Localizing Fulbe Architecture

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 University Press. All rightsreserved.www.islamicafricajournal.org Islamic Africa, of theanonymousreviewersandDr. M. SaniUmar. western University. The final version of this work has benefited greatly from the comments DePaul UniversityResearchCouncil Grantanda Visiting Scholar Appointment atNorth a by supported was article this of writing The me. hosting for Ngaoundéré of people the I am grateful to Laamiiɗo Mohammadou Hayatou Issa, the University of Ngaoundéré, and have originatedonthewestcoastof Africa, butwhohavespreadwidely for African arthistorians. The Fulbeareapeoplecommonlythoughtto task difficult a proven has architecture Fulbe defining and CopyrightIdentifying (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. ethnicity. be drawn with local architectural traditions, irrespective of religion or has infact blinded scholarsto the much stronger connections that can as extraordinarily adaptive. The focusonethnicity and Islamicfaith be perceived, especially in the realmpriately of permanent architecture, ing of alyzing Fulbe architecture, drawing upon anow-outdated understand Scholars havealsoperceived ethnicity, aswell as Islam,central to an eroon oftenpoint to architectural form asamarkerofethnic identity. Djallon region, Guinea,bearmanyformalsimilarities.FulbeinCam Fulbe architecture of the Adamawa Region, Cameroon, and the Fouta DOI: 10.5192/21540993050101 Mark DikeDeLancey, l ARTICLES pulaaku,

ocalizing vol . 5 , orFulbeness.Instead,theFulbeshouldmore appro no . 1 , 2014 . issn f abstract ulbe

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1 - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 tural historians as to what, if anything, constitutes specifically Fulbe ar Fulbe specifically constitutes anything, if what, to as historians tural these pastthreecenturieshaveraisedtheimportant question forarchitec under the ultimate authority of the Sokoto Caliphate (figure 1). century later, FulbeinnorthernCameroon formed anumberofsubstates foundation of anIslamic state by Fulbeinthe early eighteenth century. A lands. SuchistrueintheFoutaDjallonregionofGuinea,whichsaw groups ofFulbehave settled and at times come to rule over their adopted the principle aim oflocating new pasturesfortheircattle. In manyplaces, coast, the Fulbe spread east across the continent over the centuries with sub- ing of cattle, and have also played a central role in the spread of Islam in and early scholarly discourses that emphasize a common Fulbe identity. architectural continuity will be placed in the context ofboth popular Fulbe Fulbe architecture in the Fouta Djallon region ofGuinea. The argument for to qualities formal in compared first is Cameroon, Region, Adamawa relation toitslocalcontext. Architecture commonlydesignatedasFulbein pora, andtheabsolutenecessity ofconsideringarchitectural expression in an overemphasis onnotionsofcultural continuity across theFulbedias ample of northernCameroon will beemployed to illustrate the pitfalls of ofarchitecture. impactthestudy thosedebates but ratherhow The ex its malleability. Itisnotfocusedprimarilyonthedebatesoveridentity, nize theshiftinFulbestudiesfromanemphasisonaunitary identityto of pastoralism, a formernomadic life, andIslam. Fulbe architectureacrossthediasporathatispredicatedoncommonvalues tions inidentity, asarthistorians espousedanessential unity ofsedentary field of Fulbe studies has emphasized issues of culture change and distinc populations wherevertheysettled. Ontheotherhand,since1980s, widespread Fulbeadoptionoflocal architectural forms fromsurrounding identity, whilethosestudyingFulbeartandarchitecturesuggestedthe early scholarly notions ofFulbe identity. Onthe one hand, late tion that were, in both cases, at odds with the prevailing contemporaneous chitecture? Two major points ofviewhave developed regarding this ques across West and Central Africa. 2 1 ulté des lettres etsciences humaines

The peregrinations and cultural changes experienced by the Fulbe over The peregrinationsandculturalchangesexperiencedbytheFulbeover This article argues thatthosestudyingFulbearchitecture must recog Saharan Africa, particularly in the last three centuries. From the west twentieth- century scholars generally emphasized the unity of Fulbe 2(1972):168–74. 1 They are closely associated with the rais nineteenth- c i m a l s i Annales de la fac

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Map ofCameroon in relation to Guinea. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 1 Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 of Fulbe identity formation in the 1980s provides an impetus for rejecting various localcontexts. The shifttoamorecontextualized understanding tecture, whichironicallyfocusedontheacculturation of theFulbetotheir This orientation will be contrasted with the early literature on Fulbe archi 4 with an attractive finial, whether woven of grass or crowned with pottery. roof the of apex the fitting of well, as regions surrounding and Cameroon, the roofinminiature,itparticipates inatraditionwidespreadacrossnorthern the roof, but it is not absolutely necessary (figure 5). Mimicking the whole of it isnotnearly as aesthetically pleasing. method of thatching sheds rain just as effectively as the smoother method, in thismanner and therefore require rethatching less often. Although this thatching when easily as snap not do stems 4). grass (figure The exposed are attached the grasses by thesturdiercutbasewithtuftedhead ing as Copyrightsessing the same basic form, have a much rougher texture to thethatch roofs areall executed in thiselegant manner. thatched the (c)Ngaoundéré, of palace the Withinsurface. sloping smooth Northwesternposed, andboundat thehead ofthegrass, roofspossess aspectacularly amawa plateau called are thatched with a particularly long, thin, and straight grass from the Ad architecture, elite of especially region, this in Roofs 2). (figure miniature University in thewhole capthatreproduces asmall a tallpointedrooftoppedwith by typified is It Cameroon. in unique and recognizable immediately is Ngaoundéré, capital its of particular in and Region, of Adamawa tecture Press.in Adamawa andmosquearchitectureinFoutaDjallon. The elitearchi relationship canbedrawnbetweeneliteresidentialandpalacearchitecture All Fouta Djallon region, Guinea, bear many formal similarities. The strongest rights the and Cameroon, of Region, architecture Adamawa the glance, first At reserved. tural allegiances. produced ones based ongeography, climate, and political and sociocul ethnic orreligioussourcesofarchitecturalformwithmoreimmediately by Fulbeinthisregion,foregroundingthenecessityofbalancing potential gions will impress thedistinctly local qualities of architecture built for or eroon. Consideration of the architecture of neighboring ethnicities and re the notion of a specifically Fulbe architecture in Adamawa Region, Cam

Functionally speaking, the cap provides added protection for the apex of This sleeksurfaceisincontrasttomosthouses,which, thoughpos Fulbe Architecture in Adamawa andFoutaDjallon siiseeri inFulfulde. Thatched with cutbottom ex c i m a l s i

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Ngaoundéré, Cameroon.Photo by Mark D. DeLancey, 1996. Second building( Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Jawleeru Njakmukon Figure 2 ) in the Palace of Ngaoundéré, west façade. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 the rooftocreate broad eaves. given the heavy rainy season on the Adamawa Plateau, by the extension of tals. The wallsareprotectedfromsunandrain,animportant consideration compound, inwhichcasethe wallswouldbepierced by two ormorepor trances ordistributionpointstovariousquarterswithin alarger family only opening. Such circular plan structures may also beemployed asen earth. The standard residential unit is circular in plan with the door as the Ngaoundéré, Cameroon. Drawing by Mark D. DeLancey. Second building ( Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. 6

In more elaborate structures, such as in the palace of Ngaoundéré, of palace the in as such structures, elaborate more In The buildingbeneathistypicallyconstructedofcourses ofunbaked Jaweleeru Njakmukon Figure 3 ) in the Palace of Ngaoundéré, plan. Ngaoundéré, of Palace the in ) c i m a l s i

a c i r f a - - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 DeLancey, 2000. Binding grass thatching by the stem. Idool, Cameroon. Photo by Mark D. liphate,” see Mark D. DeLancey, “The Spread of the Sooro: Symbols of Power in the Sokoto Ca dential structures are ordinarily circular in plan. bears someformal similarities to that of Adamawa. As in Adamawa, resi ing visuallytransformstheexteriorintoasubtlyundulating conicalform. portal to create a porch. Thus the roof of what may be a are supportedonwoodenpolesplantedinasemicircular planaroundeach most totheground,cloakingentirebuildingindeepshadows. The eaves the thatchedroofhidestheirexistenceonexterior. The eavesextendal The earthenceilingisonlyapparentfromtheinterior, asarethepillars,since y e c n a l e d 3 2 earthen pillars,elementsdistinguishingthebuildingtypeknownasa decoration. supportedfromwithinbyoneormorestout earthenceilingis An exterior andinterior, maybedecoratedwithpaintedlowreliefgeometric both walls, The 3). (figure rectangular or square often are plans building terrestre 1 (Paris:

Les casesdécoréesd’unchef du Fout depthlookatthehistorical use ofthisbuildingtypeinnorthernCameroon, Gauthier- Villars, 1948).

