The Search for the Initiating Factor of the Chaco

~ationalLibrary Biblbth6que natQnale ---if4 qlCanada, du Canada *. /-

- - - . ------. 4 , , The quality of this microform is heavilydependent upon the La qualitd de cette microforme dbpknd grandernent de la quality of the original thesis submitted for microfilming. qualit6 de la these soumise au microfrlmage. Nous avons Every effort has beenmade to ensure the highest quality of tout fail pour assurer une qualitb supdrieure de reprodue;. , - reproduction possible. tion. If pa es are mis$ng, contact the university which granted S'il manque des pages, veuillez cornmuniquer aFc the Be,gree. ' , I'universite qui 9 confer6 le grade. /--I Some ages may have indistinct print especial1 if the La qualild.d'irnpression de certaines pages,peut laisser A origina'pagesf' were t ped with a poor typewriter ri I! bon or - ddsirer, surtout si les pages originales ont 616 dactylogra- if the university sent gs an inferior photocopy. . phiees A I'aide d'un ruban us6 ou si I]universit6 nous a fat pa~enirune photocopie de qualit6 infbrieure. -- Previously copyrighted materials (journal articles, pub- Les documents qui font dejh I'objet d'un droit d'auteur ,lighed tests, etc.) are not filmed. (articles de *revue, tests publibs, etc.) ne sont pas microfilm6s. Reproduction in full or in part of this microform is overned La reproduction, meme partielie, de cette microforme esl by the Canadian Copyright Act, R.S.C. 1970, c 8-30. . , swrnise a la Loi canad~ennesur le droit d'auteur, SRC" - - 1970, C. C-30 - J. TRACE OF OIL:

, B.A. [Honours), Simon Fraser University, 1986

/ THESIS SUBMITTED.IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in the Department

History , i

1 Geoffrey D. L~C* 1987 1 SIWN FRASER UNIVERSITY - August, 1987

.- -reproduced in whole or in part, by pbotocogy or other means, without pemnission of the author - Permission has ben granted L'autorisatlon a &t& accordht

to the r~ational'tlbrKry 6. of la ~i3liotli&que nati6na11c Canada to mfcroff 13 s du Canada, de ricrofilmer . - thesis and to 1 c&-te thhae et de prater ou copies of the d8 vendre dee exeaplaires du aj -r L4 d' am -1 +% - . ------The ZRFHEX E.fop~~&rrrerF titrtear ftt-f &re dti T has reserved other auteur) se rbeerve- le8 publication rights* and pa droits de publication; nehther t-he thesf e nor ni 'la th8se ni de longe extensive extracts from it extraits de celle-ci ne may .be printed or otherwise doiqnt . &re imprids ou reproduced wf thout hie/her auth&ent, reprodui tu qans son written permission. autagiisation &rite. -/ t' t' A 4 " ISBN 0-315-#608-X Degree Master of Ar?s

I - Tit-le of thesis- Trace of 01i. the Search for an hi tiating Factor in the Ctiscd War

Examirnng Cornrr~rt tee.

Prsf essor Emeritus Unwersi ty of Miami

P -, I hereby grant to,Simon Fraser University the right to lend

my thesis or dissertation (the title of which is shown below) to ;sirs

of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single - - copies only for such users or in response to a request from the !i>rarv - \ of any other university, or other educational institution, or; its o::n

- - -- -

A- behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission hr-

d' multiple cjpyjng of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be grn: :ed

by ae or the Dean cf Graduate Studies. It IS understood tt-,at cop:..ing

- - -- - A- - T--- * C or pubi~cationof this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed .a

vi t:?ou: my writ ten germission. &

Trace of Oil: The search for an Initiating Factor

- pp = --- .- in the Chaco War. - - d

Author :

(name )

- f (date ) . - 1 . -. . . -. .. . . - . ,,.~. - . . ._,. - , - -4- .--;-;~z+,.<.,.-,-.-, ">,:*~,-s.-;--:.q- d ... . . - --..~ < ~ ,..j ?* . . '8 4- -. -. - i-1'4.L ~ ~ - - li -~ ------2*~ - - - -~ -- --- ~------d7-~q-~--~:-~--l L ~. . . I 4 - +.? \, . - . I

~ ~~ -? I ./ - . .~ ~ -- ... - 1 I , I -, i

- - - I / - . . - -- --~- ~ ------. lS1... ~ --;-- - - 1 ------~ ~ --~ .- --- T I - ?- !

