Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Letters from the Chairs 2
How JCCs Work 5
Introduction 9
Before 1968 10
The Political Parties 20
The Election 24
Issues to Consider 26
Your Mission 30
Sources 31
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 1 Letters from the Chairs and Crisis Director
You’re the One, Delegate!
It is my distinct honor to welcome you to WinMUN IV as the chair of this year’s JCC Republicans! The fast-paced and rapidly evolving nature of crisis committees make them a treat for any delegate lucky enough to earn a spot. Especially for such an action-packed topic as the tumultuous revolution around the sun that was 1968, we are so excited to see what creative (and funny) solutions y’all will devise.
If there’s one thing I’ve learned at conferences, it’s that it pays to do research and prepare. Do not treat your position paper as your only research. Make it a preliminary outline and gameplan that you can use to bulk up your speeches and directives with facts and evidence. Crisis committees are nuanced and require a thorough understanding of the context of the situation--if you do not have this, you will certainly catch yourself falling behind in debate. Don’t let this ruin what should be a groovy and exhilarating experience!
Additionally, make sure to learn from your mistakes! Delegates in crisis committees should always have an end goal which you work towards throughout the committee. Whether that may be securing a cabinet position or becoming your party’s nominee, spend committee time cultivating resources to move you closer to your end goal. Of course, use your powers for good as well but make sure you don’t get out-schemed!
We look forward to getting to know you all, watching you grow as delegates, and most of all, we hope to see you all have fun while trying new things! Please don’t be afraid of me, I am a very nice person and I LOVE giving feedback (upon request) to help you improve your speaking and debate skills. Make sure to follow our WinMUN Facebook page and Instagram. If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to reach out!
Let’s begin anew,
John H. Bellaire - GOP Committee Chair WinMUN IV Joint-Crisis Committee [email protected]
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 2 Hello, my dear delegates,
My name is Eda Erdogmus, and I am a junior here at Winchester High School. I joined MUN in my sophomore year, but I found myself instantly falling in love with the atmosphere created by the debate. I soon realized that was just the tip of the iceberg: there was an entire world of crisis situations, and I could tell it was meant to be. My frst crisis committee was at NAIMUN 2020, and I learned how to crisis, so to speak. I learned how to improvise speeches from only one talking point, and saw how easily it was for me to follow debate. From that point on, I knew I had to commit to crises.
As my delegates, you are now plunged into a world of turmoil. The 1960s was one of the most turbulent and revolutionary decades ever encountered in human history, and its impacts are still being felt today. The early 1960s are marked with a rebellious air and rejection of the environment brought by the post-war world of the 1950s, and paved the way for the true societal stretching and exploration of the 1970s. In 1968, the Democratic Party was on the brink of collapse--what happens next is up to you to decide. Will it survive another day? Or will the factions become parties of their own?
I highly recommend you listen to the music from the late 1960s (try the Billboard Top 100). Music, while it may not seem like much, is highly refective of the general mood of society at the time. It is very revealing of people’s worries, joys, and creativity in what seems like a time that would have destroyed any trace of that. Asides that, I recommend you close your eyes, and for a second imagine you are in 1968 listening to the radio. Allow that feeling to carry your actions throughout the committee.
My advice for crisis is to not let yourself feel attached to the actions of your characters. Remember you are playing a character, and sometimes that requires saying dubious things and taking deceptive actions. You need to accomplish your goal, and don’t let anything stand in your way. (Also, remember to hire a body double early in committee.) Believe in your abilities, even if this is your frst or tenth time at a crisis. And most importantly, have fun! This is your one chance to go back into the 60s, and be witness to a watershed year in American history.
Don’t hesitate to reach out by email, I am happy to answer questions. I am excited to meet everyone too! I promise I won’t bite. It’ll be groovy, baby!
Eda K. Erdogmus - DNC Chair WinMUN IV Joint-Crisis Committee [email protected]
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 3 How’s it hangin’, delegates?
My name is Alex Lee, and—at long last—welcome back to WinMUN IV! I’ve spent all four years of high school in WinMUN’s JCC, both as a delegate and Crisis Director. I’ll act as the “storyteller” of committee, weaving your nefarious plots (and some nefariousness of our own) into an exciting and challenging crisis that both sides must overcome to survive. I’m honored to be working with a top-tier Crisis Staf, who will assist you through your crisis arcs.
To echo William Yeats, 1968 is a year when things fell apart in America. Old social and political forces are rapidly giving rise to the new, for better or worse. This JCC, the Election of 1968, simulates those national growing pains: will the center hold, or will mere anarchy be loosed upon the world? (I’ll stop with the poetry.) As the most prominent politicians of your time, it’s up to you to answer that question by any means possible.
JCC 1968 is unique in WinMUN history in that civil war isn’t entirely inevitable (just very possible)! For a change, both sides of the JCC have an opportunity to govern together; in fact, we’ve devised some custom rules to encourage more interaction between the two rooms. You may fnd strong allies in the other room, or enemies sitting next to you. It’s up to you whether you want to embrace the spirit of bipartisanship or engage in all-out political warfare… or both?
As far as our committee goes, my biggest piece of advice is to be creative. Draw inspiration from your real-life counterparts (and our mini-textbook on 1968), but your arc is designed by you and you alone. The more moving parts your crisis notes have—more characters, more plots, more details—the more the Crisis Staf will have to work with, and the further along you’ll get with your plans! 1968 had no shortage of shenanigans, and it is my hope this committee will refect those shenanigans. I've never ceased to be amazed by what delegates can cook up in Crisis.
Please shoot me an email if you’d like to share any questions, comments, concerns, hopes, dreams, worst fears, or song recommendations, and we’ll see you soon!
All the way with LBJ,
Alex Lee - Crisis Director WinMUN IV Joint-Crisis Committee [email protected]
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 4 How JCCs Work
Intro To Crisis1
Crisis Committees difer in many ways from a General Assembly or other traditional MUN simulations. Rather than an international debate over a global issue, most Crisis simulations focus on a specifc region or confict. There are typically no more than a few dozen delegates, who usually represent the interests of individual people instead of entire nations. Delegates receive dossiers describing the objectives and abilities of their person, as well as pertinent information about that person. Compared to a GA, the pace of debate is much faster and less formal. Crisis Committees are most signifcantly diferent from GAs in delegates’ capacity to directly afect their scenario. While General Assemblies typically pass resolutions at the end of the session, Crisis Committees will pass multiple directives throughout the day that immediately alter the “state of the world.” Delegates can also submit private “Crisis Notes,” which use the delegate’s personal powers to individually change the direction of the committee. All documents are sent to the Crisis backroom. Another major aspect of Crisis committees is “Crisis Events.” Crisis stafers will regularly deliver updates to the committee room about changes in their scenario, whether it be wars, natural disasters, statements to the press, or beyond. Delegates can even be assassinated! Some of these events may be the result of directives or crisis notes. These Crisis Events create a feedback system between delegates and the crisis staf as each works to build the world and the story of the committee. It is usually harder to prepare for crisis committees as a delegate since you have no way of predicting when, how, or which curveballs will be thrown your way. In this committee, you are your given character, and the crisis staf represents the “outside” world and all the events that occur there. Every delegate will be advancing their own character’s agendas, so stay on your toes!
So What’s a JCC?