Architectural Historians Figure 4 a- Djiallo. 71,no.2(June2012):168–85. 3 Wood poles may be ar Documents d’ethnographie square- plan build sooro . 7 - - - - 2 -

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 based onthemodelofKa plan, in square resolutely is Djallon Fouta the in architecture mosque déré, DeLancey, 2000. D. Mark by Photo Cameroon. Ngaoundéré, revealed. framework with cap Roof 8 4 straight or undulating lines aroundtheinterior circumference. ing, maybedecoratedwithhorizontalringsofboundthatching arrangedin Adamawa. The interior of the thatched roof, visible since there is no ceil the bold relief decoration usually seen onpillars and surrounding portals in This decoration ismoreenvelopingandofadelicate character than incisedandpaintedgeometricdecoration.dence maybedecoratedwith a conical thatched roof over a circular plan room (figure 6). cal formwhichisthenthatched. Thus, theresidential unit iscomposedof of theouterporchtocreateaconi the wallsofbuildingandposts rafters converge over abovethecenterofbuildingandextenddown ranged inacircular fashion around thebuildingtocreate a veranda.Long l’ouest Djallon,” in

Ibid., 16–31; P. Creac’h, “Notes sur l’art décoratif architectural Foula du haut Fouta- haut du Foula architectural décoratif l’art sur “Notes Creac’h, P. 16–31; Ibid., Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved.

By contrast,andincommonwiththeentrancetopalace ofNgaoun The walls and even the floors, beds, and other surfaces of an elite resi (Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient Comptes rendus delapremière conférence internationale des africanistes de ʾ ba as encouraged by the Maliki school of Islam ba asencouragedbytheMaliki schoolofIslam Figure 5 Adrien- Maisonneuve, 1951), 300–312. c i m a l s i 4

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Figure 6 Section of a house. Dalaba, Guinea. Composite drawing by Mark D. DeLancey after Poujade, Les Cases Décorées, p. 8, fig. 1; p. 23, figs. 19 & 20; p. 28, fig. 31. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Hatumere Friday MosqueofDinguiraye,section.PlanbyMarkD.DeLancey, afterPrussin, reinforced concreteexamplesborrowing fromaninternationalIslamicvocabulary. Adamawa by either French colonial examples, based on church architecture, or contemporary are documentedintheFoutaDjallon, these historical monumentshave largely beenreplacedin Press, 1986), 184, 187. It is difficult to compare like structures in both contexts. While mosques 10 5 Westthroughout Africa. followed mihrab niche onthe east side indicating the is the largest and most spectacular example of this type (figures 7 and 8).

The planemploystripleentrancesonthenorth,west,and southsides. A , p. 229, fig. 7.34b. Hatumere:

Islamic DesigninWest Africa 5 The Friday Mosque of Dinguiraye, Guinea, The FridayMosqueofDinguiraye, Guinea, Figure 7 qibla (Berkeley: University of California (Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia completes the composition. completes the composition. c i m a l s i

a c i r f a Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 tecture inGuineaandCameroon, separatedbysome1,700miles.From The architecturalhistorian isconfrontedwithsimilarstylesofarchi Guinée Française Friday MosqueofDinguiraye,Guinea,plan.Ca.1900.Famechon, y e c n a l e d theory ofapan- continent seemsfromapurelyformalpointofviewtolend credencetothe The persistenceoftheconeoncubeparadigmhalfwayacross the African as acircularplanrooffocusedonthecentralpillarof characterized be Ngaoundéré. therefore of may Dinguiraye of mosque The Copyright ternal cube,cloakingtheinteriorindeep,darkshadowsmuch likethepalace down toacircleofshortwoodpolesplantedincircularplan aroundthein but hereitisrequiredtopreventtheraftersfrombowing. The eavesextend (c) sary inordinaryresidentialarchitectureduetothesmaller spacecovered, Northwesterntects theearthencubebelow. Suchasupportsystemfortheroofisunneces poles radiatingoutandsupportingamassivethatcheddomicalroofthatpro tral pillar supports above it an upturned interior floor plan into rows and aisles, supports the earthen ceiling. TheUniversity cen A large central pillar, flanked by numerous smaller wood poles dividing the Press. All rights reserved.

Fulbearchitecturalvocabulary. , p.165. Identity and RoofForm Figure 8

umbrella- like collection of wood square-

plan building. planbuilding. Notice sur la 11 - - - - - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Lancey, 2000. an Man wearing 12 of cattle. A historic landmark near thecenter of thecityisalarge tree to fortheirherds pastures in theearlynineteenthcentury seekingoutnew Fulbe of influx the to locally traced is Cameroon, northern of polities the of rest the with as Ngaoundéré, of founding The researchers. by as well a commonly cited element of Fulbe identity by the Fulbe themselves, as upon aprideinanimal husbandry, andafrequentlynomadicpast,thatis presumptions. tions ofidentitycanbe,andinthiscaseare,builton objectively false As will ultimately be shown,however, suchcontemporaryformula point. emphatic an to Copyright comes that fibers grass of created form conical a déré, the in Fulfuldeasan (c)tion ofFulbeidentitybyemulatingtheformpastoral hatknown Northwesternamawa proclaimed to me that the architectural finial is a public declara Fouta Djallon.Onanumberofoccasions,Fulbeindividualsin Ad identity, ultimately suggesting a connection with their brethren in the there is little question that architecture is perceived as a marker of Fulbe Universitythe perspective of a number of specifically Fulbe sources in Adamawa, Press. All rights reserved.

The identification of roof cap with mbuloore mbuloore mbuloore covers and protects the head from the elements with . Guassanguel, Cameroon. Photo by Mark D.De- byMark Cameroon.Photo . Guassanguel, (figure 9). Like the roof finial in Ngaoun in finial roof the Like 9). (figure Figure 9 mbuloore andFulbeidentity draws c i m a l s i

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Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 and whowereprimarily sedentary agriculturalists. Similarly, anthropolo the cultureofindigenousMboumpopulationconqueredbyFulbe The historyofpastoralismandtranshumanceiscommonlycontrastedwith which thecity’s founder, Ardo Ndjobdi,issaidtohavetied his calf rope. y e c n a l e d 6 purposes. status or financial for as heritage pastoral their Fulbe frequently own cattle herds as much to maintain a connection to currently engagedinherdingornot.Moreover, shepointedoutthatsettled ible signofFulbeidentityinnorthernNigeria,carriedatalltimes whether gist Catherine Ver Eecke reported that the herding staff, or buildings with oblong cones topped with sharply pointed finials (figure finials pointed sharply with topped cones oblong with buildings 10 and11). (figures winds fierce sometimes of face the in on thatching the hold help cal roofs,ontheinteriorandexterior, aswellservingfunctionally to more well- onto theapexofconetohelpprotect this mostvulnerable point.For conical coverings. Mosthouseshave a secondlayer of thatching stitched houses oftheoldvillage, whether of FulbeorBata, are usuallyroundwith of distinct identities is readily apparent to even the casual observer. The set slightlyapartfromtheoldtown. The maintenanceandopendeclaration new ethnicgroups. These newcomers livetogetherinanewneighborhood, gion to take advantage of abundant arable land has resulted in an influx of Re 1980s totransplantindividualsfromthemoredesiccatedFarNorth the since operating Ngaoundéré. Aproject in Mboum the were as much lation who were conquered in the earlier nineteenth century by the Fulbe, nantly composedofFulbeandBata,theBatabeingindigenous popu Region, about 121 miles northwest of Ngaoundéré. This town is predomi Tchéboaof North town in the from taken be can region. example the An least some impetusfromtheextraordinary diversity ofcultures resident in groups. The roleofarchitecture in identifying distinct groups maygainat whereby therooffinialservestoquicklyandeasilydifferentiate between ticipates inacommonshorthandthearchitectureofnorthernCameroon, ethnicities. ofotherlocal cultures tity incontrasttotheprevailingagriculturallybased visual imagery of animal husbandry was employed in defining Fulbe iden dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1988), 63.