~he~hacoWar, Bolivia versus Earaguay,1932-1935, .I - --,

ultimately occurred because of decisions taken by President -

baniel Salamanca in 1931-32. However, the initjal fac,tor fi responsible for this war has never been clearly defined. The war'is little known outside the two combatant nations; its \ literature lacks critkcal historical analysis: - - - -- I L The fragmentary nature of primary source material plus

\ the clutter of jingoistic phrases and haphazard research in

€fie literature €%at ix-avaifabfS3ias caused-me to take a ------dual analytical approacx-in this thesis. In the first half of the thesis I examine and eliminate previously formulated theories on the origins of the war; in the second hqlf I . t postulate that the discovery and subsequent exploitation of oil in Bolivian lands bordering the Chaco Boreal was the I initiator of the events which led to the Chaco War. Commer- --! cia1 deposits of oil were fir'st discovered in Bolivia in ---

/- 18.98, but the larger 1906 finds constituted the 'first serious Bolivian national'interest in.oil. Subsequently, in an effort to find additional 'oil fields, Bolivia began encroach upon Chaco lands controlled by Paraguay. This conclusion is tentative; it needs additional

- research be•’ore St-can be said-to be who3 ly-csonvinc-jnr~-Bnt-- - -. IthedahLe-a -1~rts-kherkffewn-tkeq-C-f h- same extent. - - L. L. -- -

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPROVAL PAGE ii .

ABSTRACT , i i i Chmter - - j - -- I. INTRODUCTION 1 - ' - --

11. BACKGROUND TO THE'CONFLICT 3 Geography The Chaco ~oryal,Paraguay, Bolivia

-- - - Ri=t6rio-tFae to t hg ~haco 6------Early 6 1879 Protocol 10 1887 ~roto36l 12 Uti Possidetis de Jure ' 14 4 1894 Protocol -- 15 1907 Protocol 15 Bolivia Expands in the Chaco 16 1913-21 17 -- Fort i n Sorpresa 18 1927 Protocol 19

-- - - - 3 - - Fe&&f?- VhffgtB& 2 - - pp L9 Military Expansion 20 War and Settlement # 21 / 111. CHACO CAUSATION: PREVIOUSLY INADEQUATELY 'DEFINED Alternative Port ,,Ar' - To The west: Rail Links et a1 24 , Rail Links 24 Political Parties 1 26 / To The East: Santa Cruz de la Sierra ; 27 * Routes 28 -- Geography~andAgriculture 31 History 32 Navigation 36 Cheap Riches ' 38 War of the,Pacific 39

' Miguel SuArez Ar-aila - - - - - 41--- ,-- \ Bolivia. . and the Tacna-Arica Dispute 42 2. ilit.,arv'u RO~Pin theChacoPp-- 46 Paraguay 46 Bolivia 51 History to 1900 5 2-

* -- - Merchants 'of Death * r: 1929 Depression Daniel Salamanca Foreign Imperialism - Argentine Links to Paraguay

- - War of the Txiple-Alliance --_ IV. OIL Analysis -di 1 Previous Theories History 84 b

------World.-'------84 ------,-- - LaF=KAmerica to 1932 . 8 5- -- Bolivia to 1937 86

- 1500-1880 fi - 86 1880-1912 , 1912-16 /

1916-20 ' 1920-37 Critical Decade - .V . CONCLUSIONS

A APPENDICES Tables Maps

GLOSSARY' BIBLIOGRAPHY Population of Bolivia: by ~a~artrnbnt& ~a jor' Centre 129 ,