Prepare for trouble. And make it double. A JCC, or Joint Crisis Committee, is a special type of Crisis consisting of two or more individual Crisis Committees, where decisions in one committee directly afect the other. The traditional raising of placards is replaced with international espionage,
1 Adapted from the WinMUN Crisis Workshop Guide.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 5 fast-paced decision making, and incessant debates—all aimed to destroy the ideological enemy. Delegates will not only have to worry about their committee, but also keep the opposite room in mind. The existence of an opposing committee opens up new opportunities for secret plots, secret communications, and most of all, backstabbing betrayals. The well-meaning, or hostile, actions of the opposing committee ofer an unpredictable, volatile, and urgent, but undoubtedly exciting, experience.
Special Rules and Advisories
For a number of reasons, this JCC is unlike any Crisis committee we’ve run before at WinMUN. We have adapted or changed some Crisis procedures to suit WinMUN IV’s virtual format, and we have modifed certain Crisis rules to ft the unique circumstances of this committee itself. The rules outlined in this section will be specifc to JCC 1968 and do not apply to other WinMUN committees. Please read this section in its entirety!
Crisis Notes Delegates can also take private action in the form of crisis notes, which difer greatly from traditional note passing in a GA committee. Crisis notes allow delegates to communicate with characters outside of the immediate committee to advance their crisis arc. Traditional note passing still exists in crisis committees, but it is much less prevalent. Crisis notes are secret, and will never be shared with the committee at large. Due to this, delegates take covert and oftentimes unlawful action using crisis notes to expand their own political clout. By using directives, delegates build towards group goals, but using crisis notes delegates incorporate secret resources towards personal as well as group goals. Portfolio powers are the enumerated resources and capabilities that delegates have vested in their character description, or dossier. For example, a Minister of Education’s portfolio powers may include instituting certain curricula for all students at the Elementary level. In a crisis note, this Minister could urge a friend from college - who happens to serve the legislature - to introduce a bill framing the curriculum. While the Minister of Education would under no circumstances have the authority or resources to frebomb Sweden, delegates are encouraged to slightly push the boundaries of their portfolio powers through crisis notes and augment their capabilities. To increase the likelihood of an unenumerated request being accepted, WinMUN urges delegates to progress toward a certain request through multiple crisis notes while supporting an argument for that request in the fnal crisis note. Whenever you write a crisis note, it should always be addressed to a specifc individual such as the legislator in our previous example. Every time you send a crisis note, it will go directly to the crisis staf and they will respond to your note with an acceptance or refusal. In a Joint-Crisis Committee,
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 6 delegates can correspond with delegates in the separate room. This means that in our simulation, Republicans and Democrats can interact through crisis notes and even arrange a private meeting! A crafty form of crisis note is a Joint Private Directive, or JPD. If a delegate wants to accomplish something outside of their portfolio powers, they can co-author a JPD with another delegate. A JPD allows two delegates to fuse their agencies into one and accomplish a task together. The Ministers of Education and Energy can team up to put solar panels on schools and provide educational lessons on renewable energy by writing a JPD. JPD’s are private, so two delegates who scheme together may use a JPD to coordinate an assassination using both of their portfolio powers. Delegates can also co-author a traditional directive, but the JPD does not require approval from a majority of the committee members and will remain secret.
Directives Most Directives will function as normal, combining the powers of each of the characters in the room. A Google Doc will be shared with delegates in each JCC room, containing a template for each new Directive. Directives will be drafted and voted upon in this Google Doc; delegates may also draft a Directive on a separate program and paste it in afterwards. During Joint Sessions of Congress (see below), Congresspeople can draft and vote on Directives together. Backed by the full strength of the federal government, these Directives will have outsized importance on the Crisis arc, for both Democrats and Republicans, and will generally supersede local/state policies or mandates. By default, states and local governments will follow through with those directives, although they can resist enforcing them via Crisis Notes. Directives that fail to pass (either due to Congressional infghting or Presidential veto) will also have repercussions in the Crisis arc. Outside of Joint Sessions, Congresspeople may work together on normal Directives at any time. Any Congressional Directives outside of a Joint Session will not be considered a federal law and function like any other Directive.
Press Releases and Communiques
In a press release, a committee can draft a written statement to the public and send the statement out to the public. You have likely seen a press release from a government ofcial, or your superintendent when they closed schools due to COVID-19. Whether the contents of a press release are true or false is up to the committee. To pass a press release, it will also need a majority vote from the committee. Similar to a press release is a communique, which is a private, formally-written letter to another governing body, whether it be a head of state or even the other political party. Although the
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 7 letter is private, the recipient of the letter can potentially make it public, and misconstrue the message you sent.
The Campaign This JCC will partially focus on the 1968 presidential election. Our timeline extends through each of the primary elections and the general election in November. Each delegate will have the opportunity to “announce a campaign bid” and vie for the presidency, although some delegates will be in a stronger position to do so. Election campaigning and related shenanigans will be done via Crisis Notes, Joint Private Directives, or Directives (if the committee so chooses). However, the winning presidential nominee will ultimately be determined by the Crisis room and the strength of their campaign arc. Delegates must also balance their current jobs with their campaigns--after all, the country won’t run itself!
Special Crisis Event: Joint Session of Congress In order to respond to national crises, the President, Vice-President, and Congresspeople from both parties may be called to a special “Joint Session of Congress.” These will be timed crises in which delegates from both sides must draft Directives together (see Directives section above). For the sake of simplicity, Congresspeople present at this JCC represent the makeup of the 90th United States Congress and vote on behalf of their colleagues. Also for the sake of simplicity, Senators and Representatives will have equal voting powers. While Congresspeople are out of the room for a Joint Session, the remaining delegates in each of the JCC rooms should write and pass Directives of their own. For those delegates, this time will function like any other timed Crisis Event.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 8 Introduction
A Year Like No Other…?
The talking heads on TV say the United States hasn’t been this fragile since the Civil War. Partisanship reigns supreme over a host of national issues: civil rights, gender equality, income inequality, and an intractable foreign war. Across America, protesters spill into city streets daily, facing down tear-gas and police batons. All the while, white nationalist politicians are steadily gaining ground. There’s a presidential election amidst this nationwide unrest—and it’s shaping up to be one of the most contentious elections in US history. The Democratic Party is tearing itself apart, with conservatives squaring up against progressives; the Republican Party questions whether to fully embrace alarmism and demagoguery. As the political parties diverge more and more, politicians play tug-of-war between calls for social justice and “law and order.” The Democrats and Republicans have convened in their respective National Committees, bringing together mayors, Congresspeople, governors, and even the President. In this current year—1968, of course—the future of the United States seems uncertain. It’s up to these so-called “leaders of the free world” to win the presidential election and advance their visions for the country… by any means possible.
Disclaimer
While based around real events, this JCC simulates an alternate history. As a result, although the background guide is largely historically accurate, not everything in the simulation will be completely true to life, including room composition or specifc government control. During your research, if an event or character in the background guide conficts with an event or character in real life, defer to the background guide.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 9 Before 1968: We Didn’t Start the Fire...