Catherine Ver Eecke,“Pulaaku: Adamawa Fulbe Identity and Its Transformations” (Ph.D. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. In contrast, the newcomers’ neighborhood is dotted with slightly taller This senseoftheroofcapindicating Fulbeidentity, however, alsopar

to- dohouseholds,adelicate woven netting decorates the coni 6 Inbothcases, sauru , isavis 13 ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 larger scalebytheformsofFulberoofs.Likewise,Prussin pointsoutthat She suggeststhatthegeneralconicalformofhatisemulated onamuch 14 7 historian LabellePrussininrelationtoFulbearchitecture in FoutaDjallon. toral Fulbe The similarity cited by residents of Ngaoundéré between roof- than simplybygeographic origin, however, isnotclear. mbuloore Adamawa that conical roof finials referred to Fulbe identity by way of the tinguish different identities in Tchéboa, much as it was suggested to me in Thus, distinct forms of roofs, and most particularly the finials, serve to dis common in theFarNorthRegion, thepointoforiginimmigrants. 12). Glaringly out of place in Tchéboa, these unusual roof forms are more sitatis Upsaliensis, Figura NovaSeries27,Uppsala:UniversityofUppsala,1995),44–46. Djallon,” in Mark D.DeLancey, 2000. by Photo Cameroon. Tchéboa,apex. the at netting woven with roof Thatched

Hatumere . That these identities are based exclusively on ethnicity rather Islamic Art andCulture inSu mbuloore , 82–83; LabellePrussin,“ArchitecturalFacetsofIslaminthe Futa- , 82–83; Unitary ModelofFulbeIdentity resonates with similar observations by architectural Figure 10 b- aaa Africa Saharan , ed.Karin Adahl (Acta Univer c i m a l s i cap and pas

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Interior of roof. Tchéboa, Cameroon. Photo by Mark D. DeLancey, 2000. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 11 Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 oon. PhotobyMarkD.DeLancey, 2000. Building constructed in a style typical of the Far North Region. Tchéboa, Camer Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 12 - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 dall L. Pouwels(Athens: OhioUniversityPress,2000),477–88. Amulets, and Healing,” in DavidOwusu- (Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution, 1983), 31–45; hatumere by thefamilyoflegendaryconquerorElHadjUmar, isbasedupona an earthen cube beneath (figure 3). smooth- cally alsobeapplicableto Adamawa. LiketheFoutaDjallonexamples, architectural design with for prayer. As such, the same principles applicable to the intersection of mension tocreateprotectedenvironmentsforhabitationandsacredspaces These two- monly define a four- ontheexteriorof oftheleatherstrapwork The points ner inwhichthatchedroofsofthatregionarereinforcedwithinternalrings. the circularframeworkwovenintoinsideofhatissimilartoman y e c n a l e d 10 9 8 cess, thehealingofillness,oramoregeneralprotectivefunction. directed towarddifferent ends,whethertheybetheattractionofloveorsuc geometric designs. The synergistic effects of these abstract elements may be Qur the from phrases specific of power tual throughout theIslamicworld,arebasedonesotericknowledgeofspiri fulde onethat isderived fromthe Arabic or work ontheexteriortoIslamicdesignsofmathematicalandmysticalorigins, recalls theunitingofthesedichotomousformsinmosquearchitecture. four- a with cone a of combination The Dinguiraye. of are emblazoned with circular designs. The center is given particular at center and corners the while sides, four on openings with square a fines popular appealandarewidelyemployedinsub- and placesintheIslamicworld,thereislittledoubtthattheyhavelongheld acceptance byIslamiclawofsuchesotericpursuitsvariesindifferent periods teric seals astheunifyingtemplate for Islamic design across West Africa.

Prussin, “God’sin Bravmann, Silence,” René in example, Shaped for Secrets: See, Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Ibid.,225–29. hatumere Prussin asserts that the Friday Mosque of Dinguiraye, Guinea, built Prussin furthermorerelatesthegeometricinterlacingofleatherstrap In her groundbreaking study Hatumere. flowing conical roofs of palace architecture in Ngaoundéré hide Ngaoundéré in architecture palace of roofs conical flowing that he purportedly left as a plan (figure 13).

dimensional geometric designs were expanded into the third di , implyingdivineprotectionofthewearer. The termisaFul pointed figure, recalling the square plan of the mosque Th e HistoryofIslamin Africa mbuloore Hatumere intheFoutaDjallonshouldtheoreti khatim ʾ an, sacred names, numbers, and an, sacrednames,numbers,and , Prussin identifies these eso these identifies Prussin , , or“seal.” These seals, found SaharanIslamiccultures. , ed.Nehemia Levtzion andRan 10 pointed figure also also figure pointed The mbuloore hatumere Ansah,“Prayer, African Islam 8 While the the While com de 17 ------9 -

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Prussin, 1979–80. plan for constructing the Friday Mosque ofDinguiraye, Guinea. Photo by Labelle Hatumere 18 corded anaccountthatthe Wolarbe, theprincipalclanin Adamawa andmore in theFarNorthRegion,Cameroon, historianEldridgeMohammadoure to theFoutaDjallon.Inahistory oftheFulbepolitiesMarouaandPette the gluethatholdsall three together. or palace by reference to the four openingsofthe entrances onthreesidesandthemihrabnichefourth replicate the the The internal square andquatrefoil of the Copyrightfour- a work much as the cone and brim of the mosque ofDinguiraye likewise followsasquareplanwithcentral pillar, (c)tention bysurroundingitwithaquatrefoil and superimposedsquare. The Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved.

Fulbe popularhistoriesinnorthern Cameroondirectlyconnect Adamawa umbrella- purportedly created by El Hadj Umar and employed as an architectural pointed figure focused on the central vertical axis of the hat. the of axis vertical central the on focused figure pointed like supports radiating out from thecentralfocus. likesupports The triple hatumere hatumere . Thus, Figure 13 mbuloore mbuloore , with Islam and Fulbe ethnicity as hatumere hide within the leather strap mayberelated to mosque maybeconceivedas c i m a l s i

a c i r f a - - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 and still otherssettling to farm the land. Other Islamic groups across Af pires, otherstendingtheircattle over long- wanderings and shifts in lifestyles; some becoming rulers of far- of shorthand, for perceiving the Fulbe as one people, despite their many l’Adamâwa (Garoua: Musée dynamique du Nord- madou, Forasimilarhistory, seeEldridgeMoham tation pourlatraditionorale,1970),146–49. traditions historiquesdesPeulsdansl’Adamaoua1(Niamey:Centre regional dedocumen the Fulbediasporabynumerousauthors. lated tales tracing the Fulbe to Sidi Uqba have also been recorded across nation of Adamawa Fulbeinthe Fouta Djallon as anIslamic people. Re connection. and religiousleadershipinbothregions,asenseoftheirdirecthistorical political in clan that of role the populations, two the of affiliation clan mon similarity betweentheFoutaDjallonand Adamawa isindicative ofthecom asthe Sidi Uqba Wolarbe. thatthearchitectural onemightpostulate Thus, hailed from theBa ern CameroonwereincorporatedintotheSokotoCaliphate.Modibo Adama the emirateof ofnorth Adamawa in1809,underwhichallthesubstates over, relatesthe Wolarbe closelytotheclanofModibo Adama whofounded lon, fromwhencetheyeventuallymigratedto Adamawa. This tale,more the politicalandreligiouscapitalofFulbeconfederacyinFoutaDjal madou, the Wolarbe aredeclaredtohaveruledfrom Timbo, consideredboth important mosqueinKairouan, Tunisia. IntheaccountrecordedbyMoham born to Sidi Uqba bin Nafi` (622–685 nated fromoneofthefourboys,representingoriginatingFulbeclans, origi Ngaoundéré, rule to continues and founded that clan the particularly y e c n a l e d 12 11 de l’Homme,N.S.1(Paris:Mouton, 1961),29. Hampate BaandGermaineDieterlen, Amadou versité de Paris 64 (Paris: Institut d’ethnologie, Musée de l’Homme, 1962), 29–37; scriptive des Wodaabe du Sahel Nigérien. origin inonewayoranotherderived fromcattle.Marguerite Dupire, Competingoriginstories alsotracetheFulbetoan Oxford UniversityPress,1959),18–20. ern BornuProvince, NorthernRegion,Nigeria of alocal ruler in Fouta Djallon. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. empire, commencedtheconquestofNorth Africa in670 EldridgeMohammadou, DerrickJ.Stenning, The history recorded by Mohammadou gives anaccount for theorigi Ray ouRe

y- Bouba: LesYillaga dela Bénoué.