------Paraguayan Land Sales ,1875-1900 130 *

Bolivia's Silver Exports 1820-1909 d 131

Bolivian/Paraguayan Government Revenue 1855-1930 1'3 2 ------Huanchaca Silver Mine & Anice60 Arce 134

Bolivian & Paraguayan Presidents 188011935 135

Bolivian Ports: Imports and Exports 1918 136 -. Fortines 1662-1932 137

Bo1 iv'ian Tin Production 1897-3935 139 Loans 1908-1934 140 la.*Bolivian - %+ -- Paraguayan Exports 1930 141

- ~olivianOil Concessions 1867-1918 142 --

Bolivian Oil Production 1925-35 145 1. South America ------2 .'Bolivia and ~ara~u'a~"' 147 /- 3. The Chaco Boreal: Geagraphy, Centres

4. Paraguay: 1932 ., 149 *> t * pp ------* - - - 5. ~oliviac 1932 . - 2 150 - . L t - - 6. Protocols 1879'-1894 , $4 Y 151 7. ~blivia's Pacific Coast: 1825*

8. Protocols 1907-1932; %ennonites; Military Expansion 153 - 9. Bolivia's Rail Network: 1868-1925 154 w *

--- --lLPue&aSuuArpa 155 % .* , - 11. Fortines: 1905-1932 156

$*%

t - -%". 12. Oil in Bolivia _ - 157. INTRODUCTION

-- -- The Cham War, 1932-35, was fought- between Bol-iv-la I------A c - - Y- and Paraguay (Map 11, after a long and futile perlod of

/ -- diplomatic negotiations. Elsewhere, the war is a neazly

A-

-- - -- forgotten>lncidtmt Lexcept-for the decade -of-frghtug, _ ------/- 1927-35)--in part,- because Bolivia and Paraguay are two of the least known countries in the world. Chapter I1 presents -%+- the background to the war. - The reasons for the outbreak of full-seal-ar between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 have never.-Been -:A -\* ------addressed satisfactorily in the literature. Historians have.

postulated nine prima y theories, These are: The War of t -.

the Pacific;7 - Bolivia's Search for an Alternative Port;

2. 2.

Y # ' Military Postures; the 'Merchants of Death1; The 1929 Depression; President Daniel Salamanca of Bolivia; Foreign Imperialism; Argentine Links to Paraguay; and The J-7 Exploitation of Oil Fields Along the Periphery of theTKaco \ d- After 1320; Chapter-111 aTGly+~sdnd disca~ds-2s------

--unsatisfactory the first'eight theories. '~heninth is discussed (and discarded) separately, in Chapter IV. . /

The diecudsion of previous theories ik important to - - this thesis beca~sethe Chaco War literature is cluttered - with works,which incorporate at least one of the nine - theari9s named/ above. Few of the theories have substantial / -1 - supporti-ng evidence;. nevertheless, they a,re quoted at- great

Chapter IV incorporates the re$ults of my analysis,+

of the Bolivia-paraguay Chaco dispute: I conclude it by 9 -\ postulating a circumstantial case that the Chaco War occurred

as a resQlt df Bolivian,assertion of its national . - . in oil before 1920--a factor rarely given

I have utilized utilized official -- - and Paraguay, League of Nations -- pfoportion--works by historkans from Bolivia, -Paraguay, the United States, Great Bri'tain,

+ - France, and the U.S.S.R.I

In this paper, the term ."Chaco - Dispute" will be defined as the period leading up to the outbreak of ------i- --d full-scale war in 1932. The term "Chaco War" will denote

hostilities from 1932 to 1935; A ', - - - "..

- - CHAPTER I1 - -

. -. - I -. BACKGROUND TO CONFLICT:

I' GEOGVPEJY AND HISTORY ------. ------A- - - 5 -- - - LC Geoqraphy: The Chaco Boreal, Paraguay, Bolivia

" The zone dismted by Bolivia and Paraguay comprises

- in turn, gave its name to the war which would be fouqht

between the two nations.

