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266982319.Pdf GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONTROLS ON THE SEDIMENTATION PATTERNS OF, AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANTHROPOGENIC RADIONUCLIDES IN, COASTAL SALTMARSHES, SOUTH-WEST SCOTLAND Mhairi Mikasi Harvey Department of Geography and Topographic Science University of Glasgow presented as a thesis for the degree o f Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, October 2000 ProQuest Number: 13818973 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 13818973 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 CONTENTS VOLUME ONE ❖ Declaration ❖ Abstract ❖ Table of Contents ♦> Table of Figures ❖ Table of Tables ❖ Table of Boxes ❖ Table of Plates ❖ Acknowledgements ❖ Chapter One Rationale Page 1 ❖ Chapter Two Saltmarshes: Development processes and contamination by anthropogenic radionuclides Page 8 ❖ Chapter Three Preliminary Investigations Page 69 Chapter Four Methods Page 102 Chapter Five Results Page 152 Chapter Six Analysis and Discussion of Study Sites Page 245 Chapter Seven Marsh Comparisons Page 330 Chapter Eight Conclusions Page 345 VOLUME TWO ❖ Declaration ❖ Abstract ❖ Table of Contents ii List of references Page 348 Appendices Appendix 1 South wick Results Appendix 2 Orchardton Results Appendix 3 Caerlaverock Results Map pocket Maps la, lb, 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d in DECLARATION Except where specific reference is made to other sources, the work presented in this thesis is the original work of the author. It has not been submitted, in part or in whole, for any other degree. Mhairi M Harvey IV ABSTRACT The saltmarshes within the Solway Firth are often regarded as a single unit, all experiencing similar physical conditions. This work demonstrates that they are different, each with a unique characteristic and quality. These qualities are identified and a new classification system for the Solway saltmarshes is proposed. With reference to these differences, the study investigates variations evident in sedimentation patterns utilising a number of methods which operate over different timescales. These methods are successfully integrated to provide a historical analysis of the dynamic nature of the Solway saltmarshes. The results indicate that the Solway marshes undergo rapid change and that this change is related largely to hydroperiod and vegetational influences. An integral part of this work is the utilisation of Sellafield derived contaminants as a tool to investigate sedimentation patterns. In addition to this, the distributions of the radionuclides are examined and interpreted with reference to the sedimentary status of the marshes under investigation. Many authors consider accreting saltmarshes to be long term stores for radioactive contaminants but this study demonstrates that physical and chemical dispersion of some radionuclide species indicates that the saltmarsh store is ephemeral. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One 1. RATIONALE Page 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Aim 4 1.3 Study Parameters 4 1.4 Thesis Structure 7 Chapter Two 2. SALTMARSHES: DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES AND CONTAMINATION BY ANTHROPECENTRIC RADIONUCLIDES 8 SALTMARSH DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 2.1 Definition of saltmarshes 8 2.2 Saltmarsh development 9 2.2.1 Introduction to saltmarsh development 9 2.2.2 Influence of physiographic location on saltmarsh development 10 2.2.3 Sediment deposition on saltmarsh surfaces 13 2.2.4 Spatial aspects of sedimentation 16 2.2.5 Influence of vegetation on sedimentation 21 2.2.6 Erosion of saltmarshes 24 2.2.7 Summary of saltmarsh development 27 2.3 Methods used to measure sedimentation patterns in saltmarshes 28 ANTHROPOGENIC RADIONUCLIDES IN THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 2.4 Background information Page 32 2.4.1 Sources of anthropogenic radionuclides 32 2.4.2 Discharge of radionuclides from the Sellafield Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plant 34 2.4.3 Fate of radionuclides entering the Irish Sea 37 2.4.4 Fine sediment sources and sinks in the Irish Sea 41 2.4.5 The movement of fine sediment and radionuclides in the Irish Sea 45 2.5 Radionuclides in intertidal sediments §2 2.5.1 On-shore movement of radionuclides 52 2.5.2 Spatial distribution of radionuclides in intertidal sediments 54 2.5.3 Deposition of radionuclides in intertidal areas 56 2.5.4 Radionuclide profiles in accumulating sediment 58 2.5.5 Radionuclide mobility within accumulating sediments and redistribution within the marine environment 61 2.6 Research Aims 65 Chapter Three 3. