion, the Cali- marine mammals and birds. Dominant fornia sea lion, the harbour seal and the considerations in selection of the area in- sea otter. Human uses include recreation, clude the presence of feeding and breed- hunting, sport fishing and commercial oys- ing habitats for migratory species of ter farming. marine birds. The area is also an important pupping and haul-out area for ma- San Diegan rine mammals, including elephant seals, harbour seals and stellar sea lions, and is * San Nicolas and San Clemente Islands: located on an important migratory path- The proposed sanctuary, entirely in state way supporting a number of regional and waters, comprises the areas surrouhding Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 103

San Nicolas and San Clemente Islands. these waters. Some of these include Mo- This area contains unique biological as- noplacophora, Dimya sp., lampshells, po- semblages of high diversity, including gonophorans, vestimentiferans and kelp beds, marine mammals, bottom- Allopora californica. Human uses include dwelling invertebrates, and demersal and commerically fishing, research and scuba pelagic fish. Dominant considerations in diving. selection of the area include the presence . Bahia Magdalena-Bahia Almejas Lagoon of important populations of marine mam- Complex, Baja California Sur: (described mals including California sea lions, ele- in main text) phant seals, harbour seals and fur seals. . San Ignacio and Ojo de Liebre Lagoons, The area supports a diversity of seabirds, Baja California Sur: (described in main and includes sites designated areas of spe- text) cial biological significance at both San Ni- . Bahia de San Quentin, including Isla San colas and San Clemente Islands. Human Martin, Baja California Norte: (described uses include use as a military firing test in main text) range, recreational boating and fishing, commercial harvesting of kelp offshore of Cortezian both islands. The five northern Channel Is- lands are part of the Channel Islands Na- . Grand Islas Region, Sonora and Baja Cali- tional Marine Sanctuary. fomia Norte: (described in main text) Cortes and Tanner Banks: The proposed * Alto Golfo de California, Sonora and Baja sanctuary consists of two neighbouring California: (described in main text) rocky-bottom sites some 180 kilometers * Coastal Lagoon of Sonora and Sinaloa: west of San Diego. The area is subjected (described in main text) to the full force of open-ocean storm . Cajon del Diablo, Sonora: (described in waves that attain heights of 11 meters. main text) The location of the banks in relation to . San Blas-Teacapan-Marismas Nacionales oceanic currents generates a mixture of Lagoon System, Sinaloa and Nayarit:: (de- both nearshore and offshore organisms. scribed in main text) Dominant considerations in selection of * Los Cabos-Estero de San Jose-Cabo the area include its importance as one of Pulmo Corridor, Baja California Sur: (de- the most important offshore commercial scribed in main text) fisheries within the southern California . Coastal Zone and Islands of Baja Califor- Bight. The area includes rare,.relict life- nia Sur including Bahia de la Plaz: (de- forms and newly discovered species scribed in main text) which have been the subject of scientific investigation. Exceptional research oppor- Mexican tunities are provided in the areas of classification, population dynamics and species * Morro Ayutla-Chacahua, Oaxaca: interactions. Dense stands of southern sea (described in main text) palm and smaller brown and red algae oc- a Tierra Colorada, Guerrero: (described in cur in shallow communities. Numerous main text) kinds of benthic macroinvertebrates in- * Mismaloya-La Joya, South Pacific, Jalisco: habit this area. Sea lions are observed to (described in main text) feed in the area and gulls, terns, shear- * Colola-Maruata, Michoacan: (described in waters and storm petrels have been remain text) corded. Many new species of marine * Mexiquillo, Michoacan: (described in organisms have been identified from main text) 104 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Billfish Breeding Grounds: This area is an Briggs, J.C. 1974. Marine zoogeography.New oceanic expanse bounded by Cabo San York: McGraw Hill. Lucas, Mazadan, Puerto Vallarta, Man- Brinton, E., A. Fleminger, and D. Siegel-Causey. zanillo and the Islas Revillagigedo and 1986. The temperate and tropical planktonic Clarion. This extraordinary area acts as biotas of the Gulf of California. California Coop. Oceanic FisheriesInvestment Report 27. breeding grounds andnorth-Canadian Department of Energy, Mines and Re- tory route for the striped marlin. It is an sources and Informaton. 1974. National atlas important sport fishing zone for pelagic of Canada. Toronto: The MacMillan Co. of species such as tunas, sharks, and billfish Canada, Ltd. within Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone Churgin, J., and Sj. Halminski. 1974. Key to (EEZ). There are geological structures re- oceanographicrecords documentation no. 2: lated to the Clarion Fracture, and it is the Temperaturesalinity oxygen andphosphate. confluence zone for the California and Vol. 1: Western North Atlantic; Vol. 2: Gulfof Equatorial Currents. It has been under Mexico; Vol. 3: Eastern North Pacific. some legal protection from the Fisheries NOAA/Environmental Data Service/Data Serv- Ministry since 1987, but it is unknown if ices Division/Applications Design Branch. this protection is effective. Striped marlin, Washington, D.C.: National Oceanographic sailfish and swordfish are considered at Data Center. rik.Treticfdestruc- Dietrich, D. 1963. Generaloceanography: An in- risk. Threats include the use ofitruc- troduction. New York: Interscience Publishers. tive fishing methods, overexploitation Dolan, R., B. Hayden, G. Homberger, J. Zieman, from intensive sport fishing, and possibly and M. Vincent. 1972. Classificationof the from collecting for the aquarium trade. coastalenvironments of the world. Part 1: The Americas. Technical Report No. 1. Charlottes- Panamanian ville, VA: Dept. Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Virginia; Arlington, VA: U.S. Office of Naval * La Encrucijada-Chantuto-Panzacola-Puerto Research. Arista, Chiapas: (described in main text) Ekman, S. 1953. Zoography of the sea. London: * La Joya-Joaquin Almaro Lagoons, Chia- Sidgewick and Jackson Ltd. pas: (described in main text) Flemming, R.H., and D. Heggarty. 1966. Ocean- ography of the southeastern Chukchi Sea. In NJ. Wilimovsky and J.N. Wolf, eds., Environ- ment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska. BIBLIOGRAPHY Washington, D.C.: U.S. Atomic Energy Commis- sion. Arvizu-Martinez, A. 1987. Fisheries activities in Golikov, A.N., M.A. Dolgolenko, N.V. Maxi- the Gulf of California, Mexico. California movich, and O.A. Scarlato. 1990. Theoretical Coop. Oceanic FisheriesInvestment Report 28. approachesto marine biogeography. - 63:289- Axelrod, D.I., 1960. Coastal vegetation of the 301. world (supplemental map). In W.C. Putnam, Hammann, M.G., T.R. Baumgartner, and A. D.I. Axelrod, H.P. Bailey, and J.T. McGill, Natu- Badan-Dangon. 1988. Coupling of the Pacific ral coastalenvironments of the world. Los An- sardine life cycle with the Gulf of Califoria pe- geles, CA: Univ. California at Los Angles. sagic environment. CaitforniaCoop. Oceanic Bailey, H.P., 1958. Coastal climates of the world FisheriesInvestmentReport29:102-10. (supplemental map). In W.C. Putnam, D.I. Hayden, B.P.; G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Clas- Axelrod, H.P. Bailey, and J.T. McGill, Natural sification of coastal and marine environments. coastalenvironments of the world. Los Ange- Environmental Conservation 11(3): 199-207. les, CA: Univ. California at Los Angles. Hedgpeth, J.W. 1953. An introduction to the zoo- Bailey, R.G. 1989. Ecoregions of the continents geography of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico (map supplement). EnvironmentalConserva- with reference to the invertebrate fauna. In tion 16(4)(Winter). Publicationsof the Institute ofMarine Science. Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific 105

Volume 3. Austiri, TX:-University of Texas at ern Bering Sea crab survey. Processed Report Austin. 81-08: Kodiak, AK: U.S. Dept. Commerce, Hedgpeth, J.W. 1954. Bottom communities of the NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Northwest and Gulf of Mexico. FisheriesBulletin US. Fisb Alaska Fisheries Center. Wildlife Service 55(89): 203-14. Otto, R:S., R.A; Macintosh, T.M. Armetta, and Heimlich-Boran, J.R. 1988. Marine resources and W.S. Meyers. 1982. Report to industry on tbe human activities in the Monterey Bay Area. 1982 Eastern Bering Sea crab survey. Proc- Center for Environmental Education. essed Report,82-13. Kodiak, AK: U.S. Dept. Hood, D.W. 1987. Physical setting and scientific Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., history. In D.W. Hood and S.T. Zimmerman, Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center. eds., The Gulf ofAlaska: Physical environment Otto, R.S., R.A. Macintosh, K.L. Stahl-Johnson, and biological resources. Rockville, MD: U.S. and Sj. Wilson. 1984. Report to industry on the Dept. Commerce, NOAA, National Ocean Serv- 1984 EasternBering Sea crab survey. Proc- ice, Office of Oceanography and Marine As- essed Report 84-17. Kodiak, AK: U.S. Dept. sessment. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Hubbs, C.L. 1960. The marine vertebrates of the Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center. outer coast. Symposium: The biogeography of Ray, G.C., and M.G. McCormick-Ray, 1987. Baja California and adjacent seas. Syst. Zoology Coastal and marine biosphere reserves. In PM- 9(3-4): 134-47. ceedings of the Symposium on Biosphere Re- . 1974. Review and comments on marine serves, Estes Park, CO. Washington, D.C.: U.S. zoogeography by John C. Briggs. COPEIA Dept. Interior, National Park Service. (4):1002-5. Reed, R.K., and J.D. Schumacher. 1987. Physical National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- oceanography. In D.W. Hood and S.T. Zimmer- tion (NOAA). 1988a. Bering Chukchi, and man, eds., The Gulf of Alaska: Physicalenviron- Beaufort Seas coastaland ocean zones strate- ment and biological resources. Rockville, MD: gic assessment data atlas. Rockville, MD: U.S. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, National Ocean Dept. Commerce, NOAA, National Ocean Serv- Service, Office of Oceanography and Marine ice, Strategic Assessment Branch. Assessment. . 1988b. West Coast of North Amertica Sample, T.M., and Rj. Wolotira. 1985. Demersal coastal and ocean zones strategicassessment fish resources of Norton Sound and adjacent data atlas (marine mammals). Rockville, MD: waters during 1979. Technical Memorandum U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, National Ocean NMFS F/NWC 89. Seattle, WA: U.S. Dept. Com- Service, Strategic Assessment Branch, and Na- merce. NOAA, NMFS, NWAFC. tional Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest and Scagel, R.F. 1963. Distributionof attached ma- Alaska Fisheries Center (now Alaska Fisheries rine algae in relation to oceanographiccondi- Science Center). tions in the northeast Pacific: Marine 1990. West Coast of North America distributions. Royal Society Canada Special coastaland ocean zones strategic assessment Publications No. 5. data atlas (invertebratesandfishes). Rockville, Schwartz, M.L. 1982. The encyclopedia of beacbes MD: U.S. Dept. Commerce, National Ocean and coastalenvironments. Volume XV. Encyclo- Service, Strategic Assessment Branch, and Na- pedia of earth series. Stroudsburg, PA: Hutchin- tional Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest and son Ross Publishing Co. Alaska Fisheries Center (now Alaska Fisheries Silva, M.E, E.M. Gately, and I. Desilvestre. 1986. Science Center). A bibliographicallisting of coastaland marine National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- protected areas:A global survey. Technical Re- tion (NOAA) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- port WHOI-86-11. Woods Hole, MA: Woods ice (USFWS). 1991. A desktop information Hole Oceanographic Institution. system for colonial seabirds. Rockville, MD: Steele, J.H. 1974. The structureof marine ecosys- U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Strategic Envi- tems. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. ronmental Assessments Div. Stevens, B.G., and R. A. MacIntosh, 1989. Report Otto, R.S.,AR.A. Macintosh, T.M. Armetta, and K.L. to industry on the 1989 Eastern Bering Sea *Stahll 1981. Report to industry on the 1981 East- crabsurvey. Processed Report 89-18. Kodiak, 106 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

AK U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. United States Geological Survey (USGS). 1970. Serv., Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center. The nationalatlas of the United States ofAmer- Sverdrup, H.U., M.W. Johnson, and R.H. ica. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. Interior. Fleming. 1942. The oceans: Theirpbysics, chem- West, R.C. 1977. Tidal salt marsh and mangal for- istry, and general biology. Englewood Cliffs, mations of Middle and South America. In Vj. NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chapman, ed., Wet coastalecosystems. New Tchnemia, P. 1980. Descriptive regional oceanog- York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. raphy. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press Inc. Wolotira, Rj., T.M. Sample, and M. Morin. 1977. Thorne-Miller, B.L., and J.G. Catena. 1991. The liv- Nemersalfish and shellfish resourcesof Norton ing ocean: Understandingandprotecting marine Sound, the southem Chukchi Sea, and adja- biodiversity. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. cent waters in the baselineyear 1977. Proc- Thorson, G. 1957. Bottom communities (sublit- essed Report. Seattle, WA: U.S. Dept. toral or shallowshelf). InJ.W. Hedgpeth, ed., Commerce, NOAA, NMFS, Northwest and Treatise on marine ecology andpaleoecology Alaska Fisheries Center. Vol. 1: Ecology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memr. 67. MARINE REGION 16 Northwest Pacific

Franulois Simard

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARNE cient information to identify the existing ma- BIODIVERSrr rine protected areas (MPAs), it is not yet possible to fully assess the value of the different The Northwest Pacific Marine Region in- MPA systems in terms of marine ecology cludes eight countries or territories: China, and biodiversity conservation. This report is Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan (China), Demo- the first attempt to carry out an assessment cratic People's Republic of Korea (D.P.R. Ko- of MPAs for the whole region and should be rea),V Republic of Korea, Japan, and Russia. considered preliminary. A comprehensive re- These have very different socioeconomic sys- port would require several surveys in the re- tems: from the communist systems of China gion and a more detailed assessment of and D.P.R. Korea to the capitalist systems of legal and administrative factors relevant to Japan and Republic of Korea. The econo- MPA management. mies vary greatly, from developed countries such as Japan with a per capita Gross Do- Demography mestic Product of US$26,984 (total GDP of US$3,346,486 trillion) to developing coun- Parts of the region have high coastal popula- tries such as China with US$317 (total GDP tions, leading to strong pressures on marine of US$371,455 trillion) (WRI 1994). resources and marine biodiversity. There are There are few or no networks of scientists two demographic zones: the south, which is and managers in the region. In some cases heavily populated along the coast and ex- there are limited diplomatic relations. The tends north to the border between the systems used for nature conservation are var- Democratic People's Republic of Korea and ied and difficult to compare. Parts of the re- Russia; and the north, which is formed by gion are relatively unknown and for some only one country, Russia, and has a low areas there is little information available on population density. the status of marine biodiversity and marine In China, all the coastal provinces have a protected areas. Even though there is suffi- population density higher than 180 inhabi-

107 108 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas tants per square kilometer and reaching 400 The Democratic People's Republic of Ko- inhabitants per square kilometer in Zhejiang rea has 120,538 square kilometers and province, 507 in Shandong province, 580 in 21.390 million inhabitants (density 178 per Beijing province, 611 in Jiangsu province square kilometer). The northeast of the coun- and 725 in Tianjin province. There are nu- try is quite mountainous and all the major merous cities located on the coast, the larg- cities are located on the coast: Pyongyang est including: Shanghai (7.180 million), 1.500 million, Chongjin 300,000, Hungnam Tianjin (5.460 million), Guangzhou (Canton 260,000 and Kaesong 240,000 inhabitants. 3.360 million), Nanjing (2.290 million), In the northern demographic zone, mean- Dalian (1.680 million), Hangzhou (1.270 mil- while, there is only one large city along the lion) and Qingdao (1.220 million). Russian coast (Vladivostok, 648,000 inhabi- The island of Taiwan (China) has a popu- tants). There is a small population along the lation density of 546 inhabitants per square coast south of the Amur river and in Sak- kilometer, and most of the big cities are on halin Island but further north there is almost the coast: Taipei (2.637 million), Kaohsiung no population. (1.342 million), and Tainan (656 thousand). Hong Kong, which has an area of 1,078 square kilometers, has 6 million inhabitants, Oceanography while Macao, with an area of only 17 square kilometers, has nearly 300,000 inhabitants. The Northwest Pacific Region extends from Japan is composed of four large islands the Bering Strait in the North to the Sino-Vi- and thousands of small ones. The country's etnamese land border in the South. In the total area is 377,800 square kilometers and south a number of areas, particularly the its population is about 125 million. Popula- Spratly Islands, are subject to a number of tion density is about 323 inhabitants per territorial claims, including those by Malay- square kilometer and 90 percent of the popu- sia, the Philippines, Viet Nam, Taiwan lation lives on the coast. With the exception (China), China and others. Much of this area of Kyoto and Sapporo all the major cities are is not included in the Northwest Pacific, and located along the coast, most of them with only the Chinese situation is considered in large harbors: Tokyo (8.155 million), Yoko- this report. The Spratly Islands are consid- hama (3.121), Osaka (2.543), Nagoya ered in the IUCN-CNPPA East Asian Seas Ma- (2.099), Kobe (1.426), Fukuoka (1.157), rine Region (13). Kawasaki (1.114), Hiroshima (1.042), Ki- The Northwest Pacific Marine Region cov- takyushu (1.035). The prefecture of Oki- ers more than 50 degrees of latitude in the nawa, which includes all the islands Northern hemisphere (from the arctic circle, between Taiwan and Kyushu, has 1.184 mil- 67°N to 18°N at the south of Hainan Islands, lion inhabitants for an area of 2,253 square and to 11°N if the southern Chinese territo- kilometers (density 525 inhabitants per ries are included). There is no other region square kilometer). that shows such a great range of ecosystem The Republic of Korea has almost 100,000 types ranging from those typical of the arctic square kilometers with a population density to those of the tropics. of 424 inhabitants per square kilometer. The region is influenced by the Kuroshio Seoul, the capital, is near the sea with a (warm)-Oyashio (cold) current system. The population of 9.639 million. The other major fronts of these currents meet off northern Ja- city; Pusan, is a harbor city of 3.514 million pan and induce very productive areas. inhabitants. In the north the city of Inchon The Kuroshio Current extends along the has 1.386 million. Ryukyu Archipelago and divides at the Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 109

Southern tip of Kyushu, entering the Yellow Salinity is normally 32-340/°0, but where Sea and the Sea of Japan as the Tsushima influenced by continental waters, can be as Current. In the North, the Oyashio divides at low as 280/00 (such as the Bohai Sea). the tip of Hokkaido and enters the Sea of Ja- pan. The strongest currents occur along the Coastal Geography Ryukyu Archipelago where the Kuroshio exceeds 10 knots all year round. The inner seas (South China Sea (including The region includes an outer area and an Beibu Gulf or Gulf of Tongking, East China inner area that are divided by the archipela- Sea, Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea, Sea of Japan, gic arch formed by the Philippines, Taiwan Okhotsk Sea, and Bering Sea) are shallow (China), Okinawa, Japan, Kuryl, Kamtchatka (less than 50 meters for the Bohai Sea; less and the Aleutian Islands. The inner includes than 100 meters for the Beibu Gulf and the several seas that might be called Asian In- Yellow Sea) (GEBCO 1984). In the outer land Seas (or, alternatively, marginal seas). seas, maximum depths are 4,500 meters for From the south to the north these are: South the South China Sea, 2,700 meters for the China Sea (including Beibu Gulf) East China East China Sea, 4,000 meters for the Sea of Sea, Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea of Japan, Ok- Japan, 5,200 meters for the Okhotsk Sea, hotsk Sea, and Bering Sea. These seas in- and 4,200 meters for the Bering Sea; average clude a number of local current patterns that depths are around 1,000 meters for all. are more or less under the influence of the Despite these significant depths, the seas Kuroshio-Oyashio system, as well as local in- are separated from the open ocean by quite fluences like the large rivers and the mon- shallow passes and straits (a few hundred soon cycle. meters). Off the archipelagic arch, the sea- There are tides of various patterns along bed is very steep and reaches great depths: the coasts, the more notable areas being the more than 5,000 meters off Taiwan, 7,500 East China Sea and the Yellow Sea where meters off Okinawa, 9,600 meters off Japan tidal amplitude reaches 6-7 meters in west- 10,500 meters in the famous Vityaz depth off ern Kyushu and more than 10-12 meters in Kuryl Islands, and 7,860 meters off the Aleu- some areas of Korea. tian Islands. Surface water temperatures range from arc- South of Japan, the Pacific Ocean be- tic to tropical. In southern areas (South comes the Philippines Sea and is bounded China Sea) off Hainan, temperatures range by deep trenches: Philippines Trench, Mari- between 20°C in winter to 29°C in summer. anas Trench, Japan Trench and the ridges of In the East China Sea, temperatures range be- South Honshu and Yap. tween 8°C and 26°C. In the Bohai Sea, the The continental shelf is wide in some ar- range is between 30C and 240C. In the Pa- eas, particularly in the northern part of the cific Ocean, south of Kyushu, temperatures inland seas (the continental shelf in the Yel- range between 20°C and 28°C. In the north, low Sea is among the widest in the world), Liaodong Bay is frozen for more than 100 and while on the oceanic side there is al- days a year. most no continental shelf. The archipelagic Water temperature at a depth of 10 meters arch is one of the most volcanic regions in ranges from 25°C (winter) to 30°C (summer) the world. in the south, from 0°C (winter) to 5°C (sum- The continental coast along much of the mer) in the north (R.A. BARKLEY). At the region is influenced by rivers. The inner and surface, the temperatures are more extreme outer coasts of the archipelagic arch receive and floating ice is seen each year off Hok- almost no influence. Some of the largest riv- kaido in Japan at about 45°N. ers in the world are present in China includ- 110 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ing the Amur with 1,840,000 square kilome- pelago. In China, the northernmost reefs are ters of drainage area, 4,416 kilometers around Pingtan Island in Fujian province. length; the Huanghe (Yellow riveri), 752,440 There are other small reefs off Hong Kong square kilometers area, 5,464 kilomneters and'all along the coast. There are large coral length; and Chang jiang (Yangtze Kiang), reefs in the south of Hainan and China Sea 1,808,500 square kilometers area, 6,380 kilo- Archipelagos (Xisha, Zhongsha and Nan- meters length. The.Zhujiang River is the estu- sha). The number of coral species in the ary of several rivers (Pearl River, China, realm is quite high: more than 400 species Hong Kong, and Macao) that drain more in Japan (Veron 1992) and between 200 spe- than 425,700 square kilometers. In China cies (SOA 1993) and 325 (Liang 1985) in alone there are more than 150 rivers cover- China. ing a drainage area over 10,000,000 square kilometers. In the archipelagic arch, in Tai- Mangrove Forest wan Island, in Japan and in the other islands the rivers are numerous but all are very Most of the mangroves in the region are lo- short with small drainage areas. The largest cated in China (67,000 hectares) (WCMC river in Taiwan is the Zuoshuixi, with a 1992). Taiwan has only 174 hectares and Ja- drainage area of only 3,144 square kilome- pan 400 hectares, largely because of the mor- ters and a length of 170 kilometers. In Ja- phology of the coast, the lack of large pan the largest river is the Tonegawa estuaries, and the small size of the islands (16,840 square kilometers,area, 322 kilome- under tropical climate. ters length). China has 36 species of mangrove (about 43 percent of the total number of species of Ecosystem Diversity the world) (SOA 1993). The most northerly mangroves in China are located near Fuding The region extends from arctic to tropical in Fujian province (Kandelia formation). waters, and includes a great variety of There are important mangrove forests coastal and marine ecosystems. around Hainan and in the Beibu Gulf near Qinzhou and. Beihai. Coral Reefs Seagrass Beds The northernmost coral reer locations are found in Japan (Boso peninsula). From this Of the 12 genus of seagrasses, 8 are present point there are several important localities in the realm (Zostera, Pbyllospadix, Ha- along the Pacific coast of Honshu, Shikoku lodule, Cynodocea, Syringodium, Enbalus, and Kyushu and along the western coast of Thalassia, and Halophila) (Den Hartog Kyushu. To the south, there are numerous 1970). Seagrass beds are found throughout coral reefs in the Amami Archipelago, the region, with the most extensive beds Ryukyu Archipelago including Okinawa Is- around Japan. The more important seagrass land, Yaeyama Archipelago, to the South of beds are composed of Zostera sp. and Halo- Tokyo, the Izu Archipelago and in the phila sp. These beds are located in the north- Ogasawara Archipelago. Japanese coral spe- em part of Honshu and around Hokkaido. cies are of great interest, because they have the most northerly distribution of corals in Wetlands the world. In Taiwan there are coral reefs'at the southern point of the island in Kenting. There are a number of important wetlands There are many smaller reefs all around the in the region. Bays and estuaries with, interti- country and especially in the Penghu Archi- dal sand and mud flats and other wetland Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 111 types are found in most parts of the region. Hainan (China), 34,000 square kilometers; and In Japan the three largest localities are the Shikoku (Japan), 18,000 square kilometers. bay of Tokyo, the bay of Ise and the sea of Numerous mid-size islands (between Ariake. On the Korean peninsula, there are 1,000 and 5,000 square kilometers) include the Kyongi Bay and the Korea Bay; in Karaginskiy (Russia), Komandorskiy (Rus- China, the Bohai Sea and Liaodong Bay are sia), Paramushir (Russia), Urup (Russia), Itu- major wetland areas. There are probably im- rup (Russia, named Etorofu by Japan), portant locations in Russia also, for example Kurashir (Russia, named Kurashiri by Japan), the delta of Anadyr. Shantarskiye,(Russia), Cheju (Republic of Ko- There are few coastal barrier lagoons and rea), Okinawa (Japan), Chongming (China), brackish water coastal lakes. The most im- and Zhoushan- (China). portant ones are on the west coast of Sak- There are a multitude of small islands halin Island, on the north coast of Hokkaido (100-1,000 square kilometers) and several ar- Island, the Hamana-Lake in Honshu, and at chipelagos of significant size. The main archi- the southwest coast of Taiwan. The south pelagos are the Kuryl Archipelago (Russia); and west coasts of Korea also have many in- Ogasawara Archipelago,' West Kyushu Archi- tertidal features due to the high amplitude of pelago, Amami Archipelago, Ryukyu Archi- tides and to the morphology of the coast pelago, Yaeyama Archipelago, West and with so many islands. Southwest Korean Islands, Changshan Archi- In China, the estuaries of the three largest pelago, Miaodao Archipelago (China); rivers (Chang jiang, Huanghe and Zhujiang) Penghu (Taiwan, also named Pescadores), support interesting mudflats and wetland fea- Dongsha, Xisha (also named Paracels), tures including the Mai-Po Marsh and the Zhongsha, and Nansha (also named Spratly). Mirs Bay in Hong Kong. Open Ocean, Deep Sea, UpweUings Beaches, Dunes and Clffs The most important open ocean location is Sandy b'eaches, rocky shores, and cliffs are the meeting of the Kuroshio and the found' throughout the region. Rocky shores Oyashio Currents off the northeast of Hon- are especially important in all the islands of shu in Japan. This area is one of the most the archipelagic arch. There are famous productive marine areas in the world. dunes in Tottori, south of Honshu on the There are very deep trenches in the North- Sea of Japan side, and also near Tianjin in. west Pacific. The deepest trench in the the Bohai Sea. There is also a good variety world is the Vityaz depth off the Kuryl Is- of sandy beaches from white to black sands lands. and from fine sand to large pebbles.

Islanas Species Diversity

The archipelagic arch is formed by thousands As a result ot climatic conditions and ocean of islands ranging from very big large currents, marine areas of the Northwest Pa- islands to a myriad of uninhabited small is- cific are among the world's most productive. lands: The largest islands are Honshu The meeting of the warm Kuroshio Current (Japan), 230,000 square kilometers; Hok- and the cold Oyashio Current contributes to kaido (Japan), 78,000 square kilometers; an enormous profusion of fish species. Up Sakhalin (Russia), 76,400 square kilometers; to 1,000 species of demersal or bottom- Kyushu (Japan), 36,500 square kilometers; dwelling species are harvested by commer- Taiwan '(China). 3S.900 scuare kilometers; cial fishing alone. 112 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The area as a whole has a very high diver- Fisb sity as it straddles all latitudes between the arctic and the tropics. China alone has re- Japan, Russia and China are among the most corded 20,000 species of marine organism important nations for fisheries. Korea and (Zhou, personal communication). The Taiwan (China) have large fishing fleets. The Ryukyu and southernmost areas lie in the number and the diversity of fish in the re- southern Asian center of diversity for coral gion are very high. There are about 2,000 reef and other marine fish and invertebrates. species of fish in Japan (Kamohara-1981). China has recorded 3,032 species of fish Seaweeds (Zhou personal communication).

In Japan seaweeds are extremely well known. Birds Many types are edible and consumed in great quantities like the Nori (Porpbyrasp.), the The north of the realm is very rich in Wakame (Undanapinatifida)and the Kombu seabirds. The Bering Sea, the Okhotsk Sea (Laminariajaponica).In Japan alone there and the Kuryl Islands there-are many seabird are almost 600 species of seaweeds (Segawa colonies: northern fulmar, 800,000; Leach's 1981); in China, about 610 species (Zhou 1992). storm petrel, 170,000; fork-tailed storm pet- Among those, the most important are Ulva- rel, 100,000; pelagic cormorant, 50,000; red- les codium and Caulerpafor the Chliorophyta; face cormorant, 12,000; slaty-backed gull, Nemacystus, Laminaria, Kjellmaniella, Eis- 8,000; black-legged kittiwake, 400,000; red- enia, Ecklonia, Undaria, Hizikia, and Sargas- legged kittiwake, 1,000; Brunnick's sum for the Phaeophyta; Helminthocladia, guillemot, 600,000; common guillemot, Scinaia, Gelidium, Gloiopeltis, Chondnus, 800,000; spectacled guillemot, 1,800; para- and Ceramium for the Rhodophyta. keet auklet, 80,000; crested auklet, 125,000; least auklet, 31,000; Aetbia sp., 500,000; rhi- Invertebrates noceros auklet, 1,000; and horned puffin, 1,000. The following species also breed in There is a large number of invertebrates in the region: great cormorant, Temminck's cor- the realm. For example, in Japan, there are morant, pomarine skua, arctic skua, long- about 6,000 species of mollusks (Habe tailed skua, Aleutian tern, marbled murrelet, 1982), and almost 1,000 species of crabs Kittlitz's murrelet, ancient murrelet, and (Brachyura) (Miyake 1982), 480 species of tufted puffin. shrimps and prawns (Dendrobrachiata), 320 In the Bering Sea, the most important colo- species of Anomura, 50 species of Sto- nies occur in the Komandorskiye Islands matopoda (Miyake 1982). where the estimated total population size of Approximately 1,400 species of mollusks, breeding seabirds is between 500,000 (Ma- 800 of annelids, and 2,800 of anthropods- rakov 1975) and 2,100,000 pairs (Uspenski about one-fourth of the world's species-are 1959). said to be in China. More than one million seabird pairs breed A large number of these species are of in the Russian section of the Bering Sea. commercial importance including mollusks The Sea of Okhotsk is exceptionally rich (gasteropods, bivalves, and cephalopods), in sea birds. There are large colonies in each crustaceans (crabs and shrimps), and others of the Kuryl Islands. The total of breeding (ascidians and echinoderms). A large num- seabirds in the Sea of Okhotsk exceeds ber of these species are also considered as 3,285,000 pairs, more than half of them in threatened in the region. the Kuryl Islands. Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 113

Great Peter's Bay, off Vladivostok, is also Tropical Zone an important location for seabird nesting (Golovkin 1984; Litvinenko and Shibaev The Tropical zone includes the South China 1991). In Japan, 37 species of seabirds Sea region to the south of Hainan Island. breed. The most important species breed in the Ogasawara Archipelago, in the Ryukyu Subtropical Zone Archipelago and in some remote islands in the Philippines Sea. The most important spe- This zone includes the north of the South cies are three albatrosses, Bonin petrel, Bul- China Sea and Beibu Gulf, including most of wer's petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Hainan Island, the southern and eastern Audubon's shearwater, Swinhoe's storm pet- coasts of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Archipelago rel, Tristram's storm petrel, Matsudaira's and the Amami Archipelago. It also includes storm petrel, red-tailed tropic bird, greater also the Ogasawara Archipelago. crested tern, and Japanese murrelet (Hasegawa 1984). In China, 33 species of Warm Temperate Zone seabirds have been recorded. Generally, the sea areas off China do not seem to hold The Warm Temperate zone is divided into large numbers of birds. One of the most im- two subdivisions: closed sea (East China portant locations is the Penghu Archipelago Sea) and open sea (Pacific Ocean, Philip- (Melville. 1984). pines Sea). It includes the coast of China from Hong Kong to Shanghai, the western Marine Mammals and northern coasts of Taiwan, the southern part of Korea, the Japanese coast of the Ja- The region is rich in cetaceans, although they pan Sea north of Shimane, the coasts of have been hunted for a long time by Japa- Kyushu, the Seto Inland Sea and the coasts nese and Korean fishermen. The Kuryl and of Honshu north of Inubosuki Cape. The the Kommandorskiye Islands are good loca- zone is under the influence of the warm tions for seals and for the threatened sea otter. Kuroshio Current. The dugong is found in coastal waters on the southern coast of China and also in Tai- Cold Temperate Zone wan (China). This zone also includes two subdivisions: Reptiles closed sea (Yellow Sea and Sea of Japan), and open sea (Pacific Ocean). It extends Four species of marine turtle have been re- north to the Cape of Nemuro in Hokkaido. corded in Chinese waters. These are the The zone could be further split into Medium green, loggerhead, leatherback and hawks- Temperate and Cold Temperate. In the Cold bill. Eighteen species of sea snake are pre- Temperate would be the Bohai Sea, the coast sent (Zhou, personal communication). of D.P.R Korea and Russia in the Sea of Ja- pan, and the waters of the Pacific between Biogeographic Classification the North point of Honshu and Nemuro Cape.

The region has been classitied into six main Subarctic Zone biogeographic zones that take into consideration the classification scheme of Briggs This zone includes the sea of Okhotosk (1974), species associations, and geographi- (closed sea), the Kuryl Archipelago, and the cal (and physical) considerations (see Map 16). coasts of Kamchatka. 114 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Arctic Zone Table 16.1 Number of MPAs in the Northwest Pacific Marine Region The waters (Sea of Bering) at the north of County/Region NumberofMPAs the Komandorskiye Islands fall in the Arctic zone. China 41 Nature Reserves 18 Fisheries Resources Protected Areas ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS Japan 58 Marine Parks 1 Nature Conservation Area 54 Fisheries Resources Protected Description of National MPA Systems Areas Hong Kong 1 Country Park 3 Sites of The following data are far from complete Interest Special Scientific and this chapter will need to be further up- Korea 1 Nature Preserve dated to establish a complete list of existing 1 Natural Ecological System and proposed marine protected areas. Such Protected Area an assessment should also include an exami- Macao No MPAs nation of marine areas that are protected for Russia 6 Nature Reserves purposes other than nature conservation, Taiwan 1 National Parks such as for protection of fisheries resources 1 Nature Reserve or for military uses.

Table 16.1. shows a total of 190 MPAs es- -otal_190 tablished in the Northwest Pacific Marine Re- gion. The location of the MPAs is shown by Map 16. As far as can be determined on the basis of existing and available data, these ar- 1987, there were 29 MPAs among the NRs. eas include subtidal elements. There is also By 1993, there was a total of 41 (12 more) a large number of primarily terrestrial covering an area of 4,553 square kilometers. coastal protected areas that have not been The largest MPA is the Dugong NR in the assessed here. There are no data at the mo- Guangxi Zhuangzu Autonomous Region, ment for D.P.R. Korea. There are no MPAs Hepu County, with 200,000 hectares; fol- or proposed MPAs in Macao. lowed by the Snake Island NNR with 190,000 hectares. The smallest is the Aba- Cbina lone NR in Sanya City with 67 hectares. Two of the NRs are "relics reserves" that The establishment of protected areas in aim to protect archeological and paleon- China began in the 1950s and since 1978 has tological features but that also play a role in entered a new stage of development. By nature conservation. 1987 China had established 481 Nature Re- MPAs in China may be classified into five serves (NR), with a total land area of categories: 237,000 square kilometers or 2.47 percent of * MPAs for rare and endangered marine or- the country's total land area. NRs are divided ganisms such as dugong, algae (for exam- into national, provincial, prefectural, and ple, the Algae NR in Hainan Province), county levels. There are also in China six Na- abalone (for example, Abalone NR in tional Nature Reserves (NNR), or Man and Sanya City). the Biosphere Reserves. In 1989, the State * MPAs for typical ecosystems such as man- Council gave the State Oceanic Administra- grove (Shankou Mangrove Ecosystem NR; tion (SOA) responsibility for the designation Beilun Estuary Mangrove Ecosystem NR; and management of marine reserves. In Xinying Mangrove Forest NR in Danxian Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 115

County); wetlands (Chongming Eastern _O Nanji Archipelago National Marine Na- Beach Wetland NR), and coral reefs ture Reserve (Sanya Coral Reef NR). _O Tianjin Palaeocoast National Marine Na- * MPAs for natural and historical relics with ture Reserve special significance such as the shell "_ Shenshu Bay National Marine Nature dunes in coastal Tianjin (Shelly-dam NR). Reserve MPAs for rare and endangered fauna and _O Beilen Estuary Mangrove National Ma- flora or migratory birds (for example, rine Nature Reserve Dazhou Island Marine Ecosystem NR for _- Three Jinshan Islands National Marine the esculent swallow; Qiansan Island Nature Reserve Birds NR in Lianyungang; Yancheng Pre- _O Xiamen Lancelets National Marine Na- cious Birds on Seabeach NR for the Japa- ture Reserve nese crane; Nanwan Rhesus Monkey NR). _0 Miao Island National Marine Nature Re- MPAs for representative natural ecosys- serve tems in different climatic zones along the _ -Liaodong Bay National Marine Nature coast (for example, Miao Island Marine Reserve NR and three Jinshan Islands Marine NR). O 'Chongming Eastern Beach Wetland Na- tional Marine Nature Reserve There is also a system of Fisheries Re- _ Ningbo Marine Relics National Marine sources Protected Areas (FRPAs). There are Nature Reserve 3 FRPAs established at the national level and _O Chengshantou National Marine Nature 15 at the provincial or municipal level. Sev- Reserve eral of these FRPAs seem to include or to be included in nature reserves, and are quite ex- Japan tensive (covering areas of more than 100 square kilometers). Most of them have as an In Japan the sea is a traditional support of objective protecting the reproduction of spe- society. From ancient times, the sea has cies of commercial fisheries importance. played a key role in the nation's history: There is very little information available on sometimes bringing beneficial gifts such as Chinese FRPAs; further study is required to culture from China, technologies from west- assess the value of the system 'for marine bio- em countries, and food from' fisheries; some- diversity conservation. times harmful, like invasions or natural The SOA and other concerned administra- disasters like typhoons and tsunamnis. The im- tions seem to have been very active for the portance of the sea has also had an influ- last five years. It is too early to evaluate the ence on the development of Japan's MPA results of the new MPA strategies that have system. been introduced and to assess the value of There are three types of natural parks: Na- the various forms of protection that exist.' tional Park (NPs), Quasi National Park Some of the main Chinese MPAs are listed (QNPs), and Prefectural Park (PPs). The ma- below: jor objective of these designations is to pro- _4 Changli Golden Seashore National Ma- tect natural scenery (En'vironment Agency rine Nature Reserve 1990). In 1988, there were 382 parks (28 "_ Shankou Mangrove Ecosystem National Nps, 54 QNPs, and 300 PPs) covering 53,200 Marine Nature Reserve square kilometers; or 14 percent of the total