The Chaco Boreal (hereafter the Chac& is the -- - northern sector of the Gran Chaco, a geographical regions

------C

which stretches from the Brazilian-Bolivian> - border ?in the , ?< i -- >-:- * - north to Argentina in the south. The chadb Boreal has an La w - <% % - G- area of approximately 300,000 square 1 5 A $= ,;a - shaped like an inverted triang>e. The - I - distance is,about 900 kilornetres. The Paraguay and Y

Pi~cbmayorivers form the Chaco's eastern and southern

boundaries, resp_ee_ctively. Its northern llmit's are deflned * - hy khe low mountainsfiat run from Sant~Cruz t-o0P_uerLo ',.

Suarez; its western--- limits by the foothills that border the - - Bolivian Altiplano in a line running from Villa Montes to ," - - L- L, The Chaco 1s nearly .flat. It gradua-lly rises in a1tlt;de as one moves to the north and west (froan 100 metres '4 - above -sea level at the ~ara~ua~-~ilcoi&~ocon•’ lug~ce to 450 L.

metres- 1.n the extreme north-west corner).The domlnant " * i ~egetat~ibn1s subtropical Eoqest, qlthough large stretches. - --dry - - GrarnalShd. aioand. ~Aacot,emperatures a~& hot in the - *& summer (January daily temperatures are >29OCelsius) and - &hparatlvely cool (July ave ages 18-20•‹C)in the inter.^ -* . b:

-- - Precip~tat1m-i r.-s k1gM7 sez~ma4: sfimmer rairtsL-tktober to --

' March--flood a large part of the land; winter drought--April * f -.

to September--causes the majority of the rivers to dryap.* $ I 4 In ;he winter only a limited Lumber of wells contain drinking . , water. Poisonous snakes, scorpions, and malarial mosquitoes - -. present further problems. Not surprisingly; the thaco has= d the epithet 'Green Hell'.s

/- Neverthel,ess, the Chaco possessed a number of positive features which attracted pioneering groups to the region.

<1though soil depth is limited by the underlying clay base (whlch results in substantial suinmer flooding and a lack af h dater In the winter) the soil ishrich. The Chaco's

graswds can support large cattle herds. Woodpom the 4

------. quebracho tree, found in 'large stands along the western f,-

. ------bank of the Paraguay Rlver16 can be processed to ext-ract 4 . I tannic acid (tannin) for use in the leather tannlng ihdustry, ------+ - or cut into rail ties. Neither precious metals nor othek - 7 - vdl&ble resources ar-e found within its confines. - - 4 . # i At the time of the Chaco War most non-natives

confined their activities to an .approximately one hundr.t*d * .

Kilometre wide strip of land adjacent to the Paraguay: -

- - -- - I River, from Puerto Su,Arez--in Bolivia--in the nirrth, to Asuncib-in Paraguay--in the south; this zone had easy

access to outside markets. In 1927, the Chaco's populatlon

- -- 2 ---

- 4 was estimated at 37,5007 of whom 30,000 were Indlans.

,- - 7 Paragugiy bordered the ~haco,its act-ess only hampered EL I by the Paraguay River. Most of Paraguay's major clt~es, I including Asuncibn--capital, main port, anHrqest city-- were located only a few kilometres from he borders of the 3. //

The northern and western boundaries of the Chaco lle

.. .within the present'borders of Bolivia. However;Bcrl~v~a's

largest population centres.(Table I), with .the exception of

Santa Cruz, lie on the Altiplano*(the 3000-metre-hlgh plain

situated between the main cordilleras of the Andes

,* . ., -- L Mountains), and a;e t&@&fore.. . a long distance from the

- se=------t disputed zone. La Paz, one of two capitals ef ~olivl>, ilee ry -- 4 -- - -- 800 kilometres distant from t3e nearest pojnt of the Chaco;