JFK, Blown Away
Following Dwight Eisenhower’s generally popular presidency, Democrat John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Republican Richard Nixon, with a popular vote diference of less than a ffth of a percent. Kennedy’s selection of Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate proved a crucially important decision, helping to unite Southern Democrats behind the Massachusetts senator and delivering him crucial electoral victories across much of the South.2 Kennedy’s administration faced trouble shortly after his inauguration. In April 1961, a group of American-trained Cuban exiles invaded Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, in an attempt to oust Fidel Castro’s newly-established communist government. The invading force was outnumbered and defeated, greatly embarrassing Kennedy and the CIA.3 However, Kennedy reclaimed national headlines in September 1962, when he announced the United States’s intention to put Americans on the Moon. At a time when Soviet technology outpaced the US, Kennedy’s bold claim galvanized the American public to back vast funding increases for NASA.4 Just one month later, Americans’ attention shifted again when US spy planes discovered Soviet ballistic missiles had been installed on Cuba. Alarmed at the imminent threat to national security (the missiles were within striking distance of the eastern US), Kennedy authorized a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent further Soviet shipments to the island. For six days, the world seemed on the verge of nuclear war, until Kennedy struck a deal with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to withdraw missiles from Cuba and Turkey. The American public saw the Cuban
2 Levy, Michael. "United States presidential election of 1960". Encyclopedia Britannica. 3 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Bay of Pigs invasion". Encyclopedia Britannica. 4 “This Day in History: JFK Delivers Iconic 'We Choose to Go to the Moon' Speech.” Space Center Houston. JCC: 1968 Background Guide 10 Missile Crisis as a major success in forcing the Soviets to back down, providing a PR victory for Kennedy’s administration.5 On November 21st, 1963, tragedy struck. Kennedy was riding a convertible through downtown Dallas, Texas, when he was shot multiple times and pronounced dead after arriving at a local hospital. The assassin appears to have been Lee Harvey Oswald, an ex-Marine who spent time in the Soviet Union. Oswald was assassinated days later by nightclub owner Jack Ruby, halting Oswald’s trial and sparking conspiracy theories. As Vice President Johnson was sworn in, news of Kennedy’s assassination quickly spread through news media, shocking the country and world.6
Lyndon B. Johnson’s Presidency
The Election of 1964 Just one year after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the Election of 1964 saw Democratic candidate and former vice president Lyndon B. Johnson defeat Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee, in one of the largest landslide victories in US history. Johnson helped to ensure continuity in the aftermath of a nation-wide trauma, urging policymakers to “let us continue” with Kennedy’s legislative agenda. Running parallel to Kennedy’s administration and Johnson’s 1964 election was the issue of civil rights. Johnson courted black voters through his support of civil rights legislation (particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964), costing the Democrats many southern states. Meanwhile, Goldwater was a hardline conservative and prominent anti-communist, worrying the Republican Party’s moderates. Yet, as Goldwater swept the Deep South, Johnson carried 44 states and the District of Columbia, re-electing him as the 36th President of the United States.
The Great Society At Ohio University in May 1964, President Johnson articulated a vision for the “Great Society,” a world free of injustice and focused on community instead of material wealth. Alongside his focus on eliminating racial injustice, Johnson hoped his Great Society programs would defeat poverty
5 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Cuban missile crisis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 6 Wallenfeldt, Jef. "Assassination of John F. Kennedy". Encyclopedia Britannica. JCC: 1968 Background Guide 11 and perfect American education. These policies would see the expansion of the federal government and the bypassing of state governments, though much of their implementation would be left to individual municipalities. As Johnson began his frst full term in ofce, he enjoyed a strong Democratic majority in Congress, mostly made up of Northern liberals. The Democrats’ majority helped Johnson advance his educational agenda under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which provided federal grants to school districts. When Johnson declared a “War on Poverty” in his State of the Union Address, Congress provided ammunition in the form of 1964’s Economic Opportunity Act, creating the Ofce of Economic Opportunity, the Job Corps, and the Head Start program. Both of these acts were strongly opposed by conservatives in both parties, who viewed each program as signs of federal overreach and vowed to dismantle them. Social Security also expanded under Johnson. In July of 1965, liberal Democrats in the Senate passed the Social Security Amendments of 1965, which established Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare was the frst universal health insurance program for Americans, providing government-funded single-payer insurance to all Americans over 65, regardless of income, sex, race, or pre-existing conditions. Meanwhile, Medicaid was created to provide free health insurance for poor Americans. Medicare was managed under the Social Security Administration, while Medicaid was co-managed by states and the federal government. Both were relatively uncontroversial when created, with signifcant amounts of Republicans and Southern Democrats supporting them, and both helped to vastly expand health insurance coverage in the United States.
The Civil Rights Movement
While the Union may have abolished slavery after the Civil War, it did not stop the oppression of black Americans. Following the failure of Reconstruction, large parts of the South passed Jim Crow laws during the 1880s and 1890s, legally guaranteeing black people remained second-class citizens.7 These laws disenfranchised black voters and strictly enforced segregation between blacks and whites and were only reinforced by the Supreme Court’s “separate but equal” ruling on Plessy v Ferguson (1896), setting the precedent for the main argument against desegregation for the next 80 years. All the while, hate groups like the Ku Klux Klan terrorized, harassed, and lynched ablack people throughout the South in strings of violent crimes. In 1954, the Supreme Court fnally struck down segregation through Brown v Board of Education. Not long after, on December 1, 1955, police in Montgomery, Alabama arrested a woman named Rosa Parks for opposing busing segregation; in response, Montgomery’s black community
7 “Civil Rights Movement,” History JCC: 1968 Background Guide 12 launched a successful bus boycott, led by a Baptist minister named Martin Luther King, Jr. The Montgomery bus boycott aroused similar boycotts and protests throughout the nation which sparked the modern Civil Rights Movement.8 Throughout the 1950s and the 1960s, various groups challenged racial inequality across the United States, but met with ferce resistance. In 1961, groups like the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) organized integrated bus trips (“Freedom Rides”) across the South, often resulting in violence and arrests. In 1962, riots broke out at the University of Mississippi when black student James Meredith attempted to enroll there.9 Many Southern politicians vehemently opposed desegregation as well, to the chagrin of Washington. In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus prevented nine black students from integrating into Little Rock’s all-white Central High School, forcing President Eisenhower to send in federal troops. In 1963, the Kennedy administration confronted Governor George Wallace of Alabama, who physically stood at the University of Alabama’s doors in order to block its integration.10 From his work in Montgomery, Martin Luther King quickly emerged as a leader of the Civil Rights Movement. King believes in a nonviolent approach to combating racial injustice, founding the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to that end. At the March on Washington in 1963, King gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech to over 200,000 protestors, demanding legislation against racism in the United States.11 He worked with President Johnson to create the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and his leadership in protests across Selma, Alabama helped to deliver the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Not all activists agree with King’s nonviolent approach. Many civil rights leaders, like Malcolm X of the Nation of Islam and Stokely Carmichael of SNCC, have criticized the plodding pace of peaceful protest, instead believing racism can only be
8 “American Civil Rights Movement.” Encyclopædia Britannica 9 “UM History of Integration.” UM History of Integration | James Meredith 10 “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door.” Wikipedia 11 “Civil Rights Movement,” History JCC: 1968 Background Guide 13 fought with physical force.12 During the past decade, their more radical attitudes have coalesced into militant organizations like the Black Panther Party. Founded in Oakland, California, the Black Panthers focus on empowering black people to defend themselves from police brutality, often carrying guns to monitor and intimidate police. They have since expanded to social welfare programs like medical clinics and free breakfasts.