__ ' Dazhou Island National Marine Nature Japanese land area (Environment Agency Reserve 1990). _O Sanya Coral Reef National Marine Na- A great number of these protected areas tufe Reserve cover coastal and mrarine areas. A very large 116 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

proportion of the Japanese coast is included A total of 58 MPs cover 2,418 hectares within protected areas. In several prefec- of sea: tures, more than half of the coastline is * 28 within NPs (1,086 hectares) within parks (Iwate, Mie, Saga, Hyogo); * 30 within QNPs (1,332 hectares) some prefectures have their whole coastline . 27 in the Kuroshio Current system within parks, like Fukui on the Japan Sea, * 28 in the Tsushima Current system and Okayama and Kagawa in the Seto In- * 1 in the Oyashio Current system. land Sea. This situation might seem to indi- According to the biogeographic zonation: cate that Japan has the most efficient nature * 12 in the Subtropical zone protection system in the world and that the . 26 are in the Warm Temperate zone Japanese coast is still almost in a natural * 13 on the western coast state, but this unfortunately is not the case. * 13 on the eastern coast In reality, the Japanese Natural Park System . 20 in the Cold Temperate zone is of little importance and has almost no in- * 19 on the western coast fluence on economic development along the a 1 on the eastern coast coast. It is particularly clear in the Seto In- . none in the Subarctic zone. land Sea, which is entirely a NP, but where there are nonetheless a large number of fac- From the point of view of representation tories, shipyards, and large-scale aquaculture of biogeographic zones, the MP system cov- facilities. ers a large part of the coast, with the excep- Within the NPs, there are Special Areas tion of the Japanese east coast of the cold and Special Protection Areas (representing temperate zone and the Subarctic zone. 62 percent of the total) where protection is The MPs are quite small, with an average slightly stronger. But, for example, in 1987, area of only 41.7 hectares. The largest is the within these areas, there have been: 71 per- Zamami MP, in the Okinawa Prefecture, mits for erection, rebuilding, or extension of which is 233 hectares. There is also a num- structures: 25 permits for mining, quarrying ber of very small ones, like the Ogi MP and or diggings; 1 permit for changing the water the Aikawa MP in Sado Island, which are 5 level; and 13 other permits. and 6 hectares, respectively; the Tajimna Pen- It must also be noted that in the case of insula MP in northern Japan, 3.6 hectares; marine areas, only the surface of the water and the Amakusa MP in western Kyushu, 5.1 is taken into account by the law and not the hectares. water mass or the organisms present within When an MP is designated, the adjacent it. The role of natural parks for marine con- terrestrial land and the sea out to 1 kilome- servation is therefore very small. ter around the MP are established as buffer A Marine Park (MP) system was created in zones. In most of the cases, MPs are Japan in 1970. MPs are designated for pre- equipped with (on land) a parking lot, visi- serving beautiful underwater seascapes (Ma- tor's center, picnic area, nature trail, and at rine Parks Center of Japan 1990). According sea, a pier, glassboat course, and an under- to the law, MPs are located within NPs or water observatory. QNPs and are part of the same system as In most cases, the Japanese MPs cannot Natural Parks, but are exclusively marine. play the role of protecting a natural sea Human activities within the MPs are not for- area. They only play an educational and bidden, but require the approval of the Gen- touristic role, because they are not large eral Director of the Environment Agency or enough to provide for effective management. of the Prefecture Governor. In most of the In Japan there is another nature conserva- cases commercial fishing activities occur in tion system called Nature Conservation Area MPs. 'NCA), which is independent from the'Na- Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 117 tional Park system. Its objective is only na- manage the resources using a variety of ture protection and not education or recrea- strategies including restrictions on fishing tion. There is one marine NCA. Designated gear and effort and stocking of harvested in 1983, it is located at the extreme south- species. Although management is produc- west of Japan, in the island of Iriomote tion rather than preservation oriented, in (24019'N 123041'E). It is exclusively marine, most instances it does result in maintenance covering 128 hectares (Nature Conservation of basic natural properties and processes. Bureau 1990) and is located in a very wild In order to protect the reproduction of part of the island. This area is completely species, there is a system of Fisheries Re- protected with no public access. sources Protection Areas (FRPAs) that are a As a conclusion the marine nature conser- part of the Fisheries Resources system and vation in Japan includes three systems: regulated under article 14 of the 1951 Law * A protection system covering a very large on the Protection of Fisheries Resources. area (NP, QNP, PP) but of little impor- The areas are designated by the Ministry of tance as a nature protection tool Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries based on . A small area system (MP) good for nature the advice of the Central Council for Fisher- education or research purposes but poor ies Regulation and are managed by the Pre- as nature protection, fecture Governors. * A tiny system (NCA) very efficient as na- Management of the FRPAs usually in- ture protection but too small and isolated. volves a complete ban on fishing or strict regulations on fishing gear and the times at The FisheriesResources ProtectionSystem which fishing can be carried out. There are A system of fisheries rights has existed in Ja- 25 FRPAs that have been designated as "mol- pan since ancient times and gives fishing lusk protected areas," and 38 as "seaweed communities exclusive rights over the ma- protection areas" that include a total of 4,785 rine areas they exploit. There are more than hectares (there are a further 192 hectares of 4,000 Fishermen Cooperative Associations inland waters and 2,184 kilometers of riv- (FCA) around the country, each with the re- ers). A list of the major FRPAs showing their sponsibility for managing a specific marine areas and target species is provided by area. With the exception of some harbors Suisan-cho and Shinko-ka (1991). the entire Japanese coast is managed under Although the function of the FRPAs is es- this system, which provides jurisdiction out sentially to produce natural resources, the re- to 5-21 kilometers. sult has been sustainable production over The system does not confer property hundreds of years. It is clear they are an im- rights in the sense that the rights are not sale- portant support for the Fisheries Resources able but are owned by a group or commu- system. From a biogeographic perspective, nity. The rights cannot be sold, even with the distribution of FRPAs is lacking in that the agreement of all the group, but can be the majority are grouped in the Seto Inland ceded for an amount of money, calculated Sea. However, in some respects this is com- on the basis of likely future earnings, that pensated by the distribution of the Marine compensates the fishermen who will lose Parks. their income, The situation in Japan is therefore one It is probably true that this system is re- where neither the Marine Park or Fisheries sponsible for the areas of the coast that have Resources system are adequate as a MPA sys- survived the intense industrial and popula- tem. Given the high population density and tion pressures. The fisheries resources sys- the long tradition of exploitation of coastal tem is a good example of traditional, fishing grounds, it would seem that a nature sustainable use of coastal waters. The FCAs conservation orientated system may not be 118 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

practical. Adaptation of the Fisheries Re- Republic of Korea sources system, in the same way that has been achieved for forest protection by the There are various legal systems for Nature Forest Agency of the Ministry of Agriculture, Conservation in Korea (Bo-Myong Wo 1991). Forestry and Fisheries, may.provide a The Nature Preserve designation is used greater chance of success for conservation by the Ministry of Culture and Information, and sustainable development of Japan's to protect Historic Sites, Scenic Beauty Ar-. coastal areas. eas, and Natural Monuments. Natural Monu- ments. include "unique animals and their- Hong Kong habitats," "islands with special natural charac-- teristics," and "natural habitats." Of the five There are several designations of MPAs in Nature Preserves, only one has a marine Hong Kong: component: the Hongdo Islands Marine Re- * Country Parks (CPs) are designated for serve (Southwest of Korea, off Mokpo). the purposes of nature conservation, infor- Natural Ecological System Protected Areas mal recreation and outdoor education. (NESPAs) are designated by the Ministry of * Special Areas (SAs) are created mainly for Construction after being surveyed by the the purpose of nature conservation (Hong Ministry of Environment. There are three Kong Government Information Service). NESPAs, one of which has marine elements * Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) the Nakdong River Mouth Migratory Bird Ar- are 4esignated to conserve areas of spe- rival Area (in the southeast, near Pusan). cial conservation or scientific importance. The National Park (NP) system is directly under the management of the National Park A total of 21 CPs and 3 SAs have been es- Authority. There are 20 NPs, four of them in- tablished, covering a total area of 41,320 hec- cluding marine areas. The NPs are very. large tares. Several islands such as Ping Chau in with a total of 3,764 square kilometers of Mirs Bay are, included. Inside the Plover land and 2,348 square kilometers of sea. The Cove CP, there is a small protected marine four marine NPs are mainly marine with area called Yan Ton Hoi. There are no SAs large coastal areas and include a large num- that include marine areas. Twelve of the to- ber of small- and medium-size islands.-NP tal of 57 SSSIs are.marine areas. management plans aim to reconcile protection with human use. NPs are more regu- The following MPAs have been recorded: lated-use parks than nature conservation- _O Hok Tsui SSSI (Cape D'Aguilar): This oriented parks where all uses are very area is located in the south. strictly controlled (Lee 1990). _~ Mai Po Nature Reserve (SSSI): This is The Provincial Park (PP) system is under the an internationally important wetland administration of the provinces or big. cities. area in the Northwest New Territories. Most of these parks are located within the Mai Po has an area of 300 hectares and cities and their main role is to protect beauti- comprises shrimp and fish ponds, and ful natural scenery for the use of the inhabi- a 400 meter wide fringe of mangrove tants. There are. 20 PPs totalling 732 square plants with mudflats beyond. kilometers; only 2 seem to include coastal ar- _O Hoi Ha.Wan (SSSI): Located in the eas-Sokch'o in the extreme northeastvand southwest of Mirs Bay, this area has Kangnung on the east coast. It is not clear if the best place for marine life in Hong these include any subtidal marine elements. Kong. It is possible that Hoi Ha Wan The County Park system aims to manage may be declared the first Marine Park beautiful scenic areas outside National-and in Hong Kong (Ruxton 1992). Provincial Parks. Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 119

All three systems above are under the _O Tae-An Hae-an Seashore NP (329 Natural Park Act. They are designated by the square kilometers; sea area, 290 square Ministry of Construction, with various areas kilometers): This area is located on the designated by the Ministry of Culture. west coast, west of Sosan. Under the Wildlife Protection Act, there _O Hong Do Islands Marine Reserve are 8 Wildlife Refuges (250 hectares), 478 "O Nakdong River Mouth Migratory Bird Wildlife Sanctuaries (109,580 hectares), and Arrival Area 65 Special Wildlife Sanctuaries (1,979 hectares). This Act is the responsibility of the Russia Forests Administration of the Ministry of Agri- culture, Forestry and Fisheries and actually There are three main categories of protected concerns only mountains, but in the future areas provided by Russian legislation. These could be used for marine areas since the three categories are: Fisheries Administration is part of the same . Zapovedniki: These areas are similar to Ministry. Scientific Reserves (Strict Nature Reserves There are various systems in Korea rang- in IUCN categories). ing from the National Park system, which * Natural Monuments: These are IUCN cate- aims to promote tourism through protection gory 3. of scenic values, to the Natural Ecological . Zakazniki: This category includes pro- System Protected Areas, which seem to be tected areas where some kinds of human quite efficient from a nature conservation activity are prohibited or restricted. These point of view. However, protection of ma- areas can vary in size from several hec- rine areas is not yet developed in compari- tares to hundreds and thousands of hec- son to forest areas. The systems used in the tares and are established to maintain a Republic of Korea seem to be very close to single resource or feature (for example, those in Japanese; their real value for conser- waterfowl, forests, or rare species) as well vation of marine biodiversity is difficult to as- as natural complexes as a whole (pro- sess but probably-is of little importance. tected landscape). It is difficult to identify It has not yet been possible to assess the zakazniki in terms of IUCN categories be- Fisheries Reserves Systems. cause of the wide variety of their goals. Their legal status is similar to that of Buff- Existing MPAs are: er (protected) zones of zapovedniki, _O Hallyo Haesang Sea NP (478 square which are under the possession of local kilometers; sea area, 350 square kilome- authorities or private ownership, in con- ters): This area includes six zones from trast to the zapovedniki that belong to the Changsungp'o in the east, to the is- national government. Depending on the lands off Tosan in the west. particular area, a variety of types of hu- .O Tadohae Haesang Sea NP (2,345 man activity may be permitted subject to square kilometers; sea area, 2,004 restrictions. square kilometers): This area includes seven zones from the south of Kohung In the Northwest Pacific Realm, there are to the island of Hongdo, including the only six established Natural Reserves that in- islands off Chindo, off Wando, and clude a marine component: Dalnevostochny Komundo Islands. Morskoy, Lasovsky, Sikhote-Alinsky Bio- _O Pyonson Bando Peninsula NP (157 sphere, Kurilsky, Kronotsky Biosphere, and square kilometers; sea area, 9 square Dzhugdzhursky. Only one of these (Dal- kilometers): This area is located west nevostochny Morskoy, or Far Eastern Marine of Chongju. Reserve) is a specialized marine Natural Re- 120 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

serve. Of the remaining reserves three the first Natural Park in Taiwan (Construc- (Dzhugdzhursky, Sikhote-Alinsky and tion and Planning Administration). Kronotsky NR) include both marine and ter- There are nine Nature Reserves (NRs) but restrial areas while two (Kurilsky and La- only one includes marine elements: the Tan- zovsky Reserves) have buffer zones that sui Mangrove Forest NR, which is located in extend to the marine environment. the northem part of the country and covers The Dalnevostochny Morskoy (Far Eastern only a small area of 76.5 hectares. The Coun- State) Marine Reserve mentioned above was cil of Agriculture, which manages the Nature established in 1978 and is situated in Peter Reserves system, is quite actively involved in the Great Bay (Zaliv Petra Velikogo) 50 kilo- nature conservation. meters south of Vladivostok. The objective There are six proposed Nature Reserves, of this reserve is to conserve and provide op- one of which is marine. The-Keng Ding portunities to study the littoral and island Coral Reef NR will be established inside the fauna of the bay, the richest in species of all Keng Ding National Park. The NRs are man- the seas of Russia. Faunistic and floristic re- aged under the Cultural Heritage Preserva- search has been conducted on the reserve tion Law. There are also at least 11 Coastal territory for 12 years. Protected Areas (CPAs) covering large sur- Further reserves have been proposed, al- faces of the coast, which are protected by though most exist only in the form of docu- the Cabinet and not by legislation and are of ments from the Ministry of Ecology and somewhat doubtful conservation value, par- Natural Resources or as an idea of a -group ticularly for the marine areas. It is hoped of specialists; as such they have no legal that the Seashore Law that is now being writ- status. Of these proposals only a few are ten will provide a good legal foundation to likely to proceed to establishment: the Com- protect the Taiwanese coasts and also the ad- mander Biosphere reserve project is nearly jacent waters. completed and it is likely that this Reserve There are-various other types of protected will be established in the near future; the areas, including Nature Parks and Nature same is true for the proposed Beringiya Na- Ecological Preserves. There is also good co- tional Park. ordination between economic development and ecological conservation since the related Existin'g MPAs are: agencies are the Ministry of Interior, Council _w Dalnevostochny Morskoy of Economic Planning and Development, _4 Lazovsky Council of Agriculture, and Department of _O Sikhote-Alinsky Biosphere Reserve Environmental Protection (San Wei Lee 1988). _- Kurilsky There is also a strong and large system of _ Kronotsky Biosphere Reserve military forbidden areas in Taiwanese waters "_ Dzhugdzhursky that could play a major role for nature conservation. Taiwan (Cbina) 1 ; uuwJll% 1vLPAs are recorded: There is one National Park (Kenting NP) _O Kenting National Park (out of a total of four existing and two pro- _O Tansui Mangrove Forest posed NPs) including a large marine area. Kenting NP is located at the southern tip of International and Regional Initiatives Taiwan and includes subtropical waters with Relating to MPAs a fair amount of coral reefs (total area is 32,640 hectares including 14,900 hectares of There is little br no international cooperation sea). The park was established in 1982 as in the field of marine conservation and man- Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 121 agement in this region. In most cases the Table 16.2 Number of MPAs relevant international conventions have not In Biogeographic Zones of the been signed by most countries, or even if Northwest Pacific Marine Region they are signed, they are given little consid- Number of eration by the national managers. BiogeographicZones ExAisting MPAs

World Heritage Convention 1. Tropical 4 2. Subtropical 42 3. Warm Temperate: No coastal marine sites have been desig- a. Closed Sea 31 nated as World Heritage Sites. b. Open Sea 46 4. Cold Temperate: a. Closed Sea 39 Ramsar Convention b. Open Sea 8 5. Sub Arctic 2 One marine area has been designated as a Unknown (18 Chinese FRPAs) 18 Ramsar site in the region: Dongzhaigong Na- tional Mangrove Protected Area in China. Total 190

MARPOL

Cape Terpeniya, south of Sakhalin in the sea ate Closed Sea with 31, and the Cold Tem- of Ohotsk, is designated as an "Area to be perate Open Sea with eight MPAs. Only a Avoided" under IMO's General Provisions very small part of the Tropical zone lies on Ship Routing because of its ecological im- within the region (the southern coast of Hai- portance. nan Island), and this is represented by four MPAs. The Subarctic and Arctic regions are UNVESOOMan anammroe pepre Pm anne the least well-represented zones with two and no MPAs, respectively. There are 18 Chi- Japan and Russia nave national MAB commit- nese Fisheries Resources Protected Areas tees. The only marine and coastal Biosphere whose location is unknown. Reserves are the Yakushima Island Bio- It has not been possible to carry out a de- sphere Reserve in Japan and two areas in tailed assessment of the management of ex- Russia. The Commander Archipelago in Rus- isting MPAs. The infornation available sia and the delta of the Xijan River have suggests that with some exceptions (such as been proposed as Biosphere Reserves. the Japanese Marine Parks that are well-managed from the public education perspective), Assessment of Representation the overall management level for marine bio- of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs diversity conservation could be generally characterized as low to moderate. While Table 16.2 shows the number of MPAs in most of the zones have a good covering of the biogeographic zones of the Northwest MPAs, if the effectiveness of management of Pacific Marine Region. these areas is considered, it is clear the cov- Most of the major biogeographic zones erage is very poor. are well represented (in terms of the number of MPAs) by the network of MPAs in the region. The Warm Temperate Open Sea PRIORIITY AREAS AND RECOMMENDATIONS zone has the most MPAs with 46, followed by the Subtropical with 42, the Cold Temper- In this region high priority should be given ate Closed Sea with 39, the Warm Temper- to improving the management of existing 122 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

MPAs and to reinforcing the IlanagCIIICntL Ci- MPAs, they in fact include several existing pacity of existing institutions. In particular, MPAs, and some also include proposed new this will require the development of training sites (these are noted in the description of programs to ensure that there are adequate each area). The priorities are referred to as numbers of trained MPA staff, and public' proposed new MPAs, because they are pro- awareness and education programs to in- posed as candidate sites for integrated, multi- crease the community's understanding and ple-use management of large marine areas. acceptance of the need and benefits of ma- In some cases the areas extend across na- rine biodiversity conservation. In this region, tional boundaries to include the marine terri- where most countries have a long history of tory of two or more nations. traditional use of the marine environment, it There are many other areas that have is also vital to develop approaches to man- good reason' to be named a priority area, agement that provide for a combination of but the choices below correspond to the ob- sustainable use and biodiversity conservation jectives of this report.

National Priorities for the Establishment Cbina and Management of MPAs Proposed new MPAs: The priority areas outlined below have been _ Eastern and Southern Hainan Island: chosen on the basis of the criteria outlined This area is representative of coral reef in the introduction to this report. Other con- and mangrove areas and has high bio- siderations have been: diversity. Existing marine protected ar- If possible, each biogeographic zone and eas include Xinying Mangrove Forest sub-zone should have at least one priority NR in Danxian Country (133 hectares, area to achieve adequate representation 1986); Abalone NR in Sanya City, (67 of the region as a whole. hectares, 1983); Nanwan Rhesus Mon- . The chosen areas are centered on actual key NR (934 hectares, 1976); Bazhou Is- conservation problems' like pollution, land NR in Wanning County (533 overexploitation and' so on. There are ar ' hectares, 1984/1990); Algae NR (4,400 eas'of real importance regarding biodiver- hectares, 1983); Wendeng Mangrove sity, and there are also areas'where the Forest NR (2,000 hectares, 1985); establishment and management of MPAs Tonggu Ridge NR in Wencheng is considered feasible County (1,333 hectares, 1986); Dong- • The chosen areas have been studied and' zhaigang National NR (2,601 hectares, the advice of eminent national scientists 1980); and Sanya Coral Reef NR,(8,500 and managers has been collected. hectares, 1990). There are also fisheries * There are existing or proposed MPAs on resource's protected areas: shellfish the chosen area. natural protection area in Linggao; . The chosen areas correspond to political gracilaria protected area in Tonggu; opportunities and the aims of the Gracilania protected area in Qionghai; GEF/World Bank. and pearl oyster protected area in Sanya. Table 16.3 lists the priority areas by bio- _O Qinzhou Bay Mangrove Area: This is geographic zone. the largest area of mangroves in China The priorities identified represent large and has high biodiversity. It includes geographic areas and are in general not con- or is close to several protected ar,eas: fined to individual MPA sites. Although most Beilen Estuary Mangrove NR (2,,60 priority areas are identified as proposed new hectares, 1990); Shankou Mangrove Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 123

Table 16.3 Priority Areas by Biogeographic Zones In the Northwest Pacific Marine Region BiogeographicZones PrIonty Areas

1. Tropical Eastern and Southern -Hainan Island (China) 2. Subtropicai Qinzhou Bay Mangrove Area (China) Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta (China, Hong Kong, Macao) Doshan-Nan Ao Sea Area (China, Taiwan) Yaeyama (Japan) Ogasawara Archipelago (Japan) 3. Warm Temperate: a. Closed Sea Zhoushan-Nanji Islands (China) Korea Strait Area (Korea) b. Open Sea Seto Inland Sea (japain) 4. Cold Temperate: a. Closed Sea Bohai Sea (China) Great Peter Bay (Russia) b. Open Sea No priority areas identified. 5. Sub Arctic Kuryl'Islands (Russia)' 6. Arctic Komandorskiye Islands (Russia)

Ecosystem NR (8,000 hectares, 1990); tems, witn ueacnes, cliffs and rocky Weizhou Island Birds NR (1982); Du- shores. Existing protected areas in- gong NR (200,000 hectares, 1986); and clude Nan Jishan Archipelago NR Qinzhou Bay NR (36,000 hectares). (16,200 hectares, 1988) and Chonjiming '_ Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta ecosystem Eastern Beach'Wetland NR (4,900 hec- (China, Hong Kong, Macao): This is tares, 1991). the delta of the third largest river in _- Doshan-Nan Ao Sea Area (China, Tai- China. It is adjacent to major cities wan [China]): This is a subtropical sea such as Hong Kong, Macao, Shen- area in the Tropic'of Cancer, repre- zhong, Zhuhai and Guangzhtou (Can- sentative of isliand, estuary, bay and ton), and includes typical subtropical wetland ecosystems under the influ- estuarine ecosystems composed of wet- ence of five currents. Species diversity land, mangroves and islands. Existing is high. The area includes the Nan Ao protected areas include: Neilingting Is- Islands NR. Proposed protected areas land NR (500 hectares, 1984); Fusian include the Haliotis reproduction and NR (864 hectares, 1984); and Daya-Bay enhancement protected area in Huila Aquatic Resource NR (1983). There is and'the Loligo reproduction protected also a fisheries protected area in Daya area in Nan Ao. Bay (1,030 hectares, 1983) and several '0 'Bohai Bay marine ecosystem (China): small fisheries resources protected ar- These wetlands and estuaries in Liao- eas in the estuary. All the jexisting dong Bay include wetlands and estuar- MPAs of Hong Kong fall within this ies along the western coast of the area. Bohai Sea'and marine ecosystems of Zhoushan-Nanji Islands marine ecosys- the Miaodao Islands. The area includes tem: Biodiversity is high, particularly major spawning and nursery grounds for shellfish and algae. The area in- and is 'a migratiori corridor for marine clu'des typical warm temperaie ecosys- organisms. Existing protected areas in- 124 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

clude: Shelly-Dam NR on the Seashore " Seto Inland Sea Area: This is an inland (100 hectares, 1984); Precious Marine sea located between three of the main Organisms NR in Changhai County islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku, (220 hectares, 1986); and Snake Island covering 2,200 square kilometers of and Laotie Mountains National NR water and including 800 islands. The (190,000 hectares, 1980). A Nature Re- area has high biodiversity and is an serve is proposed for Miao Islands that important spawning and nursery would include 245,600 hectares. ground, supporting significant fishery and aquaculture activities. Existing Hong Kong MPAs include: Nishi-Awaji FRPA, Minami-Awaji FRPA, Goshiki FRPA, Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta ecosystem Ushimado FRPA, Banda FRPA, (China, Hong Kong, Macao): (see descrip- Takashima FRPA, Sakaide-si Okoshi tion above) FRPA, Takuma-cho FRPA, Kannonji-shi Tbuji FRPA, Higashino-jima FRPA, Japan Hashira-jima FRPA, Yajima FRPA, Takejima FRPA, TYokkaichi FRPA, Proposed new MPAs: Yanagi-ga-ura FRPA, Wana FRPA, _Pft. Yaeyama Archipelago: The area in- Kunimi FRPA, Himeshima FRPA, cludes rich oceanic coral reef ecosys- Musashi-cho FRPA, and Hide-cho tems. The territory was under U.S. FRPA. It is notable that while there administration between 1948 and 1972. are numerous FRPAs in the area, there One of the islands, Ishigaki, is threat- are no marine parks. ened by the construction of an airport Tsushima: (see Korea Strait area below) that could have severe consequences on the marine environment around the Korea island. The area includes the following protected areas: Taketomi-jima Taki- Proposed new MPAs: dongguchi MP (36 hectares, 1977); - Korea Strait area, including Cheju Is- Taketomi-jima Shinobishi MP (83 hec- land (Korea) and Tsushima Island (Ja- tares, 197); Kurosima Kyanguchi MP pan): This is a key area between the (45 hectares, 1977); Aragusuku-jima East China Sea/Yellow Sea complex Maibushi MP (48 hectares, 1977); Saki- and the Sea of Japan. Existing yama Bay Nature Conservation Area protected areas include: Tsushima (128 hectares, 1981). There area also Kanzaki MP; Tsushima Asajiwan MP; fisheries resources protected areas at Nakdong River North Migratory Bird Ishigaki Nagura (68 hectares, 1975) Arrival Area; Hallyo Haesang National and Ishigaki Kabira (275 hectares, Park (47,800 hectares, 1968); and Tado- 1974). hae Haesang MP (234,000 hectares, Ogasawara Archipelago: The area in- 1981). cludes typical oceanic coral reef ecosystems. The archipelago is threatened by Macao the construction of an airport that could have severe environmental con- * Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta ecosystem sequences. The area includes (China, Hong Kong, Macao): (see de- Ogasawana MP (46 hectares, 1972). scription above). Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 125

Russia port. As noted previously, the priorities represent large geographic areas. Proposed new MPAs: "4- Great Peter Bay (Zaliv Petra Velikogo): Proposed new MPAs:

The area, with very high diversity, *0 Hainan Island (China) includes the richest and most diverse " Zhujiang Delta (China, Hong Kong, marine ecosystems among all seas of Macao) Russia. Existing protected areas include " Yaeyama Archipelago (Japan) the Far Eastern State Marine Reserve Kuryl Islands (Russia) (Dalnerostochny morskoy), that is Komandorskiye Islands (Russia) the most marine-focused National Bohai Bay (China) Reserve in the territories of the former USSR, and covers 63,000 hectares of Existing MPAs that require management sea. support: wO- Kuryl Islands, including the Island of No specific areas have been identified as Kunashir, Shikotan, Iturup (Etorofu) priorities. However, many of the proposed and Habomai Archipelago: These is- areas listed above contain a number of exist- lands are actually under Russian ad- ing and, in some cases, proposed MPA sites. ministration but have been claimed by These sites should be candidates for manage- Japan since 1948. The area includes ment support within the context of inte- typical cold sea island ecosystems with grated, multiple-use management of the seabird colonies and spawning larger priority areas identified. grounds for Pacific fish.

.o- Komandorskiye Islands: These two is- Other Recommendations lands are located at the boundary between the Pacific Ocean and the The coastal waters of Northwest Pacific are Bering Sea and are proposed as a Bio- rich in biological resources of immense sphere Reserve. value to the people of the region. They range from biologically diverse tropical eco- Taiwan (China) systems to highly productive cold temperate areas. However, they are subject to increas- m4- Doshan-Nan Ao Sea area (China, ing threats from inadequately managed hu- Taiwan [China)): (see description man activity. There is an urgent need for above) countries and territories in the region to adopt policies and practices committed to Existing MPAs that require management the achievement of sustainable development support: of the coastal seas and the maintenance of v4w Kenting National Park biological diversity. An adequate representative system of marine protected areas should be established as soon as possible as Regional Priorities for the Establishment a step toward the achievement of integrated and Management of MPAs management of the marine coastal zone of each country and territory. The First Confer- The following areas have been identified as ence on National Parks and Protected Areas being of highest regional priority using the of East Asia (held in Beijing, China in Sep- criteria outlined at the beginning, of this re- tember 1994), recommended various actions 126 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

aimed at achieving these objectives, as out- ronment in accordance with the principles lined below. of ecologically sustainable development. * Because of the proven difficulty that or- Recommendations-of the 1st Conference ganizations and individuals have in simul- on National Parks and Protected Areas taneously attempting to achieve economic of East Asia and environmental goals, the Marine Man- agement Commission or Authority should A Representative System of Marine not be responsible for detailed manage- Protected Areas ment of individual sectoral activities, such as fisheries or tourism. Such activities Recognizing that the overriding goal of ma- should continue to be managed by exist- rine management should be the achieve- ing specialist agencies. ment of ecologically sustainable * The Marine Management Commission or development of the marine environment: Authority could have the following re- * The establishment and effective manage- sponsibilities and functions: ment of a representative system of marine . Development, in association with inter- protected areas in East Asia should be an est groups and the community gener- integral part of state policies and plans ally, of a strategic plan for the marine for economic development and environ- coastal zone mental conservation. . Oversight of coastal development and . The need to establish marine protected ar-. .sectoral activities such as fisheries and eas to conserve representative marine ecotourism to ensure that they are ecologi- systems and marine biodiversity should cally sustainable be closely linked to providing for sustain- . Design and management of compre- able development,and utilisation of ma- hensive monitoring programs that will rine resources. -define the state of the coastal marine Integrated policies on planning, develop, environments and the trends in envi- ment and management should be imple- ronmental parameters mented at all levels of government, . Design and management of contracted, including sectoral management agencies multi-disciplinary, ecological research such as tourism and fisheries, and cover- programs aimed at solving environ- ing management of both the land and the-, mental problems sea. . Design and implementation of compre- * Such policies should be accompanied by hensive community involvement and the establishment of a comprehensive le- education programs designed to gal and administrative framework to achieve voluntary acceptance by the achieve integration and coordination. community of policies, programs and actions that will lead to ecologically Marine Management Commission sustainable development. Particular em- orAuthority phasis should be placed on educating the young- East Asian countries and territories should . To the maximum extent practicable, consider the establishment or designation of a specific management programs and ac- Marine Management Commission or Author- tions should be carried out by existing ity as- a superior agency with the specific agencies, with the Marine Management function of achieving integrated planning, re- Commission or Authority concentrating search and management of the marine envi- on policy, strategy, planning, design Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 127

and supervision of research programs development of marine areas, including the and coordination. establishment of marine protected areas. A foundation or other body should be es- Encouraging Regional Cooperation tablished to fund marine protected area and other projects in East Asia of regional and The seas of East Asia are affected by the ac- global significance to the conservation and tivities of all the countries in the region. sustainable development of the marine envi- Therefore cooperation between these coun- ronment. tries in marine management is essential, both regionally and bilaterally. IUCN, including the CNPPA Northwest Pa- CONCLUSION cific Marine Working Group, and relevant national agencies and other organizations such Even though in most cases there were suffi- as the United Nations, Environment Pro- cient data available for this report to make a gramme's Coordinating Body for Southeast preliminary list of MPAs in each country and Asia (COBSEA) should investigate the estab- to identify preliminary priorities for conserva- lishment of a regional network to facilitate tion action, it has not been possible to fully cooperation in marine planning, manage- understand and assess the value of the differ- ment and research in East Asia. The activi- ent MPA systems in terms of biodiversity ties of the network should include training, conservation. It is also difficult to compare dissemination of information, establishment the state of marine conservation between of regional and national databases, undertak- countries because of national differences in ing cooperative projects and location of the approaches taken to the establishment funding. and management of MPAs. Regional standards for the establishment, A report aiming to achieve an under- management and assessment of marine pro- standing of the biodiversity conservation of tected areas should be developed for East Asia. the whole marine region will need the rein- There is a critical need for regional train- forcement of a working group and several ing in marine protected area planning, man- surveys in the priority areas. agement and assessment. Use could be made of the marine training center in Towns- ville, Australia (INTROMARC, the Intema- NOTE tional Tropical Marine Resource Centre), preferably through training in the region. 1. In discussions of biogeographic characteristics, There is an urgent need for the translation just 'Korea" will be noted; when the discussion is of the marine training material produced by about the countries on the peninsula, either Demo- INTROMARC for Southeast Asia into Manda- cratic People's Republic of Korea or the Republic rin and other regional languages. of Korea will be noted. In establishing and managing marine protected areas, the legal and administrative considerations outlined in Chapter 6 of the BBUOGRAPHY IUCN Guidelines for Establishing Marine Pro- tected Areas are suitable for application in Barkley, R.A. 1968. Oceanographc atlas of the Pa- East Asia Howevermuchwor must bect/ Ocean. East Asia. However, much work must be Biodiversity action planfor China. 1992. Beijing: done to obtain the public and political sup- Chinese Academy of Sciences. port necessary before govemments will es- Briggs, J.C. 1974. Marinezoogeography. New York: tablish effective legislation for sustainable McGraw-Hill Series in Population Biology. 128 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Briggs, T. 1974. Marine zoogeography. New Government of Hong Kong, Public Information York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Service. 1991. Hong Kong: Thefacts, country Government of China, Construction and Planning parks. Administration (CPA). A journey through the Huff, D., and J.S. Marsh. 1983. Underwaterand nationalparksof Republic of China. Beijing. marineparks: An indexed bibliography. Public . National Environmental Protection Administration Series: Bibliography. Agency (NEPA). 1989. A list of the nature re- Government of Japan, Environmental Agency. serves in China. Beijing: Division of Natural 1988. The environment of the Seto Inland Sea Conservation, NEPA. (in Japanese). Tokyo. - . State Oceanographic Administration . 1990. Quality of Environment in Japan. (SOA). 1983. Action planfor marine biodiver- Tokyo. sity protection in China. Beijing. Kamohara, T. 1981. Colored illustrationsof the Croxall, J.P., ed. 1991. Seabirdstatus and conser- fishes ofJapan. Vols. I and H. Hoikusha Publish- vation: A supplement, No. 11. ing. Croxall, J.P., P.G.H. Evans, and R.W. Schreiber, Knystautas, A. 1987. The naturalhistory of the eds. 1982. Status and conservation of the USSR. London: Century. world's seabirds. ICBP Technical Publication Kondratiev, Aj. 1991. Status of the seabirds nest- No. 2. ing in Northeast USSR. In J.P. Croxall, ed., Sea- Den Hartog, C. 1970. The sea-grassesof the bird status and conservation: A supplement. world. Tweede Reeks, Deel 59, no. 1; Amster- ICBP Technical Publication 11. Cambridge, dam and London: North Holland Publishing U.K. Company. - Kuroshio. 1972. Physical aspects of theJapan Cur- Djorklund, M.I. 1974. Achievements in marine rent. Edited by H. Stommed and K. Yoshida. conservation, Part I: Marine parks. Environ- University of Washington Press. mental Conservation 1(3): 205-22. Lee, S.Y. 1990. Korea NationalParks Authority. Do Myong Wo. 1991. Statutes of management of Seoul: Office of PR, Korea National Parks the protected areas in the Republic of Korea. Ti- Authority. ger Paper XVIII(2). RAPA/FAO. Lee, W.S. 1993. Response to U.N. list information Fisher, P., and M.D. Spalding. 1993. Protected ar- request, includes lists and maps of sites. eas with mangrove habitat. Unpublished re- Liang, J.F. 1985. Holocene reef corals of China. port to the World Conservation Monitoring In Z.X. Zeng, ed., Coral reefs andgeomor- Centre, Cambridge, U.K. phological essays of South China. Geography Foster-Tyurley, P., S. Macdonald, and C. Mason, Series No. 15. Guangzhou, China: Institute of eds. 1990. Otters:An actionplan for their con- Geomorphology, South China Normal University. servation. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Lingquing, Z. 1992. Nature reserues in China. GEBCO. 1984. Cartegenerale batbymetrique des Compiled by China National Environmental oceans. Carte no. 5-06 et 5-02, 5e edition. Protection Agency. Beijing: China Environ- Golovkin, A.N. 1984. Seabirds nesting in the mental Science Press. USSR: The status and protection of popula- Litvinenko, N., and Y. Shibaev. 1991. Status and tions. In J.P. Croxell, P.G.H. Evans, and R.W. conservation of seabirds nesting in Southeast Schreiber, eds., Status and conservation of the USSR. In J.P. Croxall, ed;, Seabirdstatus and world's seabirds. ICPB Technical Publication 2. conservation:A supplement. ICBP Technical Cambridge, U.K. Publication 11. Cambridge, U.K. Habe, T. Colored illustrationsof the shells ofJa- Mao Wenyoung. 1992. Environmental degrada- pan. Vol. n. Hoikusha Publishing. tion: A challenge to economic development in Hasegawa, H. 1991. Status and conservation of Hainan Islands. Ambio 2:183-94. seabirds in Japan, with special attention to the Marakov, S.V. 1975. About dynamics of seabird short-tailed albatross. In J.P. Croxall, P.G.H. colonies on the Komandorskiye Islands. In Evans, and R.W. Schreiber, eds., Status and Breeding colonies of seabirdsand theirprotec- conseruation of the world's seabirds. ICPB Tech- tion. Proceedings of the meeting. Moscow: nical Publication 2. Cambridge, U.K. Nanka Publishing. Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific 129

Marine Conservation bureau, :nvironment Ruxton, J. 1992. Hong Kong waters-Not just pol- Agency 1990. Survey Report of the Sakiyama. lution. Unpublished report. Bay Nature ConservationArea. Okinawa, Salm; R.V., and J.R. Clark. 1984. Marine and Japan. coastalprotected areas: A guide forplanners Marsh, J.S. 1987. Marineparks inJapan. Report and managers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. for Contract No. 84-143. Ottawa: Environment San Wei-Lee. 1988. The work of nature and eco- Canada, Parks. logical conservation in the past three years: A Marsh, J.S. 1985. Japan's marine parks. In J. Lien retrospective. In Summary of reports on studies and R. Graham, eds., The national andproovin- and investigation of nature/cultureand land- cialparks association of Canada. Vol. 2: Ma- scape (1985-1988). rineparks and conservation challenge and Scott, D.A. 1989. A directory of Asian wetlands. promise. Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. MaAllister, D.E., F.W. Schueler, C.M. Roberts, and Segawa, S. 1981. Colored illustrationsof the sea- J.P. Hawkins. N.d. Mapping and GIS analysis weeds ofJapan. Hoikusha Publishing. of the global distributionof coral reeffishes on Sheveiko, S. 1992. The Kuril Isles: Human popula- an equal-areagrid. In R. Miller, ed., Mapping tion and naturalresources. the diversity of nature. London: Chapman and Simard, F. 1992. State of the marineprotected ar- Hall. eas in the North West Pacific Realm. Report pre- Melville, D.S. 1984. Seabirds of China and the sur- pared for CNPPA. rounding seas. In J.P. Croxall, ed., Seabird Suisan-Cho and Shinko-Ka (Fisheries Agency and status and conservation:A supplement. ICBP Promotion Department). 1991. Hogo Suimen Technical Publication 11. Cambridge, U.K. no Kanrijoyko nado ni Kan suru shiryo (Docu- Ministry of Forestry, Group of Technical Experts. ments on the management of the fisheries re- 1992. Action planfor biodiversityprotection in sources protected areas). China (forestrypart). Beijing: Ministry of For- Tsai, H.M., and S. Simpson. 1992. Island of diver- estry. sity: Nature conservation in Taiwan. Taiwan Miyake, S. 1982. Japanesecrustacean decapods (China): Couhcil of Agriculture Executive Yuan and stomatopods in color. Vols. I and II. and Department of National Parks. Hoikusha Publishing. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Muromtsev, A.M. 1963. Theprincipal hydrologi- and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1988. calfeatures of the Pacific Ocean. Translated CoralReefs of the World. Vol. 3: Centraland from Russian. National Science Foundation. Western Pacific. Gland, Switzerland and Cam- Nature Conservation Bureau. 1988: Nature conser- bridge, U.K.: IUCN; Nairobi: UNEP. vation in Japan. Tokyo. Upsenski, S.M. 1959. Colonialseabirds breeding Nikol'Skii, A. 1992. List of sea areas suitable for in the Northern andfarEastern Seas of the conservation. Unpublished report. USSR Their distribution, number and role as Nishimira, M. 1988: Fieldguide to hennatypic corals consumers of the plankton and benthos. Bull. ofjapan. Tokai, Japan: Tokai University Press. M.O.I.P., Ser. Biol. 64, pp.39-52. Nishimura, S. 1981. Chikyu no umi to Seimei Veron, J.E.N. 1992. Conservation of biodiversity: Kaimeisha (The sea of the earth and the life). A critical time for the hermatypic corals of Ja- Odum, W.E. 1974. Potential effects of aquacul- pan. Coral Reefs 11(1992): 13-21. ture on inshore coasted waters. Environmental Wang, X. 1992a. Plan of action for conservation Conservation 1(3): 225-30. of biological diversity in ocean and coast of Polunin, N.V.K. 1983. Marine "genetic resources" South Sea at the estuary of Pearl River (in Chi- and the potential role of protected areas in nese). Unpublished report. conserving them. Environmental Conservation 1992b. Action planfor biodiversityprotec- 10(1): 31-42. tion'in agriculturalsectors of China. Beijing: Qiulin, Z. 1992. Conservation of biodiversity on Environment and Energy Department, Ministry China's islands. Unpublished report. of Agricuture. Reserves of the USSR: The FarEast (in Russian). World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). 1995. 1988. Coral reefs of the world. Vol. 3: Central 130 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

and Western Pacific. Edited by S.M. Wells and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1985. Liste M.D. Jenkins. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. des Nations Unies des Parcs nationaux et des . 1991. Protected areas of the world. Vol. 2: Aires protegees. Gland, Switzerland. A review of nationalsystems Palearctic. Gland, . 1992. Protected areas of the world: A re- Switzerland: IUCN. vfew of nationalsystems. Vols. 1 and 2. Gland, . 1992. Global biodiversity: Status of the Switzerland. earth's living resources. Edited by B. Groon- World Resources Institute (WRI). 1994. World Re- bridge. sources. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. . 1992a. Directory of protected areas in Zimenko, A.V., and others. 1991. Natural re- China. Draft. sources of the CommanderIslands (in Russian). . 1992b. Directory of protected areas in The Commander Pro. Hong Kong. Draft. - . 1991. Rational resources management on the Commander Islands (in Russian). MARINE REGION 17 Southeast Paciflc

Mario Hurtado

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARiNE Current approach the southern tip of the BIoDIvERsm South American continent from the west at around 50°S and branch to the north and The Southeast Pacific Marine Region in- south. The northerly section splits into two cludes marine areas along the west coast of arms: the coastal Humbolt Current (Peru Central and South America from the Mexico- Coastal Current) and the Peru Oceanic Cur- Guatemala border in the north to the border rent. These two are separated by the warm, between Argentina and Chile in the south. southward-flowing Peru-Chile Counter Current. The offshore islands of the Galapagos Archi- The Humbolt Current originates at around pelago, Cocos Island, and Juan Fernandez 40Q45OS and is cold and rich in nutrients. It are also included. is characterized by numerous gyres that are Marine environments and the resources the source of distinctive, local countercur- and biodiversity they support are very impor- rents and upwelling. These waters support tant to the national economies of countries highly productive fisheries off the coast of in the Southeast Pacific Marine Region. Ma- Peru and Chile. At around 6°S the Humbolt rine areas off the coasts of Ecuador, Peru Current merges with warm southward flow- and Chile are among the most productive ar- ing waters to become the westerward-flow- eas in the world, and the contribution of fishing South Equatorial Current. ery resources to national economic The South Equatorial Current is supple- productivity is significant. Clearly these coun- mented by waters deflected to the south tries have a strong interest in taking steps to from the subsurface Cromwell Current that ensure the continued productivity of these flows along the equator in a easterly direc- environments. tion at a depth of between 100-400 meters, although it occasionally rises to the surface. Oceanography The Galapagos Archipelago deflects this current to the north and south and causes up- In the south of the region the cold and nutri- welling of deeper and nutrient-rich water ent-rich waters of the Antarctic Circumpolar around the islands.