Cochabamba is over 500 kilometres distaht; Sucre, the other ---- 2 L A - -- A --L ------.------capital, is 400 kilometres away (Map 5). ' '

- P Historic Claims to the Chaco I The origins of the Bolivia-Paraguay Chaco dispute can be tracdback,to 'tre ill-def lned adknistrative divisions -2 ?' i -'d ' of thdSpanish Empire. . --IL

- - t- - I -- I, General Simon Bollvsr decreed "ti ,' *. Pousgdet\ de Jure major administrative ii '7 > 1 div'&ions thdp p.rovide the blueprint of ------

the newly- independent States after the Reydutionary wars."e - The Ib-rger Spapish political entities, which included-- - Audlenclas, Captaicncies General, and Vlceroyal ties, were to form thebasis for the new South American natlonal

\ -- - bounda.rles. Unfortunately, Bolivar had no opportunity to -

- - . e~-f-f~-whe~e~ttese~tt~~ies 4-a~;--at&&-*------entitles of the the Spanish Empire lay frontiers;

In--1558, the Audiencia de Charcas was created as a

polrtical-- and judicial unit of Spanish contra over the important mlnlng district of the Altiplano what is now Bolivia. This area was nominally und,er the control of the -.-& Viceroyalty of Peru, but, in practice, Charcas was considered

_--_tbe-area withinnnp -red. 1~-a of the city nf Ph- (now Sucre; Bolivia). Unfortunately, in the next two and one half centuries the Audienc~'~official - borders were revised

------L ------many times. At one time they included the city of Buenos \

In August 1776 Spain, in recognition of the growing econohic strength of that areaxx created the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. In 1783, Paraguay was transfeired to

------this new entity.12 1; 1785 and 1787, the Audienclas of Buenns - Aires and Cuzco,~respectively,were fashioned from older L Spanish division^.^^ These changes directly affect-ed the

------area comprised by the ~udienciaof Charcae. whCn the - -- -- Spanish Empire broke up after 1810 there could be no

m consensus as to where national boundaries should run. Spaniards from Asuncibn had originally- settled the western banks of the upper Paraguay Rlver and lnland alonq

- t he-niiF€hiri ngesor T3iF ~hiioCOnce~pc10nwasset%hecF~n 1773,14 Fuerte Borbon (now Fuerte Olimpo) in 1792, and Santa Cruz in 1561.x5 After 1810, Paraguayans continued thelr consistant, albeit small-scale, explozltatlon of the fringes of the Chaco bordering the Paraguay River. Bolivla made an early, futile, attempt to settle pioneers alonq the fringes of the Chaco ib the Department- of Santa Cruz, but this area proved unpopular for ~rnmigrationbecause of ~tsisvlation ------and lack of effective transportation. ------

On 15 July '1852 Argentina and paragudy signed the Varela-Derqui Treaty. Article 4 stated that "the Paraguay *

River 'shall belong from bank to bank in full sovere'ignty .D to the Republ ic of Paraguay dow~to the -confluence of the - Paran& ' " . Article 5 guaranteed Paraguay f a-nd-~rgentina) i free access to the Bermejo River (Map 2). Article 12 allowed

Paraguay to build a port on the upper reaches_of_the------Pilcomayo River. This-- treaty precipitated the first -a - diplomatic clash between Paraguay and Bolivia over the Chaco.

Bolivia_protested the three--- clauses- cited :above, but to no-

avail .I6 Both Paraguay 'and Argentina were stronger militarily -- -, than Bol ivia . '\ - In 1854+Paraguayan President car1os'~ntonioLbpez established a "special zonen at Nuevo Burdeos, a site ten kilometres north of Asuncibn on the west bank of the ------J------Paraguay River. French immigration to Nuevo Burdeos (now

Villa ~ayes)-failedin 1855, but it was the first conscious - effo2t by Paraguay to incorporate the Chaco'into the government's sphere of infl~ence.'~