The Labor Movement
Following World War II, organized labor saw great successes in collective bargaining, attaining higher wages, fairer conditions, and stronger employment benefts for their membership. Since 1955, the AFL-CIO has been the dominant force in labor politics. Like most other labor unions, the AFL-CIO generally supported Democrats since the New Deal coalition formed in the 1930s; labor leaders were heavily involved in advancing the domestic agendas of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson.13 Yet, the old machinery of organized labor is beginning to show its age: union membership has been on the decline throughout the decade,14 and union members increasingly resort to wildcat strikes (strikes done without union approval) to negotiate. The United Auto Workers (UAW) has been especially volatile, with ⅓ of local presidents voted out of ofce between 1961 and 1963; there are some conversations about the UAW leaving the AFL-CIO altogether.15 Amidst the shifting social landscape of the 1960s, labor unions are facing a turning point as divides form between the old and new. An especially controversial subject among the unions is civil rights. The AFL-CIO and its afliates played an important role in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and some union leaders have championed greater social equality, welcoming more black workers into their ranks. However, most industrial unions (and their leadership) have historically been restricted to white males; as a result, not all union leaders are comfortable with the ongoing shifts in society; AFL-CIO head George Meany refused to support the 1963 March on Washington.16
Chavez and the UFW Many of the tensions of the 1960s are refected in the United Farm Workers (UFW), a migrant farmworkers’ union formed in 1962 and led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta. As of 1968, the UFW is leading strikes over grape-picking conditions in Delano, California, covering as much as 400 miles and receiving support from a diverse coalition of migrant workers.
12 “Black Power.” National Archives and Records Administration 13 History.com Editors. “Labor Movement.” 14 Schulman, Marc. Labor Unions in the 60's 15 Smith, Sharon. “The Workers' Rebellion of the 1960s.” 16Ibid. JCC: 1968 Background Guide 14 The UFW has come to national prominence through support from UAW president Walter Reuther,17 as well as Chavez’s close friendship with Senator Robert Kennedy.18 However, the UFW’s progressive tendencies face conservative opposition from the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, an older union led by Jimmy Hofa (whom Robert Kennedy investigated for corruption). Furthermore, the UFW faces pressure from its left wing, especially due to Chavez’s expulsion of suspected communists from the UFW. While Chavez and Huerta remain popular among young labor leaders, whether they receive political support beyond Kennedy remains to be seen.
The Sovereignty of J. Edgar Hoover John Edgar Hoover was born on January 1, 1895 in Washington, D.C..19 He entered the Department of Justice in 1917 and quickly rose through the ranks; in 1924, the Attorney General named Hoover as Director of the Bureau of Investigation, which became the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1933.20 Hoover is still Director in 1968 and shows no signs of stepping down. In order to combat organized crime in the 1920s and ‘30s, Hoover rapidly expanded the FBI’s power and prestige. Under Hoover, the FBI implemented programs to professionalize law enforcement, provide forensic analysis, and coordinate federal, state, and local law enforcement ofcials.21 Hoover also compiled the largest collection of fngerprints to date.22 The Bureau continues to be concerned with organized crime, especially the activities of the Mafa. During World War II and the early Cold War, the FBI led eforts to root out foreign agitators, whether Nazi or communist.23,24 Since then, the Bureau’s anti-communist eforts (and Hoover’s paranoia) have only grown.25 Hoover has managed a variety of projects to surveil, infltrate, discredit, and disrupt anyone he deems suspicious, including (but not limited to) the Communist Party USA,
17Admin. “UFW History.” 18 “RFK and Cesar Chavez.” PBS 19 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Encyclopædia Britannica 20 J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972 21 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Biography.com 22 J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972 23 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Biography.com 24 J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972 25 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Biography.com JCC: 1968 Background Guide 15 the Black Panthers, feminist groups, and civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr.26,27 Hoover’s program has even been rumored to incite violence and arrange murders.28 Hoover has proven his willingness to extend beyond his powers under the law; using extralegal means to collect information or achieve more nefarious goals is not out of the question. The FBI’s power had drastically grown to help it better combat the many threats facing the nation. However, the Bureau’s infuence and authority has risen to levels some fnd worryingly high. Hoover has used the FBI’s extensive surveillance capabilities to collect damaging information on politicians, celebrities, and even sitting presidents.29 As he personally controls access to this information, Hoover has managed to maintain his position as Director for many years. The extent of Hoover’s efectively blackmail fles is unknown, and no doubt many have yet to come into play.
The Cold War As World War II wound down, the Soviet Union converted eastern Europe into a “bufer zone” of communist puppet states, formally allied under the Warsaw Pact but famously dubbed the “Iron Curtain” by UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill.30 Meanwhile, US President Harry Truman enacted the Marshall Plan, ofering billions of dollars in aid to encourage Europeans towards liberal democracy. In 1947, the US issued the Truman Doctrine, which declared its intention to oppose communism and Soviet expansion, before forming NATO with its allies in 1949.31 The battle lines were drawn for a new geopolitical confict, one to be fought largely through spycraft, technology, and proxy wars. Historians dubbed it the Cold War.
Domino Theory While the US and USSR fought over Europe, the infuence of communism was spreading in Asia. Before and after WWII, China had been at civil war, with communists under Mao Zedong fghting the Republic of China (Kuomintang) under Chiang Kai-Shek. By 1950, the communists had won, forming the People’s Republic of China. The Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan, which remains
26“Federal Bureau of Investigation.” 27 “COINTELPRO.” 28 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Wikipedia 29 “J. Edgar Hoover.” Encyclopædia Britannica 30 “Iron Curtain Speech.” Encyclopædia Britannica 31 “Cold War.” Wikipedia JCC: 1968 Background Guide 16 independent from communist China; the United States still recognizes the Republic of China as the legitimate Chinese government. The US and its allies were shaken by the fall of China to communism. The US responded with the Truman Doctrine’s policy of “containment,” where it would try to halt communism’s spread throughout the world. In June 1950, the Korean peninsula saw the US’s frst test of containment when the Soviet-backed North Korea invaded the US-backed South Korea. The US led a UN coalition in defending South Korea, pushing the North Koreans all the way back to the Chinese border. In response, the Chinese army moved in to assist North Korea, pushing UN forces back to the 38th parallel. Korea was one of the frst major proxy wars in the Cold War, where the US or USSR pitted surrogate forces against one another. It would be far from the last. By the 1950s, US foreign policy in Asia evolved from containment to the “domino theory”: if one nation fell to communism, the rest would follow. The US was particularly wary of Southeast Asia, where they feared communist-friendly rebels in French Indochina might cause revolutions elsewhere.32
The Space Race Starting in the 1950s, the Soviets and Americans competed to explore outer space, as a measuring stick for the supremacy of their technology. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets put a man-made satellite (called Sputnik) into orbit for the frst time. In response, the US formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958, with the goal of sending humans into space. In 1961, the Soviets once again beat the Americans to the punch when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin few into outer space, prompting President Kennedy to make his famous “Moon speech.” The vessel through which Kennedy intended to reach the Moon was through NASA’s Apollo Program. The Apollo program started poorly in 1967, when a capsule fre on Apollo 1 led to the deaths of three American astronauts.33 Although political support waned in the aftermath of Apollo 1, NASA continues to press on with the Space Race, fearful the Soviets will beat them to the Moon. However, pressure is increasing for the US to better fund domestic issues; it is unknown whether Congress will sustain their interest (and substantial budget) in NASA.