131 132 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

In the north of the region the warm North Gulf of San Miguel, with its many estuaries, Equatorial Counter Current penetrates the re- divides the region into a narrow northwest gion at around 4-10 0N. It splits to the north segment, the Isthmus of Panama, and a and south off the coast of Costa Rica, with wider mountainous, southeastern segment an anticyclonic eddy forming to the north extending to the Colombian border. and a cyclonic eddy forming to the south off The Pacific coast of Colombia stretches for the coast of Panama and Colombia. 1,392 kilometers. To the north of Cape Cori- Periodically the oceanography of the re- entes the coast is high and mountainous gion is dramatically altered by the El Niino ef- with occasional gorges and fjords. To the fect, which is caused by large-scale change south the coast is flat with sandy beaches in the ocean-atmosphere interaction. Warm, and mangrove areas and extensive estuaries easterward-flowing waters from the equator formed by the discharge of numerous rivers, dominate the Humbolt Current causing some of which are of considerable size (San oceanographic changes: seawater tempera- Juan, Patia). Islands are present off the ture rises by 2-3°C, sea level rises by 40-50 coast, some of which (such as Malpelo and centimeters, and levels of nutrients available Gorgona) are volcanic in origin while others in the surface waters are reduced. These are associated with the deltas of major rivers. changes have devastating consequences for The coast of Ecuador is 950 kilometers the ocean pelagic fisheries of Chile, Peru long and is formed by a series of alternating and Ecuador, and the marine fauna that re- bays and capes. In the north and south, the lies on these normally highly productive ar- coast is cliffed and fronted by beaches. Cliffs eas. El Nifio events have also been extend southward to around Santa Elena associated with episodes of coral bleaching where the coast is formed by a series of and mortality. stepped marine terraces. In the south the dominant feature of the coast is the Gulf of Coastal Geography and Geology Guayaquil, which is an estuarine system with shoreline fringed by dense stands of The Pacific coast of Central America is char- mangroves and mudflats. The southern mar- acterized by numerous peninsulas, gulfs and gin is cliffed, and these formations continue bays. There are extensive intertidal areas and south to the border with Peru. well-developed coastal barriers and lagoons. The coast of Peru is arid and extends for Short rivers discharge significant volumes of 3,080 kilometers. The hyperaridity of the freshwater and suspended sediment during coast limits the contribution of fluvial sedi- the rainy season from May to September. ments and the development of beaches. Cliffs are absent along the coast of Guate- Only a few rivers continuously reach the mala but are partly developed along the sea, while others do so on a seasonal basis. coast of El Salvador, Gulf of Fonseca, Nicara- The shoreline is cliffed and interspersed gua, and Panama and are well developed with pocket beaches and beaches fronting along the coast of Costa Rica. river mouths. South of Pisco there is little or The Gulf of Panama forms the eastern half no coastal plain and the shoreline is primar- of the Pacific coast of Panama. Water depths ily formed by towering cliffs or small embay- range from 50 to 100 meters in the middle ments with narrow beaches. From Pisco of the Gulf. Most of the coast is flat with north to Chiclayo, there are a number of riv- small river mouths, swamps and mangroves. ers that reach the sea and contribute to the West of the Panama Canal there are exten- development of localized coastal plains. sive tidal flats. On the eastern coast along Coastal sand dunes reach impressive size the Darien Peninsula, there are predomi- along the central portion of the coast. Shore- nantly marshes and mangrove swamps. The line displacement is evidenced in many loca- Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 133

tions of coastal Peru by raised shore plat- terms of distance and water depth) between forms and raised beaches. the reefs of the Eastern Pacific and the Cen- The northern two-thirds of Chile has char- tral Pacific, their faunas are essentially simi- acteristics similar to those of Peru. The An- lar, although the Galapagos fauna exhibits a dean range comes down to the sea, and the high degree of endemism. cliffed coast is interrupted by small pocket In Central America, the upwelling of beaches or alluvial embayments where infre- colder water, particularly in the Papagayo quent streams lead down to the shoreline. area (Nicaragua/Costa Rica) and the Gulf of Numerous terraces appear along cliffed head- Panama, inhibit reef development lands fronting the foothills. To the south the (UNEP/IUCN 1988). There are some 44 coastal range comes down to the sea and known coral formations along the coast of provides for only modest embayments. Costa Rica, although growth in the north is Pocket beaches prevail south from Val- inhibited by upwelling. Reef communities paraiso to Chilo. are richer along the southern coast of Costa South of the latitude of Puerto Montt the Rica; these are characteristically small, shal- coastal configuration becomes broken, and low, and of low diversity (3-9 species). Cor- the coast is strongly influenced by the ef- als are also found at Isla del Canio and Isla fects of glaciation with many fjords, islands, del Cocos (UNEP/IUCN 1988). and channels. The main coral areas of the Pacific coast Continental shelves are narrow, in places of Central America are found in the waters less than 10 kilometers. Wider shelves are off Panama (21 species recorded), south of found off the coast of Ecuador (up to 28 kilo- Azuero Peninsula, and Coiba Island meters) and in the Gulf of Panama (Elder (Shwartz 1982). Reef development continues and Pernetta 1991). from the border with Panama along the Co- lombian coast of South America, although Ecosystem Diversity the considerable discharge of freshwater and sediments hinders its development along Coral Reefs much of the coast. UNEP/IUCN (1988) record the presence of important reef forma- Coral reefs of the Eastern Pacific are not tions at Ensenada de Utria Caleta Tebada nearly so extensive or diverse as those along and Gorgona and Malpelo Islands. Corals the Atlantic coast of Central America and in but not reefs are found at Bahia Solan, Ba- the Caribbean. However, Glynn and Welling- hia Limon and Punta Arditas. ton (1983) note that despite their small size, Small coral formations are present along discontinuous occurrence and meager devel- the mainland coast of Ecuador, for example, opment in areas experiencing upwelling and at Machalilla (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Corals are high river drainage, coral reefs are quite also present around the Galapagos Islands abundant in the region. Coral formations with a total of 13 hermatypic species and 32 have been described off the coasts of El Sal- ahermatypic species recorded (UNEP/IUCN vador, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Colom- 1988). The hermatypic corals of the bia, and many of the offshore islands (Glynn Galapagos are largely of west Pacific origin; and Wellington 1983). The northern limit of there is 30 percent endemism among the distribution of coral reefs for the Eastern Pa- ahermatypic corals (UNEP/IUCN 1988). cific lies in the Gulf of California (in the Northeast Pacific Marine Region), with the Mangrove Forests southern limit at Machalilla on mainland Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands (both at The northern limit of mangroves for the East- around 1°30'S). Despite a wide gap (in em Pacific is near Puerto de Lobos (30°15'N) 134 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

on- the coast of Mexico. The southern limit in part' from the absence of lagoons and occurs at Punta Malpelo, Tumbes, near the river deltas. Peruvian-Ecuadorian border at 3°40'S. The Few data on the tidal marshes of the Pa- following species are found within the re- cific coast of temperate South America are region: Rbizofora mangle, R. harrisonii, corded. Salt shrubs appear to dominate the Avicennia germinans, A. bicolor, A. ton- small tidal marshes of southern Chile. Along duzz, Pellcierarbizopborae, Connocarpus the central coast, Spartinadensiflora var. erectus, Lagunculariaracemosa and Mora typica and var. patagoniahave been re- megistosperma. ported. Mangroves are numerous along the shel- Competition with mangroves limits the tered regions of the Pacific coast of Central presence of saltmarsh in tropical areas of the America. The most extensive mangrove for- region. Saltmarsh does occur as a halophytic mations occur along the coast of Guatemala, community occupying saline soils on the in- although these have been degraded by ner edge or within the mangrove formations. shrimp production, salt extraction and cut- However, in most areas on the tropical Pa- ting for fuelwood (IUCN 1992). Extensive cific coast the large tidal range and long dry tracts of mangrove forest extend along rivers season seem to inhibit the development of and estuaries in Costa Rica (IUCN 1992). saltmarsh (Chapman 1977). Mangrove swamps along the Pacific coast support less fauna than on the Atlantic: tidal Beaches, Dunes, Cliffs range is greater and this leaves the roots dry for longer periods during low tide (Schwartz Sandy beaches and dunes are common on 1982). the Cential American coast and many of The mangroves of northwestern South these are important for nesting marine tur- America are distinct from other communities tles. Beaches are less well developed along in Latin America in that the' coastline has a- much of the South American coastline: in high mangrove forest where Rhizophora at- some areas there is only limited river runoff tains heights of up to 30 meters, whereas it - and sedimentation. Large dunes are' found normally grows to 9-12 meters (Schwartz along the central Peruvian coast. 1982). From Cabo Corientes to Ecuador, Cliffs are absent along the coast of Guate- mangroves are discontinuous, forming in- mala but are partly developed along the land, and are separated by sand beaches. coast of El Salvador, the Gulf of Fonseca, Mangroves give way to sandy beaches and Nicaragua, and-Panama, and are strongly in dunes along the north coast of Ecuador, but evidence albng the coast of Costa'Rica. Cliffs reappear in the Gulf of Guayaquil, where interrupted by beaches and occasional per- they become the predominant community, manent or seasonal rivers are commm"on and extend south to Tumbes, Peru. This along the South American coast. Towering' community is a high mangrove forest, as is cliffs are found along the Peruvian and Chil- found in Colombia (Schwartz 1982). ean and coasts; the Aysen region in southern Chile includes numerous rocky cliffs and Otber Wetlands and Saltmarsh islands due to the effects of glaciatido. Cliffs and rocky offshore islands provide breeding On the Pacific coasts of Central and South and brooding grounds for seabirds. America,'tidal marshes are confined to small, disjunct inlets along the mountainous high- Islands and Submerged Banks energy coast of southem and central Chile, and the paucity of marshes along the arid There are relatively few islands off the coast coasts' of northem Chile and Peru may result of Central Amierica with the exception of Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 135 those off the coast of Panama (Schwartz mountains, moving surface water offshore, 1982). These include the islands of Coiba, and causing upwelling of deeper, nutrient- Ot6que, and the Pearl Islands, the latter an rich water (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Upwelling archipelago with four main islands and over also occurs permanently off the coast of 180 smaller islands (Schwartz 1982). There is Peru and seasonally off the coast of Chile. a group of small islands in the Gulf of Fon- The Peru-Chile Trench lies close to the seca off Honduras (including Meanguera, coast of these countries, extending from Conchaquita and El Tigre) and several is- south of the Gulf of Guayaquil to around lands off the Colombian coast, including 35°S off the coast of Chile. It has a maxi- some (Malpelo and Gorgona) formed by vol- mum depth of around 8,000 meters. The canoes and others associated with the deltas American Trench extends down the coast of of major rivers. Central America and has a maximum depth In the Gulf of Nicoya (Costa Rica) there is of about 6,600 meters. a group eight islands, four of which are biological reserves. In the northern Costarrican Kelp Forests coast there is another group of islands (Mur- cielago Island), one of which is a wildlife ref- An extensive kelp bed is found in the intralit- uge (Isla Bonanos). toral fringe from Peru south to Tierra del The Galapagos Archipelago consists of 13 Fuego. The kelp consists of Lessonai nigres- major islands and about 70 islets and rocks cens, Durvillea antarctica,Macrocystisfpyrif- situated 1,000 kilometers off the coast of era, and Melanophsealspp. Ecuador. The older islands are low and flat or undulating; the majority are younger and volcanic, flanked with lava (UNEP/IUCN Species Diversity 1988). Cocos Island (approximately 5,000 hectares) lies about 500 kilometers south- Only limited information has been available west of the coast of Costa Rica and is of vol- on species diversity for this report. Due to canic origin. El Canio island is located 15 the limitations of time and funding it has not kilometers off the coast of Peninsula de la been possible to fully review this literature. Osa (Costa Rica).. Brief information on marine reptiles and ma- Juan Fernandez Island lies about 900 kilo- rine mammals is therefore presented below. meters off the coast of Chile while San Felix Four species of marine turtle have been re- and San Ambrosio Islands are located about corded in the region. These are the green 700 kilometers north of Juan Fernandez. (Chelonia mydas), the olive Ridley (Lepido- From Puerto Montt south for over 1,500 cbelys olivacea), hawksbill (Eretmocbelys im- kilometers, an extensive rocky archipelago bricata), and the leatherback (Dermocbelys lies adjacent to the Chilean coast. The island coriacea). The green turtle has its main ar- of Chiloe lies at the northern end of this areas of reproduction, feeding and mating in chipelago. The area is strongly influenced the Galapagos Archipelago. In tropical wa- by the effects of glaciation and is characters the olive Ridley is abundant, its feeding terized by, numerous fiords, channels, is- areas being mainly around the Isla de la lands and islets. Plata off the coast of Ecuador; it nests in this area occasionally. Major nesting sites for this Open Ocean, Deep Sea, UpweUings species are found at Nancite and Ostional in Costa Rica (UNEP/IUCN 1988). The hawks- Major upwellings occur in the Gulfs of Papa- bill is less common, feeding and nesting in gayo and Panama. These are caused by At- small numbers, along the coast. The leather- laritic winds that blow seasonally across the back also nests in small numbers but is the 136 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

least common marine turtle species found-in classification the region falls within five the region. coastal and one archipelagic realms: West- Even though the countries in the region em Tropical (H), Western Intertropical (I), have reinforced national legislation to pro- Western Subtropical (C), Western Temperate vide protection for marine turtles, it is evi- (B), and Subpolar (A) and Subpolar Ar- dent that there is inadequate control to chipelagic (A'). There are three coastal fau- ensure compliance with these laws. nal provinces: Panamanian (16), At least 60 species of marine mammals, Peru-Chilean (17), and Magellan (1). The lo- representing some 13 families have been re- cation of these zones is shown in Map 17. corded in the region. The families repre- Offshore islands in the region fall within sented are: Phocoenidae (2), Delphinidae Oceanic Realms according to this classifica- (21), Ziphiidae (8), Kogiidae (2), Physeteri- tion: the Galapagos in Oceanic Realm III dae (1), Balaenidae (1), Neobalaenidae (1), (trade-wind currents, strong equ'atorial cur- Balaenopteridae (6), Otariidae (7), Phocidae rents); Cocos Island in Oceanic Realm IV (5) and Mustelidae (3) (Florez, Prieto, and (strong westward and equatorial currents); Boh6rquez 1990; Hurtado 1990; Reyes 1990; and Juan Fernandez Island in Oceanic Torres 1990; Vidal 1990). Realm II (weak and variable currents). Although this scheme has been adopted Fisberies Resources for this report, a variety of other classifications have also been proposed, as summa- The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the Hum- rized by Castilla (1989). These include bolt Current support one of the world's most classifications that identify additional zoo- productive fisheries. More than 16 percent' geographical provinces, such as a Central of the total catch of the Pacific Ocean is Chile province (Castilla 1976), and that di- caught off the coasts of Colombia, Ecuador, vide the South American Pacific Coast into Peru and Chile; the potential sustainable fish- four provinces: Peruvian, Chilean, North eries yield is estimated to be 12.6 million Patagonian and South Patagonian (Viviani tons annually, most of this comprised of 1969). three pelagic species: anchovetta (Engraulis ringens), sardine (Sardinops sagax) and jurel (Trachurus symmetricus) (Elder and AssEssMENT OF EXsTG MPAS Pernetta 1994). In addition to -these pelagic species, hake, shrimp, prawns, crabs, scal- Description of National MPA Systems lops, clams, oysters and mussels are harvested for export and local consumption. Data on existing MPAs were provided by Artisinal fisheries are very important Mario Hurtado and the other individuals throughout the region. For example, in who contributed to this report. Much of this Costa Rica, artisinal fisheries yield higher ag- is a synthesis of information generated in gregate income than industrial fisheries (Ro- the process of establishing the network of driguez, personal communication) and is a marine and' coastal'protected areas of the Pa- greater generator of employment than com- cific Southeast coordinated by the Perma- mercial fisheries. nent Comnmission for the South Pacific (CPPS). (CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)-PSE 1989; Biogeographic Classification CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)-PSE 1991; CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)-PSE 1992). Information The biogeographic classification used for on areas in -Central American countries was this report is that developed by Hayden, provided by Juan Carlos Godoy (personal Ray, and Dolan (1984). According to this communication, 1992) and Carlos de Paco Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 137

(personal communication, 1992). The loca- Table 17.1 Number of Existing tion of existing MPAs is shown on Map 17. Marine and Coastal Protected Areas There are 53 protected areas located in in the Southeast Pacific Marine marine and coastal environments in the Region Southeast Pacific Marine Region. It has been Country Marine Sites Coastal Sites difficult to determine how far into the marine environment the boundaries of some ar- Chile 0 20Y eas extend. Nevertheless, an attempt has Colombia 2 1 been made to identify which areas include a Costa Rica 10 0 subtidal marine component. Available infor- Ecuador 4 10 mation suggests that only 19 of the pro- Guatemala 0 1 tected areas include a subtidal component Nicaragua 0 3 while the remaining 34 include coastal terres- Panama 1 5 trial and in some cases intertidal features. Ta- Peru 2 3 ble 17.1 shows the number of existing marine and coastal protected areas in the Total 19 34 Southeast Pacific Marine Region. a. Parque Nacional Rapa Nui falls in the South Pa- cific Marine Region and is not included in this total. Honduras b. Three separate sites.

There are no marine or coastal protected areas in Honduras. channelled through the National Forestry Cbile Corporation (CONAF), and require the Minis- try of Agriculture to generate a Supreme De- In Chile there are 21 coastal protected areas. cree through the Ministry for National One of these areas, Parque Nacional Rapa Wellbeing and also must also carry the signa- Nui on Easter Island, lies in the South Pacific ture of the Minister of Agriculture. Such a Marine Region, leaving a total of 20 coastal Decree indicates the surface area and lirnits protected areas in the Southeast Pacific Ma- of the protected area and is based on an ear- rine Region as defined in this report. None lier technical minute from CONAF. If any of these areas include subtidal or intertidal part of a protected area is to include por- elements, and there is no legislation provid- tions of sea and beaches the Supreme De- ing for the establishment of protected areas cree must also be signed by the Ministry of in the sea. National Defence, which has jurisdiction The existing coastal areas are established over the marine environment. Concessions under law 18.632 of November 8, 1984, for utilization of marine resources are under which establishes the conservation objec- the jurisdiction of the Ministry of National tives for protected areas. These objectives in- Defence and are issued by the Fisheries Serv- clude maintaining areas representative of the ice (SERNAP). biological diversity of the country, ensuring The major problems affecting marine ar- the continuation of ecological processes and eas are: marine waste arising from mining in patterns of genetic flow, regulating the natu- the northern zone of the country, illegal ral environment, protecting areas important hunting of marine species leading to over ex- for the migration of animals, and providing ploitation of fishery resources, domestic rub- opportunities for research and education. bish either dumped directly into the sea or The.process by which protected areas are through disposal tips; sediments from ero- established is complex. Proposals must be sion caused by indiscriminate forestry; and 138 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

tourism, which results in destruction of flora qual, and sperm whales (site account and fauna. in UNEP/IUCN 1988). _O Parque Nacional Natural Utria (53,400 Existing coastal protected areas are: hectares): (description below) * Parque Nacional Pan de Azucar • Parque Nacional Bosque Fray Jorge There is one protected area that includes * Parque Nacional Archipelago Juan coastal terrestrial and intertidal elements: Femandez * Parque Nacional Sanquianga (80,000 * Parque Nacional Chiloe hectares) * Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael * Parque Nacional Bemardo O'Higgins Costa Rica * Parque Nacional Isla Guanblin * Parque Nacional Isla Magdalena Costa Rica has a well-developed terrestrial • Parque Nacional Alberto de Agostini protected area system; about 11 percent of * Parque Nacional Cabo de Homos the national territory is under absolute pro- • Reserva Nacional Pinguino Humboldt tection with management categories that pro- * Reserva Nacional Laguna Torca hibit extraction of natural resources (IUCN . Reserva Nacional Katalalixar 1992). Recently, the marine component of • Reserva Nacional Isla Mocha park management has been gaining in- . Reserva Nacional Las Guaitecas creased attention, with more manpower and Reserva Nacional Alacalufes resources being allocated to marine conser- . Monumento Natural La Portada vation. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of * Monumento Natural Cachagua experienced and trained personnel for ma- . Monumento Natural Cinco Hermanas rine management in the National Park Serv- ice (Joaquin Rodriguez, personal Colombia communication). All the protected areas listed below have a The Pacific coastal province of Colombia is management plan and within this plan a ma- less well represented than the Atlantic in rine management component. terms of coastal protected areas (IUCN There are 10 MPAs that include subtidal 1992). There are three protected areas on terrain (area of marine component in the Pacific coast of Colombia. These are Na- brackets): tional Parks and cover an area of 175,400 a_ Parque Nacional Corcovado (2,400 hec- hectares, including 2,400 hectares of the ma- tares) rine environment. Two sites includes subti- >O Parque Nacional Santa Rosa (78,000 dal elements: hectares) "Ow Parque Nacional Natural Isla Gorgona "O Parque Nacional Isla del Coco (97,235 (49,200 hectares): This area includes hectares) the oceanic island of Isla Gorgona, lo- 'O Parque Nacional Marino Ballena (5,375 cated about 30 kilometers off Depar- hectares) tamento de Narino off the coast of _O Parque Nacional Manuel Antonio Colombia; the protected area includes (55,000 hectares) three islets and the surrounding marine '_ Parque Nacional Isla del Canio (2,700 areas. Loggerhead and leatherback tur- hectares) tles have been recorded, as well as 'O Reserva Biologica Cabo Blanco (56,350 penguins and fur seals. Cetaceans in- hectares) clude humpback whale, common ror- u'w Reserva Biologica Isla Pajaros Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 139

"_ Reserva Biologica Isla Guayabo rine and coastal resources. The management _n Reserva Biologica Islas Negritos of the Marine Resources Reserve is the responsibility of a commission that represents Ecuador several government bodies, while the Whale Sanctuary is established under fisheries laws. There are four marine protected areas in MPAs that include a subtidal component: Ecuador. Two are located on the mainland "_ Reserva de Recursos Marinos coast (one National Park and one Ecological Galapagos: (description below) Reserve), and two are categories of compli- _O Santuario de Ballenas'de Galapagos: mentary management in the Galapagos Is- (description below) lands (one Marine Resources Reserve and _ Parque Nacional Machalilla: (descrip- one Whale Sanctuary), which protect some tion below) 70,000 square kilometers of marine area ex- _ Reserva Ecologica Manglares-Churute: clusively. The latter area is separate from the (description below) terrestrial National Park of the Galapagos. National legislation provides for the estab- El Salvador lishment of other forms of protection and management of other coastal and marine ar- There is one coastal protected area in this eas. There are also protected woodlands country. Available information suggests it (which can include mangroves), fishery re- does not include subtidal terrain: serves, tourist reserves and special zones . Barra de Santiago Refugio de Vida of management that are not part of the na- Silvestre tional system of conservation but that often provide some form of protection. and man-, Guatemala agement. The national system of conservation is in- The basis for an extensive system of conser- tended to conserve representative areas of vation units was established through passing natural or cultural significance which require of a Law of Protected Areas in 1989. This protection. In the case of the Galapagos Ma- law included protection for coastal waters rine Resources Reserve, the justification in- along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts cludes ecological, economic, scientific, out to a distance of 3 kilometers (measured educational and political considerations. from the high-tide line) (IUCN 1992). It is The categories for the establishment of not clear to what extent this provision has protected areas in Ecuador have primarily a been implemented and enforced: terrestrial focus. This focus also predomi- There is one coastal protected area in this nates in the administration and management country. Available information suggests it of Machalilla National Park and Churute Eco- does not include subtidal terrain: logical Reserve, and the terrestrial National * Monterrico Biotopo (2,800 hectares) Park on the Galapagos. For the former, management is carried out by the National Parks Honduras Service through the Ecuadorian Institute for Forestry and Natural Areas (INEFAN) and Honduras has a short Pacific coastline of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. about 100 kilometers in the Gulf of Fonseca. Management and administration of the There are no protected areas along this Galapagos Marine Resources Reserve and coast. IUCN (1992) notes that joint manage- Whale Sanctuary reflect the complex institu- ment agreements have been proposed for tional situation in the management of ma- cooperation between the governments of 140 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Honduras and El Salvador for management categories of management of natural areas. of the shared mangroves, estuaries and Administrative measures relating to pro- coastal zone in the Gulf of Fonseca. tected areas are developed by various institutions concerned with particular aspects of Nicaragua management. The Directorate General of Ma- rine Resources (DIGERMA) is concerned There are three coastal protected areas on with management of marine resources from the Pacific coast. Available information sug- the coast to the sea; the National Ports gests they do not include subtidal terrain: Authority regulates activities relating to mari- . Golfo de Fonseca time traffic and air activities connected with * Delta del Estero Real Reserva Natural ports. Other information relating to marine * Isla Juan Venado and coastal activities is the responsibility of bodies such as the Centre for Marine Science Panama and Limnology at the University of Panama: National Geographic Institute, Tommy Panama has established five protected areas Guaradia; University of Technology; and in coastal areas (three Wildlife Refuges and nongovernmental organizations. These insti- two National Parks). These cover a total tutions are coordinated through the National land area of 121,640 hectares. Additional ar- Commission on the Natural Environment eas proposed for establishment include the (CONAMA) (CPPS/PNUMA(OCA}-PSE 1989; reserve of the Islands of Perlas and the Na- CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)-PSE 1991; tional Park of Darien, which have been CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)-PSE 1992). nominated as Biosphere Reserves. There are six protected areas that include The creation of marine and coastal pro- coastal and intertidal terrain. One of these ar- tected areas in Panama has been based on eas is recorded as also including a subtidal concepts applied to terrestrial areas. An ex- marine component. ample are the wildlife refuges that provide "w Isla Coiba preservation of seabird nesting areas. In general the criteria for selecting areas is the pro- Other coastal and intertidal areas include: tection of examples of each biological . Refugio de Vida Silvestre Golfo de Mon- region of the country in their natural state. tijo (80,765 hectares): This refuge includes Prohibited in protected areas are: camping intertidal areas and is a Ramsar site. and residential occupation, forestry exploita- * Refugio de Vida Silvestre Isla Iguana tion, felling of trees, pasturage, fire, hunting, (53 hectares): This is a nesting area for capture, collection of plants, or shooting of marine turtles. wild animals. However, for most areas there a Refugio de Vida Silvestre Isla Taboga: is no effective form of protection. This is a nesting area for Pelicans and Protected areas are established through an other species of seabirds. executive decree put out by the Minister for . Parque Nacional Sarigua (8,000 hectares) Planning and Political Economics. National . Parque Nacional Cerro Holla (32,557 jurisdiction for nature conservation rests hectares) with the National Institute for Natural and Renewable Resources (INRENARE). This in- Peru stitution is based on Law No. 21 of Decem- ber 16, 1986, and has the function of In Peru there are five coastal conservation ar- deciding on the creation, development, ad- eas that are legally recognized. Four pro- ministration, and management of measures tected areas (339,058 hectares) are for protection, special production, and other established under the jurisdiction of the Min- Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 141 istry of Agriculture as part of the national sys- and also a lack of common approach to ma- tem of protected areas (SINANPE), and one rine resource conservation. A comprehen- protected area is under the jurisdiction of sive strategy and a body of policies and the Ministry of Fisheries. There are also 38 regulations is required urgently to address areas set aside for production of guano (25 such pressing issues as overfishing and guano islands and 13 guano points) that re- coastal pollution (De Freitas, personal com- ceive a form of legal protection although munication). they are not formally designated as protected areas. These areas are under the jurisdiction of the Fisheries Ministry. Taking Intermational and Regional Initiatives these into account, the total area of coastal Relevant to MPAs protected areas in Peru is 343,263 hectares. The objective of protected natural areas is World Heritage Convention the conservation, protection and sustainable use of wild fauna and flora and features that In the region there are no marine or coastal hold special significance because of their his- areas declared as World Heritage sites. The torical, cultural and scientific values. Galapagos Islands of Ecuador have been des- The following areas include a subtidal ignated but only with respect to the terres- component: trial environments that form the Galapagos "_ Parque Nacional Paracas: (description National Park. The declaration of the marine below) area, which surrounds the National Park and _O Zona de Reserva Punta San Juan: forms the Galapagos Marine Resources Re- (description below) serve, is presently in process.

The following areas include coastal terres- Ramsar Convention trial and intertidal elements: * Santuario Nacional de los Manglares de On the basis of available information it is Tumbes (2,972 hectares): This area in- known that five coastal protected areas have cludes mangroves and rich marine inverte- been listed as Ramsar sites: one in Panama, brate fauna. two in Ecuador and two in Peru. Three of * Santuario Nacional de las Lagunas de Me- these sites include a subtidal component jia (690 hectares): This area includes inter- while the other two include coastal terres- tidal areas, coastal lagoons and coastal trial and possibly intertidal features. terrestrial areas. The subtidal marine sites are: Parque Na- * Zona de Reserva de los Pantanos de Villa cional Machalilla, Reserva Ecologica Man- (396 hectares) glares-Churute (Ecuador), and Reserva Nacional Paracas (Peru). The coastal terres- Despite the existence of these protected triaVintertidal sites are: Refugio de Vida Sil- areas, there is no MPA "system" as such, and vestre Golfo de Montijo (Panama) and there is a general lack of awareness among Santuario Nacional de las Lagunas de Mejia Peruvian authorities, politicians and even (Peru). some conservation organizations about the importance of marine systems. The areas es- VNES(O Man and the BNsphere Peogrwanw tablished for guano production are located with this objective in mind, not for biodiver- The Parque Nacional Galapagos in Ecuador sity conservation, and so play only an indi- and Parque Nacional Alto Darien are the rect role. There is lack of coordination only sites in the region which have been between Agriculture and Fisheries Ministries nominated by UNESCO as Biosphere Re- 142 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas serves, fundamentally because of their terres- col in matters concerning protected areas. trial- environments. There are no designa- The following functions are covered by the tions of Biosphere Reserves for marine areas regional network of coastal and marine pro- in the region, although the applicability of tected areas of the Pacific Southeast (CPPS this concept has been analyzed to suggest 1991): nomination of the Marine Resources Reserve . Identify the requirements for conserva- of the Galapagos in Ecuador. It has also tion, protection and maintenance of bio- been suggested there is potential for designa- logical diversity in accordance with tion of the National Parks of Juan Fernandez regional priorities. and Rapa-Nui (Easter Island, falls in the * Agree on criteria for identification of pro- IUCN-CNPPA South Pacific Marine Region tected areas of regional importance. 14) in Chile. Other potential sites are pres- * Design procedures and guidelines for the ently being investigated. preparation of schemes for classification of regional and subregional habitats. * Suggest measures for protection that can UNEP Regional Seas Programme be considered at meetings of the high level contracting parties to the protocol In November 1981, the convention for the on conservation and protection of coastal marine environment and the coastal zone of and marine areas of the Southeast Pacific the Pacific Southeast was agreed between with particular reference to highly migra- the countries that formed the Permanent tory species. Commission for the South Pacific-Colom- . Develop forms of research and survey to bia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile. In accordance achieve inventories of resources and regis- with this convention and relying on techni- ters of species for the coastal and marine cal and financial support from the United Na- protected areas of the Pacific Southeast. tions Environment Program, the * Agree on recommendations for promo- governments of the region prepared the Ac- tion of activities for the training and devel- tion Plan for Protection of the Marine Envi- opment in relation to plans of ronment and Coastal Areas of the Pacific management for coastal and marine pro- Southeast. In this document there are a num- tected areas. ber of more specific agreements such as the' * Provide technical assessments to the Sec- protocol for the conservation and adminiistra- retary for consideration by the Govern- tion of the coastal and marine protected ar- ments of the Southeast Pacific and eas of the Pacific Southeast, which was Panama with the respect to measures nec- agreed to in 1989. essary for implementation and giving prac- This protocol formed the basis for devel- tical effect to the protocol for oping the network of marine and coastal conservation and administration of ma- protected areas of the Southeast Pacific that rine and coastal protected areas of the has been referred to previously (CPPS 1989). Southeast Pacific. The network goes beyond the traditional ter- . Indicate-to the CPPS and the Govern- restrial focus of conservation agreements ex- ments the requirements for technical assis- isting in the region and seeks to ensure the tance for the development of the protection and maintenance of biological di- functions of the regional network and for versity and sustainable use of resources. It its operation. also provides a benchmark for m'ore-de- * Advise the Governments on the need for tailed operations at the regional level, which studies in relation to the identification of is independent of national politics for each critical coastal and marine habitats based one of the states that are party to the proto- on biological and socioeconomic criteria. Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 143

* Suggest to Governments measures for pro- Table 17.2 Representation of tection of important rare and important Biogeographic Zones of the South commercial species and of habitats of East Pacific Marine Region high biodiversity. hrig biodiversity. BiogeographicZone Number Prioritize* the activities of the working (Coastal Realms) of MPAs plan recommended by the network using ,global and regional criteria. Western Tropical (H) 10 * Design and promote a study on the con- Western Intertropical (1). 4 servation status of the marine and coastal Western Subtropical (C) 2 protected areas of the Southeast Pacific. Westem Temperate (B) 0 * Design comparative studies on the coastal Subpolar (A) 0 and marine protected areas and leading Subpolar Archipelagic: (A) to the development of a regional protocol. a. Galapagos Archipelago 2 b. Cocos Island 1 Finally it is noted that the Plan of Action c. Juan Fernandez 0 for the Protection of the Marine Environ- ments and the Coastal Areas of the Pacific Total 19 Southeast has been extended to the area of Central America, which gives it a major scope for further action.

Assessment of Representation types from temperate to Subpolar and Sub- of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs polar-archipelagic types. The, offshore islands of the Galapagos Ar- The degree to which MPAs in the Southeast chipelago are protected by an area desig- Pacific Marine Region represent the bio- nated as both a Marine Resources Reserve geographic zones (coastal realms and the and a Whale Sanctuary (the largest MPA in main oceanic islands) in the region is dis- the region and one of the largest in the cussed below. This assessment considers world with an area of 7,990,000 hectares). only the 19 MPAs recorded as including a The Cocos Island is included within a Na- subtidal component. There are an additional tional Park. 34 protected areas that include coastal terres- Of the three faunal provinces there are 14 trial and in some instances intertidal fea- MPAs in the Panamanian province and two tures. Table, 17.2 shows the number of MPAs in the Peru-Chilean province. The remaining within each biogeographic zone. three MPAs are located on or around off- The Western Tropical zone has the most shore islands that have not been classified MPAs.with 10, followed by the Western In- into faunal provinces. There are no MPAs in tertropical with 4, and the Western Subtropi- the Magellan province. cal with 2. Three of the zones have no It has not been possible to assess the de- MPAs: the Western Temperate, Subpolar and gree to which the existing MPAs represent Subpolar Archipelagic zones. These unrepre- the range of ecosystem types present in sented zones include a length of coastline each zone. However, on the basis of the in- running from south of Punta San Juan in formation available it is clear that the exist- southern Peru (at around 15°S) to the tip of ing MPAs represent only a very small area of Cape Horn, a straight line distance of over the subtidal marine environments in the re- 4,500 kilomreters. No subtidal marine habi- gion. In the case of the Temperate and Sub- tats ar,e;protected along this entire stretch, polar areas, none of these environments are which includes a wide range of ecosystem included in MPAs. 144 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Management Level sea areas and efficient use of scarce resources for management and enforcement. It There has been insufficient information to is recommended that further assessment be properly evaluate the management level of carried out to determine if such sites are ap- existing MPAs; the available data are patchy propriate for designation as MPAs on the ba- and in some cases contradictory. As a gen- sis of the full range of selection criteria listed eral statement, it is true that MPAs are a per- in the introduction to this report. manent source of jurisdictional conflict between the institutions responsible for management and it always proves difficult to National Priorities for the Establishment adopt management decisions by consensus. and Management of MPAs Also, processes for achieving integration with community interests are only recently The priorities identified below have been de- developing, and as a result it is difficult for termined on the basis of information pro- these areas to fulfil the objectives for which vided by the contributors to this report. they are established. Even in the Galapagos, Areas in Central America were identified by which is considered one of the best man- Juan Carlos Godoy and Carlos de Paco (per- aged natural areas in the region, there are sonal communication). The selections have problems in implementation of plans of man- not been reviewed by relevant national gov- agement and in guaranteeing adequate con- emient authorities. Use of the term "exist- trol and supervision. A general classification ing MPAs" below refers to areas with an of the level of management as low to moder- identified subtidal marine component. ate would seem appropriate. Chile

PRIORITY AREAS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The highest priority for MPAs in Chile is considered to be the establishment of a marine The countries participating in Permanent component to the existing National Park on Commission for the South Pacific (Colombia, the island of Chiloe. A proposal for this has Ecuador, Peru and Chile) have defined their been developed and is being supported by a priorities for protected areas at the national variety of nongovernment groups (De Frei- level and have provided for these to form tas, personal communication; Del Valle, per- part of the network of marine and coastal ar- sonal communication). eas in the Pacific Southeast. These are the existing areas outlined above. Most of these Proposed new MPAs: areas have been established with a coastal -Op' Parque Nacional Chilo: The island is terrestrial focus and relatively few (only 19 located at around 42°30'S, south of out of 53) include subtidal areas. Puerto Montt. The site is pristine, being One option for consideration by national largely inaccessible, and not signifi- governments might be to extend the bounda- candy affected by human impacts. The ries of some of these areas to include the existing terrestrial reserve, which has marine environment. This approach is being basic management and research facili- taken in proposing new MPAs in Chile (see ties, provides a logical basis for an ex- below). Such an approach may have advan- tension into the marine environiment. tages in some instances in terms of practical- Marine biodiversity is high; the site is ity and feasibility since it would allow at the northern end of the Magellan fau- integrated management of adjacent land and nal province, and while it is repre- Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 145

sentative of this province, elements of Existing MPAs that require management the adjacent Peru-Chilean province support: (much of which is heavily degraded) "O Parque Nacional Natural Utria are also present. The area is important (53,400 hectares): This park is located for cetaceans, seabirds, sea lions and in central Choco and comprises a 7 marine otters (Del Valle, personal com- kilometer inlet lined by mangroves. munication) Coral reef formations are present at "0- Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de two sites and these are among the Humbolt: The area includes the islands most extensive in Colombia. The pro- of Choros and Cha-aral. The existing tected area includes marine and coastal MPA is terrestrial and should be ex- terrestrial areas; green and leatherback panded to include the surrounding turtles may occur (site account in marine ecosystems. The site is impor- UNEP/IUCN 1988). tant for seabirds (21 species), bottlenose dolphin, sea otter (Lutra There is one protected area that includes Felina), and a colony of the South coastal terrestrial and intertidal features, Par- American sea lion (Otaria byronia) que Nacional Sanquianga, which is threat- (Lescrauwaet, personal communica- ened by severe encroachment and extraction tion; CODEFF 1994). problems (Ortiz von Halle, personal communication). Existing MPAs that require management support: Costa Rica There are no existing MPAs in Chile. Proposed new MPAs: Colombia There is insufficient information to propose the establishment of any new MPAs. Proposed new MPAs: >_'* Isla del Malpelo: The island is located Existing MPAs that require management about 600 kilometers east and slightly support: south, of Isla del Coco. it is a small, "O Parque Nacional Isla del Coco: The is- steep and barren basaltic rock island. land is located about 500 kilometers Coral reefs are present with an average southwest of mainland Costa Rica; sur- cover of 10 percent. There is a more rounding waters to a distance of 5 kilo- extensive coral community in the south- meters from the island are protected. east at a depth of about 30 meters. The The park includes coral reefs. There majority of decapod crustaceans and are nesting seabirds, and large migra- fish are Central American mainland spe- tions of a number of species (including cies, but there are also Indo-Pacific spe- sharks, mantas, bottlenose dolphins cies, some known only from the and fish) pass close to the area. Green qG,alapagos Islands and Isla del Coco turtle may be present (site account in and some endemic to Malpelo UNEP/IUCN 1988). (UNEP/IUCN 1988). >_ Reserva Biologica Isla del Canio: The island is located 15 kilometers off the An aaaluonai proposed MPA is Bahia coast of Peninsula de la Osa. The re- Malaga (Ortiz von Halle, personal communi- serve is part of the Parque Nacional cation). Further information is required Corvocado. A marine area 3 kilometers about th1is site. around the island is protected by Ex- 146 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

ecutive Decree. There are coral reefs taceans that feed and breed in, or mi- and rich fish fauna (site account in grate through, the area. UNEP/IUCN 1988). _ Parque Nacional Machalilla (46,683 hectares): The park includes the islands of There is a proposal to establish a new Plat and Salango and marine areas con- management category for MPAs in the coun- tained within a line 2 nautical miles try. This will be a "Marine Sanctuary" in around these islands. The marine area which the emphasis will be on sustainable forms a transitional between tropical use of marine resources and on equitable and subtropical areas and is important distribution of such resources. The idea is to for seabirds and marine turtles. The area promote improving the quality of life of the has been inscribed as a Ramsar site. local population through wise use of re- _O Reserva Ecologica Manglares-Chrute sources. With this initiative at least five more (49,838 hectares): The reserve is located MPAs may become established, particularly in the Gulf of Guayaquil and protects ex- around mangrove forests and some reefs. amples of the mangrove ecosystems pre- The future emphasis and priorities for MPAs sent in the area. The reserve includes in Costa Rica is likely to be within a frame- the deltaic and lagoon areas and has work of sustainable development rather than been declared a Ramsar site. on strict conservation grounds. At the same time there is also a strong movement, pro- El Salvador moted by the Ministry of Natural Resources, to consolidate the management of existing Proposed new MPAs: protected areas, including MPAs, before es- - Los Cabanos tablishing new ones (Joaquin Rodriguez, - Bahia Jiquilisco personal communication). Existing MPAs that require management Ecuador support: There are no existing MPAs in El Salvador. Proposed new MPAs: There is insufficient information to pro- Guatemala pose the establishment of any new MPAs. Proposed new MPAs: Existing MPAs that require management Manchon support: _O Reserva de Recursos Marinos Existing MPAs that require management Galapagos (70,000 square kilometers): support: The reserve includes the Internal Wa- There are no existing MPAs in Guatemala. ters of the Archipelago and a fringe of 15 nautical miles from the external bor- Honduras ders of the islands. The reserve indudes a diverse marine flora and fauna, with Proposed new MPAs: high levels of endemism, and a num- _ Isla del Tigre ber of rare and endangered species. _ Punta Condega "_ Santuario de Ballenas de Galapagos: The sanctuary covers the same area as Existing MPAs that require management the marine resources reserve and is es- support: tablished specifically to protect the ce- There are no existing MPAs in Honduras. Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 147

Ntcaragua for the purposes of this document. How- ever, on the basis of the information avail- There is insufficient information to propose able it is possible to identify a number of any priority areas in Nicaragua. areas that should be of high priority according to the criteria outlined in the introduc- Panama tion and that represent immediate opportunities for action aimed at the conser- Proposed new MPAs: vation of marine biodiversity. These areas Isla de las Perlas (Pearl Islands): These should be considered preliminary selections islands include coral reefs. and should be the subject of further investi- *~ Manglares de San Miguel gation to determine their suitability.