Savannah Nomads: A Study of theWodaabe PastoralFulaniofWest ʾ en clan, which is said to originate from the same son of en clan, which is saidtooriginatefromthe same son of L’histoire desPeulsferoobe duDiamaré:Maroua etPette. Koumen: Texte initiatique despasteursPeul. 11 Travaux et mémoires de l’institut d’ethnologie, Uni Sidi Uqba, a general of the early Islamic SidiUqba,ageneralof the earlyIslamic (London:International African Institutebythe ce ) and Mbajjou Manga, the daughter ) andMbajjouManga,thedaughter Cameroun, ONAREST, 1979), 137. 12 These legendsargue, inasort Traditions historiques des Foulbé de de Foulbé des historiques Traditions distance seasonal migrations, Peuls nomads:Etudede ce and founded an andfoundedan flung em Cahiers Cahiers Les Les 19 ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 distinguishing “tribes,” seen as hermetically sealed cultural environments. of project colonial larger a of part was groups ethnic of identification the reaction to this prejudice. At the same time, it should be pointed out that in Fulbeidentitythetwentiethcenturymaybepartapoliticallyastute and other African populations, and the expanded role that Islam has played colonial powersheldIslamicpopulationsdidnotgounnoticedbytheFulbe ism asindicativeofasuperiorintellect. The greateresteeminwhichthe tion, as Europeans were familiar with this religion and perceived monothe from non- tion oftheMuslimFulberulingorganized statesasaneliteracederived unitary identitytotheinitialcolonialencounterandEuropeanpercep Mirjam DeBruijn,amongothers,tracethisearlyscholarlyemphasisona Linguist discourse. inscholarly also Breedveldandanthropologist Anneke across thecontinent was accepted not just in popular Fulbe discourse, but lations of Africa havelinked themselves with thelarger Islamicworld. but rather as an example ofthe common manner in which Islamized popu like it, should not be understood as a factual accounting of Fulbe origins, for the Prophet Muhammad’s budding community. slave who wasone of the earliest converts to Islam and served asmuezzin rica likewise claimdescent from SidiUqbaorBilal, the Ethiopian 20 793–95. de laconstructionduconceptpulaaku,” 14 13 following sources: P. Connections drawn through other figures, historical or mythical, may33–49. be found in the in theOral Traditions ofMali:BilaliandSurakata,” DavidC.Conrad,“Islam E. Frank(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1995),86–132; Status andIdentityinWest Africa: NyamakalawofMande the Funj,” York: Yusuf Holmes andMeier, 1979),192–93; FadlHasan,“TheUmayyadGenealogyof “Islam, State,andSocietyinDarFur,” in Centre of West R. African Studies,UniversityofBirmingham,1990), 121–22; Nationalism inWest Africa. Qaba gins’ RevisitedbyMuslims: An Interviewwiththe Arokin ofOyoandaReadingthe Asl ham: Centerfor West P. African Studies,1989),152–70; Interpretation of African OralTexts Copyrightries ofOriginReportedfromMaliand (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. David C. Conrad, “Blind Man Meets Prophet: Oral Tradition, Islam, and Funé Identity,” in Anneke Breedveld andMadame Mirjam De Bruijn,“L’image des Fulbe: Analyse critique

In theearlytwentiethcentury, theunitaryconceptionofFulbeidentity ʾ il Yuruba of Al- Sudan NotesandRecords Africanroots.

F. Hajj Adam al-

de Moraes Farias, “Pilgrimages to ‘Pagan’ Mecca in Mandenka Sto BirminghamUniversity African StudiesSeries2(Birmingham: 14 IwouldaddthekeyroleofIslaminthispercep , ed.KarenBarberandP. 46(1965):27–32. Iluri,”in Guinea-

Conversion toIslam Cahiers d’etudesafricaines Sel Conakry,” in f- Assertion andBrokerage: EarlyCultural

Journal of African History

, ed. David C. Conrad and Barbara , ed.DavidC.ConradandBarbara F. Discourse andItsDisguises:

de MoraesFaria,“‘Yoruba Ori

F. , ed. Nehemia Levtzion (New , ed.NehemiaLevtzion(New 13

de MoraesFarias(Birming This story, andothers 36,no.144(1996): c i m a l s i

S. 26 (1985): 26(1985):

O’Fahey, a c i r f a Th e ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 ethnicity’s visualculture: broadly defines the key elements for understanding the uniqueness of that culture. The openingparagraphofthechapteronFulbediaspora tems, the specific character of each is derived from its unique pre- picted as theforcethattiesall together, permitting exchange between sys Manding, Fulbe, and Asante, follows in this model. While Islam is de traces the widespread scholarly acceptance of the coincidence of ethnicity traces thewidespreadscholarlyacceptanceofcoincidenceethnicity has termedthe “One Tribe One Style” paradigm of African arthistory. She wise a single material and artistic language producing what Sidney Kasfir like and it, to only proper language single a by defined was “tribe” The y e c n a l e d 17 16 in Africa History 15 lam across African visualtraditions. lam Bravmann’sRené as such works, other to resemblance bears visual traditionsinparticularthroughthe that employedIslamasaunifyingforce,bringingtogether anumberof Copyrightcreation of North Africa and Egypt, conveyed through the geometry employed in the (c)ence betweenthenomadicdomicaltentanduseof domeinIslamic NorthwesternShe further indicates that the origins of Fulbe architecture lie in a conflu University Press. All rights reserved. tors oftribalidentitytobelanguageandmaterialculture. and artisticstyleto William Faggwhoconsideredthetwoclearestindica René A. Bravmann, Prussin, Kasfir,Sidney “One of Historiography the in Paradigms Style? One Tribe, African Art,” power inseveralpartsof West Africa. nomadism persiststothisday, despitesedentarization and theirriseto and to a previous matrilineal inheritance system, and the iconography of transhumance to attachment this reflect to continue origin of myths and attachment to thevirtues of anomadic life- with themastrongsenseofcultural identity grounded inanemotional carried they went they wherever and were they Wherever River. négal for several millennia, populating areas as far west as the banks of the Sé Fulbe- Prussin’s defining of distinct styles of Islamic art along ethnic lines, ethnic along art Islamic of styles distinct of Prussin’sdefining It mustbekeptinmindthatthiswasbutonechaptera larger project , whichsoughttounderstandartistic commonalities derived from Is Hatumere speakingpeopleshavebeenmovingacrossaonce-

hatumere 11 (1984):171–72. , 198. African Islam . (Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution, 1983). 17 The focus on finding commonalities 16 hatumere style. Fulbe cosmologies . Suchanapproach 15 fertile Sahara African Is Islamic - 21 ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Journal of Art Journal This code was defined in varying ways by different authors, including authors, different by ways varying in defined was code This having been founded primarily around the production of figural sculpture in sub- until the work ofscholars such asPrussinand Bravmann, the role of Islam in Islamic visualtraditions in Africa wasunderstandable considering that 22 Dupire, Boutrais, and Jean Schmitz, Collection Hommes et Sociétés (Paris: Karthala, 1999), 84–85; 19 18 categories.” its purview, accountingforvarietyintermsof“timeless unity ontheextraordinarydiversityofvisualculturesconsideredwithin artificial an imposed has history art Islamic of field the that argued has She Necipoglu. Gülru historian art by field that at leveled been recently on Islamasasource. search forsuchcommonalities presented thedangerofrelyingtooheavily history. art of fields two of may,overlap One argue the nevertheless, that the at remained had that gap the in filled Bravmann and Prussin as such Islamic arthistoriansignorethemforbeingtoo African. Thus, scholars torians tendedtoignoreIslamicculturessouthoftheSahara,sotoodid constituted. originally as Ashis field art the African defined that culture and masquerade, the presence of Islam seemingly wiped awayall visual seminal studiesonthe Wodaabe Fulbein NigerandnorthernNigeria. of FulbeidentitytoMarguerite DupireandDerrickJ.Stenning,whowrote Copyrightpologist Elisabeth Boesentraces theconception of lie in ism, andIslam. The sourceof theseunifyingcharacteristicswasthoughtto pastoral (c) nomadism, language, through primarily identity Fulbe defined NorthwesternPrussin’s approachrelies heavily onmodelspopularuntil the 1980sthat UniversityWest andCentral Africa basedonethnicity and Islam. spanning tradition Fulbe unified a of mirage the producing united, been have overlapped, it would appearthat manyofthe pitfalls ofbothhave Press. All rights reserved. GülruNecipoglu,“TheConceptof Islamic Art: InheritedDiscoursesandNew Approaches,” Elisabeth Boesen, “Pulaaku: Sur la foulanité,” in foulanité,” la Sur “Pulaaku: Boesen, Elisabeth

A similar critique of the uniformity of Islamic art and architecture has pulaaku Peuls nomads Saharan African art had been largely ignored. African art history