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS 69 3.1 The Solway Firth 69 3.1.1 Physical setting 69 3.1.2 Hydrology 71 3.1.3 Sediment characteristics of, and movement within, the Solway Firth 74 3.1.4 Development of the Solway saltmarshes 77 3.2 Classification of Solway saltmarshes Page 84 3.2.1 Problems associated with saltmarsh classification 84 3.2.2 Ecological classifications 87 3.2.3 Physical classifications 91 3.2.4 Assessment of saltmarsh classifications 94 3.3 An integrated saltmarsh classification 96 3.3.1 Re-classification of the Solway marshes 99 Chapter Four 4. METHODS 102 4.1 Sampling strategy 102 4.2 Site selection 103 4.2.1 Marsh site selection 103 4.2.2 Intra-marsh site selection 106 4.3 Small scale geomorphological mapping 108 4.4 Large scale geomorphological mapping 110 4.5 Field measurements of saltmarsh accretion and erosion 112 4.5.1 Introduction 112 4.5.2 Plates 112 4.5.3 Surveying 117 4.6 Sediment sample collection 118 4.6.1 Sample requirements 118 4.6.2 Sample collection methods - excavation 119 viii 4.6.3 Sample collection methods - coring Page 120 4.6.4 Core shortening (compaction) 121 4.6.5 Problems associated with the correction of core shortening 123 4.6.6 Core shortening as a function of penetration depth and commencement of shortening 124 4.6.7 Variability of shortening within different sediment layers 125 4.7 Preparation of cores 128 4.7.1 Opening the core tube 128 4.7.2 Smearing 128 4.7.3 Core logging 128 4.7.4 Sampling of cores 129 4.7.5 Sample preparation 130 4.8 Sedimentological characteristics 135 4.8.1 Determination of organic content 135 4.8.2 Sediment size analysis 139 4.8.3 Dry sieving 139 4.8.4 Laser diffraction grain-size determination 140 4.8.4.1 Principles o f laser diffraction 140 4.8.4.2 Optical models 141 4.8.4.3 Obscuration 143 4.8.4.4 Instrument reproducibility 143 4.8.4.5 Operator reproducibility 145 4.9 Radionuclide analysis of cores 147 4.9.1 Background information 147 4.9.2 Gamma spectrometry Page 148 4.9.3 Calculation of specific activities and errors 150 Chapter Five 5. RESULTS 152 5.1 Southwick 152 5.1.1 Setting and historical development 152 5.1.2 Geomorphology, vegetation and recent changes in the study site 155 5.1.2.1 Primary marsh 155 5.1.2.2 Middle marsh 155 5.1.2.3 High marsh 155 5.1.3 S edimentation in the study area 158 5.1.4 Profiles of the study area 160 5.1.5 Determination of organic content of sediment 161 5.1.6 Radionuclide specific activity profiles 166 5.1.7 Analysis of sediment sizes within cores 173 5.2 Orchardton 177 5.2.1 Setting and historical development 177 5.2.2 Geomorphology, vegetation and recent changes in the study site 179 5.2.2.1 Salicomia marsh 179 5.2.2.2 Spartina marsh 180 5.2.3 Sedimentation in the study area 181 5.2.4 Profiles of the study area 183 X 5.2.5 Determination of organic content within marsh sediments Page 184 5.2.6 Radionuclide specific activity profiles 189 5.2.7 Analysis of sediment sizes within cores 196 5.3 Caerlaverock 198 5.3.1 Setting and historical development 198 ERODING SITE 5.3.2 Geomorphology, vegetation and recent changes in the eroding study site 205 5.3.2.1 High marsh 207 5.3.2.2 Eroded marsh edge 207 5.3.2.3 Mudflat 207 5.3.3 Sedimentation in the eroding study area 209 5.3.4 Determination of organic content of sediment within the eroding marsh 212 5.3.5 Radionuclide concentrations across the eroding study site 218 5.3.6 Analysis of sediment sizes within cores from the eroding site 222 ACCRETING SITE 5.3.7 Geomorphology, vegetation and recent changes in the accreting study site 225 5.3.7.1 High marsh 225 5.3.7.2 Low marsh 225 5.3.7.3 Pioneer marsh 226 5.3.7.4 Accreting mudflat 226 5.3.8 Sedimentation in the accreting study area 227 5.3.9 Determination of organic content of sediment within the accreting marsh 220 5.3.10 Radionuclide concentrations across the accreting study area 234 XI 5.3.11 Analysis of sediment sizes within cores from the accreting marsh Page 239 5.4 Site comparisons 241 5.4.1 Sedimentation patterns and rates 241 5.4.2 Comparison of organic data between sites 241 5.4.3 Radionuclide specific activities and activity ratios 242 5.4.4 Sediment size analysis 244 Chapter Six 6. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF STUDY SITES 245 6.1 Introduction 245 6.2 Southwick 246 6.2.1 Sedimentation rates and patterns derived from plate results 246 6.2.2 Sedimentation rates and patterns derived from radionuclide specific activity profiles 250 6.2.2.1 Determination o f sedimentation rates utilising radionuclide specific activities 250 6.2.2.2 Determination o f sedimentation patterns utilising radionuclide specific activities 25 7 6.2.3 Sedimentation rates and patterns on Southwick derived from radionuclide
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