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Tweeting the Revolution EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING TWEETING THE REVOLUTION The Role of Social Media in Political Mobilisation Daniel Domingues Class 6k Maturitätsarbeit 2013/2014 Supervision: Marianne Rosatzin Kantonsschule Zürcher Unterland Daniel Domingues Date of Submission: 6 January 2013 Furtrainstrasse 20 8180 Bülach 0445546228 [email protected] TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................ 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 3 2 Communication Theories of the 21st Century ............................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Social Media .................................................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Facebook .................................................................................................. 9 2.2.2 Twitter ..................................................................................................... 10 2.2.3 Weblog .................................................................................................... 11 2.3 Communication Theories of the 21st Century .................................................. 11 2.4 Criticism ......................................................................................................... 13 2.5 Social Media in Egypt ..................................................................................... 13 3 The Egyptian Revolution ............................................................................ 17 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 17 3.2 Background ................................................................................................... 17 3.2.1 Khaled Said ............................................................................................. 17 3.2.2 Tunisia’s ‘Jasmine Revolution’ ................................................................. 18 3.2.3 The Lead-up to the Egyptian Uprising ...................................................... 19 3.2.4 The Egyptian Revolution .......................................................................... 20 3.3 Timeline ......................................................................................................... 21 3.4 Understanding this Revolution ........................................................................ 22 4 Role of Social Media in Political Mobilisation .............................................. 25 4.1 Information Infrastructure ............................................................................... 25 4.1.1 Geo-data ................................................................................................. 25 4.1.2 Egypt’s Online Political Sphere ................................................................. 26 4.1.3 Linguistic Change .................................................................................... 27 4.2 Organisation of Protest .................................................................................. 27 4.2.1 The Five Phases of Mobilisation ............................................................... 27 4.2.2 Changing the Political Landscape ............................................................ 28 4.3 Authoritarian Use of Networks ........................................................................ 29 4.3.1 The Reasons why Regimes Interfere ........................................................ 29 4.3.2 Counter-Insurgency Strategies ................................................................. 30 4.3.3 Disconnection in Egypt ............................................................................ 30 i TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING 4.4 Citizen Journalism .......................................................................................... 31 4.4.1 We are all Khaled Said ............................................................................. 32 4.5 Protest Participation in Tahrir Square ............................................................. 33 4.5.1 Who where the protestors? ...................................................................... 33 4.5.2 Media Usage & Hearing about the Protests .............................................. 34 4.5.3 Analysing the Results ............................................................................... 36 4.6 Arab Social Media Report .............................................................................. 38 4.6.1 Facebook Usage in Egypt ........................................................................ 38 4.6.2 Twitter Usage in Egypt ............................................................................. 39 5 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 42 6 Appendix ................................................................................................... 47 7 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 52 7.1 Table of Figures ............................................................................................. 56 Figure 1: Cover page - Illustration of Twitter protestors1 1 Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, “What happens to Twitter after a Social Media Revolution”, Mashable 10 March 2013. Accessed 15 March 2013. http://mashable.com/2013/03/09/twitter-revolution/ ii TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING Credits & Acknowledgement This past year has been very demanding and intense at times. I would not have been able to finish this study without the support of others. I would very much like to thank the following people: Mickey for proofreading it and the always positive feedback! My parents - for putting up with the many mood changes this study has caused. Roland Lüthi - who assisted me in language issues. And of course, a special shout-out to my supervisor, Marianne Rosatzin, who helped me accomplish my goals and whose support could not be replaced. iii TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING Abstract The events of the Arab Spring in 2011 led to many political changes throughout the Arab world. The Internet, social media to be specific, is believed to have played a major role during the protests. This case study will examine carefully the role of Facebook, Twitter and blogs in the political movements in Egypt during January and February 2011. It further looks at the different possibilities that a society and government has, to take political action on social media. This research draws upon both, primary and secondary sources. Interviews conducted by different organisations will further show how the new media is used to mobilise people. To conclude, it will judge whether social media was the main instigator of the revolutions and if its entity fosters democratic movements. The motivation for this study derives from an interest in historical events, modern politics and technology. 1 TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING Figure 2: Tweet by Wael Ghonim Wael Ghonim, Twitter, 11 February 2011. Accessed 1 December 2013. https://twitter.com/Ghonim/status/36102073128853504 2 TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING 1 Introduction In 2011, a wave of revolutionary protests and demonstrations swept across the Middle East, which culminated in the fall of many defiant Arab dictators. Coun- tries such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Yemen found themselves liberated after many years of repression. It is generally acknowledged that the Internet and social media have played a significant role in the social movements and demonstrations that gained interna- tional attention within this region. Various academics, politicians and journalists have embraced the concept of a “Twitter revolution,”2 mentioned for the first time in the 2009 Moldova civil unrest.3 Mediums such as Facebook, Twitter or YouTube are believed to be a helpful tool for the mass in order to criticise and attack the pillars of a regime. Today the influence of social media in public relations, intercommunication and collective knowledge management is almost everywhere taken for granted.4 In fact, as of February 2011 there were more people in Egypt reading their news on the Internet than on the actual newspaper offline.5 As the opportunity for political participation emerged with social media, the web helped raise public awareness within the Egyptian population. Wael Ghonim, a Google executive and the founder of the “ We are all Khaled Said” Facebook 2 Brad Stone and Noam Cohen, “Social Networks Spread Defiance Online“, New York Times, 15 June 2009. Accessed 21 September 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/16/world/middleeast/16media.html 3 Evgeny Morozov, “Moldova’s Twitter Revolution”, Foreign Policy, 7 April 2009. Accessed 21 September 2013. http://neteffect.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2009/04/07/moldovas_twitter_revolutio n 4 Hans Christian Voigt and Thomas Kreiml, “Soziale Bewegungen und Social Media: Handbuch für den Einsatz von Web 2.0”, Vienna 2011, p. 7. 5 Jeffrey Ghannam, “Social Media In The Arab World: Leading up to the Upris- ings of 2011”, Center for International Media Assistance, 3 February 2011, p.12. 3 TWEETING THE REVOLUTION: EGYPT IN THE ARAB SPRING page, famously stated, “If you
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