Existing MPAs that require management Proposed new MPAs: support: m Parque Nacional Chiloe (Chile) tO Parque Nacional Isla Coiba " Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de Humbolt (Chile) Peru Existing MPAs that require management Proposed new MPAs: support:

"*- Estuarios de Virrila -_ Reserva de Recursos Marinos and -"- Peninsula de Carro Illescas e Islas Santuario de Ballenas de Galapagos Lobos (Ecuador) "4* Manglares de San Pedro _ Reserva Ecologica Manglares-Chrute _ Bahia San Fernando (Ecuador) _ Banco de Mancora o Parque Nacional Isla del Coco (Costa Rica)

Existing MPAs that require management -O Reserva Nacional Paracas (Peru) support:- > Parque Nacional Natural Utria Ow Reserva Nacional Paracas (335,000 hec- (Colombia) tares, of which 117,406 hectares is marine waters): The reserve includes 254 At the same time, it is strongly recom- marine algae species, seabirds, and sea mended that efforts to systematically identify lions. priorities in the countries of the region be Ow Zona de Reserva Punta San Juan: This supported. In particular there is a need to area includes coastal habitat and ma- identify sites for marine biodiversity conser- rine areas to a distance of 2 nautical vation in the countries of Central America. miles. It is important for penguins and For most of these countries there has been sea lions. insufficient information available to this study to properly assess priorities. Available Regional Priorities for the Establishment information suggests that the MPA coverage and Management of MPAs in this part of the region is very limited and requires strengthening. The region is characterized by dispersed and fragmented information on the conservation CentralAmerica of marine and coastal environments. Due to the constraints of time and funding it has Management support is required by all Cen- not been. possible to. gather all these sources tral American countries. This should aim to 148 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas improve personnel qualifications and to de- other parts of the region (particularly velop more effective management schemes south of 40°S) in which there are critical (both from the field and administrative view- habitats for whales. points). Two other problems are lack of . Critical areas for nesting and feeding of funds and poor public environmental educa- marine turtles should be better repre- tion. These two issues will take longer to resented by marine protected areas. In solve and are likely to complicate some existing protected areas that include environmental and natural resource conser- such sites, it is necessary to increase the vation in future years, particularly if present level of protection given these areas. In economic conditions do not improve. In the Galapagos, any area important for the last few decades, conservation has been im- nesting of green turtle is protected; there posed in Central America at a high social are other areas on the continental part of cost, and this cannot continue (Joaquin Ro- the region that require this level of protec- driguez, personal communication). tion. * There is a need to increase the extent to South America which coral reef areas are represented by MPAs and to increase the level of protec- The countries of South America have had a tion in existing areas. longer history of cooperation and activity, . Estuarine areas and mangrove forests are particularly through the CPPS. Notwithstand- not adequately represented by the existing this, the regional MPA system is at a rudi- ing MPA system. The current level of le- mentary stage, and these countries should gal protection should be strengthened be supported in there efforts to make further and other protected area categories such progress. Further work is required to iden- as protected forests should be used. tify systematic regional priorities for the es- There is also a need to explore the possi- tablishment and management of MPAs. The bility of establishing areas and protective following factors should guide the selection systems between countries, such as bilat- of such areas: eral agreements between Ecuador and • Areas of endemism such as Galapagos Is- Colombia and Ecuador and Peru. Such co- lands in Ecuador and the Archipelago of operation would provide the basis for es- Juan Fernandez in Chile. tablishing larger areas of protection for the * Critical areas for the migratory routes of principle estuaries in which there are sig- marine mammals. Because of its diversity nificant remnant areas of mangrove forest. in terms of marine mammals, the South- . Wetlands are not adequately represented east Pacific region in its totality has been by the existing MPA system. The number proposed for designation as a marine of wetland areas represented in the net- mammal refuge in which activities that work of protected areas should be in- could cause damage to marine mammals creased. would be controlled. This regional refuge . Areas of upwelling or phytoplankton should include at the national level more bloom are of major ecological and eco- highly protected areas that would provide nomic importance but are not adequately total protection to critical habitats for re- represented by the existing MPA system. production and feeding. Such areas are * Fishery Reserve areas that protect sites for currently represented to a very limited ex- reproduction or recruitment of fishery spe- tent in the existing network of marine cies do not form part of national conserva- and coastal areas of the Southeast Pacific. tion systems, and as a result such sites are The Whale Sanctuary of the Galapagos is not well represented by the existing an example that could be applied in MPAs network. Given the economic im- Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 149

portance of fishery resources in this re- The purpose of the meeting was to develop gion, increased attention must be given to recommendations for the establishment of a this area. regional network of marine and coastal protected areas in the Southeast Pacific. A sum- Other Recommendations mary of recommendations from this workshop are outlined below. The progress achieved by the CPPS, national It is recommended that government and governments,.and NGOs indicates that ma- nongovernmental organizations and other rine conservation is receiving increasing at- appropriate groups in the CNPPA Southeast tention in the Southeast Pacific. Despite this, Pacific Marine Region cooperate to: the development of a representative system * Study the cost-benefit relationship for the of MPAs is at an early stage and substantial creation of MPAs in the region. further progress will be required to achieve . Coordinate efforts for regional identifica- this aim. Currently, there are 19 MPAs that in- tion of marine biodiversity. clude subtidal elements and a further 34 ar- . Promote recuperation of impacted marine eas with coastal terrestrial and in some ecosystems along the coast. instances intertidal terrain. Further, the man- . Explore the possibility of using the pres- agement level of existing marine and coastal ence of coastal upwellings as a possible protected areas in the region has been classi- criterion for the establishment of new ma- fied as generally low-moderate. rine protected areas in the Southeast Most of the existing MPAs in the region Pacific. lack management plans and there is inade- . Include subtidal protected areas in the na- quate funding to carry out basic research, tional system of conservation and to pro- monitoring, and enforcement activities and mote non extractive use of these areas. to purchase the necessary equipment and fa- * Promote activities consistent with guide- cilities for management. lines and directions for the development There is a lack of coordination between of ecotourism in the region. government institutions having responsibili- . Obtain the participation of the commu- ties relevant to marine biodiversity conserva- nity in the formulation of plans and man- tion and marine resource use. These include agement for coastal and marine protected fisheries, tourism, forestry, military, and na- areas of the region in accordance with tional parks agencies. There is insufficient the principles of the Rio Declaration and cooperation between government agencies to take into account the guidelines and nongovernment organizations, including adopted by the 5th Intergovernmental universities. meeting of the CPPS for the revision of The importance of securing community these areas. support for MPAs is being recognized. There . Take into account new international de- is a need for environmental education and velopments relating to biodiversity, future community involvement programs that em- trends in environmental management and phasize the need for and benefits of marine possible future needs for restructuring biodiversity conservation and sustainable that will be necessary to give effect to or use of marine resources. to accommodate regional and interna- There is a corresponding need to educate tional activities in relation to new global government officials about the threats to the circumstances. marine environment and the implications of * Make provisions so that in the future these threats. coastal and marine protected areas will A meeting of experts was held by the be able to generate sufficient economic re- CPPS in Panama City, Panama, in April 1991. sources to enable their proper administra- 150 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

tion. This will require the governments-to Bore, D., F. Pizzaro, and N. Cabrera. 1988. Di- quickly establish national working groups agn6stico de la Contaminaci6nMarina en for coastal and marine protected areas. Chile. Procede del Inventario de Fuentes de *Develop a methodology for economic Contaminaci6n del Pacifico Sudeste. Docu- evaluation of national resources in coastal mento CPPS/UCR, -Plan Acci6n Pacifico Sudeste con Apoyo del PNUMA. Bogota. and marine protected areas of the region. Castilla,J. 1989. Latin America: Marine realm and * Strengthen the network of marine and the biosphere reserve concept. Paper pre- coastal protected areas by developing pro- sented at the Application of the Biosphere Re- posals for programs to continue the desig- serve concept to coastal marine areas nation of new coastal and marine UNESCO/IUCN San Francisco Workshop (Au- protected areas for the region. This devel- gust). opment should be carried out by national Chapman, Vj., ed. 1977. Ecosystems of the World working groups. Proposals for new areas 1, Wet CoastalEcosystems. New York and Am- should be prepared by the national group sterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com- and should be presented for considera- pany. tion by the regional group on coastal and Comite pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora marine areas of the Southeast Pacific. (CODEFF). 1994. Mamiferos, Aves y Reptiles r theSupport regional of group ofde la Reserva Nacional Pinguino de Humbolt. Support meetings of the regional group of meetings CODEFF Boletin Tecnico Programa Biodiversi- the network of marine and coastal areas dad No. 4 of the Pacific Southeast to strengthen the CPPS/PNUMA. 1989. El Convenioparalaprotec- network. cion del Medio Marinoy la Zona Costera del * Prioritize activities to develop a work Pacifico Sudestey sus protocolos relacionados. plan for the network. El, Plan de Acci6n para la protecci6n del Medio Marino y ,reas Costeras del Pacifico Sudeste y sus dispositivos institucionales y fi- BIBLIOGRAPHY nancieros. Bogota, Colombia. CPPS and Programa de las Naciones Unidas para Arcos, F. 1987. Borrador de los antecedentes del Medio Ambiente (PNUMA)(OCA)-PSE. 1991. conocimiento cientifico de los ambientes mari- Red Regional de Sreas Costerasy Marinas Pro- nos-costeros con sus caracteristicas de su man- tegidas en el Pacifico Sudeste. Procede de la Re- tenimiento y variabilidad asi como de los uni6n de Expertos para el Establecimiento de organismos que en ellos viven, con miras a una Red Regional de ,reas Costeras y Marinas elaborar un Plan de Manejo de lar Reserva Ma- Protegidas en el Pacifico Sudeste. Documento rina de Galapagos. Unpublished manuscript. CPPS/PNUMA (OCA)-PSE/WG 2(91)/SRev.1. Arriaga, L., and-J. Vasconez. 1991. ElManejo Cos- Panama. tero del Ecuador. Procede de la Reuni6n de la . 1989. Informe de la Reuni6n de E*pertos Red' de Areas Costeras y Marinas Protegidas en para revisarel borradordel Protocoloparala el Pacifico Sudeste, Panama, Panama (abril). Protecci6n del PatrimonioNacional Turistico, Astralaga, M., and M.F. Pulido. 1988. Programa Hist6ricoy greas de Esparcimientodel Pacffico de caracterizaciony vigilancia de la contami- Oriental Cartagena, Colombia. naci6n marina a partirdefuentes domesticas, . 1991.' Informe de la Reuni6n de Expertos agrfcolas, industrialesy mineras en dreas para el Establecimiento de una Red Regional ecol6gicamente sensibles de Pacifico Sur. Inven- de •reas Costerasy MarinasProtegidas'en el tario de fuentes en la Bahia de Buenaventura Pacifico Sudeste. CPPS/PNUMA(OCA)/PSE y la Ensendada de Tumaco. Procede del Inven- WG(91) 2/7. Panami. tario' de Fuentes de Contaminaci6n del . 1992. Informe de la Reuni6n de'Expertos Pacifico Sudeste. Documento CPPS/UCR, Plan para la preparaciondel Plan de Trabajopara Acci6n Pacifico Sudeste con Apoyo del la Red Regional.de greas Costerasy Marinas PNUMA. Bogota. Protegidasdel Pacifico Sudeste. Documento Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific 151

CPPS/PNUMA (OCA))/PSE WG5 (92)/6. Costeras y Marinas Protegidas en el Pacifico Guayaquil, Ecuador. Sudeste. Panama. CPPS/UNEP/IOC. 1988. State of the marine envi- . 1992. Actualizaci6n de Informaci6n so- ronment in the South-East Pacific region. Final bre las preas Marinasy CosterasProtegidas de Report CPPS/UNEP/IOC. Documento en borra- Ecuador. Reuni6n de Expertos para la dor y revisi6n por la CPPS y FAO, informe del preparaci6n del Plan de Trabajo de la Red Re- grupo de trabago regional sobre el estado de gional creas Costeras y Marinas del Pacifico salud de los oceanos, Bogota, Colombia (fe- Sudeste. Guayaquil, Ecuador. brero). Unpublished report. Reyes, J. 1990. N.d. Informe nacional sobre la si- Elder, D.E., and J. Pemetta, eds. 1991. Oceans. tuaci6n de los mamiferos marinos en Peru. In- London: Mitchell Beazley Publishers. formes y Estudios del Programma de Mares EMAP/DIGMER. 1988. Inventario de Fuentes de Regionales del PNUMA, Nairobi, Kenya. Forth- Contaminaci6nMarina en Ecuadora partirde coming. Actividades Terrestres.Procede del Inventario Shwartz, M.L. 1982. The encyclopedia of beaches de Fuentes de Contaminaci6n del Pacifico and coastal environments. STroudsburg, PA: Sudeste. Documento CPPS/UCR, Plan Acci6n Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company. Pacifico Sudeste con Apoyo del PNUMA, Bo- Silva, M., and I. Desilvestrel. 1986. Marine and gota, Colombia (julio). coastal protected areas in Latin America: A pre- Florez, L., M. Prieto-R, and C. Boh6rquez-R. liminary assessment. CoastalZone Manage- 1990. N.d. Informe nacional sobre la situaci6n mentJournal 14(4). de los mamiferos marinos en Colombia. Infor- Soldi, H., C. Conopuma, 1. Huaman, and F. Ma- mes y Estudios del Programma de Mares Re- tos. 1988. Caracterizaci6nyVigilancia de la gionales del PNUMA, Nairobi, Kenya, 1990. Contaminaci6nMarina a partirde Fuentes Forthcoming. Domesticas, Agricolas, IndustrialesyMineras Fundaci6n Peruana para la Conservaci6n de la en el crea de Lima Metropolitana.Procede del Naturaleza. 1994. In Workshop on ProtectedAr- Inventario de Fuentes de Contaminaci6n del eas in the CoastalMarine Environment: Action Pacifico Sudeste. Documento CPPS/UCR, Plan for Latin America. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Acci6n Pacifico Sudeste con Apoyo del Glynn, P.W., and G.M. Wellington. 1983. Corals PNUMA, Bogota (julio). and coral reefs of the Galdpagos Islands. Los T6rres, D., A. Aguayo, and J. Cardenas. 1990. Angeles and London: University of California N.d. Informe nacional sobre la situaci6n de los Press, Berkeley. mamniferos marinos en Chile. Informes y Estu- Hayden, B., G. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Classifi- dios del Programa de Mares Regionales del cation of coastal and marine environment. En- PNUMA, Nairobi, Kenya. Forthcoming. vironmental Conservation 11(3). United Nations Environment Progranmme (UNEP) Hurtado,,M. 1989. La reserva de recursos mari- and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1988. nos de Galapagos. Paper presented at the Ap- Coral reefs of the world. Volume 1: Atlantic plication of the Biosphere Reserve concept to and EasternPacific. UNEP Regional Seas Direc- coastal marine areas, UNESCO/IUCN San Fran- tories and Bibliographies. Gland, Switzerland ciso Workshop (August). and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN; Nairobi: UNEP. . 1990. N.d. Informe nacional sobre la si- Vidal, 0. 1992. Los mamfferos del Oceano tuaci6n de los mamilferos marinos en Ecuador. Pacffico Sudeste (Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Informes y Estudios del Programa de Mares Re- Peruy Chile): Diagn6stico regional. Informe y gionales del PNUMA, Nairobi, Kenya. Forth- Estudios del Programa de Mares Regionales coming. del PNUMA No. 142. . 1991. Antecedentes de las reas Marinas World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1992. Pro- y Costeras Protegidasde la Republica del Ecua- tected areas of the world: A review of national dor. Reuni6n de Expertos para el es- systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and neotropical. tablecimiento de una Red Regional de creas Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN.

MARINE REGION 18 Australia/New Zealand

Graeme Kelleher, Chris Bleakley, and Kathy Walls (Australia) Kathy Wails and Paul Dingwall (New Zealand)

PART A Australia 154 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MALUNE moves slowly south along the northeastern BIoDivERsrrY coast where it is blocked by reefs and islands in the Coral Sea. It flows southward Australia's marine environment spans 580 of along the continental slope to central New latitude-almost one-third of the earth's South Wales where it tends to turn offshore. hemisphere and traverses a great range of Once or twice a year, the EAC extends into climatic, geomorphological and oceano- loops in the Tasman Sea off New South graphic zones. These zones produce a great Wales, the loops detaching into warm ed- variety of habitats and environmental condi- dies 200-300 kilometers wide and 1,500- tions and support many different types of 2,000 meters deep. marine communities and a myriad plant and Circulation in the Indian Ocean off the animal species. west coast is highly variable and is influ- This section is taken from contributions to enced by the westward flow from the Pacific Australia's State of the Marine Environment through the Indonesian Archipelago. The Report. References included in these contri- prevailing Leeuwin Current is largely driven butions have not been reproduced here. by very warm water from the region of the North West Shelf in summer. It is seasonal Oceanography but highly variable, and flows southward in the deeper waters off the Western Australian The oceans off Australia's mainland shores coast, reaching its maximum strength, cover three ocean temperature zones: tropi- around mid-year. cal (25-31°C), subtropical (15-27 0 C), and In southern Australia, the Flinders Current temperate (10-25°C). These zones are char- flows northward past western Tasmania and acterized by distinctive marine biota: the westem Bass Strait, and along the Victorian and tropics by coral reefs and mangroves and South Australian coasts. In the Southem Ocean the temperate waters by macroalgae. south of Tasmania, the prevailing strong Surface temperatures in shallow, northern westerly winds drive the Antarctic Circum- tropical waters may reach 32°C during sum- polar Current eastward around Antarctica. mer, while those off southem Tasmania may Below the surface waters to about 800 me- drop to 90C in late winter. In the tropical In- ters, and extending from the equator to the dian and eastern Pacific Oceans, surface tem- Subantarctic Convergence, lies the South Pa- peratures often exceed 28°C, but gradually: cific Central Water in the east, and flowing decrease toward higher latitudes because of southward at a depth of 1,000-3,000 meters reduced solar radiation. Seasonal changes in lies the Pacific Deep Water, which is of At- tropical surface temperature in, the deep, lantic/Antarctic origin. ocean are not marked; those iri other areas The ocean around Australian is generally off Australia are around 5°C. In summer, sea low in nutrients (especially nitrates and phos- surface temperatures over the continental phates) and consequently has low biological shelf produce pools of warm water such as and fisheries productivity. The east and west that forming the Leeuwin Current. are dominated by low-nutrient subtropical The prevailing westerly winds in the mid- waters, while the south is largely isolated latitudes and easterly winds in the tropics from the rich, Subantarctic waters. Signifi- drive the ocean currents in the major ocean cant upwellings are also lacking. Nutrient in- basins in large, closed circulation pattems or puts from land runoff are limited because of gyres which intensify toward the western the poor nutrient status of the continent's an- boundary of the ocean basins. The western cient, leached soils, and the low rain fall. boundary current off the eastern coast is the South of Tasmania at the Subtropical Con- East Australian Current (EAC). The EAC vergence nutrient levels are higher:0(15 micro- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 155 moles per liter), but these are significantly * Warm Temperate Arid Coast: Dune rocks, lower than levels in the world's more pro- cliffs and sandstone reefs are extensive ductive waters (for example, 20-25 micromo- (such as the 130 kilometer Zutydorp les per liter off southwest Africa). Large Cliffs). Estuaries, coastal inlets and tidal areas of the oceans around Australia are vir- flats are rare. tual deserts (less than 0.1 micromole per li- . Tropical Arid Coasts: Relatively limited, ter nitrate). Off most of the coastline, levels these are characterized by low-gradient are low (0.1-1.0 micromole per liter nitrate) beach fronts, wide tidal flats, and massive and typical of subtropical belts of the world beach rock. Offshore islands shelter the ocean. Isolated areas (such as off New South coast in areas. Wales) are higher because of localized up- * Tropical Humid Coasts: These are structur- wellings from the East Australian Current. ally diverse and are strongly influenced by cyclones. Rocky shores are intermittent Coastal Geography and Geology except in the Kimberleys or where baux- ite. occurs on the coast. The eastern coast The major features of the Australian coast is influenced by the Great Barrier Reef. are the result of the interaction of geology, surface processes, and climate. Four.basic re- About 10 percent of the coastal zone is gions are commonly recognized: Warm Tem- high, rocky terrain, and 18 percent is cliff perate Humid Coasts, Warm Temperate Arid (above 2 meters in height). The rest of the Coasts, Tropical Arid Coasts, and Tropical coast is low-lying dunes and beaches (23 Humid Coasts. A number of other classifica- percent); low, rocky terrain (9 percent); terti- tions are based on sediment types and biotic ary.sands (9 percent); supra and intertidal and geological characteristics. mud (30 percent); alluvium (8 percent); and In the north, wave energy is generally low estuaries and lagoons (8 percent). (particularly the Gulf of Carpentaria and Great Barrier Reef coast). Tropical cyclones Ecosystem Diversity bring occasional episodes of high wind and wave energy and storm surges in summer. Estuaries and Enclosed, Waters The range of mean spring tides is generally small (less than 2 meters), but is much Australian estuaries occur over a very wide greater in the.northwest between Port Hed- range of geological and climatic conditions land and Darwin (up to 10.5 meters at Col- and consequently display great variety in lier Bay) and in the Mackay area of central form. Most are found in the wet tropics, the Queensland. In the south wave energy is majority being in the. Gulf of Carpentaria higher and calcareous beach and dune sedi- and North East Coast biogeographic zones ments have been deposited along the west- of. Queensland. Only a few are found in the em and southern coasts. South Gulf Coast and Great Australian Bight Features of coast types are summarized of South Australia below: The estuarine open water and tidal habi- Warm Temperate Humid Coasts: Beaches tats are diverse and are primarily dominated are the dominant feature, and range from. by seagrasses, mangroves and saltmarshes. small in southeast Tasmania, to more con-. Around 70.5 percent of Australia's total man- tinuous in the northeast and in west Victo- grove area (11,617 square kilometers) is asso- ria. Barrier beaches increase in size in ciated with estuaries. A high proportion of New South Wales to south Queensland. commercially important fish species in Aus- Estuaries are common, and high tide tralia are estuarine dependent for at least shore platforms are well developed. some stage of their life cycle (such as 60 per- 156 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas cent by weight of the New South Wales The main threats to saltmarshes include catch). reclamation, degradation, weed invasion, in- Australian estuaries have been affected to sect control, and sea level rise. varying extents by human activities. The clearance of catchments is widespread, par- Mangroves ticularly in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and central Queensland. Australia has 39 mangrove species, of which only 1 species, the newly discovered Avicen- Coastal Saltmarsh nia integra, appears endemic. Mangroves are most diverse in the tropics (for example, Australia has around 13,595 square kilome- there are 35 species in some estuaries on ters of estuarine saltmarsh. It is found on the Cape York) and less diverse in the subtrop- estuaries of all states, but is most extensive ics and on temperate shores. Only one spe- in the tropical north. Where mangroves also cies, A. marina, occurs along the southern occur, saltmarshes are found at higher eleva- coastline. tions. Along arid and semi-arid coasts, the The composition of communities varies coastal marshes merge with the inland saline with temperature, rainfall, river runoff, sedi- habitats, and on cliffs and headlands they ment type, tidal amplitude and geomorphol- are found in areas exposed to salt spray. ogy of the coast. In wet northeastern Saltmarshes are typically low in floristic di- Queensland, there is a very high species diversity and are frequently dominated by a versity and productivity, trees are very tall single species. Species richness increases (up to 40 meters), the canopy is closed, and with increasing latitude. A northern Austra- communities are dominated by Rhizophora lian saltmarsh, although extensive in area, and Bruguiera species. In the arid northwest generally has fewer than 10 species, where water and salinity stress is great, there whereas a smaller Victorian or Tasmanian is a lower species diversity (seven species in saltmarsh may have more than 30 species. the Pilbara coast) and they form open can- Saltmarshes characteristically show a clear opy woodlands, or low scrub (1-5 meters zonation from low to high elevations. high) of low diversity and low productivity. Two biogeographically distinct saltmarsh Communities are dominated by A. marina types exist in southern Australia. Arid or sea- along the waters edge, giving way to zones sonally arid (Mediterranean climate) marshes of Rhizopbora stylosa and Ceriops australis. are characterized by a diversity of succulent, Below latitude 30°S open woodlands of a chubby chenopods with more open vegeta- single species, A. marina, dominate man- tion toward the upper tidal limit. On temper- grove habitats. Trees become stunted (less ate shores denser and more grassland and than 5 meters) in colder waters around 38°S sedgeland communities are present. On the (for example, at Corner Inlet, Victoria). east coast there is a gradual transition from Mangroves provide important habitats for these to the more species-poor subtropical fish, including many of commercial impor- marshes, which are often dominated by tance. Around 197 fish species have been re- Sporobolus. corded from northern Australian mangroves, Although there is a high degree of ende- 65 from Brisbane mangroves, and 46 from mism in Australian saltmarsh flora, at the ge- Sydney mangroves. Mangroves also play an neric level there is a strong similarity with important role as habitat for birds, coastal those elsewhere in the southern hemisphere protection and in filtering nutrients. and linkages with those in the northern Some of Australia's most important single- hemisphere. species commercial fisheries are directly or Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 157

indirectly linked to mangroves. The early life of endemic species has been recorded. Inter- cycle of the banana prawn (Penaeus mer- tidal habitats may occupy a very narrow band guiensis) is confined to mangrove-lined estu- or fringe, and some shore types may also be aries. In the Gulf of Carpentaria, greatest locally restricted in extent and number. catches of banana prawns are made in areas Shores are vital feeding grounds for migra- with highest concentrations of mangroves. tory shore birds. Upper shores are roosting Bait prawns (Metapenaeus spp.), mud crabs areas and nesting sites for seabirds. Shores (Scylla serrata), and barramundi (Lates cal- also support endangered turtles, seals and carifer) are directly dependent on man- sea lions. As shores are the most accessible groves. Juvenile tiger prawns (Penaeus part of the marine environment to humans, esculentus) depend on seagrass meadows ad- they have a particular value for marine edu- jacent to mangroves. Baitfish (Clupidae, En- cation and research. graulidae), which spend their juvenile The main threats to hard and soft shores stages in mangroves, mature and move out include: toxicants, nutrients, fishing and har- to sea where they become important food vesting, exotic species, habitat modification for mackerel and billfish. and loss, and sea level change. The main threats to mangroves include clearing, reclamation and pollution. Temperate Reefs

Hard and Soft Shores Rocky outcrops and other hard surfaces provide attachment space for a wide diversity of Australia is ringed by hard and soft shores. sessile organisms beneath the sea. In temper- Rocky headlands, cliffs and sandy beaches ate Australia, key species such as the large are features of the open coast, while mud brown algae provide food and a complex and sandy tidal flats, often merging with sea- physical structure for fish and many other grass, mangroves and saltmarsh, are found animals on these reefs. in more sheltered areas. Australia's southern Australia's temperate reefs are extraordi- and northern coasts are dominated by low- narily diverse. Red and brown algae, ascidi- energy, small-wave regimes, while the west ans, bryozoans and crustaceans have a and east are mainly dominated by swell much higher species richness than in temper- waves. Rocky coasts are more common in ate habitats elsewhere in the world. Austra- the south (such as the Great Australian Bight lia's reefs are distinctive in their ecologic and much of Tasmania). Muddy sediments processes. On the temperate east coast of dominate the north, either under extensive Australia, Ecklonia and Phyllospora are domi- mangroves or as wide flat shores in areas nant. The latter are common in Port Phillip subject to great tidal ranges (such as around and Westernport bays in Victoria and in Broome in WA and Mackay in Qld). Sandy southwest Western Australia. In cooler Victo- beaches are common in all states, but are ria, South Australia and Tasmania, the kelps longest (up to 150 kilometers in length) Macrocystis and Durvillea dominate. along the east and west, which are swept by Urchins are important algal grazers in tem- the prevailing East Australian and Leeuwin perate reefs. Dominant species in open Currents, respectively. coastal reef environments vary from Cen- Intertidal communities are highly diverse trostephanusand Heliocidarisin New South and are uniquely specialized to an alternat- Wales, to Heliocidarfsalone in South Austra- ing life in air and sea. Many species have lia, to a mixture of Heliocidaris, Tripneustes limited distributions, and particularly in tem- and Echinometrain southwestern Western perate areas of Australia, a high proportion Australia. 158 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Little is known of the effects of anthropo- Eastern Australia genic activities on temperate reefs, The most The reefs of the east coast or Austraua are serious potential effects are.those on the dominated by the Great Barrier Reef, which habitat-forming species,, particularly the is the largest single reef system in the world. large algae, whose loss may have dramatic Extending for 2,000 kilometers from the low- effects on other species. Threats include latitude tropics to temperate zones, it is also point source and non-point source pollution, the most diverse in reef types, habitats and discharges, fishing, collection and intro- environmental regimes. The high (continen- duced species. tal) islands in inshore areas provide much of the Reefs habitat diversity. The Great Barrier Coral-Reefs Reef faunas have some regional differentiation along the length, while the cross-shelf Australia has the largest area of coral reefs. variation is more marked. The western (in- in the world. The Great Barrier Reef is the shore) edge is characterized by shallow wa- largest complex of reefs, and the Ningaloo ters with a terrigenous sediments, exposed Reef is the largest fringing reef. All types of to periodic river runoff and consequently reefs are represented: fringing, platform, bar- low salinity and high turbidity. rier and atolls. While coral reefs are best de- South of the Great Barrier Reef, reef-build- veloped on Australia's tropical northeastern ing coral occur as far south as Sydney and and northwestern coasts and shelves, a num- Nambucca Heads. In the southern half of ber of reefs are,present in higher latitudes the Coral Sea there. are a number of because.of th,e southem flow of the warm seamounts, some with reefs, cays and at- East Australian and Leeuwin Currents. olls-most of which are rich in Acropora High latitude reefs, includingtbhe Solitary and a few other genera but none with the di- Islands off the northern New South Wales versity of the Great Barrier Reef. Extensive coastline, although not true coral reefs, con- reefs are also present in the Torres Strait and tain a unique combination of reef and non- further west in the Northern Territory. reef biota. Australia's geograpnic posiuon witm me western Australia world's.center of coral reef diversity is criti- Coral reefs extend for over 3,000 kilometers cal to coral reef conservation since few from the southemmost reef development at other countries (western Micronesia, normn- the Houtman Abrolhos. A wide variety of ern Papua New Guinea, and possibly Japan) coral reef types are found, ranging from have low. coastal population pressures or the open ocean atolls (such as Cocos Keeling capacity to regulate human impacts on reef and Christmas Islands) to fringing and ve- areas. As well as their ecological and tourist neer reefs on, drowned coastal formations value, Australia's coral reefs have also great, (Kimberley Coast, Pilbara Coast, Barrow and value f6r fisheries and scientific research, in- Monte Bello Island). They include continen- cluding biomedical research. on natural prod- tal shelf atolls,and platform reefs of,.varying, ucts of pharmaceutical potential. degrees of development and an extensive Most areas of coral reefs ,in Australia are barrier/fringing reef tract (Ningaloo). under some form of management. The degrees of.protection range from preservation ContinentalSbe(f and Slope zones (no entry) in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, to marine parks (no extractive The greater part of Australia's marine envi- use), to general use areas under fisheries ronment lies in the deeper waters off the management plans. coast. The continental shelf, about,half of Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 159 which is less than 50 meters in depth, is 2.5 and most of Australia's tropical marine spe- million square kilometers in area. The conti- cies are widely distributed in the tropical nental slope, which starts at depths of 150- Indo-Pacific. By contrast, in Australia's tem- 200 meters and drops into the abyssal plain perate seas, overall species diversity is at about 4,000 meters, is a further 1.5 million lower, but a higher proportion of endemic square kilometers in area. Very little is ;pecies occur. Recent research indicates that known of the deeper water communities bhe waters of the southwest, Bass Strait, and around Australia and although they are re- the southeast are particularly important cen- mote and inaccessible, significant areas are ters-of marine endemism. For example, 20 subject to trawling and other fishing. new species of algae have recently been de- The continental shelf is a continuous fea- scribed in the Solitary Islands Marine Re- ture around Australia ranging in width from serve, New South Wales. Some algal and 15 kilometers off the southeast coasts to 400 ascidian communities in South Australian wa- kilometers in the Timor Sea. The type of ters are among the richest and most diverse communities present on the shelf and slope in the world (ANPWS, 1992). depends on the type of sediments, terrestrial inputs, and depth. Plankton The physical environment of the shelf is almost entirely soft sediment and is inhabited' While Australian waters have no major up- by infauna (burrowing into the top few centi- welling systems comparable to those off meters), epifauna (attached-to or walking on Peru, California or northwest Africa, enrich- the sea floor), and demersal species (swim- ments of a lesser kind do occur regularly ming over the bottom). Offshore reefs are a and provide the nutrients for rich diatom very small, and little known, part of this envi- blooms that support Australia's most produc- ronment. tive fisheries grounds. Little is known of human impacts on Aus- Australia's marine phytoplankton com- tralia's shelf communities. In fishing prises representatives of 13 algal classes, grounds, otter trawls remove bottom species including diatoms (5,000 species), dinoflagel- and modify the bottom habitat. The dis- lates (2,000 species),!golden-brown flagel- carded "trash" or bycatch may alter food lates, and green flagellates (several hundreds chains by providing more food for carni- of species). The phytoplankton flora of the vores, scavengers and decomposers. Local- Australian region has strong simnilarities with ized damage may occur from discharged the warm- and cold-water phytoplankton flo- mud and effluents from offshore oil plat- ras of the northern hemisphere. There are forms and from dumping of industrial few endemic species. wastes at sea. Populations of some shelf and There are three distinct phytoplankton as- slope fish have been greatly reduced by semblages in Australian coastal waters: a overfishing. The effects of the removal of temperate neritic community in the coastal these high-level predators on the ecology of waters of New South Wales, Victoria and the sea floor are' unknown. Tasmania; a tropical neritic comnmunity confined to the Gulf of Carpentaria and North West Shelf; and 'a tropical oceanic commu- Species Diversity nity in the offshore'waters of the Coral Sea and Indian Ocean. Depth distribution. of'phy- The greatest species diversity in marine envi- toplankton is'limited by the extent to which ronments occurs in northern tropical waters. photosynthetically available sunlight can However, 'endemic species are 'uncommon, penetrate, which ranges from several meters 160 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in turbid estuaries to 200 meters in the clear- demicity (85 percent of species). Of the re- est oceanic conditions. maining species, 11 percent are shared with New Zealand. A few families with low dis- Invertebrates persability such as viviparous clinids, brooding syngnathids (pipefish and seahorses), The biogeography of Australian mollusks is and nesting gobiescocids (gobies) account similar to that of the fish, although many. for much of the endemicity. more species are present. In the north, 10 Among the fish species, the leafy sea percent of species are endemic and the re- dragon (Phycodunus eques) is unique to tem- mainder are widely distributed in the Indo- perate waters. The Tasmanian area is a cen- West Pacific; By contrast, in the south there ter of endemism for handfish is 95 percent endemicity. Several endemic (Brachionichthyidae), unusual fish with pec- genera (Trigoniidae, Campanilidae, and Dias- toral fins modified for "walking" on the sea- tomatidae) are relics of the ancient Tethyan bed. It is likely that a large number of fauna and others are relics of the ancient Pa- pipefish species, as well as sea horse and laeoaustral fauna. In describing these trends ghost pipefish species, are also endemic, but it must be noted that northern areas are a thorough taxonomic study of these groups poorly studied in comparison to the south, in Australia has yet to be carried out. and that the presence of characteristic and easily identifiable Indo-Pacific species in the Seabirds north may mask the presence of endemic species. Recent.studies reveal the presence The seabird fauna of Australia and its exter- of many endemic species in some northern nal territories -is diverse, and comprises 110 areas. species representing 12 families. Of these, The starfish and other echinoderms also 76 (69 percent) breed in the region, and repeat the biogeographic patterns of the fish many spend their whole lives there, while a and mollusks, with 13 percent endemics in further 34 species are regular or occasional the tropics and 90 percent in the temperate visitors. Thirteen species or subspecies in region. However, see the discussion above the area-mainly those with a very restricted for an additional perspective on these trends. number of rookeries-are considered threatened. Fisb Australia's seabirds are made up of tropical, temperate and Subantarctic elements, a Of 3,400 species of fish occurring around few of which have a wider environmental Australia, about 900 are pelagic or wide rang- distribution. Population estimates for the ing, and 2,500 occur on the shelf and near- Australian continent range from two pairs shore. The greatest number (approximately (white-tailed tropic bird), to almost 12 mil- 1,900 species in 60b genera and 120 fami- lion (short-tailed shearwater). Six species are lies) are found in the tropics. Most of these known from fewer than 100 breeding pairs. species (87 percent) are shared with the Of these, some are recent arrivals (such as Indo-West Pacific region.- A-moderate ievel kelp gull and white-fronted tern), while the of endemicity (13 percent of species) has oc- status of the minuscule colonies of white- curred because of isolation by the prevail- tailed tropic birds, herald and blackwinged ing, southward tropical East Australian- and petrels is unknown. Eight species exceed Leeuwin Currents. 100,000 pairs-three shearwaters, white- The southern, temperate fish fauna is less faced stormpetrel, silver gull, and three diverse (600 species) and the long isolation terns. Of these, the short-tailed shearwater of species has resulted in very high en- constitutes 77 percent of the total breeding Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 161 seabirds, and the wedge-tailed shearwater a Hydrophiids in northern Australia; 10-42 per- further 8.7 percent. cent of sea snakes taken in trawls die. Thirteen species or subspecies of seabirds, Six turtle species occur in Australian wa- in the region are considered to be threat- ters; the leatherback turtle (Dermocbelys co- ened. The wandering albatross on Mac- riacea), loggerhead turtle (Carettacaretta), quarie Island, Abbot's booby on Christmas green turtle (Cbelonia mydas), hawksbill tur- Island, and the Australian subspecies of the tle (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive Ridley tur- little tern, Sterna albifrons sinensis, are classi- tle (Lepidochelys olivacea), and flatback fied as endangered under IUCN criteria. The turtle.(Natatordepressus). The leatherback, tern has been reduced to less than 500 pairs loggerhead, green and hawksbill turtles have as a result of disturbance by humans, dogs pantropical distributions; the olive Ridley is and off-road vehicles.,. widely distributed in the tropical and sub- Vulnerable species include Lord Howe's tropical Indo-Pacific; and the flatback has a Kermadec petrel and white-bellied limited distribution and is effectively en- stormpetrel, and Christmas Island's Andrew's demic to Australia. All turtles are protected frigatebird. The last exists as a single colony in Australia, except for indigenous communi- that is susceptible to cyclones. At Macquarie ties using "traditional" techniques. Sea turtles Island the grey-headed albatross, Macquarie have long been important to coastal and is- Island shag, Antarctic tern, and fairy prion land communities throughout the Indo-Pa- comprise small populations at risk frorr cific region for food (eggs and meat), for predators and long-liners. The Heard Island their shells, and as totems. However, the de- shag comprises fewer than 500 birds con- velopment of.large-scale commercial trade fined to one island. A subspecies of Gould's in "tortoise shell" (from the hawksbill), meat, petrel, which breeds only on Cabbage Tree eggs, and leather has placed severe pres- Island (New South Wales), does not exceed sures on stocks. 150 pairs, while a subspecies of the soft-plu- maged petrel which breeds on Maatsuyker mammats Island (Tasmania) is fewer than 100 pairs. Various forms of human disturbance irp- Within Australia's waters there is one species cluding egg collecting threaten many of sirenian or sea cow, four species of fur seabirds nesting sites. Because of their de- seals and sea lions, and 44 species of whale pendence on coastal land areas that ,are sub- and dolphins. ject to increasing pressure for nesting, The dugong (Dugong dugon) is the only seabirds are among the most heavily im- Sirenia to occur in Australia. Australia has sig- pacted marine taxa. Some seabird nesting nificant populations in northern waters, be- sites that previously were important are now tween Moreton Bay in the east and Shark little used or are abandoned due to high lev- Bay in the ~west, and is the dugong's last els of human disturbance. stronghold. The dugong is protected throughout Australia except for Aboriginals Marine Reptiles and Torres Strait Islanders using traditional methods in their traditional waters (although Sea snakes (four families, more than 5u spe- modern technology has led to significant ad- cies) are restricted to the Indo-Pacific and vancements in "traditional methods"). are concentrated in the warm waters of the Humans have. had the greatest impact on Indo-Malaysian (more than 30 species, 60 dugong populations through hunting, gill- percent endemic) and northern Australia nets and shark nets. Natural events such as (more than-30 species, 50 percent endemic). cyclones and floods also have also reduced Prawn trawling is the major impact on the numbers by destroying habitat. Dugong 162 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

populations in northem Australia appear to dolphin (Sousa chinensis). Humpback be secure, with the possible exception of whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)pass close Torres Strait. Systematic aerial surveys indi- to the eastem and westem coasts on their an- cate that dugongs are the most abundant ma- nual breeding migration, and southem right rine mammal in inshore northern Australia, whales (Eubalaenaaustralis) breed in south- with an estimated population of over 80,000. em coastal waters. Longman's beaked whale Populations in the south have shown a re- is considered the rarest whale in the world cent decline. and is known only from two specimens Three species of pinnipeds breed in Aus- (one found near Mackay, Queensland). tralian waters: Australian sea lion (Neopboca The Australian breeding population of cineria); New Zealand fur seal (Arcto- southem right whales is now around 300- cephalusforstern)and Australian fur seal (A. 600 (from a low of a hundred or so earlier pusillus doriferus). The Australian sea lion is this century). The Tasmania population is ex- endemic; the New Zealand fur seal is com- tinct. Westem Australian southem right mon to both countries; and the Australian whales have increased at 11.7 percent per fur seal also breeds in South Africa. year since 1977. Two estimates of hump- The main impacts include fisheries, oil pol- backs migrating along eastem Australia in lution, entanglements in manmade objects, 1987 were 790 (with an increase of 14.4 per- and disturbances (from tourism, for exam- cent per year), and 1,107 (with an increase ple). Pinnipeds within state waters are man- of 9.7 percent per year). It is estimated that aged by a variety of state conservation and the Westem Australian population of hump- fisheries agencies. Outside the 3-mile territo- backs has increased at 8.8 percent per year rial limit they are managed by the Australian since the cessation of whaling in 1963. Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA). Until recently, the major impact on popula- The Australian sea lion is considered as tions was hunting. Other threats include rare by the South Australian and Westem drowning in tuna purse seines, drift gillnets, Australian govemments. A survey of over and pollution from organochlorides (particu- 200 islands in 1989-90 found 13 breeding larly polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs). Im- colonies of fur seals in Western Australia (of pacts on inshore species especially may which 5 were previously known) and 4 new include: loss of habitat through coastal devel- locations in South Australia. The populations opment; reduction in prey numbers because of New Zealand fur seals is increasing in the of fish habitat loss and overfishing (difficult three locations previously recorded. to quantify); increasing numbers of motor Around eight species of baleen whales boats and therefore risks of collision (evi- (Mysticeti) and 35 species of toothed whales, dent in injured strandings); entanglement in porpoises and dolphins (Odonotceti) are gillnets, protective shark nets and discarded found 'in Australian waters. Cetacean taxon- fishing nets; ingestion of plastic bags; and omy is considered incomplete, which cre- disturbance of migrating and breeding popu- ates uncertainty of the exact number. The lations by boat traffic and noise pollution pattems of distribution are: cosmopolitan and by "whale watching" tourists. species with global distributions, temperate and polar species, species with a southern Biogeographic Classification hemisphere and generally circumpolar distribution, and tropical and warm temperate Australia's marine environment has been Indo-Pacific species. There are no endemics. classified into 32 geographic regions by a Residents of inshore waters include the technical working group of the Council of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Conservation Ministers (CONCOM, now AN- tropical Irrawaddy River dolphin (Orcella ZECC). This classification has not been brevirostrus), and Indo-Pacific humpback adopted by govemments. Some states and Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 163

territories are developing biogeographic clas- There are nine External Territories zones. sification schemes that address finer levels (The zones marked with an asterisk have of detail than the CONCOM classification; not been used in this assessment. however, such schemes are not complete 24. Christmas Island across the country nor are they uniform. The' 25. Cocos-Keeling CONCOM scheme includes 14 coastal (less 26. Ashmore-Cartier' than 200 meters) geographic regions, plus 27. Coral Sea Islands 13 oceanic, ocean and external territory re- 28. Norfolk Island gions (see Map 18). This system has been 29. Lord Howe Island* used in this report on an interim basis, with 30. Macquarie Island the coastal and oceanic regions providing 31. Antarctic Territory* the basis for an assessment of the repre- 32. Heard and MacDonald Island sentation of Australia's MPAs. The development of a national classification system based on biogeographical, ecological and ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS other criteria is now being facilitated through the Commonwealth Governments Description of National MPA Systems Ocean Rescue 2000 program. A total of 14 coastal zones have been The responsibility for the establishment and identified: management of MPAs out to 3 nautical miles 1. North Coast rests primarily with the state and territory 2. Northwest Coast governments. The Commonwealth govem- 3. Central West Coast ment retains responsibility for the Great Bar- 4. Lower West Coast rier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) and areas 5. Southwest Coast declared under legislation for historic ship- 6. Great Australian Bight wrecks within 3 nautical miles, and through 7. South Gulfs Coast ANCA, has responsibility for MPAs beyond 3 8; Bass Strait nautical miles. 9. Tasmanian Coast Within jurisdictions, various agencies with 10. Lower East Coast different conservation objectives establish 11. Central East Coast and manage MPAs. In Commonwealth wa- 12. Northeast Coast ters, MPAs have been established under the 13. Great Barrier Reef National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 14. Gulf of Carpentaria 1975 and Historic Shipwrecks Protection Act 1976 in all areas except the GBR region There are five oceanic zones: where the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 15. Northwest Oceanic Act 1975 applies. Areas established under 16. West Oceanic the NPWS Act have primarily a nature preser- 17. South Oceanic vation focus. Protection of shipwrecks has a 18. Southeast Oceanic cultural protection focus. The GBRMP is a 19. Northeast Oceanic multiple-use area where a wide range of activities is permitted subject to an overriding There are four ocean zones. (These conservation objective. zones have not been used in this At the state government level, MPAs may assessment.) be the responsibility of a National Parks 20. Indian Ocean* agency in one state or a fisheries manage- 21. Southern Ocean* ment agency in another, or both, depending 22.' Tasman Sea on the, purpose, for which they are estab- 23. Coral Sea* lished. Such division also reflects policy dif- 164 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ferences on what types of MPAs are estab- _ Mackay/Capricorn Marine Park lished, with fisheries management agencies (2,598,000 hectares) tending to prefer multiple-use areas or areas _ Pumicestone Passage Marine Park that protect the habitat of species of commer- (630,000 hectares) cial importance. Within Australia all govern- "_ Townsville/Whitsunday Marine Park ments with jurisdictions that include the (520,500 hectares) marine environment have established MPAs. A recent inventory of MPAs in Australia South Australia: prepared for the State of the Marine Environ- _O Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank ment Report (SOMER) identifies a total of Aquatic Reserve (3,160 hectares) 305 areas meeting the IUCN definition of an _ Barker Inte St. Kilda Aquatic Reserve MPA. Of this total, management of the ma- (2,055 hectares) rine environment is a significant objective for 246. These MPAs are shown by Map 18. Tasmania: The remaining 58 are primarily terrestrial _O Crayfish Point, Governer Island, Nine protected areas that include an incidental in- Pin Point and Tinderbox Marine Re- tertidal component. serves (4 sites, total 272 hectares) A small selection of MPAs by jurisdiction (Commonwealth/state/territory) is as follows: Victoria: _ Wilsons Promontory Marine Park and Commonwealth: Marine Reserve (total 10,000 hectares) _O Great Barrier Reef Marine Park _O Bunurong Marine Park (1,660 hectares) (34,380,000 hectares) _ Harold Holt Marine Reserves (total _ Toffes Strait Protected Zone (approxi- 3,399 hectares) mately 3,350,000 hectares) _O Lihou Reef Marine National Nature Re- Western Australia: serve (843,600 hectares) _ Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve _ Coringa-Herald Marine National Nature (132,000 hectares) Reserve (885,600 hectares) _O Ningaloo Marine Park (224,000 hectares) _ Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine _O Rowley Shoals Marine Park (23,250 hec- National Nature Reserve (188,000 hectares) tares) _O Shark Bay Marine Park (748,735 hectares)

New South Wales: The Commonwealth Government's Ocean _O Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (85,000 Rescue 2000 program (announced by the hectares) Prime Minister in 1991) is promoting the es- "O Jervis Bay Marine Reserve (22,200 hec- tablishment of a national representative sys- tares) tem of MPAs "that will protect those areas, while permitting appropriate uses and pro- Northern Territory: moting public education." Action is proceed- "_ Cobourg Marine Park (229,000 hectares) ing on the basis of cooperation and sharing between the Commonwealth and the State Queensland: and Territory govemments. Also, under _ Broad Sound Fish Habitat Reserve Ocean Rescue 2000, a national marine educa- (165,000 hectares) tion program and a Marine and Coastal Com- _O Cairns Marine Park (429,000 hectares) munity Network have been established to _O Hervey Bay Marine Park (255,000 hec- assist in promoting community awareness tares) and support for MPAs. A Marine Conserva- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 165

tion Strategy will be produced by the Depart- However, no Biosphere Reserves in Austra- ment of Environment Sport and Territories, lia have been identified as MPAs. and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) is producing, with the MARPOL assistance of many agencies and people, a State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia is party to both the London Con- Australia. This will establish the foundation vention and MARPOL, with domestic imple- for future monitoring of the marine environ- mentation being through the Environmental ment and for future SOMERs. Protection from Sea Dumping Act and the Factors that affect the establishment and Protection of the Sea (Prevention of Pollu- successful management of MPAs in Australia tion from Ships) Act, respectively. include the difficulty of managing an area The Great Barrier Reef was declared the the size of Australia's Fishing Zone, the lim- world's first Particularly Sensitive Sea Area by ited information on marine biodiversity and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) ecological processes, the high cost of man- in 1991, and designated categories of ships agement compared with terrestrial protected are subject to compulsory pilotage in certain areas, and generally poor community under- areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. standing about the role of MPAs.