32 “President Eisenhower Delivers Cold War ‘Domino Theory’ Speech.” History.com. 33 Mann, Adam. “What Was the Space Race?” JCC: 1968 Background Guide 17 The Vietnam Confict
History of the War Japanese withdrawal from Vietnam in the aftermath of World War II prompted the Viet Minh, a nationalist alliance under communist leader Ho Chi Minh, to rise up against French colonial forces.34 In the ensuing First Indochina War, France fought to reestablish its colonial rule, while the Vietnamese people aimed to win independence. The decisive battle came in May 1954, when Dien Bien Phu, the last French stronghold in Vietnam, fell to Viet Minh forces, and President Eisenhower chose not to intervene on behalf of the French. With the Cold War looming in the background,35,36 the Geneva Accords between the Viet Minh, France, China, US, USSR, and UK “temporarily” split Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh’s communists took North Vietnam, while an anti-communist government in the South consolidated under leader Ngo Dinh Diem. The United States supported the South with fnancial aid and military equipment.37 Soon after, confict broke out between the North and South. The North aided a communist-led force -- formally the “National Liberation Front of South Vietnam,” but better known as the Viet Cong -- in fghting a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the South. President Kennedy escalated American military involvement in Vietnam to aid the anti-communists, sending 16,000 troops to train the South Vietnamese. All the while, the North Vietnamese Army increased its own troop presence in the South, heavily backed by the USSR and the People’s Republic of China. The Viet Cong and their Northern allies remained adamant in taking the South and reunifying the country under communism. The Vietnamese elections promised by the Geneva Accords never came to fruition, especially under the unpopular Diem regime, whose corruption and near-totalitarian rule alienated locals.38 In 1963, the Viet Cong launched an insurrection against the South Vietnamese government, aided by the United States, which also sought to depose Diem. During this coup, Diem was assassinated, leading to political instability in the South. The uncertain survival of the Southern government, along with Viet
34 History.com Editors. Vietnam War. 35 Osborne, Milton. "Vietnam - World War II and Independence". Encyclopedia Britannica 36 “Vietnam War.” Wikipedia 37 Osborne, Milton. "Vietnam - The Two Vietnams." Encyclopedia Britannica 38 Spector, Ronald H.. "Vietnam War - The Diem Regime and the Viet Cong". Encyclopedia Britannica JCC: 1968 Background Guide 18 Cong advances and a weak Southern army, pressured President Lyndon Johnson to increase American action in Vietnam.
The Gulf of Tonkin American involvement in the war accelerated further with the Gulf of Tonkin incident, a confrontation on August 2nd, 1964 in which North Vietnamese ships allegedly attacked the USS Maddox, an American destroyer, with torpedoes. American reports included claims of a second similar confrontation on August 4th, but the accuracy of these accounts seemed to be even less clear than the frst incident’s already muddy details.39 Days later, in response to the incidents, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave President Johnson power “to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force” in dealing with the Vietnam confict, “to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression.” Essentially equipped with a “blank check” for military action, Johnson could use American military force in Southeast Asia without formal declaration of war by Congress. When the motion for the resolution arrived in the Senate, only two Senators opposed it.40
Rolling Thunder President Johnson sent combat troops to Vietnam beginning in 1965. In February that year, he ordered Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing attack on North Vietnam, in an attempt to prevent arms and troops from infltrating into the South and boost the morale of the South’s Saigon regime. American troop presence increased to 184,000 by the end of 1965. Rolling Thunder’s intense bombing continued for the next three years, but apparently have not weakened communist strength. The use of chemical weapons has been controversial, especially napalm gas bombs. But despite this and the continuation of grueling fghting, Johnson, fearing the domino efect that a Northern victory could have on Southeast Asia, decided that South Vietnam was worth rescuing.41 However, doubts surrounding the scope, cost, and progress of the war began to plague Americans back home.
39 “Gulf of Tonkin Incident.” Wikipedia 40 “Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.” Wikipedia 41 Moyar, M. Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954-1965 JCC: 1968 Background Guide 19 The Political Parties
The Democratic Party
The Democratic Party’s platform in the 1960s refected the national movements growing around progressivism; it was one based on serving the American people.42 FDR’s “New Deal coalition”—an uneasy alliance between urban intellectuals, farmers, rural Southerners, racial minorities, and labor unions—held the party together, under a common cause of expanding economic opportunities for all.43 Ambitious plans to end poverty, embrace universal healthcare, and secure a basic standard of living for all Americans ranked among the party’s most radical characteristics.44 Alongside this, there were movements for the protection of veterans, and expanding access to quality education, exemplifying the idealistic prospect of America many Democrats had.45 However, the New Deal coalition was rapidly deteriorating and would not last much longer.46 In late 1967, the Democratic Party found itself in a state of chaos, and on the brink of solvency into multiple factions. The assassination of John F. Kennedy47 had shaken the party to its core; the sole unifying fgure whom the diferent factions of the party all looked to now rests in Arlington National Cemetery.48 His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, further divided the party by making controversial decisions in Vietnam. As a result, early factions began to brew with the Doves (those against war), and the Hawks (those in favor of war).49 Johnson’s approval ratings plummeted in 1968 to a miserable 36% approval, and pressure from student protesters and anti-war Doves began to mount on the president.50 Johnson’s withdrawal from the pool of Democratic nominees51 shattered the Democratic Party into four general factions: the followers of Fulbright and McCarthy making the Anti-War Bloc; the followers of Stennis and the Dixiecrats; the “establishment” followers of the current Vice President,
42 “1968 Democratic Party Platform.” 1968 Democratic Party Platform | The American Presidency Project 43 “New Deal.” Encyclopædia Britannica 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 Nash, Gary B. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. 48 Graham, Lindsey, host. “1968, Nixon vs. Humphrey vs. Wallace: Law and Order.” 49 Dallek, Matthew. “LBJ Announced He Wouldn't Run Again. Political Chaos Ensued.” 50 Ibid. 51 Dallek, Matthew. “LBJ Announced He Wouldn't Run Again. Political Chaos Ensued.” JCC: 1968 Background Guide 20 Hubert Humphrey;52 and fnally, those who were behind Robert F. Kennedy. With each faction taking their share of the pool of Democrat voters,53 the face of the party has efectively changed for good.54 55
The Anti-War Bloc The Anti-War Bloc of the Democratic Party had begun to splinter from the main group before Johnson’s withdrawal from the race, but now prospects seem to be full-steam-ahead.56 Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy and the newly elected New York Senator Robert F. Kennedy led this faction.57 Both senators won their seats in Congress by promising to swiftly end the confict in Vietnam, but the Tet Ofensive dashed those hopes. Still, college-aged activists and intellectuals alike have placed their trust in the hope that these two and their bloc will eventually gain enough infuence to bring an end to the slaughter.58 It is worth noting that Northern Senators were not the sole advocates for ending the war. Senator Fulbright of Arkansas took a frm stance against the Vietnam War, being one of the only Southern Democrats to do so, simultaneously helping the Anti-War bloc dip its fngertips into the Deep South.59
The Dixiecrats The more contemporary Democrats in the South have been long established ever since the Reconstruction Era of the Post-Civil War U.S.A..60 Prior to this, Andrew Jackson led the Democratic party and built of of Thomas Jeferson’s ideals. 61 In 1968, the face of the Democratic party in the South is completely diferent from what it used to be several decades ago. The shifting tides of the political positions of both the Republicans and the Democrats caused many younger, poorer Southerns to defect to the Republicans in hopes of economic relief.62 Due to this, many “Dixiecrats,” as these loyalists are afectionately known, are elderly. However, age does not exempt the Dixiecrats from seeing polarizing opinions—especially with the tension between Senator Stennis of Mississippi and Fulbright of Arkansas.63 Pertinent questions include feelings towards segregation, communism, and the war in Vietnam. Nevertheless, the Dixiecrats base their support around maintaining the New