Historiography 18 Where thestudyofIslamic and African artandarchitecture , the code of conduct often glossed as “Fulbe- , 1962;Stenning, Diversity of FulbeIdentity 6(June2012):4. Savannah Nomads Figures peules , 1959. pulaaku , ed. Roger Botte, Jean c i m a l s i ethno-

ness.” Anthro as thefulcrum national

a c i r f a 19 - - -

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 only inthelatenineteenthcentury. in reality resorted toanomadic life inresponsetoanumberofpressures Wodaabe of Niger, often considered the archetype of the nomadic Fulbe, times to distinguish between Fulbe groups themselves. andneighboringgroups,atother Fulbe between todistinguish at times a singlecodetoreferencepointthatisnegotiated in individual situations hand in hand. much more broadly valued pastoralism, as the two donot necessarily go arya emphasizesthatonemustdistinguishbetweenideasofnomadismand munities are in fact sedentary and have been for long periods of time. Az Fulbe tobeemotionally attached isnotacentral value. ManyFulbecom Victor Azarya indicated that the nomadism to whichPrussindeclares the identities. Fulbe invarious fact distinctions an example, sociologistAs though largely ignored in these early studies, suggests that there are in another, to group Fulbe one from mentioned values specific the in tion values suchasreserve,intelligence,respect,andpatience. y e c n a l e d in Wodaabe ClanPolitics,” Edinburgh UniversityPress,1996;NikolausSchareika, “Pulaaku in Action: Words at Work 24 Schmitz, 53–72. l’histoire ancienne des Peuls,” in 23 22 Senri Ethnological Studies 35(Osaka:National Museum ofEthnology, 1993),41. versity ofaPeople: 21 20 local identities usually supersededthesecommonalities in everydaylife. diaspora, such asacultural focus oncattle and useofFulfuldelanguage, while there were certain elements that tied the Fulbe together acrossthe of Fulbe identity in the 1980sin general tended toward the conclusion that de Wodaabe duNiger early as the first century BCE from rock paintings of paintings rock from BCE century first the as early ability to trace the early widespread presence of Fulbeacrossthe Sahel as seen ascentral enough toFulbe identity that Christian Dupuy claimed the a sedentary form ofagro- Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press.viduals inrelation to cattle. All rights reserved. Angelo Maliki Bonfiglioli, Christian Dupuy, “Les apports de l’archéologie et de l’ethnologie à la connaissance de connaissance la à l’ethnologie de et l’archéologie de apports Dupuy,“Les Christian Victor Azarya, “Sedentarization and Ethnic Identity among the Fulbe,” in Breedveld andDeBruijn,“L’image des Fulbe,”796; Ver Eecke, Philip Burnham, Beginning in the 1980s, many scholarsshiftedfocusfrom Beginning inthe1980s,

21 Anthropologist Angelo Maliki Bonfiglioli clarifies that the Th Th (Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988),87–112. e Politics of CulturalDifference in NorthernCameroon e Search forFulbeIdentity Ethnology Dudal: Histoire defamilleethistoire detroupeau chezungroupe pastoralism. Pastoralism, on the other hand, is 23 Figures peules 49,no.3(Summer2010):207–27. 22 Priortothatperiod,theypracticed , ed. Roger Botte, Jean Boutrais, and Jean , ed.PaulK.Eguchiand Victor Azarya, Pulaaku spear- 24 The discussions The 20 bearing indi bearing , 52–66. The varia The Unity and Di pulaaku (Edinburgh: as 23 - - - - - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Caliphate. ideal to whichonedidor not subscribe. as somethingthatwasformedthroughlivedexperience,ratherthanan concept. single a as it define to attempt to sense little makes it that extent an to exigencies specific on contingent as ized and died in Ngaoundéré (in Adamawa Region). Far NorthRegion)ingoodhealth, fell sick inGaroua(inNorthRegion), monly quoted in northern Cameroon: Fulfulde arrived in Maroua (in the guages. A popularcharacterization ofthislinguistic acculturation is com rates significant Hausa vocabulary, as well as Mboum and other local lan Africa. Intermsoflanguage,theFulfulde Adamawa Region incorpo move orsettle. This is trueof Adamawa as much as other areas across ethnic boundaries, a massive acculturation occurs everywhere that Fulbe Fulbe may persist, at times even being overemphasized to clearly delineate have argued that it makeslittle sense tospeakofasingleFulbepeople. Indeed, regional differences are at times soapparent that some authors 24 27 26 Sociétés (Paris: Karthala, 1999). Roger Botte, Jean Boutrais, and Jean Schmitz, eds., of Fulbeidentity: in France alsodwellsonissues societies peules)gatheringsofscholars des comparatives d’études (Groupe GRÉFUL the in participants the by essays of lection diaspora andovertime is animportant subjectof manyoftheseessays.Likewise,acol ing foracommon identity and someagainst. The malleability of Fulbeidentity across the Ethnology, 1993). The articles in this text all address the issue ofFulbe identity, some argu Th 25 command of Islam, if not outright pagan. As with more recent research are, lookeddownuponasuncouth,simple,untrustworthy, andlaxintheir who maintained atranshumant pastorallife. The Mbororowere,andstill indigenous population,butalsofromthoseFulbe,known asMbororo, laaku Copyright (c) Northwesternpects that historically distinguished the Fulbe as flag- Universitypects ofFulbe identity. Innorthern Cameroon, Islam becameone oftheas cal circumstances or situations were found to foreground particular as but rather it must be experientially apprehended as practiced. Specific lo Press. concept, the of presentation verbal the comprehend to suffice not would All rights reserved. Seeespecially Paul K.Eguchiand Victor Azarya, eds., Burnham, Boesen,“Pulaaku”;Shareika,“Pulaaku in Action,” 207–27. e Search forFulbeIdentity

By the1990s, It wouldseemthat while some coreelements of whatitmeans tobe isemployed todistinguish the Fulbe conquerorsnotonlyfromthe Politics ofCulturalDifference 27 Somewhat ironically, this commonly expressed aspect of pulaaku , SenriEthnological Studies 35(Osaka:NationalMuseum of asacodeofsocialmoreswasreconceptual , 48–53. Figures peules 26 Inordertostudy Unity andDiversityofaPeople: Pulaaku bearers of the Sokoto , Collection Hommes et wasperceived c i m a l s i pulaaku

a c i r f a pu- 25 , it ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 leatherworker as a Fula one.” [but that it] may just as easily have been adorned bya Dogon or Bamana records asFulaniandwornbyFulaotherherdsmenoutinthehotsun, example ofthe of theartistmaybejustaskeytounderstandingitsreferences.Shetakes identity or patron the of profession the that suggesting by cultures specific expresses the false identification in the Malian context of specific forms with tained, though perhaps filtered through local visual traditions. Barbara Frank In termsofthearts,someelements,suchas adoption to that of the Wodaabe. of mode similar a labor,exemplifies local hired by fashioned when larly elsewhere, the adoption of local architecture by sedentary Fulbe, particu study ofFulbeinGuinea,Nigeria,andCameroon. sale. This correspondstoacentral theory of Victor Azarya’s comparative pastoral Fulbehadnoimmediate precedent, might beborrowed whole cultural intersectionsinitsdesign,creation,andemployment. been characterized as a clear referent to Fulbe identity is in reality a nexus of forming asimilarpastoraloccupationwearingthe indeed any such thing can be defined in a particular locale. permutations andnegotiationsofwhatconstitutesFulbearchitecture,if on Fulbeidentity ingeneral,onewouldexpectasimilarinterestlocal y e c n a l e d oon 30 (Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution, 1998), 150. 29 78, no.4(2008),583–86. 28 Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. satisfy withtheirownlaboraremostwidelyadopted. to unwilling or unable are the Wodaabe that needs predefined culturally trial products. She determines that modern products that essentially fulfill incorporated aspectsinparticularof Tuareg cultureaswellselectindus tially consumeristorientationofthe Wodaabe, whohavequitewillingly visual culture of the Wodaabe of Niger. Shedrawsattention to the essen Elisabeth Boesen, “Gleaming like the Sun: Values in Wodaabe Material Culture,” Victor Azarya, BarbaraE.Frank, (Chicago:UniversityofChicago Press, 1978). Other artformssuchaspermanentarchitecture,forwhich semi- Boesen hasbroachedsuchanapproachwithrespecttonomadicFulbe