International and Regional Initiatives ASSESSMENT OF REPRESENTATION Relating to MPAs OF BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

Australia is a party to the World Heritage The CONCOM classification is used here to and Ramsar Conventions and is an active provide a framework suitable for a prelimi- participant in UNESCO's Biosphere Reserve nary analysis of the representation of Austra- Programme. Australia is also party to the lia's MPAs. South Pacific Regional Environment Pro- Australia's marine jurisdiction covers ap- gramme (SPREP) Convention. proximately 8,940,000 square kilometers. More than 5 percent of Australian waters Ramsar Convention (46,320,000 hectares) are subject to some degree of conservation management through The following Ramsar sites declared in Aus- being designated as an MPA. However, most tralia have been identified as MPAs: Apsley of Australia's MPAs are in tropical waters Marshes, Port Phillip Bay and Bellarine Pen- with almost 34.5 million hectares alone in insula, Peel-Yalgorup system. the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) and 3.3 million hectares in the Torres Strait World Heritage Convention Protected Zone. Most MPAs occur on the east coast of Aus- The following World Heritage Sites declared tralia, and especially along the Queensland in Australia have been identified as MPAs: coast (with more than 90 in the northeast Great Barrier Reef, Kakadu National Park, coast zone). Virtually all the northeastern and Shark Bay. A marine reserve is proposed coast is under some form of management. for the Lord Howe Island World Heritage Site. This region also has the largest MPAs, the most notable being the GBRMP, two large VNESCO Man and the Bospber Pr%wmne Coral Sea reserves, and a number of large Queensland marine parks and fisheries re- There are a number of coastal Biosphere Re- serves. There are large MPAs elsewhere, in- serves bordering the marine environment. cluding the Torres Strait Protected Zone, 166 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Cobourg Marine Park (Northern Territory), of marine protected areas. All priority sites the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (New identified for Australia are also considered to South Wales), and Ningaloo Marine Park be of regional priority. (Western Australia). Most of the MPAs in the The areas were selected on the basis of ex- southern half of the continent are small. isting and available information using the cri- Most MPAs declared in Australia are less teria listed at the beginning of the report. than 5 square kilometers in area. More than Although the recommendations have been 50 percent (132) of the MPAs for which area provided by representatives of government figures are available (281) are less than 5 agencies with jurisdictional responsibility for square kilometers, 28 percent (74) are be- the establishment and management of tween 5 and 50 square kilometers and a fur- MPAs, the areas have not been formally en- ther 13 percent (34) are between 50 and 500 dorsed by any such Commonwealth, state or square kilometers. Less than 5 percent (13) territory agency. are between 500 and 5000 square kilometers It must be emphasized that activities are and only 3 percent (9) are greater than 5,000 under way both nationally and in states square kilometers. and the Northern Territory to systematically An examination of geographic regions develop representative MPA systems, and shows that there are five regions with about that priorities are likely change in the future. 10 percent or more of their area included in In particular, it is likely that additional MPAs: the Great Barrier Reef (100 percent of candidate sites will be identified as further its total area), the North East Coast (93 per- information comes to light. The areas identi- cent), the Central East Coast (27 percent), fied below represent the best possible selec- the Central West Coast (23 percent), and the tions on the basis of information currently Northeast Oceanic (about 11 percent). available. The location of these areas is These five zones include over 94 percent of shown on Map 18. Descriptions can be the total area of Australian MPAs. The Tasma- found in the references provided in the nian Coast (about 2 percent of its total area) bibliography. and the Gulf of Carpentaria (2.95 percent) are the only other zones with more than 1 per- Proposed new MPAs: cent of their area included within MPAs. -_ Beagle Gulf (proposed) Marine Park Tables 18.1 and 18.2 show the extent to (Northern Territory) which the marine biogeographic zones in _O Torres Strait (Queensland) Australia are represented in MPAs. Note that Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland) the toal area of the Australian Fishing Zone "Om Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits (Queensland) (8,940,000 square kilometers) includes areas _0 Great Australian Bight Marine Park not classified for the purposes of this report (South Australia) (for example, External Territories and Austra- _w Macquarie Island (Tasmania) lia's Antarctic Territory). _ Kent Group (Tasmania) Rocky Cape (Tasmania) " Maria Island National Park (extension) PRIOR11Y AREAS AND RECOMMENDAT1ONS (Tasmania) w Lord Howe Island Marine Reserve National and Regional Priorities for the (New South Wales) Establishment and Management of MPAs Existing MPAs that require management The following areas have been identified by support: the contributors to this report as being of pri- t_ Cobourg Marine Park (Northern ority for the establishment and management Territory) Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 167

Table 18.1 Representation of Australian Marine Biogeographic Zones in MPAs (Coastal Regions) Area (square Area of MPAs Percentageof Area Coastal Region kilometers) Number of MPAs (square kilometers) Included North Coast 553,000 9 3,056.89 0.55 Northwest Coast 204,000 0 0.00 0.00 Central West Coast 48,000 4 11,047.73 23.02 Lower West Coast 63,000 4 163.35 0.26 Southwest Coast 56,000 6 1.84 0.00 Great Australian Bight 186,000 2 2.36 0.00 South Gulfs Coast 93,000 24 361.04 0.39 Bass Strait 151,000 38 572.17 0.38 Tasmanian Coast 31,000 17 555.95 1.79 Lower East Coast 22,000 18 49.81 0.23 Central East Coast 28,000 32 7,500.14 26.79 Northeast Coast 113,000 95 105,623.09 93.47 Great Barrier Reef' 183,000 6 183,380.50 100.00 Gulf of Carpentaria 411,000 6 12,116.71 2.95 No information - 30 .25

Total 2,142,000 291 324,431.58 15.15 a. Rounded to the nearest thousand. b. Note that use of this term refers to Great Barrier Reef "geographic region" as defined by the CONCOM biogeographic classification adopted for use in this report (see Biogeographic Classification), not the Great Barrier Reef Region defined by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act.

w_ Jervis Bay Marine Reserve (New South rine Park, Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Re- Wales) serve, Rowley Shoals Marine Park, and Swan

._ Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (New River Estuary Marine Park. South Wales) The Northern Territory coast is currently a_ Ningaloo Marine Park (Western under examination and the Conservation Australia) Commission of the Northern Territory ad- _ Shark Bay Marine Park (Western vises that the priorities for the Northern Terri- Australia) tory are subject to change as these _O Rottnest Island Marine Reserve (West- investigations proceed, particularly through em Australia) the identification of additional candidate ma- t_ Shoalwater Islands Marine Park (West- rine parks and reserves. em Australia) Although the priority areas identified would contribute to the development of a The last four sites listed above are part of national representative system of MPAs, a group of eight existing MPAs identified by some obvious gaps remain where no priori- the Western Australia Department of Conser- ties have been identified. Most notably, of vation and Land Management (CALM) identi- the coastal regions these are the Northwest fied eight existing MPAs as being of priority Coast, Southwest Coast, Lower East Coast for protection. The four areas considered by and South Gulfs Coast regions. Less than 1 CALM as being of highest priority are in- percent of each of these regions is repre- cluded in this report, and are listed above in sented in existing MPAs but there has been descending order of priority. The four other insufficient information to identify priority existing MPAs not included are Marmion Ma- areas. 168 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 18.2 Representation of Australian Marine Biogeographic Zones in MPAs (Oceanic and External Territory Regions) Area of MPAs Area (square (square Percentage of Region kilometersY Number ofMPAs kilometers). Area Included

Oceanic Zones Northwest Oceanic 555,000 3 1,355.34 0.24 West Oceanic 521,000 1 2,208.57 0.42 South Oceanic 1,274,000 0 0.00 0.00 Southeast Oceanic 1,142,000 1 1,880.00 0.16 Northeast Oceanic 1,167,000 5 127,819.54 10.95 Total 4,659,000. 10 133,263.45 2.86

Fxternal Territories Christmas Island - 1 2.33 Cocos-Keeling - 1 1.00 Macquarie Island - 1 1.00 Heard and Macdonald Island - 1 5,500.00 Total 4 5,504.33 -These areas have not been calculated. a. Rounded to the nearest thousand.

Preliminary MPA candidate sites for the No priority areas have been suggested by first two regions have been identified in a re- ANCA. The ANCA is not in a position to report prepared by the Marine Parks and Re- lease details about proposed new MPAs un- serves Working Group for CALM (CALM der its jurisdiction. 1994). These candidate sites will be further assessed before developing MPA proposals. Other Recommendations The final identification of areas to be reserved and the priority for their reservation MPAs have been used in Australia as a con- will depend to a significant degree on the servation tool by a wide range of agencies public comment received. It is therefore pre- for a wide range of purposes including na- mature at this stage to place a priority on future conservation, protection of fisheries re- ture reserve proposals in Western Australia. sources, achievement of sustainable Victorian authorities are considering priori- development, protection of human heritage, ties for the Victorian coast, including the and provision of recreation, education and Lower East Coast coastal region. Victoria, research opportunities. With over 5 percent through its Land Conservation Council, is of its maritime areas, now included within currently carrying out an assessment of can- MPAs, Australia's marine environment is rela- didate sites along its coast for the estab- tively well represented in MPAs in compari- lishment of a representative system of son with other regions of the world. These marine protected areas. This is expected to MPAs comprise many areas of outstanding be completed in the near future at which significance, yet the system has evolved time priorities will become available for the largely on an ad boc basis (Bridgewater and Victorian coast, including the Lower East Ivanovici 1993). While many areas in the Coast zone. tropics are well covered by MPAs, other ar- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 169 eas, particularly in the southern temperate re- The priority areas listed and described in gions, are poorly represented. Large sections this report could form an important compo- of Australia's marine environment have few nent of a national representative system of or no MPAs. MPAs: Efforts are under way, including the The need to develop a more systematic ap- development of an agreed national bio- proach to the establishment of marine pro- geographic classification system, to identify tected areas is being addressed through the other components of such a system. Such Commonwealth Government's Ocean Res- long-term efforts should proceed in parallel cue 2000 program, which includes the estab- with support for areas that are identified as lishment of a national representative system being of immediate priority. of marine protected areas as a primary objec- In Australia, as elsewhere, it is recognized tive. The program is providing support to that marine protected areas are but one com- state and territory agencies, many of which ponent of overall programs for coastal zone are also actively supporting development of management. Their success will depend on MPA systems for the areas under their own a number of factors, including: jurisdiction. . Community support and commitment to It has been argued that an accurate na- MPAs, which will be influenced by com- tional assessment of biogeographic cover munity understanding of how MPAs can cannot be made until a single biogeographic contribute to marine conservation and classification system has been applied nation- ecologically sustainable development and ally and an analysis made on the basis of the degree of consultation in identifica- this system. However, it has also been ar- tion, selection and management gued that, provided each government has . Industry support (particularly from fishing, carried out such an analysis based on any tourism and mining), which will be influ- competent, internally consistent bio- enced by the degree and nature of access to geographic classification systems, the degree MPAs and their perceived benefits and costs of coverage or representation of bio- * The willingness of governments to cooper- geographic types can be assessed ade- ate and share the costs and benefits of es- quately. tablishing and managing MPAs Currently, it is not possible to provide an . The degree to which MPAs can be estab- accurate measure of the degree to which lished and managed in an integrated and Australian marine environments are repre- coordinated fashion as part of programs sented in MPAs. However, there is sufficient for overall coastal zone management. information to show that for a number of the regions defined by CONCOM there are With government support for marine con- substantial gaps in the coverage of Austra- servation and marine protected areas, Austra- lian MPAs. There is also sufficient informa- lia is well placed to develop an MPA system tion to identify a number of areas that could that will ensure the conservation and sustain- fill some of these gaps. These areas have able use of all its marine environments, habi- been identified in this report. tats and species.

PART B NEW ZEALAN 172 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

BIOGEOGRAPHY1 AND MAARJNE ville Current. The Westland Current may at BIODIVERSrrY times continue northward from Cape Eg- mont to Cape Reinga. At other times there is Mainland New Zealand has a coastline more a southerly flow along the coast, known as than 16,000 kilometers long and a width of the West Auckland Current. This current, about 450 kilometers at its widest part. The however, is not a permanent feature and the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone ex- circulation along the west coast north of tends from 26°-56°S latitude. The waters Cape Egmont is highly variable. show a great range, extending from the Flow around southern New Zealand con- Subantarctic to the subtropical, and from the tributes to the northward moving Southland shallow continental shelf to the abyssal Current that flows up the east coast of the depths. The maritime area comprises South Island. The influence of the Subtropi- 242,800 square kilometers of shelf to a 200 cal Convergence in this area is apparent meter depth and an EEZ of 4,833,200 square with higher salinity and higher temperatures kilometers (Statistics New Zealand 1993). either side of the Southland Current. The cur- The coast is varied including cliffs, harbors, rent branches near Kaikoura with one beaches, fjords and vast bays. The wide vari- branch moving offshore and the other con- ety of physical conditions and New Zea- tinuing northward along the Marlborough land's geological isolation have contributed coast, across the Cook Strait to Wellington to the development of a rich variety of ma- and around Cape Palliser northward to rine animals and plants, including many en- Hawkes Bay. demic species. Two other currents influence the east coast of the North Island. Between North Oceanography Cape and East Cape is the southeastward- flowing East Auckland Current, derived from An important feature of the pattern of ocean the eastward-flowing water masses in the currents around New Zealand is that two northern Tasman Sea. As the East Auckland water masses, one warm and one cool, meet Current flows toward East Cape, it is de- in a broad zone of convergence. Known as flected offshore and part rounds East Cape the Subtropical Convergence, it is marked to flow southward along the coast as the by sudden changes of temperature and East Cape Current. It passes seaward of the salinity. Southland Current and continues offshore to Circulation off the west coast of New Zea- form a large, anticyclonic eddy with a radius land is related to Tasman Sea water move- of 50-100 kilometers. Its southward movements. The East Australian Current flows ment is limited by the Chatham Rise, a rela- south to about 34°S latitude off Australia tively shallow seabed feature that where part of it is deflected across the Tas- determines the position of the Subtropical man Sea toward northern New Zealand and Convergence. Southern New Zealand is also the rest continues southward to meet the influenced by the waters of the West Wind West Wind Drift at the subtropical conver- Drift, a cold Subantarctic flow. gence south of Tasmania. This current flows Around New Zealand there are three ma- eastward toward New Zealand dividing off jor water masses beneath the surface. At the west coast of the South Island near Jack- depths greater than about 5,000 meters is son Bay. Part of the flow passes round the the very cold Pacific Bottom Current. This southern end of the South Island and the re- dense water has its origins at the edge of the mainder flows northward along the coast as Antarctic continent. The Antarctic Intermedi- the Westland Current. A portion of this cur- ate Current originates from the very cold lati- rent flows into Cook Strait forming the D'Ur- tudes as a surface current, but dips beneath Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 173 the West Wind Drift to occupy a layer be- Bounty Islands are entirely granite, Auck- tween 700-2,000 meters around New Zea- land and Campbell are basalt shelf volca- land. Lying between these two layers at noes, and the Antipodes group is a complex 2,000-5,000 meters is the Pacific Deep Water. of volcanic cones and vents. Campbell and Auckland Island are exten- Coastal Geography and Geology sive and high enough to show Quaternary glacial features such as high cirques, steep- The following information is adapted from walled glaciated valleys and fjords, and Tortell (1981) and Higham (1991). periglacial sediments on raised beaches. New Zealand has a long and varied coast- The Kermadec Islands comprise a chain of line comprising headlands, bays, spits, bars, islands lying just east of the Tonga-Ker- cliffs and drowned valleys. The great diver- madec Ocean Trench and some 500 nautical sity of coastal landforms reflects the consider- miles north of the North Island of New Zea- able variations in geologic properties of the land. The area is volcanically active. materials found there, as well as differing re- The New Zealand continental shelf dips sponses to the complex interactions be- relatively gently to a water depth of 130 me- tween physical, chemical and biological ters, before giving way to the steeper conti- processes. nental slope. The width of the shelf varies The broad shape of the North Island is markedly. Off Fiordland, it is only 2 kilome- controlled by the occurrence of hard rocks ters wide in places, whereas off Taranaki at its extremities. Spits are well developed in and south of Stewart Island, it extends for the north, particularly those that join the more than 100 kilometers. North Cape area (Ninety Mile Beach) and At the edge of the shelf, the seabed drops Karikari Peninsula (Tokerau Beach) to the away as the continental slope, eventually lev- mainland. elling out again at depths of 3,000-6,000 me- Hard rock areas of Northwest Nelson, ters in vast ocean basins such as the Tasman Marlborogh Sounds, Kaikoura coast, Banks Basin and Southwestern Pacific Basin. How- and Otago Peninsulas, Nuggest Point and ever, the downward plunge of the continen- Fiordland provide the cornerstones for the tal slope is interrupted in places by South Island. Fiordland consists of deeply expansive deepwater plateaus like the Camp- glaciated steep-walled valleys. On the west bell Plateau, Chatham Rise and Challenger coast the major part of the coast consists of Plateau. The deepest parts of the New Zea- glacially derived deposits that are easily land sea floor are the trenches to the north- eroded and now form a series of cliffed east and southwest. The Kermadec Trench terraces. plummets to a depth of 10,000 meters. To the far south, New Zealand's Suban- tarctic islands are scattered across the Camp- Ecosystem Diversity bell Plateau, the submerged shelf of the southern New Zealand continental region. Estuaries and Enclosed Waters The plateau basement is granite and metamorphic rock more than 100 million years The following is from Westerskov and old. Before the southwest Pacific Ocean Ba- Probert (1981). sin began to form about 80 million years Many semi-enclosed parts of the New Zea- ago, the Campbell Plateau would have been land coast are estuaries. Most of New Zea- connected with Antarctica. The tiny base- land's 300 or so estuaries are shallow, ment outcrops of the Subantarctic island are river-fed inlets protected to seaward by a therefore crucial pieces in the Gond- sand or shingle bar. Other types are river val- wanaland jigsaw puzzle. The Snares and leys drowned by the gradual rise in sea level 174 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

at the end of the last glacial period, and with creeping mats of succulent jointed fiords, or glacier-scoured valleys invaded by stems. Another pioneer may be sea rush the sea. Unlike most of the estuaries, the (Juncus maritimus), often with jointed rush fiords are very deep and have few soft (Juncus articulatus) growing further inland. shores. In estuaries in the northern North Island, Estuaries and inlets are of vital importance mangroves may become established. in the life history of many freshwater and As the tides ebb and flow between the salt water fish, including a number of sought stems of these saltmarsh pioneers, more silt after species. Every sprin'g, estuaries through- accumulates and conditions increasingly fa- out New Zealand are invaded by vast num- vor terrestrial life. After several decades, the bers of whitebait (galaxiid species) returning stage is reached when the saltmarsh is rarely to rivers after a winter at sea. covered by the tides. Then it is known as a The land skirting estuaries and inlets has salt meadow. The beds of glasswort will always been desirable for human settlement. have been completely replaced by later colo- Archaeological remains show that the Poly- nists. Flowering carpets of Selliera radicans nesians who discovered New Zealand often and bachelor's buttons (Cotula coronopifo- settled in such locations. Here, the inhabi-' lia) scramble between clumps of sedges and tants found abundant fish, dense beds of rushes. Here and there, the seedlings of shellfish, and flocks of'edible birds. Later, shrubs such as saltmarsh ribbonwood (Pli- European settlers used these sheltered gianthus divaricatus) start to appear, taking places for mooring ships and boats. For advantage of the declining salinity and im- mnany years communication and trade within proving drainage. New Zealand depended on coastal shipping. It is important to realize that the sequence As a result, many towns and cities grew up is dynamic. As time passes, each zone of on harbors and estuaries. Today, extensive vegetation develops into the next stage of areas of enclosed shore show the effects of succession. The flats become covered with these settlements with much area changed saltmarsh, the saltmarsh becomes covered or damaged through dredging, infilling or with coastal scrub. Meanwhile, on the sea- pollution. ward margins of the flat, submerged eelgrass, meadows continue to expand Coastal Saltmarsb outward as more mud and silts are deposited beneath the waves. The following is adapted from Bishop (1992). When meadows of eel-grass (Zostera) es- Mangroves tablish in the tidal waters of the mudflats, they start a chain of events leading to-the The following is'adapted from Hackwell creation of a saltmiarsh. Their roots help ' (1989). bind the underlying mud and silts together New Zealand has a single species of man- while the sheltered'water around their grove, Avicennia marina var. resin/ffera, leaves and stems encourages more sediment which occurs in the harbors and estuaries, to settle. There follows a succession of differ- of the northern third of the North Island. ent plants, each one raising the surface a lit- The occurrence of frosts greater than -2.20C de more and then yielding to the next, just is though to limit the southward distribution as the eel-grass did. of mangroves. New Zealand mangroves are Often the first plant to take over the eel- of particular interest because they are very grass is glasswort (Sarcocorniaquinque- close to the southern limits of world man- flora), which covers the young saltmarsh grove distributi6n, and because of their rela- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 175 tively simple structure and low species diver- cludes Otago, Southland and Stewart Island sity. Measurements of New Zealand man-, and is influenced by the Southland Current grove productivity show that they are as and the West Wind Drift. There is, however, productive as more complex mangrove eco- a general pattern to the New Zealand rocky systems in the tropics. The mangroves occur shore and this is described below. either as monospecific stands forming a near The rocky shore between tides shows a closed canopy, or as individual trees associ- rapid change of communities over a short ated with estuarine rushes such asfJuncus vertical range. There are three main divi- spp. and Leptocarpusspp. sions: the littoral fringe, the eulittoral zone, More than 30 species of fish use man- and the sublittoral fringe. grove areas at some stage in their life his- The littoral fringe is inundated by only the tory. Twelve fish species use mangroves highest spring tides and is sometimes dry for permanently or semipermanently for feed- several days on end. It is climatically harsh, ing, spawning and shelter for juveniles. The with only a few well-adapted pioneer spe- most common.species is the yellow-eyed cies. mullet, Aldrichettaforsteri. The larger grey Above the fringe in the maritime zone, mullet (Mugil cephalus) also inhabits and grow yellow and grey-green lichens. Sessile, feeds among the mangroves. Flatfish, includ- attached animals are lacking, and the grazing sand flounders or dabs (Rbombosoleaple- ing gastropods are the two periwinkles, Li- beIa), greenback flounders (R. tapi*nna), torina unifasciataand L. cincta. yellowbelly flounders (R. leporina) and Typically, the eulittoral zone is manifest speckled soles (Peltorhampuslatus) feed on by the quantity of acorn barnacles, which on the rich invertebrate fauna of the tidal flats most temperate shores inhabit the upper of on the rising tide. Mangroves are a haven the zone's three subdivisions. The middle for large numbers of young flatfish. subdivision is, in central New Zealand, popu- Human activities such as infilling for agri- lated with, mussels (Mytilidae) and serpulid culture, rubbish disposal, and commercial tubeworms (Pomatoceros). The lower third land development have led to the loss of sig- of the zone is far more diverse with a turf of nificant areas of mangroves. the calcareous red alga Corallinaofficinalis, accompanied by the bladdered fucoid sea- Hard and Soft Shores weed Hormosira banksiz and sometimes by the green alga Codium convolutum. This Hard Shores large stretch of the shore with its three dis- The following discussion is from Tortell tinct subdivisions is twice daily covered and (1981). uncovered by the tide, even during the short- New Zealand's rocky shores show distinc- est neaps. tive regional differences in patterns of flora Below the eulittoral zone, the sublittoral and fauna. Northern New Zealand (North- fringe is uncovered only at lower than neap land Peninsula, Auckland area, and the Bay tides, and its lowest level, at extreme low- of Plenty to East Cape) have warm temper- water springs, is only exceptionally exposed ate shores influenced by the warm East to the air, and then only for very short Auckland Current. The Central New Zealand periods. region covers a large area from East Cape The sublittoral fringe is richly clad in on the North Island east coast and the top of brown algae including the Cystophora spe- the North Island west coast down to Otago cies (torulosaand retroflexa), Carpopbyllum and Fiordland in the South Island. From maschalocarpurm,and the laminarian Macro- here a Southern New Zealand region in- cystispyrifera. Smaller kelps (Lessonia vari- 176 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas egata and Ecklonia radiata) are also to be The long intertidal stretch is very level, fre- found. quently with wide sheets of standing water. Its surface-far from being smooth-is Soft Shores strewn with many signs of burrowing such The following discussion is from Tortell as projecting worm tubes, heaps of spoil (1981). from diggings, and coiled or piled-up sand- The soft, mobile shores of New Zealand castings. are less regionally distinctive than the hard Protected sandflats are a prolific habitat. shores. With a few notable geographic ex- Their sand is not constantly shifted by ceptions, the pattern of the fauna is charac- waves and much more organic detritus. set- teristic throughout New Zealand. Narrow tles as food. They are also more saline and zones of "upper shore" and "middle shore" better oxygenated, with less fine sediment to have been identified with a wider zone of smother or clog the gills of burrowing ani- the "lower shore" extending between low mals. neap and spring tides. The rich burrowing fauna begins in the Sand beaches are usually firm and hard coarser sand of the middle beach with the underfoot and standing water will not lie pipi (Paphiesaustralis) and increases to- long on the surface. The gradient of a sand ward the finer sediments of the low tidal beach is low and gentle; the profile be- flat. Here are found crowded beds of the comes steep and tiered only with gravel or cockle (Chione stutchburyb, a suspension boulders. Open beach sand is free of silt, feeder, and burrowing deeper; the long-si- even-grained and subject to constant wave phoned deposit-feeding Macomona liliana. action. At low spring tide level are still more bi- These conditions favor the toheroa valves, including Angulus gaimardi, Dosinia (Paphies ventricosum), which forms its zone subrosea, Myadora striata, and Paphiruslar- in the mid-beach. A profusion of mollusks gillieri. Common gastropods are Alcithoe just below wave-break includes Mactra dis- arabica, Strutbiolariapapulosa,S. vermis, cors, Longimactra elongata, Spisula aequilat- Pervicaciatristis, Baryspira zelandica, and, eralis, Angulus gaimardi, and Dosinia anus. higher on the beach, Cominella adspersa. Ianthinaand Spirulashells and blue si- The rich wealth of worm species includes phonophores are often blown in. nephtyids, glycerids, maldanids, terebellids, The open beaches of the east coast are ariciids, and spionids, as well as the distinc- composed of relatively coarse to medium tive Magelona, Owenia, Pectinaria, Sigalion, sand. Onshore surf, common on the west and Psammolyce. coast, is here confined to occasional periods The yellow proboscis worm, (Balanoglos-. of easterly wind. Toward low water the sus australiensis)as large as a pencil, is a dominant bivalve is the tuatua, (Paphiessub- distinctive organism as is the comb star (As- triangulatum). Beyond low tide appear tropectenpolyacanthus). Other sand echino- Panopeazelandica and the delicate golden derms include the brittle star (Amphiura Soletellina nitida. Ovalipes catharusis a aster), the worm-like holothurian (Trocho- common burrowing crab. dota dendyi) and sometimes the burrowing Much of the coastline is permanently cut urchins (Echinocardiunaustrale and Arach- off from the reach of oceanic waves. Such noides novaezelandiae). Deep burrowing shores include drowned harbors or, more crustacea include very typically the mantis generally, wide, level flats protected from shrimp (Lysiosquilla spinosa) and the frail long-wave fetch by spits or offshore islands. white ghost shrimp (Callianassafilbolh). These are often miscalled mudflats but their In the upper reaches of harbors and the sand lacks the sticky characteristics of mud. meanderings of tidal rivers, soft deposits ac- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 177 cumulate. Wave action and water movement tively long, thin chain that the islands form are just sufficient to sweep away the finer in the South Pacific Ocean. grades of silt. Expanses of sandy mud, vari- Reef floral and faunal assemblages gener- ously consolidated from the water's edge to ally vary in relation to the temperate sub- the top of the shore, occupy the whole of zones. Warm temperate reefs are the harbor laid bare at low tide. At low characterized by the kelp, Ecklonia radiata, water the mud are too soft to tread safely, or large, grazed areas of the urchin, while at mid-tide level they become more Evechinus chloroticus. Exposed shallow ar- stabilized. Above this they may begin to sup- eas are dominated by the fucoids, Carpophyl- port maritime vegetation. lum sp. Common fish include the seaweed The two bivalves, Chione stutchburyi and grazers-butterfish (Odaxpullus), parore Macomona liliana, are still abundant on the (Girella tricuspidata), silver drummer lower beach, with the pipi in coarser middle (Kyphosus sydneyanus), marblefish (Aplodac- beach sand toward harbor mouths. Bivalves tylus arcticdens), and black angelfish commonest in harbor mud include Cy- (Parma alboscapularis).Other common fish clomactra ovata, the fan mussel (Atrina include the spotty or paketi (Notolabrus celi- zelandica), and the little nutshell (Nucula dotus), banded wrasse (Notolabrusfucicola), hartvigiana) in countless thousands just be- hiwihiwi or kelpfish (Chironemus marmora- low the surface. Conspicuous organisms are tus), red moki (Cheilodactylus spectabilis), the burrowing crabs (Helice crassa and blue cod (Paraperciscolias), goatfish Macropbtbalmushirtipes) and the snapping (Upeneichthys lineatus), and snapper (Pa- shrimp (Alpheus). grus auratus). The deeper reef areas are cov- Further into shelter in soft mud, occur the ered with sponges, ascidians and other most harbor-bound species of all, the gastro- colorful encrusting animals. pods Amphibola crenata, Zeacumantus lutu- In the southern cooler waters, butterfish lentus, Diloma subrostrata, Cominella and marblefish are the main herbivores, and glandiformis and the small carnivore, blue moki (Latridopsis ciliaris), copper moki Xymeneplebeus. Where Zostera flats are (L. forstenr), and tarakihi (Nemadactylus found, as in the wide green swards of the macropterus) feed on the sea floor. Gener- Manukau Harbour, the scallop (Pecten no- ally, algal species diversity is greater in vari- vaezelandiae) forms large beds around low ety in the cool temperate waters. The water, where mullet and flatfish share the dominant kelp varies depending on expo- rich feeding grounds with wading birds as sure-the bull kelp, Durvillaea willana, is the tide ebbs and floods. present in exposed conditions and Macrocys- tispyrifera in more sheltered areas. The com- Temperate Reefs mon urchin, Evechinus, is also wide ranging in cool temperate waters. New Zealand's temperate reefs occur as far north as the Three Kings Islands (34°S lati- Coral Reefs tude) and as far south as Campbell Island (52°S latitude) in the Subantarctic islands The following is adapted from Ballantine group. In between lie the large North and (1991). South Islands and to the east the Chatham Is- New Zealand does not have any coral lands at 44°S latitude. Although much of reefs, however, the Kermadec Islands, lo- New Zealand lies within the broadly defined cated between 29°S and 32°S latitude are temperate zone, the biotic characteristics of bathed by the warm waters derived from the the reefs range from warm temperate Tasman Front. Although reef building corals through to cool temperate reflecting the rela- (hermatypic) are common, no reefs occur at 178 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas the Kermadecs. Most colonies are small (up New Zealand, with snapper (Pagrusaura- to 2 meters in diameter) with Turbinaria tus) being the best known and most impor- frondens common at Raoul Island. Soft cor- tant. This inshore species takes a wide range als are common at Macauley and Raoul Is- of seabed invertebrates and small fish. Snap- lands but patchily distributed. Neither the per are more common around northern New hermatypic nor soft corals are found off Zealand. Here, there are major spawning mainland New Zealand. The fish species at grounds where'the fish gather in summer. the Kermadecs are mainly subtropical (49 Exceptionally, adult fish can attain 1 meter percent) or tropical (36 percent), and the in length and be as much as 50 years old. commonest species found there are rare or Fine-grained sediments prevail on the absent from mainland New Zealand. The deep-sea floor, and miniature worms, bi- Kermadecs also have a significant number of valve mollusks and crustaceans are among endemic species including 29 percent of the the more important burrowers in deep-sea lace corals, 30 percent of the polychaete sediments. There is commonly little scope worms, 34 percent of the mollusks, and 44 for animals that need a hard surface for at- percent of the starfish and brittlestars. tachment. Mineral nodules offer opportunities in some areas. A feature of the Chatham ContinentalShel and Slope Rise at water depths of about 400 meters, for instance, is the presence of phosphate nod- The following discussion is from Bishop ules, mostly of 10-40 millimeters in size, (1992). which are often festooned with bonsai-like The surface nature of the continental shelf colonies of soft corals and bryozoans. strongly influences the types of organisms Compared with coastal waters, the deep that can live there. Thus the structure of sea- sea is a constant environment. Even the ef- bed communities on the continental shelf fect of latitude is relatively small, so that roughly parallels the prevailing sediment whereas many marine organisms of surface type. Communities dominated by deposit waters occur only in the north or south of feeders tend to be well represented on the country, those of the deep sea are often muddy shelves, such as off Westland, found throughout the region. Hawkes Bay and Wairarapa, whereas filter Nevertheless, New Zealand's commercial feeders are more abundant on the sandy catch is now dominated by deepwater spe- and gravelly shelves off Northland, Otage cies, a shift in emphasis following the decla- and Southland. ration in 1987 of the country's Exclusive Seabed communities also have their share Economic Zone. of scavenging and carnivorous invertebrates. Included among species trawled from con- These include many species of crab and her- tinental slope depths around New Zealand mit crab, sea snail, octopus, starfish and brit- are oreos, alfonsinos, roughies, rattails, hoki, tlestar. New Zealand has two species of rock hake, southern blue whiting and ling. Hoki lobster living at shelf depths. The common- (Macnruonus novaezelandiae), one of the est, the red rock lobster (Jasus edwardsit), is leading commercial species, occurs widely the basis of a commercial fishery. around New Zealand. Hoki congregate at Seabed invertebrates are also important in spawning grounds in winter, such as off the the diet of many species of fish that live on South Island west coast, an area that sup- or close to the bottom, such as dogfish, car- ports a major fishery. Orange roughy pet shark, skate, elephant fish, gurnard, (Hoplostetbus atlanticus) occurs extensively tarakihi, snapper and flatfish. Coastal species in the world's temperate seas. In New Zea- of bottom-dwelling fish have traditionally land, it is particularly abundant in such areas dominated the major commercial catch in as the Chatham Rise and Challenger Plateau Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 179 at water depths of 750-1,000 meters, where The North Island's west coast from Cape Eg- it has been a major fishery since the early' mont north is similar in many respects to the 1980s. It is, however, a very slow-growing northeastem assemblages with the presence species, only becoming mature at about 20 of Durvillaea species being the differentiat- years with a maximum age that may exceed ing factor. 100 years. This makes it highly vulnerable to From Cape Egmont south the algal assem- overfishing, an important consideration in blages show increasing dominance of south- many deepwater fisheries. ern flora. From East Cape to Cape Palliser on the eastern coast of the North Island Species Diversity northern elements gradually phase out and southern elements appear. The Cook Strait Plankton area is particularly interesting, showing a rich mixture of northem and southern ele- The following discussion is from Bishop ments along the North Island's south coast. (1992). In the South Island floral assemblages be- New Zealand's coastal waters are rich in come increasingly dominated by species typi- phytoplankton. Periodic upwelling of cold, cal of cooler southem waters. nutrient-rich water is a feature of the South Algal assemblages around the offshore is- Island west coast, and the water is swept in lands are of particular interest. a plume northward past Cape Farewell. The resulting boost to productivity appears to be Invertebrates reflected in the aggregations of krill and squid in western Cook Strait. The following discussion is from Depart- At times, overabundance of nutrients can ment of Conservation (1994). initiate an upsurge of plant plankton that col- Approximately 1,930 species and subspe- ors the sea. A brown discoloration of the sea cies of marine mollusks have been recorded commonly reported in Karamea Bight is due from the New Zealand region (excluding the to blooms of flagellate algae that are prob- Kermadec Islands). Approximately 90 per- ably induced by the upwelling. Some types cent of New Zealand marine mollusc species of blooms can reach hamtful proportions are endemic. From the relative proportions and become a potential problem for fish and of undescribed species from regional depth shellfish farmers. zones that have been poorly sampled, it is certain that a great many more species re- Macroalgae main to be discovered. New Zealand is known intemationally for The following discussion is from Depart- the diversity and abundance of living brachi- ment of Conservation (1994). opods. Currently, there are 30 brachiopod New Zealand has a rich marine macroal- species recorded from New Zealand gal flora of approximately 1,000 species. The (Dawson 1990),' and they comprise about 10 algal assemblages on New Zealand's North percent of the total recent brachiopod fauna and South Islands occur over broad geo- worldwide. New Zealand has a greater diver- graphic areas. From the northeast coast of sity of shallow water brachiopods than any the North Island south to the Bay of Plenty other comparable region in the world. With there is a northem assemblage comprising the exception of Th-ecidellina maxilla, dominant habitat formers such as Ecklonia which has a subtropical-tropical southem Pa- radiata/Lessoniavariegata on hard rock sur- cific distribution, all of the other shallow faces. CauleIpa species and a range of fo- water species are endemic to the New Zea- liose reds are dominant on sandy substrates. land biogeographic region. At generic level, 180 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Pumilus, Neotbyris, and Calloria(Cooper the description of Antipatbesfiordensis and Lee 1993) are restricted to New Zea- (Grange 1988, 1990), within-species variabil- land. Neocrania is cosmopolitan in distribu- ity has not been described, neither has the tion; Notosaria, Liotbyrella and Terebratella influence of environmental conditions. In ad- have a southern Pacific-subantarctic distribu- dition, descriptions have been based on tion. dredge material without well-preserved tis- Areas of special interest for brachiopod sue. Consequently, the taxonomic characters communities include: Kermedec Islands, are based on small skeletal spines, and these Hauraki Gulf, Lyttleton Harbour, Paterson In- have been recently shown to vary greatly let, Port Pegasus and the New Zealand fjords. along branches, with increasing branch di- There are probably about 1,100 species of ameter, and from different habitats (Grange bryozoans in the New Zealand region (904 1990). species are currently recognized). About 120 Because most New Zealand species have species would be commonly encountered narrow geographic ranges and the popula- by divers, although only one-third of these tions (within scuba depths) are small, all (about 40) would be conspicuous, erect New Zealand antipatharians are protected forms. Although few, if any, bryozoan spe- species (New Zealand Fisheries Regulations cies are threatened, their habitats are. Cur- 1981). rently one shallow-water bryozoan species, Alcyonidium sp., is considered to be rare. Fish Sponge and ascidian distributions throughout New Zealand parallel each other, and The following discussion is from Depart- the distributions appear to be related to their ment of Conservation (1994). Iimited modes of dispersal. The total number of fish species formally There are very localized and discrete as- recorded from New Zealand is 1,008 (Paulin semblages of sponges and ascidians around and others 1989) and is currently increasing New Zealand's coast and across the conti- at a rate of about 50 additional species per nental shelf, such that in any single locality year. The majority of the fish found in New there is a high level of endemism. New Zea- Zealand are also found in other regions of land, therefore, is rich in terms of species the world: cosmopolitan, 494; Indo-West Pa- abundance and biomass for these two cific, 89; Australia, 145; Southern hemi- groups. sphere, 52; Tropical, 43; and Unknown, 75 The restricted modes of dispersal of these species, respectively. faunal groups, combined with the complex These species found in other geographic oceanographic features that influence New regions may be found virtually anywhere in Zealand's coast and continental shelf, make New Zealand. In many instances species a highly varied and complex biogeography. reach New Zealand only as "stragglers," and The taxonomy of New Zealand species of although they may be rare in New Zealand, Antipatharians (or "black coral") is very substantial populations often occur else- poorly known. A total of nine species has where. Although many of the species are been described from New Zealand waters, not unique to New Zealand, the overall com- but only three of these are likely to be position of the fauna is, and consideration found within scuba depths. A further three should be given to protecting areas of typi- species are known from the Kermadec Is- cal habitat and fauna, particularly in areas lands, but these remain undescribed. Seven that have not been exploited commercially, species were described from a single dredge such as Chathams. haul off North Cape by the Terra Nova Expe- Over 100 species of marine fish are en- dition in 1910-13 (Totton, 1923). Except for demic to the New Zealand region. Several of Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 181 these species occur in areas of restricted ing major feeding places, Parengarenga, Ran- habitat and are possibly at risk. Insufficient gaunu Bay, Firth of Thames, Manukau and data are available for endemic species found Kaipara harbors are important arrival and de- only below a 200 meter depth. The majority parture points for many migratory birds. of these species are widespread in the New Farewell Spit on the north west of the South Zealand region and are probably not directly Island deserves special mention for its impor- threatened or endangered. tance to migratory wading birds. The total number of endemic fish restricted to areas of less than 30 meter depth Mammals is 61 species. The geographic distributions, habitats and New Zealand is near the northern limit of ecological associations of New Zealand fish the southern hemisphere seal distribution. species, particularly noncommercial coastal Seven species have been recorded in New fish, are poorly known. The icythyofauna Zealand waters but of these only three spe- can be divided into five geographic regions cies are normally resident. The elephant seal defined and supported by species distribu- (Mirounga leonina) is the largest of the pin- tions: Kermadec, Northern, Widespread, nipeds, adult males weighing over 3,000 kilo- Southern, and Subantarctic New Zealand. grams. They spend much of their time at sea, making large migrations and often re- Seabirds turning to their point of birth. The main colony in New Zealand waters is the Campbell New Zealand has a diverse marine bird Islands. Hooker's sea lion (Pbocarctoshook- fauna. A large number of endemic birds live en) is endemic to New Zealand and can be and breed within the coastal zone. Others found mainly on the Subantarctic Islands. breed on offshore islands and feed further There are only about 6,000 Hooker's sea li- afield in ocean waters. Furthermore, many ons in existence, making them one of the coastal areas are used by wintering migra- rarest sea lions. The New Zealand fur seal tory birds that breed in the northern hemi- (Arctocephalusforsten), the most common sphere and migrate to spend the rest of the of all pinnipeds in this area, occurs on the year in the southern hemisphere. main and offshore islands. It can be found Gulls are by far the most common spe- as far north as the Three Kings Islands, but cies. Some marine birds are widely distrib- the main populations are around the South uted around the coast while others have a Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Island and very restricted distribution. Of note are pen- the Subantarctic Islands. A fourth species, guins, with 14 of the 18 penguin species the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), is a breeding on New Zealand or the Suban- seasonal vagrant, but is frequent enough to tarctic Islands, including the rare yellow- be included in New Zealand's coastal fauna eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). (Tortell 1981; Bishop 1992). New Zealand's range of climate from sub- The fur seal rookeries on the New Zea- tropical through temperate to Subantarctic larid mainland are more common on the provides opportunities for migratory birds southwest coast of the South Island, which that may not be available elsewhere. Many is influenced by the merging warm and cool wading species arrive at the start of the New waters of the Subtropical Convergence. Zealand summer having completed their From the 1790s seals have been hunted at breeding in the northern hemisphere. Estuar- such a rate that by 1830 the New Zealand ies and large harbors particularly in the Fur Seal was on the verge of extinction on northern part of New Zealand, are important the mainland. In 1894 the New Zealand Gov- feeding places for these birds. As well as be- ernment passed the first laws protecting fur 182 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas seals and the population has increased, al- Kaikoura on the east coast of the South Is- beit slowly, to the present estimated 40,000- land is famous for its whale and dolphin en- 50,000. counters. Here nutrient-rich water from the In 1978 the Marine Mammals Protection Southern Ocean rises close to shore, support- Act was passed by the New Zealand Govern- ing massive plankton production and high ment. Under the Act, all whales and seals in fish numbers attracting whales and dolphins New Zealand waters, including the Exclusive that gather to feed on the fish and squid that Economic Zone are fully protected. abound. Visitors to Kaikoura can observe New Zealand has eight species of baleen whales and dolphins from boats and swim whales and 24 toothed whales species in its with Dusky dolphins (Lagenorbynchus ob- waters. New Zealand waters straddle the tra- scurus). ditional migration routes of at least three of New Zealand has one of the highest rates the large whales. These are the sperm of whale and dolphin strandings in the (Physeter catodor), humpback (Megaptera world. In all species except pilot-whales novaengliae), and right (Balaena australis) (Globicephala), strandings have been indi- whales that arrive in New Zealand waters in viduals or small groups of no more than 10. the spring and autumn months. Single ani- Pilot whales, on the other hand, strand en mals and small family groups can, however, masse. Many strandings have occurred in the be seen the year round (Tortell 1981; Bishop Farewell Spit area. 1992; Szabo 1992. During the course of their migxauLul,, Biogeographic Classification whales, like other migratory animals, are be- lieved to seek points of reference or "land- There are several accounts of New Zealand's marks." Sperm whales, for example, travel marine biodiversity, based on a variety of cri- along the edges of ocean deeps or the conti- teria and resulting in different biogeographi- nental shelf. Humpbacks and right whales cal schemes (for example, Powell 1961; move through straits, or close inshore, as Knox 1960, 1975). King and others (1985) they cruise the enclosed waters of harbors, produced a three-tier habitat classification bays and fjords with their young or while scheme encompassing the entire coastal and feeding on squid and fish in areas of up- nearshore marine realm. This was the first at- welling and high productivity such as at the tempt to provide a biogeographical frame- heads of submarine canyons at Kaikoura work specifically intended to assist the and in Cook Strait. selection of an ecologically representative New Zealand was a whaling nation until system of marine protected areas. 1964 when the last whaling station in Tory The Department of Conservation held a Channel (Marlborough Sounds) closed. workshop in late 1992 with the objective of New Zealand has 15 of the world's 60 dol- dividing New Zealand's marine environment phin species. The common dolphin (Del- into biogeographic regions for the purpose phinus delphis), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops of assisting with selection of marine reserves turncatus), endemic Hector's dolphin (Walls 1994). The workshop was attended by (Cephalorhyncusherctor), and the killer seventeen marine scientists and conservation whale (Orcinus orca) are also found the managers and included specialists in a-range year round in coastal waters. Killer whales of marine taxa, marine geology, and coastal are most commonly encountered in Cook geomorphology, oceanography, coastal re- Strait or in larger harbors such as Wellington sources and others with experience in domes- and the Bay of Islands. tic and international marine reserve issues. Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 183