52 Callaghan, Peter, and Walker Orenstein. “Two Favorite Sons: the Humphrey-McCarthy Battle of 1968.” 53 Graham, Lindsey, host. “1968, Nixon vs. Humphrey vs. Wallace: Law and Order.” 54 Converse, Philip E., et al. “Continuity and Change in American Politics: Parties and Issues in the 1968 Election.” 55 “The Primaries Scandal in 1968 That Changed Everything: Guide to the Presidential Primaries.” 56 Stallings, Melissa. "Election of 1968." 57 Callaghan, Peter, and Walker Orenstein. “Two Favorite Sons: the Humphrey-McCarthy Battle of 1968.” 58 Broder, David S. “THE DEMOCRATS' DILEMMA.” 59 “J. William Fulbright | Bureau of Educational and Cultural Afairs.” 60 History.com Editors. “Democratic Party.” 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 “John C. Stennis.” JCC: 1968 Background Guide 21 Deal Coalition, as anything else could possibly spell disaster for their political infuence, and thus they back Humphrey.64 Be that as it may, there are talks of nominating a third party candidate to represent the Deep South as the rift between Southern states grows larger.65
The Republican Party
In 1968, the Republican Party is still the party of Lincoln, Teddy Roosevelt, and Eisenhower, but that may change. With the Kennedy and Johnson administrations only minorly alleviating the burden endured by working-class and poor citizens, the Republicans should seek to prioritize anti-poverty programs to distinguish themselves from their counterparts. Specifcally, advocating for “Law and Order” will earn the crucial support of suburban and urban working-class white voters. With “the radical left” dominating the political landscape at America’s universities, the Republicans must improve education systems and fnd other ways to make up ground on youth voters. Increasing vocational educational opportunities, lowering the expenses of higher education, and providing federal funding to non-public schools will also be essential. Lastly, most Republicans still (somewhat) believe in Lincoln’s moral crusade, feeling that “the Indian and Eskimo must have an equal opportunity to participate fully in American society.”66 Controlling the 4.5% annual infation rate inficted upon the nation by the Johnson-Humphrey administration should be an economic priority of the party, and fear mongering became a common tactic that Republicans employed.67 1968 initiated the Republicans shift to the party of rural farmers, referring to the independent farmer as the “forgotten man in our nation's economy.”68 Ending the confict in Vietnam and securing international peace is the most controversial topic amongst Republicans. While the eventual Party platform and campaign strategy will be molded by delegates’ personal views and priorities, delegates should still consider the history of the Republican Party. The principles of increasing jobs and cutting taxes with a limited Federal government should guide all delegates, and the capacity to unify difering visions on how to accomplish those goals will make this convention truly (little “r”) republican.
64 “Why Did the Democrats Lose the South? Bringing New Data to an Old Debate | Princeton University - Department of Economics.” 65 Stallings, Melissa. "Election of 1968." 66 Republican Party Platform of 1968, The American Presidency Project 67 “Historical Infation Rates: 1914-2021: US Infation Calculator.” US Infation Calculator 68 Republican Party Platform of 1968, The American Presidency Project JCC: 1968 Background Guide 22 The Rockefeller Republicans The moderate wing of the Republican party in the 1960s, whose members are afectionately known as “Rockefeller Republicans,” bases their political philosophy of of efcient government spending. While Nelson Rockefeller served as the most prominent national champion, Margaret Chase Smith and George Romney touted similar beliefs and helped pull the party further left. As an homage to Teddy Roosevelt, the Rockefeller republicans made environmentalism a pillar of their platform. With this pillar as a foundation, the moderate wing pushed for investments in healthcare, infrastructure, and higher education. While no modern-day Republicans come close to resembling Rockefeller’s approach, pundits often identify Bill Weld, Charlie Baker, Lisa Murkowski, and Susan Collins as today’s “Rockefeller Republicans.” The moderate faction of the GOP gained traction in the Northeast and on the West Coast, but clashed heavily with right-wing party establishment. Since moderates sought to advance the Civil Rights Movement and cooperate with labor unions, Party leaders feared that moderates would alienate southern voters. However, Democrats should not count on these liberal conservatives to help them out; at the end of the day, they’re still Republicans! With wealthy individuals such as Romney and Rockefeller at the vanguard of the more liberal approach, many argued that the movement propped up the elite while a stronger, right-wing approach claimed to advocate for the common man.69
The Southern Strategy After the Civil War, the southern states were fnding their power was being gradually stripped by the federal government. Southerners regarded the Republican Party as the party of Abraham Lincoln and Reconstruction, and instead focked to the Democratic Party. Gradually, Southern Democrats became more and more connected with white supremacy -- but for almost a century, Democrats held a lock on the South. Things started changing when President Johnson, a Southern Democrat, signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and the Voting Rights Act in 1965. Republican politicians such as presidential candidate Richard Nixon and Senator Barry Goldwater developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many white, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party. This Republican narrative, dubbed the “Southern Strategy,” appealed to the racial grievances of conservative, Southern Democratic whites. The Republican Party would sacrifce a lot of the black vote, but would more than make it up by getting the Southern white vote. If the party embraces the strategy, it may stand a chance at defeating the Democrats… but at what cost to the nation?
69 About: Rockefeller Republican, DPedia
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 23 The Election
In 1968, voters will head to the polls and elect one US president, 34 US Senators, all 435 US Representatives, and 22 state governors. As of now, Democrats control the presidency, the Senate (63 seats), and the House (248 seats); Republicans have 26 of the 50 governorships. However, Democratic infghting has caused a number of schisms in the party, weakening their messaging and making them particularly vulnerable during this election cycle. While it is unlikely Republicans will capture majorities in Congress, they stand a fair chance at winning the presidency and whittling down Democratic control. It is widely accepted that 1968 will result in a close presidential election; estimates predict that the national popular vote is split roughly 50-50, and in general polling, 28 of the 50 states fall within 10 point margins. Some crucial battleground states this year include Oregon, Ohio, and New Hampshire.70 Any edge that one party can gain over the other—however unscrupulous it may be—could prove to be the deciding factor in the presidential election.
The Road Ahead
Before anyone can run for the presidential election, they need to make it out of the party primaries, an ordeal unto themselves. For both the Democrats and Republicans, every state has a certain number of primary delegates, who will commit to supporting one candidate or another. Each state party chapter allocates their delegates slightly diferently. Only fourteen states out of the ffty actually hold primary elections; the vast majority of delegates are courted through other political twists and turns, making it possible for party insiders to clinch the nomination without actually winning a primary. Additionally, the primary elections provide a platform for presidential contenders to establish themselves as future party front-runners and leaders.. Finally, at each party’s week-long convention in August, delegates will convene to nominate one candidate for president and another candidate for vice-president. Delegates will also vote on various proposals for a party platform, which comprises all
70 https://smartpolitics.lib.umn.edu/2011/02/14/presidential-battleground-stat/ JCC: 1968 Background Guide 24 the positions that the party’s candidates will run on; a “plank” is one of those positions (ex. ending the war in Vietnam). Protesters often camp outside the convention to advocate for their preferred planks. As opposed to modern conventions, the party’s presidential nominee remains in question until the party convention, as delegates will switch sides, walk out in protest, or even get in fstfghts on the convention foor. However, the contender that comes into the convention with the greatest number of delegates stands the best shot at winning. Below is a timeline of the 1968 primary and general elections.