Aristocrats Facing Change: mbuloore Mande PottersandLeatherworkers: Art andHeritageinWest Africa Adopting Architecture , stating that it is “usually identified in museum museum in identified “usually is it that stating , 29 Likewise, one may find other ethnicities per Th e FulbeinGuinea,Nigeria,andCamer mbuloore mbuloore 30 Inthoseareassuchas 28 In Adamawa and . Thus, whathas , maybemain nomadic nomadic Africa 25 ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 ture afteracenturyofslaveraids andconquests. The Fulbe wereportrayed on theother hand, wereperceived to havelargely capitulated to Fulbecul influences whether of Fulbe or European origin. The peoples of the plains, picturesque, yet unhygienic, The peoples of the mountains, so- mountains andtheplains,withanentirely separate sectionfortheFulbe. tic text.FornorthernCameroon,astrictdivisionwasdrawn betweenthe tion ofdrawingsandphotographs,accompanied by ahorriblypaternalis appropriate modern architecture. The resultwasanextraordinary collec ture andgaininginsightsforthedevelopmentofculturally andclimatically who visitedthecountrywithaimofunderstanding localarchitec L’habitat auCameroun publication 1952 the architecture, to relating specifically identity.More more generalized early geria, where the Fulbe inherited preexisting state structures, they accul have beenadoptedbythelocal population. In casessuchas northernNi ex novo Guinea andCameroonwheretheFulbecreated a political system largely 26 sique etcivilisations indigènes 31 Copyright (c) Northwesterntake upresidence. Universityfrequently adopt elements of the sedentary cultures among whom they ing aboutthe Fouta Djallon region of Guinea explained that settled Fulbe one thatwaslaidasideforsometime. As earlyas1906,J.Machatinwrit Press.features from local populations wasbynomeans a recent one, butsimply All elements for whichtheyhadno precedents in their own culture. rightsnomadic Fulbe in Adamawa adopted local architecture and other cultural reserved.drawn fromtheearlyIslamic Caliphate. At thesametime, the previously system wasinturnacombination ofpriorHausastructureswithmodels integrated intheearlynineteenthcentury. The SokotoCaliphate’s political Sokoto Caliphate ofnorthern Nigeria, into whichnorthernCameroonwas polities, the Fulbesetupnew state structures basedonthemodelof as isknownwas previously composed ofalarge number of ing beenadopted fromelsewhere. Inthe case of Adamawa, which sofar tures thattheFulbeintroduced insomeareasmustbeunderstoodashav non- from Fulbe distinguish to difficult became it that completely so turated J.Machat,

Azarya’s general conceptoftheFulbeattimesadoptingnovelcultural Fulbe. This modelcouldbemorenuanced,foreventhestate struc , theirculture has beenvigorouslymaintained and elements of it Guinée française:Lesrivières dusudet le FoutaDiallon:Géographie phy 31 This idea ofcultural adoption is intension with the presentedtheresearchofsevenFrencharchitects twentieth- (Paris: Augustin Challamel, 1906), 274. noble- century perception of acommon Fulbe called savage types who had resisted outside montagnards , were described as c i m a l s i small-

a c i r f a scale ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 tagnards pagan of those with categories two the conflates who Seignobos, Cameroun nished, wasnevertheless quite insightful. own fortheFulbe,despitepaucityofexamplesfur philosophy ofits rowing either in textorimage. Delange’s statement that borrowingisa gave little in the way of specific examples that might demonstrate this bor whose culture,“borrowingitselfhasitsownphilosophy.” who referredtotheFulbeas“fundamentally borrowers oftechniques” in teen yearslaterbyarthistorianandanthropologistJacquelineDelange either in thetext or intheimages. lon. wherever theysettled, much assuggestedbyMachat for the FoutaDjal the Fulbewasdescribedessentially as adoptedfromthelocal populations as militant conquerorswhoresidelargely in the cities. The architecture of y e c n a l e d lection architectures traditionnelles (Roquevaire, France: Editions parenthèses, 1982). 35 34 The original French edition was publishedin1967. 140–41. 33 tions de l’union française, 1952), 59. 32 ments areignored.Suchisthecase,forexample,with hisbrieftreat surround predominantlyFulbesettlements,yetthecentral Fulbesettle most apparentwhentreatingthearchitectureofpeoples whocompletely as permutations of live ontheplainsaredealtwithbySeignobos,butunderstood simply Non- style. architectural and ethnicity of definition montagnard Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All northern Cameroon. rightsof prestige and comfort from local populations in Mali, Burkina Faso, and reserved.larly, adoptedearthenarchitectureforreasons outthattheFulbe points she who created it, rather than to the Fulbe who commissioned the work. Simi Islamic- of theFoutaDjallonareIslamic origin. Sheasserts,however, thatthe thermore musedthatthegeometric designs decorating Fulbe architecture

Inparticular, seeChristianSeignobos, Ibid.,144–45. Jacqueline Delange, L’habitat au Cameroun The divisionbetweenmountainsandplainsputforthin The view of the Fulbe as cultural borrowers was echoed only fif only echoed was borrowers cultural as Fulbe the of view The 32 The nature of this borrowing, however, was never defined very well derived decorationshouldinfact beascribedtotheMandeartists andFulbe.

waspickedupinthelaterwritingsofgeographerChristian models fromthoseoftheFulbe,encouraginga Th 34 35 e Art and Peoples of Black Africa montagnards (Paris: Publications de la recherche scientifique recherche la de Publications (Paris: Liketheauthorsof Hispublishedworkstressesthedistinctivenessof Nord Cameroun: Montagnesethautesterres, . The artificiality of the distinction is distinction the of artificiality The . L’habitat auCameroun (New York: E. Fulbe peoples who peoples Fulbe 33

P. harder-

Delange fur outre- L’habitat au

Dutton, 1974), , Delange , Delange mer; Edi mer; edged mon Col 27 ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 tural changesthathaveproducedcontemporaryarchitecturalmodels. architec and acculturation most the finds one that states Islamic the of say, to on goes He simplified. radically however, capitals the in is it that present a more impoverished catalog of types, just as the ethnic profile is L’habitat auCameroun telling, however, of his theoretical dependency on the earlier work of fortunately neverpublished.Seignobos’s descriptionofhisintentionsis left for a second volume, to an essentialist focusonthepastoralnomadicexistencethatiscom to anessentialist what isclearlyadiversevisualtradition. This restrictivelensamounts the soleinterpretativelens,theyreimposeaunityofinterpretationupon as Ba Hampaté scholar Ahmadou Fulbe of works the on overreliance an versity oftraditionsevenwithinonenation.Ontheotherhand,through the onehand,authorsacknowledge,inbothtextandimages,di architecture.On ofSenegalese on Fulbearchitectureinabroaderstudy clear thatmostwhowroteonthesubjectgenerallyrecognized adiversity architecture. Fulbe constitutes exactly what defining of issue the to respect with thors bors. Oneisleftwithalack of clarity regarding theorientation of theau ture with that of their Malinke, Jaxanke, Soninke, and Tukulor neigh architec Fulbe of intersection the examine briefly authors the which in manent architectureistreated,however, towardtheendofchapter per More Bonfiglioli. by contradicted explicitly as just and authors, the by affirmed explicitly as culture, Fulbe of font the considered monly Minh- Jean- architect by is Cameroon, of Cameroun This declarationdirectlyechoesthestatedraisond’êtreof ing the Fulbe- the ing ment ofDi 28 as part of the larger Fulbe culture. Ibid., 72–115, 134–83. as partofthelarger Fulbeculture. Ibid., 72–115, There arealsotwochaptersonthearchitecture of the Tokolor,116–29. consideredbymany 38 37 36 Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Ibid.,12. Ibid.,169–81.

Drawn from African Dwellings

In the rather undeveloped literature on Fulbe architecture,itbecomesIn theratherundevelopedliteratureonFulbe One ofthemostrecentworksonFulbearchitecture,thoughoutside ha. 38 . ʾ Their book includesa chapter, along with two visual essays, i, Mboum,andGbayaarchitectureof Adamawa, whileignor dominated city of Ngaoundéré entirely.Ngaoundéré of city dominated . Hestatesthattheintendedsecondvolumewill (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 22–71, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996),22–71, Plaines du Nor Paul Bourdier and filmmaker filmmaker and Trinh Bourdier Paul T. d- Cameroun 36 , which was un The Fulbewere c i m a l s i L’habitat au

a c i r f a 37 ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 said, other explanations, including ethnic specialization in particular of thenomadwasdiscardedinfavormorepermanentstructures. That result of shifts from transhumant tosedentary life, the temporary shelter of architecturalformsacrossthemanyareasthatFulbesettled. As a y e c n a l e d diagram of thesamebuilding by Seignobos.Seignobos, 39 (figure 15). pyramidal reinforcingframeworkfastenedtotheouter armature climbing up intotheroof,Idiscovered that it wassupportedbyaninternal roughly conical, much like that of the palace of Ngaoundéré (figure 14). In miles northeast of Ngaoundéré, the roof of the cubical entrance building is other populations of Cameroon. At the Mboum palace of Ngangha, 25 that oftheFoutaDjallon,alsoconformscloselytotechniques seenamong to respects some in similar while in Adamawa, used system roofing The northern Cameroon,beyondperhapstheobviousnecessitiesofamosque. in architecture Fulbe about Islamic necessarily or Fulbe specifically as defined be can that little fact in is there that suggests context local the to Refocusing attention from the Fulbe diaspora and the glue that is Islam the diaspora. particularly Fulbevaluesthatmightproducegreateruniformityacross of localformsratherthanabasisinnomadic,pastoral,Islamic,oreven styles representedinthesepermanentstructurespointstotheadoption tion ofarchitecturalformsbytheFulbe.Inanycase,diversity other factorsmustbeconsideredaspossiblyresponsiblefortheadop sectors of production, intermarriage, slavery, the environment, and still faith only in Bamum. At Bandjoun, as exemplified by both a woman’s a both by exemplified as Bandjoun, At Bamum. in only faith merous kingdoms,noneofwhichareFulbeandwithIslam apredominant Northwest, Southwest,and West Regions of Cameroon.Itishometonu southwest, despite differing materials. The Grasslands covers areas of the lar tothoseusedinthearchitectureofCameroonGrasslands tothe Copyrighting andtheuseofporches. at Ngaoundéré, is softened into a rounded form on the exterior with thatch roof, helpingittomaintain its general form. The outerpyramidal form, as (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Itshouldbenotedthatthisinternal framework isdistinct from thatshowninacutaway The principles employed at Ngangha and Ngaoundéré are also simi also are Ngaoundéré and Ngangha at employed principles The