The information base used to develop the Existing MPAs are: classification system included distribution patterns of fish, mullusca, echinoderms, bryozoa, Marine Reserves: sponges, ascidians, antipatharia, foraminifera, _ Kermedec Islands brachiopoda and algae. Factors used to differen- _W Poor Knight Islands tiate distribution patterns included endemism, _ Cape Rodney-Okakari Point species diversity, as well as geological and _O Whanganui A Hei oceanographic features. Specific zones and _4 Tuhua (Mayor Island) some sub-zones were identified despite the ob- _ Kapiti Island vious diversity of taxonomic groups used in the _ Long Island-Kokomahua analysis. Following assessment and analysis of _ Tonga Island this information, participants were able to pro- _ Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) duce a map of New Zealand's marine bio- _O Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut) geographic zones and sub-zones. _ Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) In all, eight biogeographic zones and several sub-zones were identified (Map 18). Marine Parks: 1. Kermadec Island _ Tawharanui 2. Three Kings-North Cape _ Mimiwhangata 3. Northeastern 4. Central Special legislation: 5. Chatham Island _ Sugar Loaf Islands Marine Protected 6. Southem Area 7. Snares Island 8. Subantarctic (Auckland Island, Campbell Map 18 shows the above areas, those ma- Island, Antipodes Island and Bounty Island) rine areas for which protected areas proposals have been submitted, and the 25 areas where investigations are under way to create new marine protected areas. In addition, ASSESSMENT OF EXSTING MPAS there are two marine mammal sanctuaries established under the Marine Mammals Protec- Description of National MPA Systems tion Act at Banks Peninsula and the Auckland Islands. The recent international in- Although New Zealand has had specific leg- itiative of the IWC to amend the Schedule to islation enabling the establishment of marine the International Convention for the Regula- reserves for more than 20 years (Marine Re- tion of Whaling resulted in the establishment serves Act 1971), the country's marine pro- of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary in tected areas system remains in a relatively September 1994. The Sanctuary starts south rudimentary state of development (Ballan- of 40°S except for the coastline around tine 1991; Dingwall 1992). South America and includes the waters Marine protected areas in existence by around the lower half of New Zealand. April 1994 include eleven marine reserves, Establishment of the Department of Con- two marine parks established under fisheries servation in 1987 as the country's principal regulations, and the Sugar Loaf Islands MPA. protected area agency saw the beginnings of Thus, only a small fraction of the country's a concerted effort to improve the legal provi- coastline (less than 1 percent) is currently sions for marine protection and to expand under legal protection. the marine protected area network (Hand- 184 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

ford 1987; Walls and McAlpine 1993). Atten- oped biogeographical classification scheme tion is being given to long-overdue reform and a scientific approach to identifying and' of the principal enabling legislation, the Ma- selecting areas meriting marine protected ar- rine Reserves Act 1971, which has proven to eas status. be too restrictive. Essentially, it confines reservation to areas of demonstrable scientific International and Regional Initiatives value and gives only secondary attention to Relating to MPAs natural, scenic, recreational and cultural values for protection. This legislative review is Ramsar Convention still in progress. The Department of Conservation has also There are no Ramsar sites declared in New embarked on a program for systematic exten- Zealand that have been identified as MPAs. sion of the marine protected areas system. The strategic approach has three stages as World Heritage Convention follows. Stage I from 1987 to 1991 was aimed at ex- There are no World Heritage sites declared tending the geographic spread of marine rein New Zealand that have been identified as serves. Without an accepted biogeographic MPAs. However, there is currently an infor- subdivision of New Zealand's coastal and mal proposal to pursue a World Heritage marine environments, it was considered that nomination for the marine environment first-order representation of coastal diversity around Fiordland. in protection could be achieved by establishing at least 1 reserve in each of the 13 re- UNESCOMan and the BiospherePrognme gional Conservancies having coastal areas. Stage II, from 1992 to 1994, is an interim There are no UNESCO Biosphere Reserves period of consolidation, which is intended declared in New Zealand that have been to emphasize completion of current investi- identified as MPAs. gations, preparation of formal proposals, and gazettal of as many of these proposed Assessment of Representation reserves as possible. Successful achievement of Biogeographic Zones of these objectives would result in a remark- able sixfold increase in the number of New Table 18.3 shows the extent to which the Zealand's marine reserves in the seven years marine biogeographic zones in New Zea- from 1987 to 1994. land are represented in MPAs. During Stage III, from 1995, long-term de- The Northeastern, Central and Southern re- velopment of an expanded marine protected gions include most of the New Zealand areas system would occur, guided by bio- coast, and these zones include 13 of the 14 geographical principles. MPAs. The Northeastern and Central regions The Department's long-term goal in its ma- have the most MPAs with 11 in total, fol- rine reserves program is to establish and lowed by the Southern zone with 2. The manage a marine protected areas network other zone represented is the Kermedec Is- protecting representative and unique areas lands (which falls in the South Pacific Ma- of New Zealand's coast for their intrinsic val- rine Region 14). ues and for the benefit of present and future There are no MPAs in three of the smaller generations. This demanding task will re- zones: Three Kings Island-North Cape, quire the application of the recently devel- Chatham Island, and Snares Island. Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 185

Table 18.3 Representation of New Existing MPAs that require management Zealand Marine Biogeographic Zones support: In MPAs As explained above, highest priority has Number been given to the establishment of new BiogeograpbicZones of MPAs MPAs. Existing MPAs are listed above. Kermadec Island 1 Regional Priorities for the Establishment Three Kings Island/North Cape 0 and Management of MPAs Northeastern 6 Chatham Island 0 Based on this assessment and also consider- Southern 2 ing the Subantarctic Islands, the following Snares Island 0 sites are considered to be of regional priority: Subantarctic (Auckland Island, 0 Cam pbeUll Island, Antipodes Island Proposed new MPAs: and Bounty Island) Pooe e Ps > Eastern Great Barrier Island, Outer Total 14 Hauraki Gulf 0 Fiordland - Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Camp- bell, Antipodes, Bounty Islands)

PRIORITY AREAS AND RECOMMENDATIONS These sites are described in the references provided in the bibliography. National Priorities for the Establishment and Management of MPAs Other Recommendations Table 18.4 lists areas in New Zealand that are at various stages in the process leading Legislative Framework to statutory protection as an MPA. The highest priority for New Zealand is to protect The Marine Reserves Act, 1971; the Resource new areas which have been identified as Management Act, 1991 and the Fisheries Act, warranting protection. 1983 are the key statutes involved in conservation of the marine environment, planning Proposed new MPAs: for coastal activities, and sustainable manage- These areas (not including the Suban- ment of marine resources in New Zealand. tarctic Islands) have been assessed against Coastal management under the Resource the criteria listed in the introduction to this Management Act will inevitably be more report and the result is given as a score in comprehensive and well integrated than un- column four. der previous legislation. Key national priori- On the basis of this assessment it can be ties are the preservation of the natural seen that the highest priority sites for pro- character of the coast, maintenance and en- posed new MPAs in New Zealand (not in- hancement of access, and recognizing the re- cluding the Subantarctic Islands) are as lationship of Maori, their culture and follows: Eastern Great Barrier Island-Outer traditions. Hauraki Gulf, Bay of Islands (North Island), The Resource Management Act is ex- Fiordland, Kaikoura, Nugget Point, and Pa- cluded from allocation of fisheries rights and paroa (South Island) (see Map 18). cannot include policies that have the pur- 186 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 18.4 Sites under Investigation for the Establishment of MPAs in New Zealand Location ProposalType CriteriaMet Number

Three Kings Islands I/P N,B,Ecol,Sc,I/N,P 6 Taronui I/P N,Ecol,So,Sc,P 5 Bay of Islands I/P N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,VN,P 8 Motu Karori I/P N,B,So,Sc,P 5 E. Great Barrier Island I/P N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,I/N,P 8 Mahurangi I/P - 1+ Long Bay/Okura A B,Ecol,Ec,Soc,Sc,P 6 Pollen Island A Ecol,Soc,Sc,P 4 Waiheke V/P - 1+ Firth of Thames I/P N,B,Ecol,Sc,L'N,P 6 White Island I/P N,B,Ecol,Ec,Sc,I/N,P 7 Whale Island I/P N,B,Ecol,Sc,P 5 Maraetae I/P N,B,Ecol,So,Sc,P 6 Kaiora I/P N,B,Ecol,So,Sc,P 6 Te Angiangi A N,B,Eco,So,Sc,P 6 Wellington South Coast I/P N,B,Ecol,So,Sc,P 6 Pauatahanui I/P N,B,Ecol,So,Sc,I/N,P 7 Pukerua I/P N,B,Ecol,So,Sc,P 6 North Taranaki I/P N,B,Ecol,Sc,P 5 French Pass I/P N,B,Ecol,Sc,P 5 North Nelson I/P - 1+ Kaikoura A N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,I/N,P 8 Akaroa I/P - 1+ Timaru I/P N,Ecol,Sc,P 4 Nugget Point A N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,I/N,P 8 Paterson Inlet I/P N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,P 7 Fiordland I/P N,B,Ecol,Ec,So,Sc,VIN,P 8 Jackson Bay I/P - 1+ Moeraki I/P - 1+ Paparoa I/P N,B,Eco,Ec,So,Sc,I/N,P 8

- Data not available. Note: The areas on the list are at various stages in the process leading to statutory protection. They have been used in this prioritising exercise based on the assumption that the greatest priority for New Zealand is to protect new areas that have been identified as warranting protection. I/P-Investigation or proposal at various stages of development prior to the statutory process by either an outside group or the Department of Conservation; A-A formal application to the Director-General of Conservation by either an outside group or the Department of Conservation. Source: Kelleher and Kenchington 1992.

pose of effecting fisheries. While the Re- conservation of New Zealand's fisheries and source Management Act does provide a ma- fisheries resources. The rights of Maori to jor mechanism for protecting coastal values, fisheries resources has been a major issue in it is not primarily a reservation act. The pri- New Zealand. Legislative provision has been mary act used for establishing marine pro- made allowing special commercial and non- tected areas is the Marine Reserves Act. commercial access to fisheries, including spe- The Fisheries Act is the major legislative in- cial areas protected for customary and strument providing for the management and traditional use. Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 187

Both the Marine Reserves Act and the Re- network will primarily use this legislation, al- source Management Act have complemen- though other protection initiatives suited to tary functions. Further, the fisheries legislation particular circumstances such as the imple- also has the potential to operate in a comple- mentation of special legislation, will also be mentary way by acting as a buffer between considered. The marine biogeographic restrict protection and managed fishing. For ex-, gions developed already will be used as the ample, Maori traditional fishing areas can theo- framework within which habitats are classi- retically lie adjacent to marine reserves. fied and candidate areas selected for protec- The Marine Reserves Act provides for es- tion. The Department of Conservation is tablishing and managing marine reserves for currently developing a classification system the purpose of preserving them in their natu- to facilitate the selection process. After the ral state as the habitat of marine life for sci- candidate areas have been identified, biologi- entific study. The public is generally not cal, social, economic, and pragmatic criteria restricted from access to marine reserves will be used to-select particular sites for res- with the reserves providing them with oppor- ervation. Each site will undergo a detailed tunities for observation and education. Com- public consultation process before it is for- mercial fishing is prohibited and no marine mally established under the legislation. reserve can be established within an area Public consultation and community in- that is a marine farm. There is provision for volvement in marine reserves are vital to the amateur fishing; however, this is imple- success of New Zealand's marine reserves mented under special circumstances, being re- network program and will continue to be en- stricted to very limited fishing. The provision couraged by the Department. Further, the can also be used to provide for Maori tradi- Marine Reserves Act enables certain outside tional fishing. Each marine reserve is subject groups to make marine reserve applications, to a detailed public consultation process with as well as the Director-General of Conserva- key interest groups being commercial and rection. Outside applicants have been responsi- reational fishing sectors and Maori. ble for several marine reserves established With the exception of one marine reserve to date. (Poor Knights Islands), all others established An important management component of to date have been for nonextractive' pur- marine reserves is monitoring. A plan to es- poses. Consequently, marine reserves in tablish a national monitoring program for New Zealand tend to be small, with the aver- marine reserves is.currently being developed. age size of the mainland marine reserves be- The Department will also investigate link- ing 752 hectares. However, this figure ages with coastal management under the Re- contrasts with the remote Kermadec Islands source Management Act, fisheries and other Marine Reserve that is approximately relevant legislation. The ultimate goal for the 748,000 hectares and is totally protected. Department's activities in the coastal marine environment is to ensure that marine biodi- Future Directions versity is protected and maintained through the use of a number of mechanisms, includ- The focus for protecting marine areas in. ing marine protected area networks and im- New Zealand has, to date, been mainly proved management of activities that may through the Marine Reserves Act. Continueu have a detrimental impact on the marine en- development of a marine protected areas vironment. 188 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

APPENDIX and green turtles (Chelonia mydas). The population along the Northern The following section provide a description Territory coast is relatively small, and of priority areas identified in parts A and B centered on the Darwin region. The of this report. Except where noted the infor- proximity of the proposed Beagle Gulf mation for these descriptions was provided Marine Park to Darwin places resource- by the contributors listed at the beginning of use priorities on the enclosed marine the report. environment. However, much of the coast is as yet inaccessible except by Australia boat, limiting the pressures from recreational and commercial activity. As a re- Proposed New MPAs: sult, much of the coastline and marine p Beagle Gulf Marine Park (Northern Ter- environment are largely unaffected by ritory, Australia): The proposed marine human influence. - park encloses an area of approximately The proposed marine park would 5,100 square kilometers, and includes benefit the local fishing industry by the entirety of the coast from Cape providing added protection to large ar- Ford in the West to the eastern side of eas of breeding and nursery habitat of Cape Hotham. Within this area are in- commercially important species. cluded a significant proportion of the Coastal wetlands, mangrove forests coastal ecosystems of the coast of the and seagrass beds within the marine Darwin region. Biogeographically the park area are significant to barra- area includes elements from both the mundi, reef fish, mudcrabs and Indian and Pacific Ocean flora and prawns. The Park has significant poten- fauna. The area proposed for the ma- tial for tourism development and rec- rine park encompasses a diverse range reational activities, of which of habitats including mudflats, saltmar- recreational fishing is presently the shes, rocky shores systems, fringing most significant activity. The area in- and isolated coral reefs, extensive man- cludes a number of wrecks of histori- grove systems and seagrass beds. cal significance. Aboriginal people A reef system at the southern end of have a continuing tradition of use the Grose Island chain is a major feed- within the area proposed for the ma- ing ground for subadult green turtles rine park. Declaration of the marine (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill turtles park will provide for continued subsis- (Eretmochelys imbricata), and is consid- tence fishing, hunting and other tradi- ered perhaps the most important site tional pursuits. Potential for Aboriginal of its kind in Australia. Offshore from people to pursue cultural tourism ven- this site, in Fog Bay are feeding tures will be enhanced. grounds for olive-Ridley (Lepidochelys The proposed Beagle Gulf Marine Olivacea) and loggerhead (Caretta Park is a major marine conservation in- caretta) turtles. Flatback turtles (Nata- itiative of the Northern Territory Gov- tor depressus) nest on beaches in the emient. It is anticipated that initial Grose Island and along the coast imme- stages of the park will be declared in diately to the south. 1994. The proposed park will be Seagrass beds are scattered through zoned for multiple-use, allowing most the area of the park and these may be current uses to continue, with those ac- of significance as transitory feeding tivities with adverse environmental im- grounds for dugong (Dugong dugon) pacts being limited or phased out. Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 189

Torres Strait (Queensland, Australia): mum utilization of stocks and maxi- The Torres Strait is located at the end mum participation of local communi- of the Sahul shelf between Papua New ties. Protection of Torres Strait has the Guinea and Cape York Peninsula and full commitment of the Australian, represents the meeting of two ocean Queensland and Papua New Guinea systems, the Coral Sea to the east and Governments, and is endorsed under Indian Ocean (Arafura Sea) to the Treaty arrangements. For the purposes west. A wide range of islands and reefs of this report the area has been identi- are present including volcanic, conti- fied as a priority for a new MPA by nental, coral and alluvial islands with Queensland State Government authori- fringing, platform and barrier reefs and ties. submerged banks. The deep waters of P Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland, Aus- the Coral Sea are separated from the tralia): Occupying approximately shallow waters of the continental shelf 370,000 square kilometers on the conti- by the outer reef of the Great Barrier nental shelf of northern Australia, the Reef. The Strait is 150 kilometers wide Gulf of Carpentaria is a shallow body and has an area of 30,000 square kilo- of water, less than 70 m deep. The meters, including 150 islands, islets, Gulf is enclosed by the Northern Terri- coral reefs and cays. tory and Queensland, and includes 136 Extensive seagrass communities sup- estuaries and numerous salt marshes port a dugong population estimated at and lagoons. The area was identified 24,225, making the area the most im- as a priority by Queensland State gov- portant dugong habitat in Australia and emient authorities. probably the world. Mangroves are Mangroves and seagrasses are an dominant along much of the coast and important feature of the Gulf, particu- make a major contribution to the pro- larly for their productivity and as a ductivity of the area. Six species of ma- source of nursery areas, food and shel- rine turtles are present: green, ter for fish and invertebrates. Sea- hawksbill, olive Ridley, loggerhead, grasses are also grazed by the green leatherback and flatback; the area is turtle and dugong. Six species of ma- one of the world's few remaining rine turtles are found in the Gulf: the breeding grounds for the hawksbill green, flatback, hawksbill, leatherback, and the world's largest breeding loggerhead and olive Ridley. Dugong ground for the flatback. are present over an extensive portion Fisheries resources are important of the coast. with an estimated sustainable yield of Both the freshwater and saltwater around 20,000 tons. The area also has crocodile are present, with the western great cultural significance for Torres shoreline of Cape York being one of Strait Islands and Papua New Guinea the most important crocodile breeding communities. The Torres Strait Pro- and recruiting areas in Queensland. tected Zone is established under the Both these species are protected terms of the Torres Strait Treaty (1978) throughout Australia. between Australia and Papua New The prawn fishery of the Gulf is an Guinea. The Australian portion is man- important component of its social and aged under the Torres StraitFisberies economic life. The high productivity of Act 1984, which provides a framework the Gulfs shallow waters is reflected in for management of the Strait's fisheries, its large annual production of prawns. and aims for conservation and opti- The importance of the prawn fishery 190 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

lead to closure of its waters to the de- just west of Cape Adieu to Eucla in mersal trawl fishery in 1979. As a re- Westerm Australia, and a distance out sult, the Gulf remains the only shallow to sea of 12 nautical miles. waterbody in Australia that is almost The Great Australian Bight is recog- commercially unexploited for finfish as nized as a significant seasonal habitat well as all other commercially fished for many species of rare and endan- species in the world (Comalco Alu- gered marine mammals. At least 17 spe- minium Limited, 1993). cies of cetaceans have been recorded * Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits (Queensland, including blue, sperm, minke and Australia): 'Mangroves, saltmarsh and humpback whales. In particular the seagrass are dominant features of this Great Australian Bight is significant as region. In terms of area these ecosys- a seasonal habitat of the endangered tems cover 2,800 hectares, 15,500 hec- southern right whale. Specific areas tares and 12,300 hectares respectively. such as the Head of the Bight and Mer- Six species of seagrass occur in the dayerrah Sandpatch represent some of area, and these are important to com- the few critical areas in the world for mercial and recreational fisheries and the birth and raising of southern right to protected fauna such as turtle and whale calves. This is one of the few ar- dugong. A total of 11 mangrove spe- eas in the world where southern right cies occur, forming'a transition be- whales breed and nurse their young in tween essentially temperate and an area that is readily accessible to the tropical flora. Saltmarshes are com- public and within close proximity to monly found in the upper intertidal the shore. area, however they are not as exten- The area includes species of commer- sive, nor as floristically diverse as cial and recreational fisheries impor- southern counterparts. tance including abalone, crayfish, The sheltered waters of Hervey Bay mulloway and tuna. There are existing and the Great Sandy Strait have been trawling and shark gillnetting fisheries. shown to be an extremely important Pinnipeds include the New Zealand area for both dugong and turtles (six fur seal and Australian sealion. Fairy species). Humpback whales (at least penguins are also present. South Aus- 200; probably 300-400) enter the Bay tralia has the richest assemblage of as- during their annual migration after calv- cidians or "'sea-squirts" in the world, ing and mating in the coral sea. Whale with over 200 described species. Many watching is an important focus for tour- of these species have been recorded ism in the area. near the offshore islands of the Great The area also supports significant Australian Bight region and among the commercial and recreation fishing in- extensive limestone cave systems of dustries. The proposal for Hervey western Eyre Peninsula. Other marine Bay/Sandy Strait represents a south- vertebrates such as sea slugs are also ward extension of the existing Hervey very well represented in the Great Aus- Bay Marine Park (established 1989) to tralian Bight. The warm water of the include the Sandy Strait area. Leeuwin Current is though to be re- _$w Great Australian Bight Marine Park sponsible for a unique "tropical" or (South Australia): The proposed Great Indo-Pacific element both in the demer- Australian Bight Marine Park covers an sal and pelagic fauna of the Great Aus- area stretching from the Dog Fence, tralian Bight. Tropical pelagic species Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 191

move with the Leeuwin Current in nautical miles. The MPA would be rep- their migration from spawning grounds resentative of subantarctic marine areas in the Java Sea. and would contribute to the mainte- The area has been subject to very nance of marine species and those ani- low levels of human impact and re- mals which use the existing Macquarie tains high scenic and wilderness val- Island Nature Reserve. ues. It also has a long history of Kent Group, Bass Strait (Tasmania, Aus- Aboriginal habitation. tralia): An MPA based in the Kent The proposed park covers an area of Group in Bass Strait would be repre- 1,614 square kilometers of State waters sentative of a unique biophysical re- (State jurisdiction extends out to three gion which has elements of the nautical miles). The total area for the Peronian, Flindersian and Maugean ma- Commonwealth waters is yet to be de- rine provinces. The area has high diver- termined. The proposal is being devel- sity and is largely undisturbed. Some oped through the South Australian of the islands of the Kent Group are ex- Department of Primary Industries in isting reserves and on the Register of consultation with other groups. the National Estate.

' Macquarie Island: The island is located Rocky Cape, Western Bass Strait (Tas- in the southern ocean about 1,500 kilo- mania, Australia): The proposed MPA meters south of Hobart, Tasmania. It is would be an extension to the existing one of the largest islands in these terrestrial Rocky Cape National Park. It subantarctic latitudes, with a high diver- would be representative of the Flinder- sity of fauna, spectacular rookeries of sian (or southern Australia) biophysical the endemic royal penguin, abundant region. The region has very high ma- seabirds and seals. rine plant diversity. The terrestrial com- The most abundant mammals is the ponent is on the Register of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leon- National Estate. ina), with a population of 100,000 indi- v Maria Island National Park (extension) viduals. (Tasmania, Australia): Maria Island is lo- The Island is presently administered cated off eastern Tasmania. The Park as a Nature Reserve by the Tasmanian boundary extends to generally 1 kilo- National Parks and Wildlife Services. meter from the northwestern shoreline The boundaries of the existing reserve of the island, from Fossil Bay to the extend from Mean High Water Mark to northern part of Chinaman's Bay. Be- Mean Low Water Mark, covering the in- tween the Isle Du Nord and Return tertidal zone around the 82 kilometer point, the boundary coincides with the length of coastline. Recreational and 20 meter depth contour. commercial fishing are permitted to oc- The objectives of the Park are to pro- cur subject to fisheries legislation tect and conserve representative (Ivanovici, 1984). samples of the area's marine life, to The island has been established as a provide a breeding ground for fish and Biosphere Reserve, is on the Register to improve fish stocks in neighboring of the National Estate and' has been areas. Commercial fishing is prohibited proposed for World Heritage listing. A while recreational fishing is permitted MPA is proposed with a core protected in some areas of the Park. Recreational area of 12 nautical miles and a buffer activities such as snorkeling, sailing multiple use protected area out to 200 and diving are permitted. 192 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The major environment types present The island was declared a World Heritage are seagrass, giant kelp forests, rocky Site for its terrestrial features and there is an reefs, sandstone reefs and underwater existing terrestrial National Park. The New caverns and caves. South Wales Department of Fisheries is pro- The Park has a marine area of 1,878 posing the establishment of a Marine Re- hectares and is managed by the Tasma- serve for State Waters extending from Lord nian Department of Environment and Howe Island, Ball's Pyramid and the smaller Land Management and the Department islands out for.3 nautical miles. The Reserve of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Energy. would be zoned to provide for multiple-uses The existing Park has been found to- subject to an overriding conservation objec- be not fully representative of the tive. Maugean biophysical region which is a particularly Tasmanian region.and Existing MPAs which Require Management one of the smallest in the world. Support: Extension of the Park to ensure that it is Ow .Cobourg Marine Park (Northern Terri- more representative of this region is a tory, Australia): Cobourg Marine Park priority. is situated at the confluence of Indian *OLord Howe Island Marine Reserve Ocean and Pacific Ocean oceanic circu- (New South Wales, Australia): Lord lation, and its biota reflect this nexus. Howe Island and its associated islets The waters of the northern side of the (the Admiralty Group, and Ball's pyra- Marine Park are generally clear, of sta- mid) is located about 630 kilometers ble salinity, and subject to negligible off the north coast of New South Wales. anthropogenic impact, enabling the de- It is a volcanic island consisting of a velopment of perhaps the most diverse narrow strip of land 11 kilometers long and extensive fringing coral reefs of orientated in a north-south direction. the Territory coast. Over 60 species of coral have been The Park has an area of 229,000 hec- identified within island waters,, forming tares and surrounds Gurig National the world's most southerly barrier coral Park which includes the terrestrial por- reef and lagoon. Coral reefs on the is- tion of the Cobourg Peninsula, ena- land are unique in that they are in a bling complementary management of transition between algal and coral reef the entirety of the land/sea interface caused by oscillations of hot and cold on the Cobourg Peninsula. water around the island, and is one of Threatened species found within mLe the southemmost reefs in the world. A marine park include dugongs (Dugong number of zoogeographic components dugon), green turtles (Chelonia my- are represented by the fauna and -the Is- das), leatherback turtles (Dermochelys land is central to a region of significant coriacea), hawksbill turtles (Eretmoche- endemism among fish and other organ- lys imbricata), olive Ridley turtles (Lepi- isms (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). dochelys olivacea), loggerhead turtles The island supports a rich diversity (Caretta caretta), and the flatback tur- of fish and invertebrates, particularly tle (Natatordepressus) which is en- echinoderms. The fish fauna includes demic to northem Australia. The tropical, oceanic and southem -temper- endangered Estuarine Crocodile (Cro- ate elements. A total of 490 fish species codylusporosus) is found all along the are recorded, of which tropical species coast. Extensive seagrass beds are dominate. The area is important for ma- found throughout the Park, although rine turtles and seabirds. their precise extent -and species compo- Marne Kegion 18: Australia/New Zealand 193

sition are yet to be determined. draft management plan has been pre- Studies of invertebrates in the marine pared for public comment by the New park have revealed great diversity, South Wales Department of Fisheries. with 122 species of sponges, 136 spe- Management of the Bay will be based cies of coral, 300 annelids, 75 crusta- on a zoning strategy which will allow ceans,. 331 mollusc species and for reasonable multiple-use of marine approximately 100-echinoderm species and estuarine resources while ensuring being found., Mangrove communities that those resources are used wisely exist along most of -the coast and are and at ecologically sustainable levels. an important nursery- habitat for many _Ow Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (New aquatic species, including commer- South Wales, Australia): The Marine Re- ciaily important reef fish and mud serve, gazetted on May 11, 1991, is the crabs. largest MPA in New South Wales and The park is a major marine conserva- one of the most important marine bio- tion initiative of the Northem Territory logical areas on the east coast of Aus- Government, and receives commensu- tralia. It is located approximately 600 rate support. A draft management plan kilometers north of Sydney on the has been developed and the area of NSW north coast. The Reserve extends the park has been declared a Fisheries along approximately 75 kilometers of Managed Area; a draft Fisheries Man- coastline from Coffs Harbour, north to agement Plan is currently being pre- Plover Islands, east of the mouth of the pared. Sandon River. The Marine Reserve ex- w"O Jervis Bay Marine Reserve (New South tends seaward from mean high water Wales, Australia): Jervis Bay is located mark out to the 50 m depth contour or 180 kilometers south of Sydney. The three nautical miles east from North Bay and its adjacent waters host a and South Solitary Islands. unique marine heritage of exceptional The Reserve has a marine area of ap- ecological diversity, scenic beauty and proximately 100,000 hectares which is amenity; and a rich and extensive. Abo- jointly managed by two government de- riginal and colorful European history. partments. NSW fisheries is responsible -The Reserve encompasses a wide for 75,000 hectares and ANCA is re- range of estuarine and marine habitats, sponsible for 15,000 hectares. including some of the most significant The area represents an overlap zone seagrass meadows in New South between tropical and temperate faunas Wales, mangrove and saltmarsh areas, and also supports some species which rocky reefs and .a variety of soft-bot- are endemic to this area of subtropical tom habitats which support a wide di- Australia. Studies of algae and fish versity of marine life. These habitats within the Reserve have identified over support over 200 species of fish, 185 160 and 280 species respectively. Algae species of algae and more than 200 and fish within the Reserve reflect species of invertebrates. Marine mam- strong affinities with both Queensland mals (including a semiresident popula- and- southern Australia flora and fauna. tion of dolphins), numerous waders The overlap of tropical and temper- and seabirds (including penguins) are ate faunas within the Reserve are present. influenced by both the warm south- Jervis Bay supports a variety of com- ward-flowing East Australian Current mercial, recreational, scientific, and a cooler northward-flowing eddy educational and traditional uses. A which originates in the Tasman Sea. 194 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The two current systems mix within sive in the world and provide habitats the Reserve resulting in the high diver- for rich communities of macrophytic al- sity of marine life which is charac- gae, fishes and invertebrates. teristic of the area. Other features of the marine The offshore islands within the Re- environment with high conservation serve also support the southern-most value include the most southerly resi- reef building coral communities on the dent populations of dugong and green east coast of Australia. While these turtle, the internationally famous bot- communities do not form reefs as in tlenose dolphins of Monkey Mia, and tropical waters, they dominate some important nursery areas for several sections of the underwater habitat of valuable recreational and commercial this area. A total of 90 species of reef- fisheries. building corals have been recorde'd Shark Bay is also a site of great his- from the shallow reefs surrounding the torical significance, including for the main island within the Reserve. history of Australian marine science. The Reserve also includes the tidal Together with the adjacent terrestrial waters of creeks, rivers, bays and la- environment, Shark Bay has been de- goons within its boundary, providing clared a World Heritage Site. Manage- for protection of all marine and estu- ment plans are being prepared for the arine fish habitats. The Reserve is an marine and terrestrial reserves of Shark important recreational and commercial Bay by the Western Australian Depart- asset for fishermen, divers, boating en- ment of Conservation and Land Man- thusiasts and a wide range of other us- agement. ers. The reserve is zoned to include "O Ningaloo Marine Park (Western Austra- areas for reasonable uses and others lia): The Ningaloo Reef is the largest where there is a high level of protec- fringing barrier reef in Australia, form- tion. ing a discontinuous barrier enclosing a "O Shark Bay Marine Park (Western Austra- lagoon which varies in width from 200 lia): Shark Bay is a very large, shallow m to over 6 km. The width of the conti- embayment, open to the north, with nental shelf in the Park is narrower narrow inlets separated by long, slen- than at any other location in Australia. der peninsulas. It is the only major em- This allows deep oceanic waters close bayment on the west coast of Australia to the reef. between Exmouth Gulf and Cokburn Most of the reef lies within the tropi- Sound. cal belt of the Indo West Pacific Faunal The seabed is typically composed of Region with the Tropic of Capricorn calcareous sands with vast areas of crossing the southern end of the Park. dense seagrass meadows. For the most The majority of the species present are part the shores of the inlets are sand widespread throughout this region al- beaches although there are some rocky though within the southern part of the shores. The eastern shore of the Bay, Park there occurs a transition to tem- south of Carnavon,' has a very low pro- perate types. file backed by a fringe of mangroves More than 200 species of corals have and an enormous nearshore calcareous been recorded, as have over 500 spe- sand bank. Tidal sand flats and exten- cies of fishes and 600 species of mol- sive subtidal sand banks are a feature lusks. The Park also supports the green of the bay, The seagrass meadows and turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill tur- sand banks are among the most exten- tle (Eretmochelys imbricata), dugong Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 195

(Dugong dugon), humpback whale species on the rock platforms at West and the whale shark (Rhinodon typus). End and a "reef' of the coral Pocil- The Park contains habitats which are lopora damicomis at Parker Point. important as feeding and nesting sites There is a rich flora of marine algae for waders and seabirds. which has close affinity with the ma- The inner portion .of Ningaloo Marine rine flora of southern Australia but in- Park was gazetted under State legisla- cludes a tropical element. At the tion in 1987 while the outer portion eastern end of the island there are ex- was declared under the Common- tensive seagrass meadows. It is for wealth National Parks and Wildlife Con- these reasons that the area has been servation Act 1975 later that same year. identified by the Western Australian En- Integrated management plans for the vironmental Protection Authority as be- State and Commonwealth parts of the ing worthy of reservation for research marine park were produced and and education (CALM, 1994). adopted in'1989 and are now in force _ Shoalwater Islanrds Marine Park: The (CALM, 1994). Marine Park was declared over the wa- The Park has become an important ters between Cape Peron and Becher recreation resource and a primary at- Point, encompassing Shoalwater Bay traction for the' tourism industry. Dive and Warnbro Sound. At the time of and Whale Shark tours and fishing writing this report the Department of charters operate from the nearby Conservation and Land Management towns of Exmouth and Coral Bay and had begun preparation of a manage- an interpretive centre has been'estab- ment plan. lished (CALM, 1988). The area includes limestone reef ar-

.Ow Rottnest Island Reserve: The reserve in- eas which' are rich in macro algae and cludes waters surrounding Rottnest is- benthic invertebrates and provide habi- land for 'a distance of 800 m offshore tat and refuge for a wide variety of reef and is managed by the Rottnest Island fishes. The reefs are deeply .undercut Authority in collaboration with the Fish- and cavernous and there is a colorful eries Department. The purpose of the wall fauna of suspension-feeding inver- reserve includes public education and tebrates. The wide sandbanks with protection of flora and fauna and the dense seagrass meadows and the deep natural environment. central basin of Warnbro sound are dis- The marine environment surrounding tinctive features. The Warnbro sound the island is characterized by limiestone remains the only' pristine habitat of this shores, with cliffs and intertidal rock type on the West Coast. platforms and sandy beaches in the The islands and rocks' in the park are bays between the headlands. The near- important seabird nesting sites. Of par- shore areas have complex limestone ticular significance is the Little Penguin reef systems which are deeply under- rookery on Penguin Island. Australian cut and cavernous. The rock platforms Sealions use some of the islands as support a rich invertebrate fauna haulout and resting areas. Both these which has been the subject of research ani'mials feed within the park and there and teaching programs by the Univer- is some question whether they are com- sity of Western Australia and other edu- peting with recreational and commer- cational institutions for rmany years. cial fishermen for the same resource. Features of particular interest include ' Recreation fishing is a popular activ- the presence of a number of tropical -ity within the park. The sheltered wa- 196 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

ters and clean sand beaches also make Fiordland (New Zealand): There are the area for other recreational activi- two existing marine reserves located ties. Commercial boat tours operate in within the many fiords adjacent to the the park. The hinterland of this area is land area of Fiordland which is a na- quickly becoming urbanized and the in- tional park. Piopiotahi in Milford tensity of recreational use of the park Sound has an area of 690 hectares and is rapidly increasing (CALM, 1994). is representative of the middle and outer sound. The steep rocky walls New Zealand support black corals while some areas of the fragile and extremely slow grow- Proposed New MPAs: ing red hydrocoral remain. The area Eastern Great Barrier Island-Outer has been depleted of edible species of Hauraki Gulf (New Zealand): The pro- fish such as blue cod, tarakihi and rock posed marine reserve is located on the lobster and the marine reserve would exposed northeastern coast of Great provide an opportunity for these spe- Barrier Island, a large offshore island cies to recover. in the outer Hauraki Gulf. It includes Te Awaatu is very small (93 hectares) the Whangapoua estuary, a nationally by comparison and protects a unique significant wetland area supporting assemblage of fragile benthic fauna as- wading birds including the endangered sociated with a drowned glacial sill. It Brown Teal. is one of the most diverse deep reef Rakitu Island is the ancestral home of systems yet discovered in the fiords. Al- Rehua, the founding ancestor of Ngati most every species throughout the Wai o Aotea. Ngati Wai use the Whan- fiords occurs there, including rare deep gapoua estuary for subsistence and it is water fish (yellow weaver, southern proposed that shellfish collection will splendid perch), all species of brachi- continue in this estuarine section of the opods, sea pens, hydrocorals, gorgoni- marine reserve. ans, black coral, zoanthid anemones, The marine area incorporates repre- feather stars and dense bryozoan lace sentative examples of virtually all the corals. features characteristic of the intertidal The adjacent terrestrial area of Fiord- and subtidal environments of the east- land is protected as a large national ern Great Barrier Island coast. There park. The fiords themselves cover a are a number of special features, in- large area and have an enormous cluding an extremely varied submarine length of coastline. However, the habi- topography which provides unusual tat available for the unique assem- and spectacular scenery. The proximity blages of species for which the fiords of the area to the continental shelf com- are renowned are restricted to a rela- bined with the mixing of warm oce- tively narrow band below the low salin- anic waters and coastal waters has ity surface layer (6 meters depth) and resulted in a diverse and unique assem- above 40 meters depth. It has been cal- blage of flora and fauna. Fish recorded culated that the total habitat area of the within the area include pelagic migra- fiords is only 32 square kilometers tory species, species with a New Zea- spread over a 949 kilometers coastline. land-wide distribution, species with a The fiords support over one half of all northeastern distribution and species coastal fish species likely to be seen in with subtropical affinities. New Zealand waters, the world's larg- Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 197

est population of black coral, the group has a small number of endemic world's most diverse brachiopod species. The fish fauna is poorly stud- fauna, several new species of marine ied but appears to be low in diversity. animals and many rare species. It is be- A common feature of all the islands is coming increasingly acknowledged by the relative low diversity of marine researchers in the area that the entire flora and fauna compared with the marine environment of the fiords New Zealand mainland. should be protected. A proposal for All of the island groups have Nature protection of the fiords has recently Reserve status and are National Re- been put forward by the New Zealand serves as defined by S.13 of the New Marine Sciences Society and the Royal Zealand Reserves Act 1977. There is a Forest and Bird Protection Society. marine mammal sanctuary covering a m4sw Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Camp- 20 kilometer zone around the Auck- bell, Antipodes and Bounty Islands, land Islands which protects Hooker's New Zealand): The New Zealand sea lion. Established fisheries around subantarctic island groups comprise the subantarctic islands include; squid, the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes southern blue whiting, orange roughy and Bounty Islands. They have been and scampi. Special fishing permits grouped into a Subantarctic bio- have been issued for several species of geographic region as part of a New spider crabs. Zealand regionalization initiative for de- Threats to these islands include: fish- veloping a network of marine reserves. ing methods (Hookers sea lion caught The islands are influenced by the in trawl nets, destruction of the ben- cold subantarctic waters driven north- thos by scampi trawling, sea bird by- wards by the West Wind Drift and ex- catch through longlining for fish); hibit assemblages of fish, flora, development of new fisheries such as ascidians and sponges which are char- paua (abalone); oil exploration and acteristic of both southern New Zea- visitation (there is increasing interest in land and the subantarctic. The islands developing a nature tourism industry are widely separated and are of differ- in the area). ing geological ages. Each has its own Unlike areas at equivalent latitudes in unique assemblage of seaweeds, inver- the Northern Hemisphere, the shallow tebrates and fish. The marine biota at water habitats of the southern ocean each island comprises three groups- are rare, being restricted to the island the largest group is species that are groups. The seas surrounding these is- also found or have close relatives on lands provide habitat and food for nu- the New Zealand mainland, a smaller merous seabirds and marine mammals group comprises circumpolar species including several relatively rare species and there is a small endemic element such as southern royal albatrosses, yel- for each island. low eyed penguins and Hooker's Sea The marine algae includes several un- Lions (Auckland Islands), erect-crested described seaweeds, some of which penguins, rock hopper penguins and are very common, even ecologically wandering albatrosses (Antipodes Is- dominant. Bryozoan records show a di- lands). verse range of endemic species. On The Auckland Islands comply with the other hand, the molluscan fauna is all the criteria used in this report. How- limited in variety although each island ever, the area is more modified than 198 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

the other island groups because of its Comalco Aluminium Limited. 1993. Marine biota proximity to important commercial fish- atlasforthe Gulf of Carpentaria.Prepared of ing grounds and the anchorage it pro- Comalco Aluminium Limited by Living Planet vides to the fishing fleet. The Bounty Analysis. Brisbane, Queensland: Comalco Alu- and Antipodes Island groups should minium Limited. also beAonsipderdIland troupsp houyfConservation and Land Management (CALM). also be considered a top priority for a sigl,lrg,arnepa.,T1988. e Ningaloo marinepark managementplan snmgle large marie protectea area. They 1989-1999. Management Plan No. 12. Perth, comply with all the criteria and are re: Western Australia: Department of Conservation garded as comprising a marine ecosystem and Land Management. which is near pristine and vulnerable . 1994. A Representative Marine Reserve to the effects of exploitation of marine System for Western australia. Report of the Ma- resources. The Campbell Islands are rine Parks and Reserves Selection Working also worthy of marine protected area Group. Perth, Western Australia: Department status, also complying with the eithg of Conservation and Land Management. criteria listed in IUCN "Guidelines for. Davie, PJ.F. 1985. The biogeography of littoral establishing Marine Protected Areas." crabs (crustacea, decapoda, bracbyura). Department of Conservation. 1994. Status listfor Existing MPAs that Require Management New Zealand's marinefloraandfauna. Draft. Support: ~~~~~~~~~~~Wellington. uPPort: Dingwall, P. 1991. Global network ofprotected ar- No areas have been identified as priorities. eas: The Antarctic Region. Report prepared for CNPPA. . 1992. Review ofprotected areas in the Antarctic and New Zealand Region. Proceed- BIBLIOGRAPHY ings IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Vene- zuela, February 1992. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. ANPWS. 1992. Submission to Coastal Zone In- Francis, M. 1988. Coastalfishesof New Zealand. quiry ResourceAssessment Commission. A diver's identificationguide. Heinemann Reed. Australian Committee-World Conservation Union Hackwell, K.R. 1989. New ZealandMangroves. (ACIUCN). 1986. Australia's marine and estu- Wellington: Department of Conservation for arine areas:A policy forprotection. Occasional Nature Conservation Council. Paper Number 1. Handford, C. 1987. Towards an action plan for Ballantine, Wj. 1991 Marine Reservesfor New marine protected areas in New Zealand. In Zealand. Leigh Laboratory Bulletin No. 25. Uni- P.R. Dingwall, ed., Conserving the naturalheri- versity of Auckland. tage of the Antarctic Realm. Gland, Switzer- Bishop, N. 1992. NaturalHistory of New Zealand. land: IUCN. Hodder and Stoughton. Higham, T., ed. 1991. New Zealand'sSuban- Bridgewater, P., and A. Ivanovici. 1993. Achiev- tarctic Islands: A guidebook. Wellington: De- ing a representative system of marine and estu- partment of Conservation. arine protected areas for Australia. In A.M. Ivanovici, A. 1984. Inventory of declared marine Ivanovici, D. Tarte, and M. Olson, eds., Protec- and estuarineprotected areas in Australian wa- tion of marine and estuarineareas: A chal- ters. Volume 2. Special Publication 12, Austra- lengeforAustralians. Proceedings of the lian National Parks and Wildlife Service. Fourth Fenner Conference on the Environ- Kelleher, G., and R. Kenchington. 1992. Guide- ment, Canberra, 9-11 October 1991. Occa- linesfor establishingmarineprotected areas. A sional Paper No. 4. Sydney: Australia Marine Conservation and Development Report. Committee for IUCN. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Clarke, M.R., and P.R. Dingwall. 1985. Conserva- King, Kj., and others. 1985. Coastaland marine tion of islands in the Southern Ocean. Cam- ecologicalareas of New Zealand- a preliminary bridge, U.K.: IUCN. survey classificationforconservation purposes. Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand 199

Information Series No. 15. Wellington: Depart- Udvardy, M.D.F. 1975. A classification of the bio- ment of Lands and Survey. geographicalprovincesof the world. Occa- Knox, G.A. 1960. Littoral ecology and biograpby sional Paper No. 18. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. of the Southern Oceans. Proceedings of the Walls, K. N.d. The New Zealand experience in Royal Society of London, Series B 152. developing a marine biogeographic regionalisa- - . 1975. The marine benthic ecology and tion. In Proceedings of ANZECCNationalAdvi- biogeography. In G. Kuschel, ed., Biogeogra- sory Committee on Marine ProtectedAreas. pby and ecology in New Zealand. The Hague, Marine Biogeographic Regionalisation Workshop, Netherlands: Dr. W Junk. Sydney, Australia, March 1994. Forithcoming. Powell, A.W.B. 1961. New Zealand biotic prov- Walls, K., and G. McAlpine. 1993. Developing a inces. Tuatara9:1-23. strategy for a network of marine reserves Statistics New Zealand. 1993. Measuring up New around New Zealand: A manager's perspec- Zealanders and the environment. Wellington. tive. In C.N. Battershill and others, eds., Pro- Szabo, M. 1992. Symphony of the dolphins. New ceedings of the Second International Temperate Zealand Geographic 14: 100-125. Reefs Symposium (7-12 January 1992). Welling- Tortell, P. 1981. New Zealand atlas of coastal re- ton: NIWA Marine. sources. Wellington: Government Printer. Westerskov, K., and K. Probert,K. 1981. The seas around New Zealand. Heinemann Reed.