Date State primary Date State primary
March 12 New Hampshire May 28 Florida
April 2 Wisconsin May 28 Oregon
April 23 Pennsylvania June 4 California
April 30 Massachusetts June 4 New Jersey
May 7 Washington DC June 4 South Dakota
May 7 Indiana June 11 Illinois
May 7 Ohio August 5-8 Republican National Convention, Miami
May 14 Nebraska August 26-29 Democratic National Convention, Chicago
May 14 West Virginia November 5 Election Day
After August, the parties should rally around their nominee, as part of the campaign for the presidential election in November. In the past, some groups have felt so alienated by their party’s platform that they defected or ran a third-party nominee (ex. Strom Thurmond and the Dixiecrats). In 1968, the high tensions in both parties make that outcome very possible. On November 5, 1968, Americans will go to the polls to decide who will best represent them in the White House and the 91st Congress. The election results have only been disputed once before, when a Congressional commission in 1876 handed the presidency to Rutherford B. Hayes over Samuel Tilden. It would be unthinkable for a sitting president—or an opposing candidate, for that matter—to call the integrity of US elections into question. Defnitely.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 25 Issues to Consider
Vietnam and the Cold War
The threat of communism and eforts to prevent its spread comprise the defning foreign policy issues of 1968. As of January, around 500,000 American troops fght alongside forces from South Vietnam, South Korea, Thailand, Australia, and New Zealand.71 The most recent and ongoing escalation of the Vietnam War came on January 30, 1968, when Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army forces launched a coordinated series of surprise attacks across the South, dubbed the Tet Ofensive. American forces and their allies, underprepared and caught of guard by the scale of the ofensive, are currently counter-attacking in attempts to regain control of lost territories, while several cities fall into Northern hands.72 Now more than ever, prospects for America’s “boys in Vietnam” appear bleak. With lives seemingly lost in vain, and the true nature of the prolonged war no longer hidden from the public eye, President Johnson—believing that Tet may spell the end of his political career—has announced he will drop out of the 1968 presidential race by February 1st.73 Delegates in the road ahead will have to consider their support for or opposition to the war, and act accordingly. With Laos and Cambodia already communist, the loss of Vietnam to the communist tide would greatly harm American interests in the region. Despite the consequences of an ultimate failure in Vietnam, delegates must balance it with the tides of public opinion regarding the war, especially with the growing anti-war movement and the counterculture’s protests. Whether we are to stay in or pull out of Vietnam, delegates need to create a plan for how to do so.
71 Osborne, Milton. “"Vietnam - The Two Vietnams." Encyclopedia Britannica 72 “Tet Ofensive.” Wikipedia 73 This is an intentional anachronism! In real life,Johnson dropped out on March 31, after the New Hampshire primaries. JCC: 1968 Background Guide 26 Civil Rights and Social Justice
In addition to the Vietnam War, social issues have been at the forefront of 1960s America.74 Many of the “classic” issues remain on the table: improving the judicial system, ending discrimination in housing and jobs, and continuing to integrate schools.75 Immigration also remains a hot-button topic, as an easing of restrictions in 1965 has led to a wave of Latino and Asian migrants. But activists have pushed beyond race and immigration, attempting to create more equal conditions for women and the LGBTQ+ community; there’s even discussion of a new Equal Rights Amendment. As social equality remains a popular issue among voters, delegates in both parties should take note of what can be done to advance civil rights…or at least appear to be doing so. Furthermore, leading civil rights fgures like Martin Luther King -- alongside a newer, more radical wave of activists -- turned their campaigns towards the welfare of poor people in general. Some liberal politicians have taken note, actively addressing the intersections between race and poverty. Yet, racial tensions increasingly break into violence, with 159 major riots in the summer of 1967 alone.76 These riots, coupled with a healthy dose of anti-communist paranoia and the militant rhetoric of groups like the Black Panthers, breed fear and uncertainty among conservative Americans (and J. Edgar Hoover). Can that fear be assuaged -- or capitalized upon?
The Counterculture
Amidst the Civil Rights Movement and anti-war activism of the 1960s, a leftist, anti-establishment political movement known as the “New Left” gained traction among the “baby boomer” generation. New Left groups like the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) established chapters across the United States. Many followers of the New Left are closely associated with various social movements collectively known as the “counterculture” or “hippies.” Hippies fght the social norms of their parents and experiment with alternative lifestyles; however, they are as diverse as America itself.
74 Steven M. Gillon, “The Revolution That Was 1968” History. 75 United States Government. “The Civil Rights Movement And The Second Reconstruction, 1945-1968” US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives. 76 “Long, Hot Summer of 1967.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation. JCC: 1968 Background Guide 27 The counterculture is inexorably tied with protests against the Vietnam War. Since 1965, anti-War demonstrations have sprouted on college campuses across the United States, as fearful students rally against the mandatory draft. The SDS has been at the forefront of these demonstrations, spearheading major protests at UChicago and Berkeley in 1966, and a variety of counterculture and establishment activists organized some of the biggest anti-Vietnam demonstrations to date in 1967. In the past few years, a food of anti-war protests, books, and music have turned public sentiment against the war. Politicians are beginning to take note of the counterculture as a potent political force. Some counterculture groups, like Abbie Hofman’s Youth International Party ( the “Yippies”), are more focused on theatrical stunts that mock the status quo instead of upending it. However, other groups, like the Black Panthers and the militant wing of the SDS, are viewed by many members of both political parties as threats to the United States’s moral and political fabric. Each party must decide whether to embrace or turn away the ideals (and power!) of the counterculture, as well as how to go about doing it.