Northern Cameroonian Architecture of theFulbe 39 Such a reinforcing framework would prevent bowing of the Nord Cameroun , 179. 29 - - - - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01

Palace, entrance. Ngangha, Cameroon.PhotobyMark D.DeLancey, 2000. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 14 Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 eroon. PhotobyMarkD.DeLancey, 2000. Palace, internalreinforcingframework oftheroofentrance.Ngangha,Cam Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 15 - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 pour le Développement. au Cameroun Section ofawoman’s residenceshowingtheinternalroofsupportsystem. 32 conical framework isthenboundtotheinternal form atthelevels of the ceiling, is added near the top of the pyramidal framework. An external the than smaller but to similar disc, 17). second and A 16 (figures work is coveredbyacircular ceiling, itself surmounted byapyramidal frame residence and the grand council chamber in the palace, a cubical room Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved.

, p.84.ReproducedwiththepermissionofL’Institut deRecherche Figure 16 c i m a l s i L’habitat

a c i r f a - Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Palace, Councilchamber, DeLancey, Bandjoun,Cameroon.PhotobyMarkD. 1996. sophisticated than, that observed atNgangha. sponse totheheavyrainfall experienced in theselocales. means ofsupportingthetallandacutelyslantedroofs employedinre of ethnicity or religion. Instead, its use is best considered as one logical internal roofsupportsintheGrasslandstoFoutaDjallon eitherinterms Djallon, depending on the specific location, ranges from 60 to 100 inches phy, with relatively heavy rainfall in both areas. Rainfall in the Fouta Djallon. These threeareasare characterizedbymountainoustopogra- between perceived similarities andtheFouta theGrasslands, Adamawa, y e c n a l e d Karl Krämer Verlag, 1990),26. 41 40 rain- finished, the create to added is thatching Finally apex. and disc, ceiling, Copyright (c)architectural tradition. NorthwesternDjallon, while notemployed in Adamawa, isalsousedinthe Grasslands University Press. All rights reserved. WolfgangLauber, L’habitat Ironically, theupturned Common environmental factors may be atleast partly responsible for eitn roof. resistant , 79–87.

Palaces and Compounds in the Grasslands ofCameroonin theGrasslands Palaces andCompounds 40 This system is very similar to, though perhaps more 41 There islittle to directly connect the useofsuch umbrella- Figure 17 like support structure seen inFouta (Stuttgart: 33 -

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 cal core andhence a moreregularconical form. the FoutaDjallon, whichfeatureanentirecircle of stakesaroundthecubi fer significantly in plan and surface quality from the roofs of structures in structure. These roofs,builtby theFulbeaswellMboumandothers,dif architecture of Ngaoundéré its gentle undulation as one moves around the (figure 19). It is this supplementary extension of the roofline that gives the of the roof over the framework to cover a small porch in front of the wall before the façade (figure 18). Thatching is then extended from the surface and decreasinginheighttowardtheends,areplacedasemicircularplan create the eavesin Adamawa, a seriesofwoodposts,longerinthe center gions, andresultinamoreuniformlyconical roof intheFoutaDjallon. To may lack a thatched roof altogether. the annualrainfalloflow- 59 inches annually between April and October. This amount is twice Ngaoundéré also receives significant rainfall amounting to approximately fall is recorded for the Cameroon Grasslands. While less, the area around annually, primarilybetweenJuneandSeptember. 34 (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, New York, 1997),90–93. ture, Landscape, and the Design ofSpace in a Chieftaincy of the Bamileke Highlands” as fulcrum forthe kingdom. See Dominique Malaquais, “Constructing Power: Architec structure is supported by asingle large pillar. This pillar serves asa metaphor forthe ruler 44 ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 44–46. 43 ment Printing Office, 1975), 47. 42 Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press.and none specifically carries the roof above. back from the entrance. No onepillar is emphasized more than the other All of pillars,normallyfourorsix,leading of asimilargrandeurfeaturerows rightshelps tomaintaintheintegrityofroof.Incontrast, Adamawa structures reserved.decoration. It isthispillar which supportstheupturnedumbrellaformthat Fouta Djallonstructures,thecentraloneisstressedwithincreasedsizeand oon andtheFoutaDjallon. While theremaybeanumberofsupportsfor earthen walls. tection fromtherain,andinparticulartoavoiderosionofunbaked Fouta Djallon, may beasameansofpro Adamawa, andtheGrasslands ministic interpretation for the heavy thatching and extensive eaves in the HaroldD.Nelsonet.al., Harold D. Nelsonet. al., This isincontrastwiththepalace of Bandjoun,where theroofofmaincommunal

Likewise, the external supports of the eaves differ between the two re The interiorsupportsoftheceilingsdiffer betweennorthernCamer Area HandbookfortheUnitedRepublic ofCameroon Area HandbookforGuinea lyingFarNorthRegion,wherebuildings 43 Thus, one environmentally deter 44 (Washington, D.C.: U.S.Govern 42 The sameaveragerain c i m a l s i (Washing

a c i r f a ------

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 Fulbe? He affirmed his belief that the Fulbe do not truly have architecture, their little grass huts, clearly referring to the frame tents of semi- seen I Had architecture. Fulbe seen ever had I if Ngaoundéré of palace Fulbe the about him queried I when me asked Ngaoundéré, of northeast populations. The Mboumruler, or ture, isquicklydisputedbythehistoricallyindigenous Mboum andDi cally withtheFulbe,orevenacategorythatonecouldcall Fulbearchitec mary denotation oflocal rather thanethnic identity. identity,Fulbe a pri than a rather suggests environs, its and Ngaoundéré to specificity geographical its Instead, case. this make to prevalent too is in northernCameroonidentity politics, but Iwouldargue that theroofcap beization of the population, a process which has indeed been documented given couldarguethe One means. thegeneralFul thatthis represents ethnicities intheregionallbuildsteeplypitchedroofs withroofcaps, Such isemphatically notthecase, however, astheMboum,Di of Fulbe ethnicity, then one would expect to find it solely on Fulbe roofs. amawa presentssimilar questions. Iftheroofcapwereprimarily asymbol Photo byMarkD.DeLancey, 2000. Framework fortheporchofaMboumresidence.Mbang- Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. y e c n a l e d On alocallevel, the identification ofthisstylearchitecture specifi Ad in cap roof the of specificity ethnic espoused commonly The

Figure 18 bellaka , ofMbang- Mboum,Cameroon. Mboum,22miles ʾ i, andother nomadic 35 ʾ - - - - - i Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01

Ngaoundéré, Cameroon. Photo by Mark D. DeLancey, 2000. Palace, eavesofthewestporch ofthesecondbuilding( Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 19 Jawleeru Njakmukon ). ). Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 ministratively separated by the German colonial regime in 1914. Despite ad were two the family,until Ngaoundéré’sroyal of branch a by erned gov and Ngaoundéré, of control the under town provincial a to duced founded inapproximately1835. Thereafter, was Ngaoundéré until city capital important an remained and century larbe clan. The townwasfoundedbythe Wollarbe in thelate eighteenth proximate neighbor, ispopulated largely byBataandFulbefromthe Wol rapher André Gondolo that I showed them entitled friends angrily rejected the title of the1978doctoral dissertation ofgeog his and Ngaoundéré of ruler the of servant Mboum a Similarly, them. for Ngaoundéré of palace the built who Mboum the is it that rather but y e c n a l e d versity ofOslo,2000),96. of aPolitical Culture inNgaoundere, Northern Cameroon, Hansen briefly discusses this issue in his doctoral dissertation. she isalwaysfromone of the indigenous non- 46 de Rouen,1978). 45 of aFulbeCity Tchéboa, illustrates this lack of continuity.of lack this Tchéboa,illustrates of west miles 15 only and Ngaoundéré of northwest miles 130 located where dominatedbythesameFulbeclan. The townof amawa Region. In addition, it is absent outside of that specific area, even the unusuallyshapedmountainbelowwhichcitywasestablished. referencing oftheNavel,” termmeaning“Mountain acompoundMboum is tially invited to settle there by the Mboum ruler. The name Ngaoundéré itself was formerlythelocationofaMboumcapital,andthatFulbewereini Ngaoundéré of site the that acknowledge readily Mboum and Fulbe both Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. father’sroyal familyonhis mother. buttohaveaMboum side, to byMboumnames. The rulerhimselfishistoricallyrequiredtobeofthe guage ofthepalaceisbyandlarge Mboumandthebuildingsarereferred ofMboumethnicity. The lan wives, concubines,servants,andguards—are the Mboumpopulation. The majorityoftheinhabitantspalace— force forconstructionandrepairswithinthepalaceischosenfromamong déré is the Kaygama Mboum, or Mboum representative at court. The work in whichtheFulbewerepermitted to settle. André Gondolo, In actual practice, the rule that a ruler’s mother be Mboum is not always followed, though The roof cap clearly does not serve to distinguish ethnicity in Ad In fact, the official charged with all construction at the palace of Ngaoun