In 1864, The War of the Triple Alliance, which pitted / Paraguay agalnst Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, began. By

its conclusion in 1870- --Paraguay - - had -suffered total defeat; ------~ts-economywas ruined and most of its male population were ------

- dead. Just before the outbreak of war, Balivia had triea to

interest Paraguay ih diplomatic discussicma concerning the . - - -- Ch~co.,After the fighting- -- --began, - however, Bo1iv1.a attempted - to profit from Paraguay's misfortunes.. Under the terms of t the 1865 Treaty of Offensive and Defensive Alliance, signed .- between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, Argentina claimed % all the Chaco. Argentine diplomats privately agreed, however, thataonce Paraguay had been defeated, Bolivia would receive - -

-- - the Chaco from the Berme jo River north as far as Bahia Negra ------

(Map 3). This point was clarified in an Argentine-Bollvian

\ \ treaty signed in 1868. Unfortunately, squabbles between - -- - - Brazil Argentina after 1870 over divxslon of the - --- and Chaeo -. resulted in Bolivi being excluded from a final settlement.1e - - Pr ,

a Paraguay was n t divided amongst-the allies. In 1876 aI Paraguay signed a pehce treaty withaArgen'tina,cedlng to the la/tter the region between tH$'~ilcoma~o and Berrnejo

claims to the region from the Verde River north tbaBahia Negra.19 Under-one of the treaty's clauses, United States

President Rutherford 8. Rayes arbitrated a disputed zpne a

-- -between the Pilcomayo and Verde rivers (Map 3). On 12 s==- November 1878, Hayes ruled in favour of Paraguay dand became a Paraguayan hero) despite objections from Bolivla -- -

concerning the legality of arbitration over landls wh'ose * ownership-had never been determined.=O

-- - - - In November 1875 Paraguay began to sell off government -

------land, inc-ludlng areas in the Chaco, as a means of generating

- revenue prior to the re-establishment ofla sound economy. h

These land sales were halted in 1876, penging the negotiation - - - of a treaty with Argentina, but were resumed again in 1883 -

, (Table 2); land sales did not end until 1900. By this time

mast of '.the easkern Chaco, and a large -percentage.of - - - I ------+ - - - Paraguay's totyl land surface were in the hands of private-- mostly Argentine--investors. The larg*entine investor

was Carlos Casado, who bought ------hectares in the Chac~.~~ -C land sales-. a number of I 1 Puerto Cooper, Puerto Pinasco, Puerto Sastre--had been

established on the west bank of the Paraguay River (Map 4). - , / - - - The 1879 Quijarro-Decoud Protocol

Argentina attempted to seize the Chaco as f dr north as the 1) Otuquis River from Paraguay, as payment for war debts. This - Argent5ne- initiative, together with the 1876 Argentina- Paraguay treaty, moved Bolivia, in 1878, to open formal.

diplomatic negotiations with Paraguay regarding the division - of the Chac~.~~On 15 October 1879 envoys from Bolivia and

--- ablished the boundary betmetwo nations along the

20305' parallel, a boundary which apparently began where the .r

-- - - Apa River met the Parasuay ~iver(Map 6). Paraguay possessed

4 strong de facto claims to the -upper Paraguay '~lverbut lack - of interest, which stemmed from its economic woes after the - , .- - War of the Triple Alliance, caused the nation to give them up. However. fn 1881, just prior to final approval of the

4 draft treaty by the ~ationalCongresses of both countries,

-- - -

Bolivia demandgd changes in the protoco1. ThC major revTsion - demanded would have allowed Bolivia to build-a port on the - Pilcomayo River below the Fsteros de Patiiio,,south of the

------protocal limits. Paragnay was unwilling to make sac* '. - -- d I

' concessions; indeed, because of Bolivia's attitude the ParaguaP ns even refused to ratify the or \ Paraguayan-- belief in the revenue potentia l.of the Chaco also may have played a significant role in their refusal to slgn.