“Law and Order”
No, not the television series. To quote journalist Peter Grier, in a political context the phrase “Law and Order” serves as an, “implicit defense of the status quo against change.77” Many Americans, especially white suburban voters, watched the counterculture’s anarchy dominate the news coverage on their televisions and developed fear for their own communities. After falling to historic lows after World War II, the US homicide rate doubled between 1960-1965 to reach over ten homicides per 100,000 people in a given year.78 In the 1964 Presidential Election, Senator Barry Goldwater frst employed the term in his campaign against President Johnson. Although the Law Enforcement
77 Peter Grier, “From Goldwater to Trump, the Long History of 'Law and Order' Politics.” 78 US Homicide Rates Historical.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 28 Assistance Act of 1965, which diverted funding to local law enforcement training, was a part of Johnson’s Great Society, Republicans used the confict throughout the summer of 1967 as proof that Johnson didn’t do enough to quell unrest. As Nixon and Reagan tried to walk the tight-rope between George Wallace’s blatant racism and the Democrats’ allegiance to the Civil Rights movement, they sought subtler ways to appeal to Southern white voters. They ran on platforms that touted mass incarceration as an efective method of crime prevention. However, the Republicans knew that these pro-police initiatives alongside images of police ofcers beating, killing, and dragging African American protestors on television made clear that they sought to impede or reverse the Civil Rights Movement. In addition to ofcers’ individual biases, policing as an institution has historically caught and returned slaves, upheld Jim Crow laws, and enforced Black Codes. Although Democrats dubbed the “Law and Order” rhetoric as racist fear mongering, many voters ended up seeing the Democrats' indecision on the issue as evidence they supported crime. As the two parties draft their platforms, they must ponder their party’s pivotal stance on policing and “Law and Order’s” intertwined racial undertones.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 29 February 1, 1968: Your Mission
As the sun rises over the Atlantic ringing in the month of February, delegates should heavily consider their aspirations for the rest of 1968, as well as their hopes for the next decade. When drafting their Party Platforms, delegates should strive to be pragmatic, as both parties are “big tents” with multifarious opinions. Delegates must amass personal resources to help themselves in their local elections, a particular candidate in the presidential primary, or their national party in November’s general election. Through committee-approved documents and crisis notes, delegates will establish a national narrative surrounding their party to court voters. The road to seeing your party’s nominee sworn in on the west side of the Capitol on Inauguration Day will be long, but if your ideals endure, it will be worth it. While delegates must consider the domestic and foreign policy issues outlined above, delegates’ own personal ambitions should also guide the committee’s direction. As candidates choose to enter their names into consideration for their party’s nomination, they must consider their resources, endorsements, poll numbers, and current occupation. Many delegates will best fulfll their own priorities by endorsing another candidate through a press release to ensure their shared ideals guide the party in their preferred direction. For candidates who choose to run, promising cabinet positions, certain legislation, or merely a reciprocal endorsement for a diferent race will procure endorsements and advance his or her status in the party. Some delegates may attempt to form their own party, solicit foreign assistance, or rig the convention’s nominating process. In typical 1968 fashion, assassinations, national emergencies, and protests may emerge, and delegates who best respond to unforeseen crisis updates will gain an advantage. In the end, delegates, you should have lots of fun while shaping the course of American history in the process.
GOOD LUCK!
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 30 Sources
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JCC: 1968 Background Guide 32 The Labor Movement
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Mann, Adam. “What Was the Space Race?” Space.com, Space, 7 Aug. 2019, www.space.com/space-race.html.
“President Eisenhower Delivers Cold War ‘Domino Theory’ Speech.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 13 Nov. 2009, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/eisenhower-gives-famous-domino-theory-speech.
The Vietnam Confict
History.com Editors. Vietnam War. 19 Aug. 2020, https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history.
“Gulf of Tonkin Incident.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Feb. 2021, www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_incident.
“Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Feb. 2021, www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_Resolution.
Moyar, M. Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954-1965. Cambridge University Press, 2009, https://books.google.com/books?id=phJrZ87RwuAC&lpg=PP1&dq=history%20of%20the% 20vietnam%20war&lr&pg=PR17#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20the%20vietnam%20war& f=false.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 34 Osborne, Milton. "Vietnam - The Two Vietnams". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Feb. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam/The-two-Vietnams-1954-65. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Osborne, Milton. "Vietnam - World War II and Independence". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Feb. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam/World-War-II-and-independence. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Spector, Ronald H.. "Vietnam War - The Diem Regime and the Viet Cong". Encyclopedia Britannica, 10 Sep. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War/The-Diem-regime-and-the-Viet-Cong. Accessed 1 February 2021.
“Vietnam War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Feb. 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War.
The Democratic Party
“1968 Democratic Party Platform.” 1968 Democratic Party Platform | The American Presidency Project, 26 Aug. 1968, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/1968-democratic-party-platform.
Broder, David S. “THE DEMOCRATS' DILEMMA.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, Mar. 1974, www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/politics/policamp/dilemma.htm.
Callaghan, Peter, and Walker Orenstein. “Two Favorite Sons: the Humphrey-McCarthy Battle of 1968.” MinnPost, 2 Feb. 2012, www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2011/05/two-favorite-sons-humphrey-mccarthy-battle-19 68/.
Converse, Philip E., et al. “Continuity and Change in American Politics: Parties and Issues in the 1968 Election.” The American Political Science Review, vol. 63, no. 4, 1969, pp. 1083–1105. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1955073. Accessed 21 Jan. 2021.
Curry, Tom. “In 1968, Democratic Split Helped Nixon Win.” NBCNews.com, NBCUniversal News Group, 29 Sept. 2008, www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna26840327.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 35 Dallek, Matthew. “LBJ Announced He Wouldn't Run Again. Political Chaos Ensued.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 30 Mar. 2018, www.history.com/news/lbj-exit-1968-presidential-race.
“Democratic Party.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/Democratic-Party#ref308572.
Graham, Lindsey, host. “1968, Nixon vs. Humphrey vs. Wallace: Law and Order.” American Elections: Wicked Game, Airship/Wondery, 11 Aug. 2020, https://open.spotify.com/episode/0uXukXBeMWD25E4rsabuTQ?si=BusUa5wFSMmSaklj- E2M4A.
History.com Editors. “Democratic Party.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 4 Apr. 2018, www.history.com/topics/us-politics/democratic-party.
“J. William Fulbright | Bureau of Educational and Cultural Afairs.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, www.eca.state.gov/fulbright/about-fulbright/history/j-william-fulbright.
“John C. Stennis.” U.S. Senate: John C. Stennis, 8 May 2017, www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/image/MS_Stennis_John.htm.
Nash, Gary B. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 2009. Print.
“New Deal.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 11 Jan. 2021, www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal.
“The Primaries Scandal in 1968 That Changed Everything: Guide to the Presidential Primaries.” Vox.com, www.vox.com/a/presidential-primaries-2016-republican-democrat/1968-scandal.
“Why Did the Democrats Lose the South? Bringing New Data to an Old Debate | Princeton University - Department of Economics.” Princeton University, The Trustees of Princeton University, www.economics.princeton.edu/working-papers/why-did-the-democrats-lose-the-south-bringi ng-new-data-to-an-old-debate/.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 36 The Republican Party
About: Rockefeller Republican, DPedia, dbpedia.org/page/Rockefeller_Republican.
“Historical Infation Rates: 1914-2021: US Infation Calculator.” US Infation Calculator |, 10 Feb. 2021, www.usinfationcalculator.com/infation/historical-infation-rates/.
Republican Party Platform of 1968, The American Presidency Project, 5 Aug. 1968, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-party-platform-1968. Issues to Consider
“Counterculture of the 1960s.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s.
“From Goldwater to Trump, the Long History of 'Law and Order' Politics.” The Christian Science Monitor, The Christian Science Monitor, 2 Sept. 2020, www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2020/0902/From-Goldwater-to-Trump-the-long-history- of-Law-and-Order-politics.
“Long, Hot Summer of 1967.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long,_hot_summer_of_1967.
Osborne, Milton. "Vietnam - The Two Vietnams". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Feb. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam/The-two-Vietnams-1954-65. Accessed 9 February 2021.
Steven M. Gillon, “The Revolution That Was 1968” History, 31 Jan 2019, https://www.history.com/news/the-revolution-that-was-1968. Accessed 19 Feb 2021.
“Tet Ofensive.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Feb. 2021, www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet_Ofensive.
United States Government. “The Civil Rights Movement And The Second Reconstruction, 1945-1968” US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives, Washington, D.C., 2008, history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Essays/Keeping-the-Faith/ Civil-Rights-Movement/.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 37 US Homicide Rates Historical. sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/dbassesite/documents/webpage/dbasse_083892.pdf.
JCC: 1968 Background Guide 38