Contributors

Many people and organizations contributed not have been completed without the strong directly to these reports. The major authors support and assistance of Vili Fuavao and or editors of each regional report in Volume Joe Reti of SPREP. IV have prepared the following highlights of The biogeographic classification presented these contributions. here was developed by Paul Holthus and Jim Maragos, based on the classification de- Marine Region 14: South Pacific veloped by Maragos (1992) for the marine component of the South Pacific Ecosystem This report has been compiled by Chris Classification System. The classification pro- Bleakley (GBRMPA) from a report for posed by Dahl (1980) is also described. The CNPPA by Paul Holthus and James Maragos lists of MPAs were prepared by Paul (East West Center, Hawaii) and subsequent Holthus, based on work by Holthus and literature review by Sue Wells. Other indi- Thomas (1991), and have been reviewed by viduals who have contributed are listed regional and national representatives. Draft below. priority areas were identified by Sue Wells The following individuals contributed in- using the criteria outlined in the introduction formation or comments to the report: Simp- to this report and a review of literature in- son Abraham (Kosrae State, Federated States cluding UNEP/IUCN (1988), IUCN (1991), of Micronesia), Ernst Bani (Environment and Scott (1993). These areas were sub- Unit, Vanuatu), Moses Biliki (Ministry of sequently reviewed by national repre- Natural Resources, Solomon Islands),. Ahita sentatives listed at the end of the report van Breda (Foundation for Peoples of the during and subsequent to meetings at the South Pacific, Vanuatu)" Robin Connor (Solo- fifth South Pacific Conference on Nature mon Islands Development Trust), Nancy- Conservation and Protected Areas, held in Daschbach (Fagatele Bay National Marine Nuku'Alofa, Tonga, in October 1993. Gen- Sanctuary, American Samoa), Richard Far- eral recommendations are drawn from man (Department of the Sea, South Prov- K-enchington and Bleakley (N.d.). ince, New Caledonia), Tom Graham (Department of Natural Resources, Northern Marine Region 15: Northeast Pacific Mariana Islands), Rachel Houlbrooke (Solo- mon Islands Development Trust), Gaikovina This report has been produced for IUCN Kula (Department of Environment and Con- and CNPPA by Miles M. Croom and Robert servation, Papua New Guinea), Tanya Leary J. Wolotira of the National Oceanic and At- (The Nature Conservancy), Tauraki Raea mospheric Administration (NOAA), William (Cook Islands Conservation Service), Alefaio Henwood of Parks Canada, and Patricia Al- Semese (Office of the Prime Minister, Tu- mada-Villela, consultant in conservation and valu), Birandra Singh (National Trust for aquatic biology. Other individuals who con- Fiji), Cedric Schuster (Department of Environ- tributed comments include: Francine Mercier ment and Conservation, Western Samoa), (Parks Canada), Claude Mondor (Parks Can- Julita Tellei (Palau Resource Institute), ada), Bruce Amos (Parks Canada), Leslie Taniela Tukia (Ministry of Lands, Survey and Beckmann (Arctic Resources Committee/Ca- Natural Resources, Tonga), and Yolande Ver- nadian Nature Federation), Cheri Recchia naudon (Service de la Mer et de l'Aquacul- (WWF Canada). ture, French Polynesia). The report could

201 202 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The list of existing MPAs was produced Hurtado (Charles Darwin Foundation, by Miles Croom in an inventory undertaken Ecuador) in 1992. The biogeographic classification is Other individuals who contributed are: that developed by the authors mentioned Eric Cardich (Sociedad Pachamama, Peru), above. Priority areas were identified by Alberto Carvacho (Sinergos Consultores, Miles Croom in July 1994. Chile), Gustavo Suarez de Freitas (Funda- cion Peruana), Juan Carlos Godoy (IUCN Marine Region 16: Northwest Pacific Central America Regional Office, Costa Rica), Bernardo Ortiz von Halle (IUCN Re- This report was compiled by Fran,ois Si- gional Office for South America, Ecuador), mard of the Oceanographic Museum of Mon- Nicolas Roncagliolo Higueras (Secretary Gen- aco. Other individuals who contributed eral-Permanent Commission for the South information are: Pacific, Peru), Anne-Catherine Lescrauwaet Sang-Bok Hahn (National Fisheries Re- (CMT, Venezuela), Leonardo Mariduena search and Development Agency, Republic (Fundacion Natura, Ecuador), Carlos de of Korea), Hsiao-yu Tang (Council of Agri- Paco (IUCN Central America Regional Of- culture, Taiwan [China]), Ling-Ling Lee (Na- fice, Costa Rica), Jose Joaquin Rodriguez tional Taiwan University), Li Guoging (State Toledo (IUCN Central America Regional Of- Oceanic Administration, China), Shigeki Ko- fice), Magdelena del Valle (Sinergos Consul- mori (World Wildlife Fund, Japan), Tsutomu tores, Chile), Pedro Vasquez (Universidad Matsuura and Atsuchi Osumi (Fisheries Nacional Agraria La Molina, Peru), and Agency, Japan), Vadim Mokievsky (Russian Yerko Vilina (University of Chile, Chile). Academy of Sciences), Hiroyuki Nakahara The biogeographic classification adopted (Research Institute for Ocean Economics, Ja- for this report is that proposed by Hayden, pan), Tatsuo Nakai and Mashito Yoshida Ray, and Dolan (1984). Lists of MPAs and pri- (National Conservation Society of Japan), Al- ority areas have been identified by the con- exander Nikol'skii (Russian Academy of Sci- tributors listed above. The report was edited ences), Joanna Ruxton (World Wildlife Fund, by Chris Bleakley and Richard Kenchington Hong Kong), Sergey Sheveiko (World Water (GBRMPA). Project), Sin Pan Lau (Country Park Author- ity, Agriculture and Fisheries Department, Marine Region 18: Australia/New Zealand Hong Kong), Tokunosuke Tsuchiya and Shuichi Fujiwara (Marine Parks Center of Ja- The following report was prepared by pan), Wang Xianpu (Academica Sinica, Graeme Kelleher (GBRMPA), Chris Bleakley China), Susan Wells (U.K.), Bo-Myeong Woo (GBRMPA), and Kathy Walls (Department of (Seoul National University, Republic of Ko- Conservation, New Zealand) for the section rea), Zhou Qiulin (State Oceanic Administra- on Australia and by Kathy Walls and Paul tion, China), and Alexei Zimenko (Moscow Dingwall (Department of Conservation, New University). Zealand) for the section on New Zealand. Much of the information presented in this Other individuals who contributed infor- report has been obtained from original data mation or comments are: Karen Anutha (De- and documents provided by the contributors. partment of Environment and Land Management, Tasmania), Ron Billyard (Con- Marine Region 17: Southeast Pacific servation Commission of the Northern Terri- tory), Peter Bosworth (Department of This document was compiled primarily from Environment and Land Management, Tasma- a report prepared for IUCN-CNPPA by Mario nia), Hugh Chevis (Department of Conserva- tion and Land Management, Western Contributors 203

Australia), Peter Coyne (Australian Nature New Zealand. National priority areas were Conservation Agency), Jenny Curnow (De- identified by Kathy Walls. partment of Environment and Heritage, The regional priority areas have been de- Queensland), Gary Mahon (Department of ternined by the authors on the basis of the Conservation and Natural Resources, Victo- criteria in the introduction from the two sets ria), Vic Neverauskas (Primary Industries De- of national priority areas. All national prior- partment, South Australia), Peter Ottesen ity for Australia and three sites in New Zea- (GBRMPA), Dave Perkins (Department of En- land have been identified as regional vironment and Heritage, Queensland), Dave priorities. Pollard (New South Wales Fisheries), and The Australia/New Zealand Marine Region Lee Thomas (Australian Nature Conservation includes marine areas off the coast of the Agency and CNPPA Vice-Chair for the Aus- Australian continent, the North and South Is- tralian region). lands of New Zealand and the Kermedec Is- Working groups have been established in lands. The Subantarctic islands of Macquarie each country of the region, Australia and (Australia), Antipodes, Auckland, Bounty New Zealand. Each working group has car- and Campbell (New Zealand) are also in- ried out a national review of marine biodi- cluded. versity and MPAs and determined which Material provided for the State of the Ma- sites are of national and regional priority for rine Environment Report (SOMER) by the fol- the marine biodiversity conservation. lowing authors has been used in the Information on marine biodiversity and production of this report: general oceanogra- biogeography for Australia has been com- phy, J.H. Middleton (University of New piled from contributions to Australia's draft South Wales, Sydney); estuaries and en- State of the Marine Environment Report closed waters. P. Saenger (University of New (SOMER). The relevant contributions are England, Northern Rivers, Lismore, N.S.W.; listed below. Lists of MPAs for Australia coastal saltmarsh, P. Adam (University of were obtained in an inventory jointly under- New South Wales; mangroves, A.I. Robert- taken by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park son and D.M. Alongi (Australian Institute of Authority (GBRMPA) and the Australian Na- Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland); ture Conservation Agency (ANCA), with in- hard and soft shores, P.G. Fairweather formation provided by state, territory and (Graduate School of the Environment, Mac- Commonwealth government authorities. The quarie University, N.S.W.) and G.P. Quinn biogeographic classification system used for (Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Bi- Australia is that presented by ACIUCN , ology, Monash University, Victoria), and (1986) and is an interim classification that other sources; temperate reefs, Mj. Keough has been adopted for use pending the devel- (University of Melbourne) and Aj. Butler opment of a more comprehensive system.. (University of Adelaide); coral reefs, J.E.N. The assessment of MPAs is drawn largely Veron (Australian Institute of Marine Science from a paper written by Bleakley, Ivanovici Townsville); continental shelf and slope, and Ottesen (1994) for SOMER. National pri- G.C.B. Poore (Museum of Victoria, South ority areas have been proposed by govern- Melbourne); phytoplankton, G.M. Hallen- ment authorities. greff (Department of Plant Science, Univer- Data on marine biodiversity, biogeogra- sity of Tasmania, Hobart); invertebrates, phy and MPAs in New Zealand were pro- Ross (Australian Nature Conservation vided by Kathy Walls and Paul Dingwall. Agency, Canberra), and other authors); ma- The biogeographic classification for New rine reptiles, H. Marsh (Environmental Stud- Zealand is that adopted for national use in ies Unit, James Cook University), Pj. Cockeron (Department of Veterinary Anat- 204 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas omy, University of Sydney), Cj. Limpus rier Reef Marine Park Authority) and A. (Queensland Department of Environment Ivanovici (Australian Nature Conservation and Heritage, Brisbane), P.D. Shaughnessy Agency). (CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, Ly- Other references are ACIUCN (1986), neham), T.M. Ward (James Cook University), ANPWS (1992), and Bridgewater and and other sources; and marine protected ar- Ivanovici (1993). eas, C. Bleakley and P. Ottesen (Great Bar- Index

Page numbers printed in italic type refer to tables or figures. Passim indicates that the topic is discussed in- termnittently within the given range of pages. Proposed MPAs of regional conservation priority are indexed by name. Other existing and proposed MPAs are grouped under given nations and marine regions.

Algae marine protected areas, 164-65, 166-67, 167, in Australia, 157, 159, 193, 194, 195 192-96 in New Zealand, 175, 177, 179 marine protected areas proposed, 166, 188-92 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 62, 84, marine protected areas system, 163-64 88, 90, 96, 98, 100, 103 oceanography, 154-55 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 123 recommendations for, 168-69 Southeast Pacific Marine Region and, 147 reefs (temperate), 157-58, 192 in South Pacific Marine Region, 19 Rocky Cape, 166, 191 American Samoa, marine protected areas, 24, 32- rocky shores and cliffs, 157, 188, 194, 195 33 seagrass beds, 155, 188-95 passim Apia Convention (Convention on the Conserva- soft sediment habitats, 157, 188 tion of Nature in the South Pacific), 30 species diversity, 159-62 Australia, 154 Torres Strait, 166, 189 See also Australia/New Zealand Marine Region tourism, 188, 195 archaeological shipwreck sites, 188 vegetation, 191 beaches and dunes, 157, 194, 195 wetlands, 156, 157, 188, 189, 190, 193 Beagle Gulf, 166, 188 Australia/New Zealand Marine Region biogeographic zones, 162-63, 165-66, 167 See also Australia; New Zealand caves, 190, 192 conservation initiatives, 165, 184 conservation priority sites, 166-68 marine protected areas proposed, 166, 185, continental shelf and slope, 158-59 186,188-92,196-98 coral reefs, 158, 188, 189, 192, 194, 195 recommendations for, 168-69, 185-87 ecosystems, 155-59 endangered species, 190 Beaches and dunes endemism in, 160 in Australia, 157, 194, 195 environmental threats, 157, 158, 159, 196 in New Zealand, 176 estuarine environments, 155-56, 189 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 91 fisheries and fishing, 156-57, 158, 159, 162, in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111, 123 188-96 passim in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132, 134 geography and geology (coastal), 155 Beagle Gulf (Australia), 166, 188 Great Australian Bight Marine Park, 166, 190- Bering Strait (United States), 94-95, 97 91 Biodiversity conservation, 1, 8 Gulf of Carpentaria, 166, 189-90 Biosphere Reserves, 8 Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits, 166, 190 Australia/New Zealand Marine Region and, islands, 189, 194 165, 191 Kent Group, 166, 191 Northeast Pacific Marine Region and, 65, 71, lagoons, 189 81, 92 Lord Howe Island Marine Reserve, 166, 192 Northwest Pacific Marine Region and, 121, 125 Macquarie Island, 166, 191 Southeast Pacific Marine Region and, 141-42 mangroves, 155, 156, 188, 190, 193, 194 in South Pacific Marine Region, 30 Maria Island National Park, 166, 191-92

205 206 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Birds in New Zealand, 177-78, 180, 196, 197 See also Penguins in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 90 in Australia, 156, 157, 160-61, 191, 192, 193, in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 145 195 Coral reefs in New Zealand, 177, 181,196, 197 in Australia, 158, 188, 189, 192, 194, 195 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 61-69 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 90 passim, 77, 86-92 passim, 95-103 passim in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 110, 122 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112-.13, in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 133, 145, 125 146 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 134, 145, in South Pacific Marine Region, 4.2, 4.5, 4.5- 146, 147 6, 4.15, 4.21-31 passim in South Pacific Marine Region, 22, 26, 36, 43 Costa Rica Blackfish Archipelago (CaiacIa), 84-86, 92 conservation measures, 138 Bohai Bay (China), 125' marine protected areas, 138-39, 145-46 Crocodiles, 20, 22 Canada See also Reptiles Blackfish Archipelago, 84-86, 92 in Australia, 189, 192 marine protected areas, 65 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 89, 91, 94 marine protected areas proposed, 84-88, 87 Crustaceans ' marine protected areas system, 75-77 See also Fisheries and fishing Cephalopods in Australia, 157,, 161, 188, 189, 193 See also Mollusks in New Zealand, 176, 177, 178 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 84, 87, in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 61, 62, 92, 100 74, 84-102 passim in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112, 122 Chile in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136, 145 coastal protected areas, 137-38 in South Pacific Marine Region, 19, 21, 36 marine protected areas proposed, 144-45 Parque Nacional Chiloe, 147 Dolphins Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de Humbolt, 147 in Australia, 161, 162, 193, 194 China in New Zealarid, 182 Bohai Bay, 125 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 63, Hainan Island, 122, 125 67, 69, 84, 86, 96, 99 marine protected areas, 11' in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 13U, ,45, marine protected areas proposed, 122-24 146 marine protected areas system, 114'-15 Dugong Zhujian Delta, 123, 125 in Australia, 161-62, 188, 192, 194 Columbia in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 113 marine protected areas, los, l'i) in South Pacific Marine Region, 20, 22, 23, marine protected areas proposed, 145 38, 39, 40 Conference on National Parks and Protected Ar- eas of East Asia (lst), 125-26 Easter Island and Sala y Gomez, 29 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Re- marine protected areas proposed, 44 sources and Environment of the South Pacific E'astem Great Barrier IslandOuter Hauraki Gulf Region (SPREP Convention), 30 (New Zealand), 185, 196 Convention on the Conservation of-Nature in the Ecuador South Pacific (Apia Convention), 30 conservation measures, 139 Cook Islands marine protected areas, 139, 146 marine protected areas, 24-25, 33 Eelgrass beds. See Seagrass beds marine protected areas proposed, 33 El Salvador Coral communities coastal protected areas, 139 in Australia, 193, 194 marine protected areas proposed, 146 Index 207

Endangered species French Polynesia in Australia, 190, 192 marine protected areas, 25, 34-35 crocodiles, 20, 91, 94, 192 marine protected areas proposed, 35 dugong, 20 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 89, Golfo de California, 71-74, 89 91, 93, 94 Great Australian Bight Marine Park, 166, 190-91 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 146 Guam turtles, 20, 21 marine protected areas, 25 whales, 190 marine protected areas proposed, 35 Estuarine environments Guano production, in Southeast Pacific Marine in Australia, 155-56, 18Y Region, 141 in New Zealand, 173-74, 196 Guatemala in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 64, 73-74, coastal protected areas, 139 96, 99, 100, 102 marine protected areas proposed, 146 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111, 123 Gulf of Carpentaria (Australia), 166, 189-90 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132, 140, 148 Hainan Island (China), 122, 125 Hawaii (U.S.), 25-26, 35 Federated States of Micronesia, inarine protected marine protected areas, 25-26 areas, 25, 33 Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits (Australia), 166, 190 Fiji Honduras, 137, 139-40 marine conservation in, 25 marine protected areas proposed, 146 marine protected areas proposed, 33-34 Hong Kong Fiordland (New Zealand), 185, 196-97 rmarine protected areas, 118 Fiords, in New Zea!and, 196-97 mnarine protected areas proposed, 124 Fish Zhujian Delta, 123, 125 in Australia" 155-56, 157,'160, 189-95 passim in New Zealand, 175, 177, 178, 180-81, 196, International Convention for the Prevention of 197 Pollution from Ships: See MARPOL in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 57, 58, Invertebrates 61-69 passim, 74, 84-104 passim See also Crustaceans; Mollusks in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111-12, in Australia, 157, 160, 189-95 passim 125 in New Zealand, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179-80, in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 145, 146 196, 197 in South Pacific Marine Region, 4.6, 4.9, 4.23- in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 61, 74, 31 passim 75, 84, 87, 88, 91-103 passim Fisheries and fishing in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112 See also Crustaceans; Mollusks in South Pacific Marine Region, 20-21, 38, 39 in Australia, 156-57, 158, 159, 162, 188-96 Islands passim in Australia, 189, 194 in New Zealand, 178-79, 185-86, 197, 198 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 86, 98, 99 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 81-82, 88- in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111, 123 104 passim in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132, 134- in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111, 112, 35 117-18, 122, 123 types in the South Pacific Marine Region, 16- in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136, 137, 17, 23-24 148-49 IUCN Commission on National Parks and Pro- Fishing, in South Pacific Marine Region, 14, 18, tected Areas, 1 25-29passim, 33-43passim, 45-46 biodiversity conservation, 1, 8 France, See also specific territoriesby name study methods, 2-3 208 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Japan in South Pacific Marine Region, 18-19, 19, 27, fisheries and fishing, 117-18 34, 37, 38, 39, 41 marine protected areas proposed, 124 Maria Island National Park (Australia), 166, 191- marine protected areas system, 115-18 92 Yaeyama Archipelago, 125 Marine protected areas (MPAs) See also under specific countries or marine re- Kachemak Bay (United States), 96, 97 gions Kelp actions for establishment of, 2, 12 in Australia, 192 biogeographic zones in, 6, 7 in New Zealand, 175-76, 177 community support for, 9-10 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 95, 96, defined, 2 98, 102, 103 funding for, 10-11 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 135 management, 7, 8-9, 10 Kent Group (Australia), 166, 191 priority conservation site criteria, 3-5, 4 Kiribati recommendations, 11-12, 12 marine protected areas, 26 sizes of, 6 marine protected areas proposed, 35-36 subtidal, 5 Komandorskiye Islands (Russia), 125 MARPOL (International Convention for the Pre- Korea vention of Pollution from Ships) conservation measures, 118-19 Australia/New Zealand Marine Region and, marine protected areas, 119 165 marine protected areas proposed, 124 Northwest Pacific Marine Region and, 121 Kuryl Islands (Russia), 125 Marshall Islands marine protected areas, 26, 36 Lagoons marine protected areas proposed, 36 See also Wetlands Mexico in Australia, 189 marine biodiversity, 56-57 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 70-71, 88- marine protected areas, 71, 74, 75, 92-94, 97 89, 94, 95, 96 marine protected areas proposed, 87, 88-92 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 110-11 marine protected areas system, 80-82 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132 Micronesia, marine protected areas, 25 in South Pacific Marine Region, 19-20, 25, 34, Mollusks 35, 36, 38, 41 See also Cephalopods; Fisheries and fishing; Lord Howe Island Marine Reserve (Australia), Invertebrates 166, 192 in Australia, 160, 193 in New Zealand, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 197 Macao in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 61, 88, marine protected areas proposed, 124 91, 94, 95, 99, 103 Zhujian Delta, 123, 125 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112, 122 Macquarie Island (Australia), 166, 191 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136 Mammals (nonmarine), in Northeast Pacific Ma- in South Pacific Marine Region, 19, 21, 34, 36, rine Region, 89, 91, 94 38, 40, 41, 42 Mangroves Mudflats. See Soft sediment habitats See also Wetlands Mussels, in South Pacific Marine Region, 19. in Australia, 155, 156, 188, 190, 194 in New Zealand, 174-75 National Environmental Management Strategies in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 70, 73, (NEMS), 31 74, 75, 90, 91, 94 National Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia, in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 110, 122- First Conference on, 125-26 23 Nauru, 36 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132, 133- fisheries, 26 34, 140, 145, 146, 148 Index 209

NEMS (National Environmental Management estuarine environments, 64, 73-74, 96, 99, Strategies), 31 100, 102 New Caledonia, 36 in Estuarine environments, 64, 73-74, 96, 99, marine protected areas, 26-27 100, 102 New Zealand, 172 fisheries and fishing, 81-82, 88-104 passim See also Australia/New Zealand Marine Region geography and geology (coastal), 56, 62-63, beaches and dunes, 176 66, 68, 70, 73, 74-75 biogeographic zones, 182-83, 184, 185 Golfo de Califomia, 71-74, 89 continental shelf and slope, 178-79 islands, 86, 98, 99 coral reefs, 177-78 Kachemak Bay, 96, 97 Eastem Great Barrier IslandOuter Hauraki lagoons, 70-71, 88-89, 94, 95, 96 Gulf, 185, 196 mangroves, 70, 73, 74, 75, 94 ecosystems, 173-79 marine protected areas, 76, 82-84 endemism in, 179, 181, 197 national, 64, 65-66, 67, 69, 71, 74, 75, 75-82 environmental threats, 174, 175, 197, 198 marine protected areas proposed, 84-104, 87 estuarine environments, 173-74, 196 Mexican Province, 74-75 Fiordland, 185, 196-97 mining, 98 fiords, 196 Montereyan Province, 67-69 fisheries and fishing, 178-79, 184-86, 197, 198 oceanography, 55-56, 59-60, 62, 64, 67-68, geography and geology (coastal), 173 69-70, 71-73, 75 mangroves, 174-75 Oregonian Province, 66-67 marine protected areas, 183, 184, 185 Panamanian Province, 75 marine protected areas proposed, 186, 196-98 priority conservation sites, 84-104, 85-86, 87 marine protected areas system, 183-84 recommendations for, 84, 97 oceanography, 172-73 rocky shores and cliffs, 64, 66, 87, 99, 102 recommendations for, 185-87 San Diegan Province, 69-71 reefs (temperate), 177 seagrass beds, 90, 95, 96, 98-102 passim rocky shores, 175-76 soft sediment habitats, 61 seagrass beds, 174 species diversity, 56-57 soft sediment habitats, 176-77 Subpolar Coastal Realm, 59, 60-66 species diversity, 179-82 Subtropical Coastal Realm, 59-60, 67-74 Subantarctic Islands, 185, 197-98 Temperate Coastal Realm, 59, 66-67 vegetation, 174 tourism, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96 wetlands, 174 Tropical Coastal Realm, 60, 74-75 Nicaragua, 147 West Coast Fjords Province, 64-66 Niue, 27, 36 wetlands, 73, 96, 100, 101, 102-3 Northeast Pacific Marine Region Northem Mariana Islands, conservation meas- Aleutian Province, 62-64 ures, 27, 37 archaeological sites, 89 Northwest Pacific Marine Region beaches and dunes, 91 beaches and dunes, 111, 123 Beringian Province, 60-62 biogeographic zones, 113-14, 121, 121, 123 Bering Strait, 94-95, 97 Bohai Bay, 125 biogeographic zones, 57-75, 59, 82-84, 83, boundaries, 107 97-104 conservation initiatives, 120-21 Blackfish Archipelago, 84-86, 92 coral reefs, 110, 122 boundaries, 55 demography, 107-8 Cortezian Province, 71-74 ecosystems, 110-11 ecosystems, 56 estuarine environments, 111, 123 endangered species, 58, 89, 91, 93, 94 fisheries and fishing, 111, 117-18, 122, 123 environmental threats, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93-94, geography (coastal), 109-10 101, 104 Hainan Island, 122, 125 islands, 111, 123, 125 210 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Northwest Pacific Marine Region (continued) Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of Komandorskiye Islands, 125 Intemational Importance) Kuryl Islands, 125 Australia/New Zealand Marine Region and, lagoons, 111 165 mangroves, 110, 122-23 Northwest Pacific Marine Region and, 121 marine protected areas, 114-20 Southeast Pacific Marine Region and, 141, 146 marine protected areas proposed, 122-25 South Pacific Marine Region and, 30 oceanography, 108-9, 111 Reefs, coral. See Coral reefs priority conservation sites, 123 Reefs, temperate, in Australia/New Zealand Ma- recommendations for, 121-22, 125-27 rine Region, 157-58, 177, 192 rocky shores and cliffs, 111, 123 Reptiles seagrass beds, 110 See also Crocodiles; Snakes; Turtles species diversity, 111-13 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 94 tourism, 116 Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de Humbolt (Chile), wetlands, 110-11, 123 145, 147 Yaeyama Archipelago, 125 Rocky Cape (Australia), 166, 191 Zhujian Delta, 123, 125 Rocky shores and cliffs in Australia, 157, 188, 194, 195 Otters in New Zealand, 175 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 57, 58, in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 87, 99, 102 69, 103 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 111, 123 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136, 145 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132, 133, 134 Palau Russia marine protected areas, 27, 37 Komandorskiye Islands, 125 marine protected areas proposed, 37 Kuryl Islands, 125 Panama marine protected areas, 120 coastal protected areas, 140 marine protected areas proposed, 125 marine protected areas, 147 marine protected areas system, 119-20 marine protected areas proposed, 147 Papua New Guinea Sala y Gomez. See Easter Island and Sala y marine protected areas, 27-28, 37-38 Gomez marine protected areas proposed, 38-40 Saltmarshes. See Wetlands Parque Nacional Chiloe (Chile), 144-45, 147 Samoa. See American Samoa; Western Samoa Penguins Sandflats. See Soft sediment habitats See also Birds Seabirds. See Birds in Australia, 190, 191, 193, 195 Sea cows, in Australia, 161 in New Zealand, 197 Seagrass beds in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 138, 147 in Australia, 155, 188-95 passim Peru in New Zealand, 174 coastal protected areas, 140-41 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 90, 95, marine protected areas, 147 96, 98-102 passim marine protected areas proposed, 147 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 110 Pitcaim Islands, 28, 40 in South Pacific Marine Region, 18, 38, 39 Plankton Sea ice, in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 60 in Australia, 159-60 Sea lions. See Seals in New Zealand, 179 Seals in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 148 in Australia, 157, 161, 162, 190, 191 Polar bear, in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 61 in New Zealand, 181-82, 197 Polynesia. See French Polynesia in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 61, 63, 69, 86, 88, 92, 95-103 passim Index 211

in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 113 soft sediment habitats, 132 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136, 138, species diversity, 135-36 145, 146 tourism, 149 in South Pacific Marine Region, 22-23 wetlands, 134, 148 Sea snakes. See '-nakes South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Program Seaweeds (SPBCP), 30-31, 32, 46-47 See also Vegetation South Pacific Marine Region in New Zealand, 197 biogeographical zones, 23-24, 31, 31-32 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 112 boundaries, 13 Shellfish, in South Pacific Marine Region, 19, 21, conservation initiatives, 29-31 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42 coral reefs, 4.2, 4.5, 4.5-6, 4.15, 4.21-31 passim Snakes ecosystems, 17-15 See also Reptiles endangered species, 20 in Australia, 161 fishing in, 14, 18, 25-29 passim, 33-43 passim, in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 113 45-46 Soft sediment habitats geography, 13, 15-17 in Australia, 157, 188, 193, 194 geology (coastal), 15-17 in New Zealand, 176-77 island types, 16-17, 23-24 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 61 lagoons, 19-20, 25, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 132 land to sea ratios, 13, 14 in South Pacific Marine Region, 19, 39 mangroves, 18-19, 19, 27, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41 Soft shores, in South Pacific Marine Region, 19 marine protected areas, 24-29 Solomon Islands management levels, 29, 29, 30 conservation measures, 28 marine protected areas proposed, 33-44 marine protected areas proposed, 40 oceanogra,phy, 14-15 Southeast Pacific Marine Region priority conservation areas, 32, 44 beaches and dunes, 132-33, 134 recommendations for, 45-47 biogeographic zones, 136, 143, 143-44 rocky shores, 19 boundaries, 131 seagrass beds, 18 conservation initiatives, 141-1312 soft shores, 19 coral reefs, 133, 145, 146 species diversity, 20-23 ecosystems, 133-35 timber cutting, 40, 43 endangered species, 146 tourism, 14, 35, 39, 41 endemism in, 146, 148 SPBCP (South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation environmental threats, 137-38 Program), 30-31, 32, 46-47 estuarine environments, 132, 140, 148 Sponges fisheries and fishing, 136, 137, 148-49 in Australia, 193 geography and geology (coastal), 132-33 in New Zealand, 177, 180, 197 islands, 132, 134-35 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 84, 88 lagoons, 132 SPREP Convention (Convention for the Protec- mangroves, 132, 133-34, 140, 145, 146, 148 tion of the Natural Resources and Environment marine protected areas, 136-41, 137, 143, of the South Pacific Region), 30 143-44, 145-47 Subantarctic Islands (New Zealand), 185, 197-98 management levels, 144 oceanography, 131-32, 135 Taiwan (China) Parque Nacional Chiloe, 144-45, 147 conservation measures; 120 priority conservation sites, 144-49 marine protected areas, 120, 125 recommendations for, 144, 147-50 marine protected areas proposed, 125 Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de Humbolt, 145, Tokelau 147 marine protected areas proposed, 40 rocky shores and cliffs, 132, 133, 134 resource management, 28 212 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Tonga Vanuatu marine protected areas, 28, 41-42 marine protected areas, 28-29 marine protected areas proposed, 42 marine protected areas proposed, 42-43 Torres Strait (Australia), 166, 189 Vegetation Tourism See also Mangroves; Seagrass beds; Seaweeds in Australia, 188, 195 in Australia, 191 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 90, 91, in New Zealand, 174 92, 93, 96 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 60, 61, in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 116 65, 66, 68, 94, 100 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 149 in South Pacific Marine Region, 14, 35, 39, 41 Wallis and Futuna, 29 Turtles marine protected areas proposed, 43 See also Reptiles Walrus, in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 57, in Australia, 157, 161, 188,189, 192, 194 61, 63, 95, 98 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 89, Western Samoa 90-91, 92, 94, 97 marine protected areas, 29, 43 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 113 marine protected areas proposed, 43-44 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 135-36, Wetlands 138,146,148 See also Lagoons; Mangroves in South Pacific Marine Region, 20, 21, 22, in Australia, 156, 157, 188, 189, 190, 193 25, 26, 33-43 passim in New Zealand, 174 Tuvalu, 28 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 73, 96, marine protected areas proposed, 42 100,101,102-3 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, 110-11, UNEP Regional Seas Programme, in Southeast 123 Pacific Marine Region, 142-43 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 134, 148 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul- Whales tural Organization (UNESCO), Man and the Bio- in Australia, 161, 162, 190 sphere Programme. See Biosphere Reserves in New Zealand, 182 United Nations Environmental Programme in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, 58, 61, (UNEP). See UNEP Regional Seas Programme 63, 67, 69, 86, 88, 95-100 passim United States in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, 136, 138, See also specfifc territoriesby name 139,145,146,148 Alaska, 79-80 in South Pacific Marine Region, 22, 34 Bering Strait, 94-95, 97 World Heritage Convention California, 80 Australia/New Zealand Marine Region and, Hawaii, 25-26, 35 165,184,191,192,194 Kachemak Bay, 96, 97 Southeast Pacific Marine Region and, 141 marine protected areas, 25-26, 64, 65-66, 67, South Pacific Marine Region and, 29-30 69,71 Worms marine protected areas proposed, 87, 94-97 in Australia, 193 marine protected areas system, 77-80 in New Zealand, 176, 178 Oregon, 79-80 unincorporated territories, marine protected Yaeyama Archipelago (Japan), 125 areas, 28 Washington, 79 Zhujian Delta (China, Hong Kong, Macao), 123, 125 Map Supplement