N’Gaoundéré: Evolution d’une ville peul . 45 Instead, they insisted that Ngaoundéré is a Mboum city Fulbe groups. Anthropologist Ketil Fred Boundang-

Boundang- Faculty of Arts 81(Oslo:Uni (Ph.D. dissertation, Université Ngaoundéré: Evolution Ngaoundéré: Evolution Th e HistoricalConstruction Boundang-

Touroua, like its Touroua,like Touroua wasre 46 Touroua, Indeed, Indeed, 37 ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 the south,andtosubdividenorthintoFulbenon- factors thathaveledscholarstorigidlydividethenorthof thecountryfrom the specific case of Cameroon, Islam and the Fulbe presence are important recent reinterpretationsundershiftingpoliticalandsociocultural forces.In may wellbearlessmeaningthanlocalidentities,or constitutemore may ornotbeIslamic,onalocallevel.Ethnicandreligious categories broad distancestoblind themto crosscurrentswith othercultures,which as they must not allow the presence of a common ethnicity or religion across conclusion ofadirectrelationshipbasedsimplyonformal similarities,just site ends of the Fulbe diaspora. Yet scholars must beware of jumping to the ingly providetheexplanationforappearanceofsimilarformsatoppo the roof cap and particular form of roofs of elite architecture in Ngaoun and bear a greater similarity to those at Tchéboa (figures 20 and 10). Thus, in roofs the common clan affiliation and direct historical connection, the forms of 38 (Leiden: African Studies Centre, 1994). State, Islam, andMundang Ethnicity inNorthernCameroon, oon,” 47 Copyright (c) Northwesternmented for theFarNorthRegion. Universitystruggle whichhaspersistedintothe postcolonial era, ashasbeendocu governing both themselves and surrounding non- Islamic groups wereconsidered moreevolvedandthuscapable of Press.recognition. This isastrugglethatcommencedinthecolonialerawhen ern strategyofdifferentiation on alocal level in astruggleforgovernment All ties, andinparticular relationships withtheFoutaDjallon,maybeamod rightsplicit. For the Fulbe of Adamawa, stressing pan- reserved.however, bothart- sion acrosstheFulbediaspora.Infocusingexclusively on theseelements, lam and common ethnicity can provide some of that long- Is that suggested have convergences. Scholars broader find to necessary In a field such as African architecture that is so diverse, it is appealing and tity irrespective ofethnicity. déré and surrounding areas must be understood as a signifier of local iden DianeLyons, “ThePolitics of HouseShape:Roundvs.Rectilinear in NorthernCamer

For scholars, common ethnicity and religious background would seem Antiquity Boundang- 70, no. 268 (June 1996): 364–67; KeesSchilder, 70,no.268(June1996):364–67; producing populations as wellscholarsmaybecom TourouaNgaoundéré, of those quite distinctfrom are Conclusion 47 Fulbe and Islamic identi Islamic groups.Itisa Research Series 1994/3 Quest forSel Fulbe. This rigid c i m a l s i distance cohe f-

a c i r f a Esteem: ------Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 DeLancey, 2000. Entrance to aresidence. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. Boundang-

Figure 20 Touroua, Cameroon. PhotobyMarkD. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 persuasion may occur provides a means by which one can begin to connect persuasion mayoccurprovidesameansbywhichonecanbegintoconnect and identities within whichdifferences inethnic identities andreligious rather thanonactualculturalevidence. The considerationoflocalcultures division was imposed onthe basis ofa preexisting 40 Botte, Roger, JeanBoutrais,andSchmitz. Maliki. Bonfiglioli, Angelo “ ———. ———. “Gleaming Like the Sun: Aesthetic Values in Wodaabe Material Cul Boesen, Elisabeth. “Des localités nomades: Les ‘maisons’ Wodaabe en brousse Ba, Amadou Hampate,andGermaineDieterlen. ———. “SedentarizationandEthnicIdentityamongtheFulbe.”In Azarya, Victor. colonial periodthatcontinuetohauntthepresent. sity in combatting the often artificial divisions invoked, or provoked, in the so divorced.Buildinganinclusivelocalhistoryofarchitectureisaneces the different provincesofCameroonwhichhaveuntilnowbeenconsidered Conrad, David C. “Blind Man Meets Prophet: Oral Tradition, Islam, and Burnham, Philip. Breedveld, Anneke, andMirjamDeBruijn. “L’image desFulbe: Analyse cri Bravmann, René. Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved.

versity Press,1988. chez ungroupe deWodaabe duNiger Paris:Karthala, 1999. Jean Boutrais,andSchmitz, 83–97. ture.” Paris:Karthala, 2007. Elisabeth Boesen andLaurence Marfaing, 209–31. et enville.”In Pasteurs Peul Museum ofEthnology, 1993. and Victor SenriEthnological Studies 35.Osaka:National Azarya, 35–60. versity of a People: Cameroon Identity.” In Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution, 1996. aines duconceptdepulaaku.” tique delaconstruction thala, 1999. Pulaaku 36,no.144(1996):791–821. Africa . Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1978. Aristocrats FacingChange: 78,no.4(2008):582–602. African Islam Status andIdentity inWest Africa : Sur la foulanité.” In foulanité.” la Sur : Th . Cahiersdel’Homme,N.S.1.Paris:Mouton,1961. Les nouveauxurbainsdansl’espace e PoliticsofCulturalDifference inNorthernCameroon Th e Search for Fulbe Identity Dudal: Histoire defamille et historie dutroupeau . Washington, D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution,1983. Bibliography Figure peules . Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge Uni Th e FulbeinGuinea,Nigeria,and Koumen: Texte initiatique des Figures peules colonial-

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Delivered by Publishing Technology to: IAJ access IP: 140.192.115.76 on: Wed, 23 Jul 2014 21:15:01 y e c n a l e d ra’, . Nts u lat éoai acietrl ol d hu Fouta- haut du Foula architectural décoratif l’art sur “Notes P. Creac’h, ———. “IslamintheOral Traditions ofMali:Bilali and Surakata.” Eguchi, Paul K., and Victor Azarya, eds., Dupuy, Christian. “Les apports de l’archéologie et de l’ethnologie à la connais Dupire, Marguerite. Diallo, Thierno. “Origine et migration des peulsavant le XIXe siècle.” Delange, Jacqueline. DeLancey, MarkD.“The Spread ofthe Sooro: SymbolsofRulershipinthe So Hansen, KetilFred. Gondolo, André. Frank, BarbaraE. Famechon, M. Kreamer, Christine Mullen. Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield. “One Tribe, One Style? Paradigms in the Historiogra Hasan, Yusuf Fadl.“The Umayyad Genealogy of theFunj.” Copyright (c) Northwestern University Press. All rights reserved. African History Indiana University Press, 1995. Bloomington: edited byDavidC.ConradandBarbaraE.Frank,86–132. gérien de lafaculté des lettres etsciences humaines ton, 1974. (June 2012):68–85. koto Empire.” Adrien- africanistes de l’ouest Djallon.” In Botte, Jean Boutrais, and Jean Schmitz, 53–72. (Paris:Karthala, 1999). Botte, Jean Boutrais,andSchmitz, 53–72. sance del’histoire ancienne des Peuls.”In 64. Paris: Institut d’ethnologie, Musée de l’Homme, 1962. in African Art of AfricanArt.” phy Records University ofOslo,2000. Ngaoundere, NorthernCameroon Université de Rouen, Rouen, 1978. Africa Paris: Comité Local de l’Exposition & M. Victor Gaboriaud, 1900. Museum ofEthnology, 1993. Search forFulbeIdentity

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