Existing or1 Regiolnil Natitoll;tl NameiC propos(I priority priority American Samoa American Samoa National Park E Y 14-1 Fagatele Bay NMS E Y 14-2 Rose Atoll E Y 14-3 Cook Islands Aitutaki Trochus Sanctuary E 14-4 Manuae Island P Y 14-7 Manuae Lagoon Trochus Sanctuary E 14-5 Palnmerston Lagoon Trochus Sanctuary E 14-6 Raratonga P Y 14-8 Easter Island and Sala y Gomez Anakena p Y 14-9 Motu Nui/lti P y 14-10 Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island E Y 14-11 Trochus Sanctuaries around Pohnpei E 14-12 Fiji Great Astrolabe Reef P Y 14-13 Namenalala Island P Y 14-14 Tai and Elavuka Islands P Y 14-15 Yadua Taba Island P Y 14-16 French Polynesia Reserve territoriale de Scully (Manuae) et Belling Reserve E Y 14-17 Tetiaroa P Y 14-19 W.A. Robinson Integral Reserve Reserve E Y 14-18 ', Guam Haputo Ecological Reserve Area E 14-20 Luminao Barrier Reef P Y 14-23 Orote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area E 14-21 War in the Pacific National Historic Park E 14-22 Kiribati Carcline Atoll P Y 14-25 Cook Islet ' Y 14-26 KL-itimati Wildlife Sanctuary E 14-24 Naa P Y 14-27 vostok P Y 14-28 Marshall Islands Bikar Atoll P Y 14-29 Bokaak I Y 14,30 New Caledonia L'Ilot Maitre Special Fauna and Flora Reserve E 14-31 Parc Teritorial du Lagon Sud: Amedee Islet Territorial Park 14-32 Reserve Speciale Tournante de Marine Faune Special Marine Reserve 14-33 Yves Merlet Special Marine Reserve L." 14-34 Palau Ngeremdu Bay P Y 14-38 Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve E Y 14-35 Ngerumekaol Grouper Spawning Area Spawning Area E 14-36 Trochus Sanctuaries (21) E 14-37 Papua New Guinea Bagiai (I) Wildlife Management Area E 14-39 Borone Bay P Y 1445 .xistiiig or Re:gionial National Namc proposed priority prioritvY_ Papua New Guinea Buka P Y 14-46 Cape Cretin P Y 14-47 Dumoulin P Y 14-48 Fullerborne P Y 14-49 Galley Reach P Y 14-50 Gulf P Y 14-51 Hermit Islands P Y 14-52 Laing Island P Y 14-53 Long Island (III) Wildlife Management Area E Y 14-40 Madang Lagoon P Y 14-54 Maza (I) Wildlife Management Area E Y 1441 Morobe Coast P Y 14-55 Mussau Island P Y 14-56 Nanuk Island Provincial Park E Y 14-42 Ndrolowa Wildlife Management Area E Y 14-43 Northwest Coast P Y 14-57 Papuan Barrier and Lagoon P Y 14-58 Pocklington Reef P Y 14-59 Rossel Island P Y 14-60 Sepik Delta P Y 14-61 South Coast Bougainville P Y 14-62 Southern New Ireand P Y 14-63 Talasea P Y 14-64 Talele Islands Provincial Park Provincial Park E 14-44 Tanga/Tabar/Feni Islands P Y 14-65 Tigak Islands P Y 14-66 Trobriand Reef and Drop P Y 14-67 Tufi Coastal Fjords P Y 14-68 Vitiaz Straits P Y 14-69 Vokeo and Islands p Y 14-70 Western Samoa Palolo Deep Marine Reserve E Y 14-71 Solomon Islands Are'Are Lagoon and Marmasike Passage P Y 14-72 Arnavon Island p y 14-73 Indespensible Reefs P Y 14-74 Marovo Lagoon P Y 14-75 Ortega Pasage P Y 14-76 Rennell Island P Y 14-77 Tokelau Atafu P Y 14-78 Nukunonu Atoll p Y 14-79 Teahagaloa P Y 14-80 Tonga Fanga'uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoons Marine Reserve E Y 14-81 Ha'atafu Beach Reserve E y 14-82 Tgnga Hakaumama'o Reef Reserve E Y 14-83 Malinoa Island Park and Reef Reserve E Y 14-84 Monuafe Island Park and Reef Reserve E Y 14-85 Pangaimotu Reef Reserve E Y 14-86 Tuvalu Fanafuti Atoll P Y 14-87 Fualopa, Fuafatu, Vasafua, Puagea & Tefala P Y 14-88 Kosciusko Bank P Y 14-89 Vaitupu P Y 14-90 s Unincorporated Territories Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge E 14-91 Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge E 14-92 Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge E 14-93 Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge E 14-94 U.S.-Guam Guam Territorial Seashore Park E 14-95 U.S.-Hawaii (Hawaii) Hilo Bay Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-96 Kailua Bay and Reef Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-97 Kaloko-Honokohau National Historic Park E 14-98 Kealakakua Bay Marine Life Conservation District E 14-99 Lapakahi Marine Life Conservation District E 14-100 Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park E 14-101 Puako Bay Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-102 Waialea Bay Marine Life Conservation District E 14-103 U.S.-Hawaii (Kauai) Hanamaulu Bay and Ahukini Recreational Pier Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-104 Waimea Bay and Recreational Pier Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-105 U.S.-Hawaii (Lanai) Manele Boat Harbour Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-106 Manele-Hulopoe Marine Life Conservation District E 14-107 U.S.-Hawaii (Maui) Ahihi-Kinau State Natural Area Reserve State Reserve E 14-108 Honolulu-Mokuleia Bay Marine Life Conservation District State Marine Life Conservation District E 14-109 Kahului Harbour Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-110 La Perouse Bay State Natural Area Reserve E 14-111 Molokini Shoal Marine Life Protected Area E 14-112 U.S.-Hawaii (Molokai) Kalaupapa National Historic Park E 14-113 U.S.-Hawaii (Northwest Hawaiian Islands) Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge E 14-114 Kure Marine Fisheries Management Area E 14-115 U.S.-Hawaii (Oahu) Coconut Island-Hawaii Marine Laboratory E 14-116 Haunama Bay Marine Life Conservation District E 14-117 Pupukea Marine Life Conservation District E 14-118 Waikiki Marine Life Conservation District E 14-119 Existing or Regional National NamleI proposed priority prioritv U.S.-Hawaii (Oahu) Waikiki-Diamond Head Marine Fisheries management Area E 14-120 Vanuatu Cooks Reef P Y 14-123 Elephant Island P Y 14-124 Epi Island P Y 14-125 Laiki Island group P Y 14-126 Malekula P Y 14-127 Narong Marine Reserve E 14-121 President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point Reserve E 14-122 Reef Islands P Y 14-128 Tongoan P Y 14-129 Wallis and Futuna Alofi Island P Y 14-130 Westem Samoa Aleipata and Nu'utele Islands P Y 14-131 Falealupo Preserve P Y 14-132 Saanapu/Satoa P Y 14-133 Tafua Peninsula P Y 14-134 Canada Baeria Rocks Ecological Reserve E 15-1 - Blackfish Archipelago P Y Y 15-30 Brackman Island Ecological Reserve E 15-2 Broughton Archipelago Marine Park E 15-3 Checleset Bay Ecological Reserve E 154 Copeland Islands Marine Park' E- 15-5 Cormorant Channel Marine park E 15-6 Desolation Sound Marine Park E 15-7 Duke of Edinburgh Ecological Reserve E 15-8 Harvey Islands Ecological Reserve E 15-9 Helliwell Provincial Park E 15-10 Klewnuggit Inlet Marine Park E 15-11 Montague Harbour Marine Park . E. 15-12 Moore/McKenney and Whitmore Islands Ecological Reserve E 15-13 Newcastle Island Provincial Park E 15-14 Oak Bay Islands Ecological Reserve E 15-15 Octopus Island Marine Park E 15-16 Pacific Rim National Park Reserve E 15-17 Penrose Island Marine Park E 15-18 Pirates Cove Marine Park E 15-19 Plumper Cove Provincial Park E 15-20 Princess Louisa Marine Park E 15-21 Race Rocks Ecological Reserve E 15-22 Rebecca Spit Provincial Park E 15-23 Robson Bight Ecological Reserve E 15-24 Canada Satellite Channel Ecological Reserve E 15-25 Sidney Spit Marine Park E 15-26 Southern Gulf Islands/Saanich Inlet P Y 15-31 Thurston Bay Marine Park E 15-27 VJ. Krajina Ecological Reserve E 15-28 Winter Cove Provincial Park E 15-29 Mexico Alto Golfo de California Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E Y Y 15-32 Bahia Magdalena-Bahia Almejas Lagoon Complex, Baja California Sur P Y 15-62 Bahia San Quintin, Baja California Norte P Y 15-63 Cabo Pulmo Reserva Marina E Y 15-33 Cabo San Lucas Reserva Marina E Y 15-34 Cajon del Diablo Sonora Reserva Especial de la Bi6sfera E Y 15-35 Chamela Research Station Private Reserve E 15-36 Coastal Lagoons of Sinaloa and Sonora P Y 15-64 Colola-Maruata, Michoacan P Y 15-65 El Veladero Parque Nacional E 15-37 El .Vizcaino Reserva de la Biosfera E Y 15-38 Isla Cedros Faunal Reserve E 15-39 Isla de Guerrero Negro Cetacean Sanctuary E 15-40 Isla Guadalupe Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E 15-41 .Isla Isabela Parque Nacional E 15-42 Isla-Rasa Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E .15-43 Isla Tiburon Reserva Especial de ta Biosfera E 15-44 Islas del Golfo de California Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E Y Y 15-45 La Encrucijada Biotopo Natural y Tropico E Y Y 15-46 La Joya-Joaquin Alnaro Lagoon, South Pacific, Chiapas, Mexio P Y 15-66 Lagunas de Chacahua Parque Nacional E 15-48 Los Cabos-Estero de San Jose-Cabo Pulmo Corridor, Baja California Sur P Y 15-67 Mexiquillo, Michoacan P Y 15-68 Mismaloya-La Joya, Jalisco P Y 15-69 Morro Ayutla-Chacahua, Oaxaca P Y 15-70 Playa Ceuta Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-49 Playa Cuitzmala Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-50 Playa de Escobilla Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-51 Playa de la Bahia de Chacahua Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-52 Playa de Maruata y Colola Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-53 Mexico Playa de Puerto Arista Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-54 Playa de Tierra Colorada Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-55 Playa El Tecuan Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-56 Playa El Verde Camacho Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-57 Playa Mexiquillo Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-58 Playa Mismaloya Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-59 Playa Piedra de Tlacoyunque Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-60 Playa Teopa Reserve Zone for Sea Turtle Protection E 15-61 San Blas-Teacapan-Marismas Nacionales Lagoon System, Sinaloa and Nayarit P Y 15-71 Tierra Colorada, Guerrero P Y 15-72 United States Admiralty Island Area P Y 15-182 Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge E 15-73 Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge E 15-74 Ano Nuevo Seashore Reserve E 15-75 Becharof National Wildlife Refuge E 15-76 Bering Strait P Y Y 15-183 Bettles Bay State Marine Park E 15-77 Blake Island Marine Sanctuary E 15-78 Blind Island State Marine Park E 15-79 Bodega Marine Life Reserve E 15-80 Boswell Bay State Marine Park E 15-81 Buena Vista Lagoon Ecological Reserve E 15-82 Carmel Bay State Park E 15-83 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary E 15-84 Chilkat Islands Marine Park E 15-85 Clark Island State Marine Park E 15-86 Conoe Passage State Marine Park E 15-87 Copalis National Wildlife Refuge E 15-88 Copper River Delta Region P Y 15-184 Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary E 15-89 Crystal Cove State Underwater Park E 15-90 Dana Point Marine Life Refuge E 15-91 Deadman's Isle State Park E 15-92 Decision Point State Marine Park E 15-93 Del Mar Ecological Reserve And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-94 Doe Island State Marine Park E 15-95 Doheny Beach Marine Life Refuge E 15-96 I'xisting or Regional National Nanme proposed priority priority United States Doheny State Underwvater Park E 15-97 Driftwood Bat State Marine Park E 15-98 Eagle Island State Marine Park E 15-99 Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve E 15-100 Entry Cove State Marine Park E 15-101 Flattery Rocks National Wildlife Refuge E 15-102 Fort Ross Underwater Park E 15-103 Gerstle Cova Reserve And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-104 Golden Gate National Recreation Area E 15-105 Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary E 15-107 Heisler Park Ecological And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-108 Intertidal Nonfood Permit E 15-110 Intertidal Nonfood Permnit Area E 15-111 Intertidal Nonfood Permnit Area E 15-112 Intertidal Nonfood Permnit Area E 15-113 Intertidal Nonfood Permit Areas E 15-114 Irvine Coast Marine Life Refuge And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-115 Jack Bay State Marine Park E 15-116 James Island State Marine Park E 15-117 James V. Fitzgerald Marine Reserve And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-118 Jarrel Cove State Marine Park E 15-119 Jones Island State Marine Park E 15-120 Julia Pfeiffer Burns Marine Park E 15-121 Kachemak Bay, Cook Inlet P Y Y 15-185 Kachemak Bay State Wilderness Park E 15-122 Kachemak Wilderness State Park E 15-123 Kayak Island State Marine Park E 15-124 Kelp Beds At Saunders Reef Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-125 Kelp Beds At Trinidad Head Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-126 King Range National Conservation Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-127 Laguna Beach Marine Life Refuge E 15-128 Mackerricher State Underwater Park E 15-129 Matia Island State Marine Park E 15-130 Mcniicken Island State Marine Park E 15-131 Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary E 15-132 United States Newport Beach Marine Life Refuge And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-133 Niguel Marine Life Refuge E 15-134 Ocean Area Surrounding Mouth Of Salmon Creek Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-135 Oliver Inlet State Marine Park E 15-136 Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge E 15-137 Pacific Grove Gardens Seashore Reserve E 15-138 Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve E 15-139 Patos Island State Marine Park E 15-140 Point Arena Rock State Underwater Park E 15-141 Point Fermin Marine Life Refuge E 15-142 Point Lobos Ecological Reserve And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-143 Point Lobos State Underwater Pask E 15-144 Point Mugu Seashore Reserve E 15-145 Posey Island State Marine Park E 15-146 Pygmy Forest National Natural Landmark E 15-147 Quillayute National Wildlife Refuge E 15-148 Redwood National Park E 15-149 Russian Gulch State Underwater Park E 15-150 Saddlebag Island State Marine Park E 15-151 Safety Cove State Marine Park E 15-152 Salt Point (Gerstle Cove) Underwater Park E 15-153 San Diego Coast Seashore Reserve E 15-155 San Diego-La Jolla Ecological Reserve And Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-156 San Diego Marine Life Refuge And Area Of Biological Significance E 15-157 San Diego Marine Life Reserve E 15-154 San Nicholas Island And Begg Rock Areas Of Special Biological Significance E 15-158 Sandspit Point State Marine Park E 15-159 Santa Catalina Island Area Of Special Biological Significance E 15-160 Sawmill Bay State Marine Park E 15-161 Shelter Island State Marine Park E 15-162 Shoup Bay State Marine Park E 15-163 Sonoma Coast Seashore Reserve E 15-164 South Esther Island State Marine Park E 15-165 South Laguna Beach Marine Life Refuge E 15-166 South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve E 15-167 St. James Bay State Marine Park E 15-168 United States St. Lawrence Island Area, Bering Sea P Y 15-186 Stuart Island State Marine Park E 15-169 Sucia Island State Marine Park E 15-170 Sullivan Island State Marine Park E 15-171 Sunny Cove State Marine Park E 15-172 Surprise Cove State Marine Park E 15-173 Three Arch Rocks National Wildlife Refuge E 15-174 Thumbs Cove State Marine Park E 15-175 Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve E 15-176 Tolmie State Park E 15-177 Turn Island State Marine Park E 15-178 Unimak Pass/lzembek Lagoon P Y 15-187 Van Damrne State Underwater Park E 15-179 Willapa National Wildlife Refuge E 15-180 Zeigler Cove State Marine Park E 15-181 United States (Canada) Granite Bay State Marine Park E 15-106 Horseshoe Bay State Marine Park E 15-109 China Abalone Nature Reserve E 16-1 Algae Nature Reserve E 16-2 Beilen estuary mangrove Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-3 Bohai Bay P Y Y 16-42 Caiqiao Mangrove Forest Nature Reserve E 16-4 Changli Golden Seashore National Marine Nature Reserve E 16-5 Chengshantou Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-6 Chongrning Eastern Beach wetland Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-7 Coral Reef Nature Reserve E 16-8 Dayawan Aquatic Resource Nature Reserve E 16-9 Dazhou Island Nature Reserve E 16-10 Dong Island Red-footed Booby Nature Reserve in Hainan Province (Xi-sha archipelago) E 16-11 Dongzhaigang Nature Reserve E 16-12 Dugong Nature Reserve E 16-13 Eastern and Southerm Hainan Island P Y Y 16-43 Futian Nature Reserve in Guangdong Province (Shenzhen city) E 16-14 Liaodong Bay wetland Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-15 Lingaojiao Nature Reserve E 16-16 Miao Island Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-17 Nan Ao Islands Nature Reserve (Guangdong province) E 16-18 Nan Jishan Archipelago Nature Reserve (Zhejiang province) E 16-19 ~w i i-- - I China Nanjie Islands Nature Reserve E 16-20 Nanwan Rhesus Monkey Nature Reserve in Hainan Province (Lingshui county) E 16-21 Neilingding Island Nature Reserve E 16-22 Ningbo marine relics Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-23 Precious Marine Organisms NRes in Changhai county E 16-24 Qiansan Island birds Nature Reserve in Lianyungang in Jiangsu Province E 16-25 Qingzhou Wan Natural Reserve E 16-26 Qinzhou Bay Mangrove Area P Y 16-44 Sanya coral reef National Marine Nature Reserve E 16-27 Shankou mangrove ecosystem National Marine Nature Reserve E 16-28 Shellfish Nature Reserve E 16-29 Shelly-Dam Nature Reserve on the seashore in Tianjing (Tianjing city) E 16-30 Shenshu Bay National Marine Nature Reserve E 16-31 Snake Island and Laotieshan Nature Reserve E 16-32 Three Jinshan islands Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-33 Tianjin palaeocoast and wetland National Marine Nature Reserve E 16-34 o Tonggu Ridge Nature Reserve in Wencheng County (Hainan province) E 16-35 Weizhou Island Birds Nature Reserve E 16-36 Wencheng Mangrove Forest Nature Reserve in Hainan Province E 16-37 Wenlan River Nature Reserve in Lingao county (Hainan province) E 16-38 Xiamen lancelets Local Marine Nature Reserve E 16-39 Xinying Mangrove Forest Nature Reserve E 16-40 Yancheng Nature Reserve E 16-41 Zhoushan-Nanji Islands P Y 16-45 China, Hong Kong, Macao Zhujiang (Pearl River) delta ecosystem P Y Y 16-46 China,Taiwan Doshan-Nan Ao sea area P Y 16-47 Hong Kong Hoi Ha Wan Site of Special Scientific Interest E 16-48 Hok Tsui Site of Special Scientific Interest E 16-49 Mai Po Marshes Site of Special Scientific Interest E 16-50 Plover Cove Country Park E 16-51 Japan Agawa Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-52 Aikawa M.P. (Niigata) Marine Park (2 araes) E 16-53 Amakusa (Kumamoto) Marine Park E 16-54 Aragusuku-jima Maibushi (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-55 Japan Atsushima (Yamaguchi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-56 Awaoshima (Tokushima) Marine Park E 16-57 Awatakegashima (Tokushima) Marine Park (2 areas) E 16-58 Banda (Okayama) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-59 Bekkai (Hokkaido) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-60 Fukue (Nagasaki) Marine Park ( 2 areas) E 16-61 Futakami-jima (Ehime) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-62 Genkai (Saga) Marine Park ( 5 areas) E 16-63 Goshiki (Hyogo) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-64 Goshikigahama (Kyoto) Marine Park E 16-65 Hamasaka (Hyogo) Marine Park E 16-66 Hanamatsu-shi (Shizuoka) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-67 Hashira-jima (Yamaguchi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-68 Hazu-oho (Aichi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-69 Hide-cho (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-70 Higashino-cho Ikuno-shima (Hiroshima) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-71 Himeshima (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-72 Hotokegaura (Aomori) Marine Park E 16-73 Hyuga-shi (Miyazaki) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-74 Iki Tatsunoshima (Nagasaki) Marine Park E 16-75 lid Tenagashima (Nagasaki) Marine Park E 16-76 Iid Tsumagashima (Nagasaki) Marine Park E 16-77 Ise-shi 1 (Mie) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-78 Ise-shi 2 (Mie) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-79 Ishigaki Kabira (Okinawa) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-80 Ishigaki Nagura (Okinawa) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-81 Jodogaura (shinane) Marine Park E 16-82 Kagami-cho Bunsei (Kumamoto) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-83 Kamae (Oita) Marine Park (4 areas) E 16-84 Kametoku (Kagoshima) Marine Park E 16-85 Kamiura-cho (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-86 Kannonji-shi Ibuki (Kagawa) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-87 Kasari Hanto Higashi Kaigan (Kagoshima) Marine Park E 16-88 Kashima-nada chubu, Ono-son (Ibaraki) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-89 Japan Kashima-nada Kitabu, Oharai-cho Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-90 Kashima-nada Nonbu, Hasaki (Ibaraki) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-91 Kashimishi (Kochi) Marine Park ( 2 areas) E 16-92 Katsuura (Chiba) Marine Park E 16-93 Kawauchi-cho (Aomori) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-94 Kesennuna (Miyagi) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-95 Kinoura (Ishikawa) Marine Park (2 areas) E 16-96 Kosai-shi (Shizuoka) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-97 Kumano Nada Hikijina Marine Park (2 areas) E 16-98 Kuniga (Shinare) Marine Park E 16-99 Kunimi (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-100 Kurabashi-cho Kuro-shima (Hiroshima) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-101 Kuroshima Kyanguchi (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-102 Kushimoto (Wakayama) Marine Park (4 areas) E 16-103 Matsumae (Hokkaido) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-104 Mikata (Fukui) Marine Park (4 areas) E 16-105 Minami Awaji (Hyogo) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-106 Musashi-cho (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-107 Mutsu-city Ashizaki-Bay (Amori) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-108 Nanpokuura (Miyazaki) Marine Park (5 areas) E 16-109 Nemuro-city Furen-ko (Hokkaido) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-110 Nichinan (Miyazaki) Marine Park ( 6 areas) E 16-111 Nishi-Awaji (Hyogo) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-112 Noheji-cho Akimae (Aomori) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-113 Ogasawara Archipelago P Y 16-165 Ogasawara (Tokyo) Marine Park (7 areas) E 16-114 Ogi M.P. (Hiigata) Marine Park E 16-115 Okinawa Kaigan (Okinawa) Maiine Park E 16-116 Okinoshima (Kochi) Marine Park (5 areas) E 16-117 Okushiri (Hokkaido) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-118 Otaru Kaigan (Hokkaido) Marine Park E 16-119 Saganoseki-cho (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-120 Sakaide-shi Okoshi (Kagawa) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-121 Sakiyama Bay (Okinawa) Nature Conservation Area E 16-122 Sakurajina (Kagoshima) Marine Park ( 2 areas) E 16-123 )xi(stijig o)r Wlvitlud Nationl g = _ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~N:ainkapro)l<{Scd priot-ity pf-ilrit!Nl Japan Sata Misaki (Kagoshima) Marine Park (2 areas) E 16-124 Seto Inland Sea P Y 16-166 Setouchi (Kagoshima) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-125 Shakotan hanto (Hokkaido) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-126 Shimane hanto (Shimane) Marine Park E 16-127 Shiro (Shimane) Marine Park E 16-128 Soma-shi Isobe (Fukushiffma) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-129 Sotokaifu (Niigata) Marine Park (2 areas) E 16-130 Surikozaki (Kagoshima) Marine Park E 16-131 Tahara-oho (Aichi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-132 Taijima (Aomori) Marine Park E 16-133 Takamichi (Kumamoto) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-134 Takashima (Okayama) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-135 Takejimia (Yamaguchi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-136 Takeno (Hyogo) Marine Park E 16-137 Taketomi-jima Shimobishi (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-138 Taketomi-jima Takidonguchi (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-139 Takuma-cho Awajima (Kagawa) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-140 Tatsukushi (Kochi) Marine Park (4 areas) E 16-141 Tokashiki (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-142 Tomioka (Kumamoto) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-144 Tomioka (Kumamoto) Marine Park ( 2 areas) E 16-143 Toyooka (Hyogo) Marine Park E 16-145 Tsuchima Kanzaki (Nagasaki) Marine Park E 16-146 Tsukumi-shi Hotojima (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-147 Tsukumi-shi Sensui (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-148 Tsushima Asajiwan (Nagasaki) Marine Park E 16-149 Uchivra (Ishikawa) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-150 Udakyo Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-151 Uradome Kaigan (Tottori) Marine Park E 16-152 Ushibuka (Kumamoto) Marine Park (4 areas) E 16-153 Ushibuka-shi Fukami (Kumamoto) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-154 Ushibuka-shi Kuroshima (Kumamoto) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-155 Ushimado (Okayama) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-156 Uwakai (Ehine) Marine Park E 16-157 Wakamatsu (Nagasaki) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-158 Japan Wana (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-159 Yaeyama Archipelago P Y Y 16-167 Yajima (Yamaguchi) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-160 Yanagi-ga-ura (Oiki) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-161 Yokkaichi (Oita) Fisheries Resources Protected Area E 16-162 Yoronto (Kagoshima) Marine Park (3 areas) E 16-163 Zamami (Okinawa) Marine Park E 16-164 Korea, Japan Korea Strait P Y 16-168 Korea, Republic of Hallyo-Haesang Sea Marine National Park E .16-169 Hongdo Island Nature Reserve E 16-170 Nakdong River Mouth Natural Ecological System PrsvA E 16-171 Pyonsan Bando Peninsula National Park E 16-172 Tae-an-hae-an Seashore Marine National Park E 16-173 Tadohae-Haesang Sea Marine National Park E 16-174 Russia Great Peter Bay P Y 16-175 Komandorskiye Islands P Y Y 16-176 Kuryl Islands P Y Y 16-177 Russia Dal'nevostochnyy Morskoy Zapovednik E 16-178 Dzugdzurskiy Zapovednik E 16-179 Kronotskiy Zapovednik E 16-180 Kuril'skiy Zapovednik E 16-181 Lazovskiy Zapovednik E 16-182 Sikhote-Alinskiy Zapovednik E 16-183 Taiwan (China) Kenting National Park E Y 16-184 Tan-Shui River Mangrove Nature Reserve E 16-185 Chile Chiloe Parque Nacional P Y Y 17-1 Pinguinos de Humbolt Reserva Nacional P Y Y 17-2 Colombia Isla del Malpelo P Y 17-5 Isla Gorgona Parque Nacional Natural E 17-3 Utria Parque Nacional Natural E Y Y 17-4 Costa Rica Cabo Blanco Reserva Biol6gica E 17-6 Corcovado Parque Nacional E 17-7 Isla del Cafio Reserva Biol6gica E Y 17-13 Isla del Coco Parque Nacional E Y Y 17-14 Isla Pajaros Reserva Biologica E 17-12 Islas Guayabo y Negritos (2 areas) Reserva Biologica E 17-8 Manuel Antonio Parque Nacional E 17-9 Marino Ballena Reserva Biologica E 17-10 Santa Rosa Parque Nacional E 17-11 Ecuador Galapagos Reserva de Recursos Marinos E Y Y 17-15 Galapagos Whale Sanctuary E Y Y 17-16 MachalilUa Parque Nacional E Y 17-17 Ecuador Manglares-Churute Reserva Ecologica E Y Y 17-18 El Salvador Bahia Jiquilisco P Y 17-19 Los Cabanos P Y 17-20 Guatemala Manchon P Y 17-21 Honduras Isla del Tigre P Y 17-22 Punta Condega P Y 17-23 Panama Coiba Parque Nacional E Y 17-24 Isla de las Perlas P Y 17-25 Manglares de San Miguel P Y 17-26 Peru Bahia San Femando P Y 17-29 Banco de Mancora P Y 17-30 Estuario de Virrila P Y 17-31 Manglares de San Pedro P Y 17-32 Paracas Reserva Nacional E Y Y 17-27 Peninsula de Carro Illescas e Islas Lobos P Y 17-33 Punta San Juan Zona de Reserva E Y 17-28 Australia Aarhus Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-1 Admiralty Island Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-2 Aldinga Reef Aquatic Reserve E 18-3 American River Aquatic Reserve E 18-4 Arno Bay Jetty Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting and Spearfishing E 18-5 Ashrnore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve E 18-6 Baird Bay Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-7 Barker Inlet-St Kilda Aquatic Reserve E 18-8 Barr Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-9 Barubbra Island Environmental Park E 18-10 Beagle Gulf Marine Park P Y Y 18-245 Beelbi Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-11 Berry Springs and Wildlife Park Nature Park E 18-12 Blackmore River Conservation Reserve E 18-13 Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve E 18-14 Bohle River We'land Reserve E 18-15 Bouddi National Park E 18-16 Bowling Green Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-17 Bowling Green Bay National Park E 18-18 Boyne Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-19 Bribie Island Wetland Reserve E 18-20 Broad Sound Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-21 Brown Bay and Lighthouse Bay Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-22 Australia Browns Beach, Yorke Peninsula Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-23 Bunurong Marine Park E 18-24 Burrum-Iris Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-25 Burnim-Toogoom Wetland Reserve E 18-26 Bushranger's Bay Aquatic Reserve E 18-27 Bustard Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-28 Cairns Marine Park E 18-29 Cape Jaffa Sanctuary E 18-30 Cape Palmerston Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-31 Cape Palmerston National Park E 18-32 Carmilla Wetland Reserve E 18-33 'Cato' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-34 Cattle Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-35 Centenary Lakes Fish Sanctuary E 18-36 Cherwell-Burrum Wetland Reserve E 18-37 City of Launceston Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-38 'Clarence' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-39 Cobourg Marine Park E Y Y 18-40 Coffin Bay Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-41 Colosseum Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-42 Comerong Island Nature Reserve E 18-43 Coombabah Lake Fish Sanctuary E 18-45 Coombabah Wetland Reserve E 18-44 Coomera Wetland Reserve E 18-46 Coorong Game Reserve E 18-47 Coorong National Park E 18-48 Coringa-Herald Marine National Nature Reserve E 18-49 Corio Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-50 Corner Inlet Marine and Coastal Park E 18-51 Crayfish Point Marine Reserve E 18-52 Currumbin Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-53 Dallachy Creek Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-54 Deception Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-55 Doctors Gully Fish Reserve E 18-56 Doonella Lake Wetland Reserve E 18-57 Douglas Apsley (Apsley Myrtle ForRes) National Park E 18-58 East Point Reef Aquatic Life Reserve E 18-59 Eastern Cove, American River Resource Use Area-Area Adjacent to Aquatic Reserve E 18-60 Edithburgh Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-61 Eight-Mile Creek Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-62 Australia Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve E 18-63 Endeavour River National Park E 18-64 Escape River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-65 Eurimbula Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-66 Farm Cove Game Reserve E 18-67 Fly Point-Halifax Park Aquatic Reserve E 18-68 Foam Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-69 Franklin Harbour, Cowell Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-70 Fraser Island Wetland Reserve E 18-71 Fullerton Cove Nature Reserve E 18-72 George Town Conservation Area E 18-73 German Bar Fish Sanctuary E 18-74 Gleasons Landing Sanctuary E 18-75 Goose Island Aquatic Reserve E 18-76 Governor Island Marine Reserve E 18-77 Great Australian Bight Marine Park P Y Y 18-246 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park E 18-78 Gregory Wetland Reserve E 18-79 Guichen Bay, Robe Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-80 Gulf of Carpentaria P Y Y 18-247 Half Moon Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-81 Halifax Wetland Reserve E 18-82 Hallet Cove Conservation Park E 18-83 Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve E 18-84 Harold Holt M.Reserves-Mud Islands Marine Reserve E 18-85 Harold Holt M.Reserves-Point Lonsdale Marine Reserve E 18-86 Harold Holt M.Reserves-Point Napean Marine Reserve E 18-87 Harold Holt M.Reserves-Swan Bay Marine Reserve E 18-88 Harold Holt M.Reserves-The Annulus Marine Reserve E 18-89 Hays Inlet Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-90 Heard and Macdonald Islands Protected Area E 18-91 Hervey Bay Marine Park E 18-92 Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits P Y Y 18-248 Hinchinbrook Channel National Park E 18-93 Hinchinbrook Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-94 'HMS Porpoise' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-95 Hook Island Fish Sanctuary E 18-96 Hull River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-97 Australia Indian Island Forest Reserve Other Conservation Area E 18-98 Innes Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-99 Japanese 1-124 submarine Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-100 'Joanna' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-101 Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve E 18-102 Jumpinpin-Broadwater Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-103 Kakadu National Park E 18-104 Kauri Creek Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-105 Kent Group P Y Y 18-249 Keppel Sands Environmental Park E 18-106 Kingscote Spit, Kangaroo Island Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-107 Kippa-Ring Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-108 Kolan River Wetland Reserve E 18-109 Ku-Ring-Gai Chase National Park E 18-110 Lake Innes Nature Reserve E 18-111 Lavinia Nature Reserve E 18-112 Lihou Reef Marine National Nature Reserve E 18-113 v,~ Long Reef Aquatic Reserve E 18-114 co Lord Howe Island Marine Reserve P Y Y 18-250 Maaroom Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-115 Mackay-Capricom Marine Park E 18-116 Macquarie Harbour Historic Site E 18-117 Macquarie Harbour-Southwest ConsA Conservation Area E 18-118 Macquarie Island P Y Y 18-251 Margaret Brock Reef Sanctuary E 18-119 Maria Creek National Park E 18-120 Maria Island National Park E 18-121 Maria Island National Park (extension) P Y Y 18-252 Marion Wetland Reserve E 18-122 Marmion Marine Park E 18-123 Maroochy Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-125 Maroochy Wetland Reserve E 18-124 Mermaid Reef Marine National Nature Reserve E 18-126 Meunga Creek Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-127 Middle Island Fish Sanctuary E 18-128 Midge Wetland Reserve E 18-129 Moreton Banks Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-130 Moming Inlet-Bynoe River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-131 Mouth of Baffle Creek Environmental Park E 18-132 Mouth of Bakers Creek Environmental Park E 18-133 Australia Murray River Entrance Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-135 Murray River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-134 Mutchero Inlet National Park E 18-136 Myora Extension Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-138 Myora Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-137 Nassau River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-139 Newport Environmental Park E 18-140 Nine Pin Point Marine Reserve E 18-141 Ningaloo Marine Park E 18-142 Ningaloo (State Waters) Marine Park E Y Y 18-143 Nooramunga Marine and Coastal Park E 18-144 Noosa River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-145 North Creek-Ballina NR Nature Reserve E 18-146 North East River Game Reserve E 18-147 North (Sydney) Harbour Aquatic Reserve E 18-148 Nymph Island National Park E 18-149 Outer Harbour-Marine Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-150 Oyster Cove Historic Site E 18-151 Palm Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-152 Pandora Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-153 Parsons Beach, Fleurieu Peninsula Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-154 Patawalonga Lake Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-155 Peel Island Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-156 Pelican Bay, Clinton Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-157 Penguin Island-Rivoli Bay Sanctuary E 18-158 Pimparna Wetland Reserve E 18-159 Point Cook Marine Reserve E 18-160 Point La Batt Aquatic Reserve E 18-161 Point Quobba Marine Reserve E 18-162 Pondalowie Bay Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-163 Porpoise Cay Wreck Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-164 Port Adelaide River Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-165 Port Broughton, Fisherman Bay Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-166 Port Noarlunga and Onkaparinga Estuary Aquatic Reserve E 18-167 Australia Port Pirie Estuary Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-168 Port Victoria Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-169 Port Wakefield Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-170 Price Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-171 Princess Charlotte Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-172 Pumicestone National Park E 18-173 Pumicestone Passage Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-174 Pumicestone Passage Marine Park E 18-175 Repulse Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-177 Repulse Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-176 Richmond River Nature Reserve E 18-178 River Hindmarsh and River Inman Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-179 Rivoli Bay Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-180 Robe Lakes Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-181 Rocky Cape P Y Y 18-253 Rocky Dam Wetland Reserve E 18-182 Rodds Harbour Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-183 Rottnest Island Marine Reserve E Y Y 18-184 Round Hill Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-185 Rowley Shoals Marine Park E 18-186 Sand Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-187 Seal Beach-Bales Bay Aquatic Reserve E 18-188 Section Bank, Outer Harbour Resource Use Area-Area Adjacent to Aquatic Reserve E 18-189 Seventeen Seventy Wetland Reserve E 18-190 Shallow Inlet Marine and Coastal Park E 18-191 Shark Bay Marine Park E Y Y 18-192 Shiprock Aquatic Reserve E 18-193 Shoalwater Islands Marine Park E Y Y 18-194 Silver Plains Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-195 Solitary Islands Marine Reserve E Y Y 18-196 South Arm E 18-197 'SS Deckenfield' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-198 St Kilda-Chapman Creek Aquatic Reserve E 18-199 Staaten-Gilbert Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-200 Susan River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-201 Swan Bay Fish Sanctuary E 18-202 Swan Estuary Marine Park E 18-203 Sydney Cove Historic Site E 18-204 Australia Tallebudgera Wetland Reserve E 18-205 Temple Bay Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-206 Three Hummock Island Nature Reserve E 18-207 Tin Can Inlet Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-208 Tinderbox Marine Reserve E 18-209 Todd River Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-210 Torres Strait P Y Y 18-254 Torres Strait Islands Dugong Sanctuary E 18-211 Torres Strait Protected Zone E 18-212 Townsvile Town Common(1) Environmental Park E 18-213 Townsville/Whitsunday Marine Park E 18-214 Towra Point Aquatic Reserve E 18-215 Trinity Inlet Wetland Reserve E 18-216 Troubridge Hill Aquatic Reserve E 18-217 Troubridge Island Conservation Park E 18-218 Tully River Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-219 Turkey Wetland Reserve E 18-220 Turtle Group National Park E 18-221 Two Islands National Park E 18-222 Venus Bay Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-223 Waitpinga Beach, Fleurieu Peninsula Resource Use Area- Waters Closed to Netting E 18-224 Wamberal Lagoon Nature Reserve E 18-225 Jervis Bay Nature Reserve E Y Y 18-226 Wedge Island, Spencer Gulf Resource Use Area-Waters Closed to Netting E 18-227 West Hill Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-228 West Hill Island National Park E 18-230 West Hill National Park E 18-229 West Island Aquatic Reserve E 18-231 Weyba Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-232 Whyalla-Cowleds Landing Aquatic Reserve E 18-233 Wild Cattle Wetland Reserve E 18-234 William Salthouse Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-235 Wilsons Promontory Marine Park E 18-236 Wilsons Promontory Marine Reserve E 18-237 Woongarra Marine Park E 18-238 Wreck Creek Fish Habitat Reserve E 18-239 Yatala Harbour Aquatic Reserve E 18-240 Yongala Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-241 Yorkeys Creek Wetland Reserve E 18-242 Zanoni Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-243 Existijnt or Regionalo Naitoll _ _ N;anict paroj)o.scd(l lariorhit! priorit% Australia 'Zuytdorp' Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-244 Christmas Island Christmas Island National Park E 18-255 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 'Emden" Historic Shipwreck Protected Zone E 18-256 New Zealand Bay of Islands P Y 18-271 Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve E 18-257 Eastem Great Barrier Island, Outer Hauraki Gulf P Y Y 18-272 Fiordland P Y Y 18-273 Kaikoura P Y 18-274 Kapiti Island Marine Reserve E 18-258 Long Island-Kokomahua Marine Reserve E 18-259 Mimiwhangata Marine Park E 18-260 Nugget Point P Y 18-275 Paparoa P Y 18-276 Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) Marine Reserve E 18-261 Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve E 18-262 Raoul Island and Kermadec Group Nature Reserve Nature Reserve E 18-263 Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty) P Y Y 18-277 Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty) P Y Y 18-278 Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty) P Y Y 18-279 Subantarctic Islands (Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty) P Y Y 18-280 Sugarloaf Islands Marine Park E 18-264 Tawharanui Marine Park E 18-265 Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut) Marine Reserve E 18-266 Tonga Island Marine Reserve E 18-267 Tuhua (Mayor Island) Marine Reserve E 18-268 Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) Marine Reserve E 18-269 Whanganui A Hei Marine Reserve E 18-270 IBRD 26256 MARINE REGION 14 SOUTH PACIFIC

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): REGIONAL PRIORITY AREAS (Pending further elucidation)

REGiONAL NATIONAL- CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES -- CENTERSOF ENDEMISM PRIORITY PRIORITY 0 1 EXISTNGMPAs EQUIRING ANAGEMEN SUPPORTBIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES ATOLLSWITH MANGROVE AND SEAGRASS [Al PROPOSEDMPAs ~~~~~~~~~BIOGEOGRAPHICZONE BOUNDARIES ..... ATOLLS WITHOUT MANGROVE AND SEAGRASS OFFSHORE LINES OF SEPARATION ARID, PHOSPHATE ATOLLS BETWEEN ISLAND GROUPS*

OT MPAsOTHER EXISTING ~~~~~INTERNATIONALBOUNDARY HIGH LIMESTONE ISLANDS T I'- -- --.. <614 i HIGH NON-LIMESTONE ISLANDS

30' 45'~~6 15' 10 170' 140O' 131e' 1210'10 30'-

North West Pacific j doy-Mexico

'I.. J.P In. () North East PaCific Al(oPo MionTon I

' . . - . ~~~~~~~~~(US) ~ ~~~~~~~~Woke 0 10 0,lO o'e) 20IP 7297)~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ NOT .107 A II Marshall A. - - / ~~~~~~~~~29- Islands I

-- r9\ L ~~~~~~~~~~------(-t.-o-ya-ie-

Federated Statc~~~~~~~\4 .-44.-0 ,,,/polau of Micronesia i1 0. rJ ~ 26.' \ e~

Vr~~~ ~~~~~~~~lO 5 0 0 0 02040500040

AsianSeas Gu~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- I .- f, d---, fd-kE

J~ 71~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~'i-- SOUTH

I VanUQtAh,- N I Cok I-. OCEAN 600.\\0$t23\ I,g ~~ ~~~~ I , VT.d~~~4 60,~~~~~~~~~ 716,' '~~~ -*~~~-~~---~~~~I -50-7 Frnh.. ly-nt (FdI

Australio 7" no-

The hsd.free. -olor, dnmntnsVVTE * 1 (UK)io e-d anyother oi or-ti-n sh-ooN onfro(r M fodIi Theordok Orop. oydmot0AustralialNewo Ze/Iiztand-

30' ~~~~1410' 7,55' 160' 17100 ]so- 16D' 150'10'10'70

06/09/1995 wmc 2' -4IcxIbx1 II FI76 so-

to, I.e _y!26257 l | | . aC-.BRD 170' t_~x 7 160' _ x_1504 13Cr

170 Russion Al ' Fedeoon%Pu l,S

-l- r8c j a . 4tlunt, ,West,

sc fi - \C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~K3O06r53 9 so

s \-- 102,2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5, 26, 29, 70, 6,65. 117, 120, 30, 139. 40, 46. Si, 09,70. 70,7 490

I ~~~~~~~~NORTH EAST PACIFIC I l27~

f ~~~~~~MARINE.PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): 12Ot 95 0,\. 26,293.l, 146 567I2Z, 70 3.70 4.5,1970 7 s 40> 1 ' REGIONAyL NATIONAL _Sto8Untesd0.\

|0' *\1 O(r- EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT 1\ 3 109 NORTHPACIFIC EAST ~ ?I:~~~OEAN / 17

170~~~~~~~~0 3 I i 1 ew ] ~~~~~PROPOSEDMPAs . \ v 43

| oi ~~~~~~OTHEREXISTING MPAs \ 940'4

CNPPAMARINE REGION BOUNDARIES PACIFIC \ 94,1040/ IO ;3 r 4 1;~~~~~~IBIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES 4l w w'¢~>5 0M ---- POET390CEDBIOGEOGRAPHIC E MZONE BOUNDARIES -EINTERNlATIONAL BOUNDARIES \Sta

20' .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' 1813,54,11'9 20'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9,18,. Robinson ProlRction. \T'Y I,lwnsl

PROPOSED\ MPAs. 34 Q Mexico

~PACIFIC ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~rriI.!iI.lI FY ~l ~,l

South \Xi Pacifirc\ >

Thehoondooes. colors, denomrinctions ondony ot her ielorrmotion * ,, 17>;l. sheen on thsismrop do not imphy,on the pert of TheVWorld b'ook Gresrp, '< , -; oonyjdgroent on the Isool otets 0o0fony btory or ony oedorsomeet _.~- or occsplornceof sodsboundorieo.' ehdtornng7thissaphoereheenpoonpied .rin the bst /9OI1 10 pvdb in>moin Comments,corrections, ond other bdbockr / r~,

L~~~~~0 6' 50' 160' 130' 120' l Pac\itiril 1:.1: -

IBRD 26258

100- 170' 120. 130- 140' 150' 160' 170' 1A t ¶0 N V t

Russicn Federation

- 60' 6 60',

170'

* MARINE REGION 16Paii .~~/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6,7 NORTH WEST PACIFIC Nor8 >th9r-MRNAEAS(Pst:RTCE

K 78" 183 ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): 1_T 9 + I'd' i:NATIONAL s 0 g8s~REGIONAL .75 *'.-J :n ice,108 73. 33 PRIORITY PRIORITY

40' Do erples 0 I 1 EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT 401- .24 } RepeQf Ko~~~~~rea 53 1 95f'

4 6 R K 6 os .929C0 4 42' la.6e' PROPOSED MPAs )' n . 7jRep..1 Rep. pw1i-128101 99 82fi

ofino Jn L- o OTHER EXISTING MPAs Chinoa4

41o~ z- 75 14 CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES

3. 34/707.159\9ZI 141 BIOGEOGRAPHICB ZONES 45 ; 143,153_554 1 84786109, 120 147, 3b14 BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES 30' 100.'~~~~~~~~~~~~2 15 3.16;6 55 4 6 0. 2,17 6 f74 _ -_ _ . INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

_>20/ 488. }31 el65SX.25. Robinson Projection,

? -142,164 0174 718 5 , v Thebouodonies oolorns.dedni , n od6omn o-d ny other infor-eion sho r8thion etop do nrt.itiply.0th. port of The Word8onk G.p

s 4 3 2 ohd9tneeton tefolsonbis of oy erenitrorpidsnrytendobementhrs -. }°oli>otagKong(Uf- .'. - t / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o- or cvoitobteiof h doe. PACtFcC 14, 21 dote op~ere o s079hrhe oepfdm thbetOC ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Th.1 7a-

ff - -JROXt,~ ; - -2 358 - ; South li'acific 20-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SotIlcii 2r 1i 102:o9 . EastAsian Seas S P 2

.' llz110° 72 Phili pines 0 1 ' 14' 150' 160- 170' 180'

06/09/1995 w 7mIc21 4cxbxcu 35T RbF

70- 120- 110' too Gu a9 Hideo

E Salvador Nic agu CanbbeanCari

-10 North East /NR Pacific liezuela

14 \

(Cot RkJ / Colombia

15, 16 /1 -

' Ecuador>\

10'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

\ Aj -10 \ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Peru

. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ <7- : ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~

. \ \\\ )E~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~27

So uth PA CIFIC Pacific PACIFIC

, .20'

Eas7erIslond \|i (Chile)o - MARINE REGION 17 SOUTH EAST PACIFIC

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): REGIONAL NATIONAL PRIORITY PRIORITY

Osj7 O'U EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING I MANAGEMENT SUPPORT La 7 eE PROPOSED MPAs Af 0' -40'

Arg/n-ina a OTHER EXISTING MPAsO]~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~]t Argentina

CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES _ 'A'-

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES I '

-- BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES

\| l> S < lil)---- FAUNAL PROVINCE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Robinson Projection.\\ 7 -! \\. Th. b-ud.,i.e colon d...nomi-obnnd -yvoth.,me -fi..roo t h-w on this mopdo -tf imply,..o the pon fdTh. Word b- k G-oP, \t- L'on judmenton th le.cl sotusof aznyterintor or nny endorsement )\ o ornccpt-nce suhbudoe.... -

Thedoto opeorino-nthis moph ... been eompiled usin the bes.0\ oth., fedback \> rwilotle- infommohonCommen.s -oectiom, -Jd t _ .woube most wecme-

IBRD 26260

Chriorreos0255 am 1Wo Pc8. siotrog9o 2h. ni,-.: 2 0 140W27 0, 54i i-Pguo1 ~~0155 ~ New Guinea .I 701

256~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

- Aah200rnandalTF\-7 ,.\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5

/7 ~~~~ 88293 7277 754, 2,219.23929,29 ~%28220 - - % yS,76 755.799~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 I --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2W Aostreliar/ A 176, 1taP"> - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4176 0 024270 __/ 2201?J7h32MEEk 06 ruagorooo 224~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~22

762~~~~~~~~~~~~~1IEE l7,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~25,176,217,7C9,615,7227 !rA422

OCEAN192E, 3Z 35. 2481/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~17 ,z774,2 175, 2320 240 23

9 28.44.46.5, 90,lOS, 88, 70, 73 ,973,7S O,12, 3

52, 4 07820508\ INDIAN VVsrr7"''~4>,

24;o 45-'~~~~~~24

30' V ~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ F(6) 7,~~~~~--VIl

12'30\ Cr24t6 Gea eM#v/'\ 9 2 Wae z. 1 'S >. ,JK,,,,,_____ \\ SlSo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 7 .dH7, " t \XVdIfl 39l A.~ A .-.- '" Australian~~Vf 2330'0 .8.84 8.66.25 / "-' ." f.f - --- \ Thk, 0 8,9,0 251k/, 114 148/ -' MARINEREGION"---.-----""' 18 - Bight 758 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~4t74747~~93% 2 / Sea N\c4~~>M120 < \ / - New ,'264 4~2

ustroho r_ I I ae,89 A rA..u'

MARINEPRTCE REASO (MPAa2 I. 14 / e6

AO' AUSTRALIA AND 204~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- Ž. 40/

PRIORITY PRIORITY - CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES N-eri>~ ol0 EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING II BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES ' - 02 MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Vl( oae PROPOSED MPAs --- BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES Th aneis oos ennafneedayehratantosuaiI29,

SUBTROPICAL CONVERGENCE share as this napt de rat imply,as thepart a TheWorld Bash GSeep. /- err c~dg-rt -n he.egoiZy :f~ery territory,or any end-...s .(N2)[J77/7f OTHER EXISTING MPAs INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES\C-bl Thedat peaige thiamaP he.e hb- -apiledusin the best \ ICaNZbeLJ / -bl ble iot..armta. Cemm-rts -orati-n, end ether fedbak 2 7 8 wuldbe mat -lon. Robinson Prajection. LaI251/

100, 1T Antarctica 1 130 40 . 0 7-10 06/09/1995 ws W~nI1iuSTHa

GPO Box 791, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia Telephone: (06) 247-021 1, A/H (61) (6) 250-5597 Intemational: (61) (6) 247-02 II,AH (61) (6) 251-5597 GMT + IO'hs. Facsimile: (06) 247-5761, lntemnatIonal (61) (6) -247-5761

Land, Water & Natural Habitats Division Environment Department 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Telephone: (202) 458-2715 Fax: (202) 477-0568

Rue Mauverney 28 CH-1 195 Gland, Switzerland Telephone: 41-22-999-0273 Fax: 41-22-999-0025 TeleX: 419624 inch ch

Toward Envronmmentally aie,aUe DlDevelopment

Cover photographs by Mr. Jan C. Post except "Walrutses" by Dr. G. Carleton Ray