- The revis tcrm~manded-~~d-i+r-i~-~~tf~--~~&e~-----

implemented. In any cve, in 1879 the country becaw # embroiled in a war against Chile. The War of the Pacific, - - which would last until 1883. occurred because large deposits-

of natural- - nitrates--important ingredients In fertilizers ,and gunpowders--in the form of guano and caliche, had been

discovered in Bolivia's Department of Atacama In the area

around Mejillones (guano) in the 1840'9, and Salar de

------Carmen (caliche) in the 1860's (Map 7). These discoveries

------attracted large numbers of Chilean merchants, who gradually

assumed political as well as economic control over the area.

- operations in the area, the Chilean merchants appealed to - - their government. In 1879 Chile declared war on Boliviaaand , \ Peru (which was also affected by Chilean exploitat40n).~~ I , -_ Bolivia was decisively defeated in The War of the - .

Pacific, The nation's loss-of itOepartmentof~Atacama. - - -- whrch in'cluded all its Pacific coastline, was confirmed in

the indefinite truce signed with- Chile in ~pril.1884. Mbre

portantly. the loss of Atacama threatened the mchvemento? ------

,-/ goods- between-- the mines on the Altiplano and the Pacific ports in the Department. To reach the Pacific. ore shipped from the Altiplano mines-%tal to Bol ivia-'s economy

(Table 3; Table 4)--had to cross whqt was now chilean / / , -%-. territory. The losse~in the War of the ~acifiP'; therefore.

- @ 2 . /' weremref mpoTtant to HoIIv%als weltare-than its ambiti'ons in the Chaco. r

The 1887 Tamayo-Aceval Protocol The War of the Pacific focussed Bolivian interest on the country's western border. ~everthe'less,once the' shock of.the loss of the Pacific coastline had dimhished, - \ hlivia re-opened-discussionswith Paraguay on an equitable

i ' - - division o-f the Chaco: ------"I C - -,- - - On 16 ~ebruary-1887the Tamayo-Aceval Protocol was signed.26 Similar to tKe 1879 protocol, this agreemen't.\

1 divided- the Chaco into three sections, one each to be given to Bolivia and Paragu,ay, the third to be arbitrated by the I - - , King of Belgium (Map 6).

Unfortunately, in gate 1887 Paraguayan troopsc stormed Puerto ~acheco--whichhad just been ektablished by

-- -- +-. ------' - J a Bolivian entrepreneur a few kilometrgs south of Bahia - P ; ------Negra--hauled down the Bolivian flag whlch had been raised

i over the town, and declaaed the regi& to be Parag~ayan.~~

------+-- - ", - --A Nonetheless, despite Pa flagrant 'attack, ~&Fivia

raf if ied the protocol in '~overnber1888, but Paraguay ' s Congress, in opposition to the ruling Colorado Party,

violently opposed and therefore rejected the .zs

Over the next seven years, Bolivia continued to push ------for -- - a settrement-- ofTLFChaco dispute, occa=onarlTittl-

the aid of neighbouring South pmerican nations.2g Paraguay, $. - -- for the most part, ignored Bolivia's exreaties. Uti Possidetia de Jure . . -. 9 ' e he failure of the 1887 Protocol, and the resulting animosity between Bolivia and Paraguay, created _

an unusual situation in which both sides in the dcspute ,

-- began to subsidize research into their,-- legal claims in the . Chaco. In 1892 Paraguay published the first work on iCs

-- - legal claims, and soon erlocto2aes -en-Chaco' werecombkg ------

*$ ' ? '~panisharchives for evidence to prcive their government's -- rights over the Chaco. The volume of such writings peaked

fivezyears prior to theoutbreak of war in 1932.

Initially, Bolivia' claims to the Chaco &as based upon i

the formula,-- Uti ~ossidktisde jure; i.e. it derived from the boun6ries of the Audiencia de Charcas. However, the *_

that neither side could prove its case to the satisfacion of r,- -. the dther. Paraguay's claim, instead, lay in possession;

-7- PI Uti Possidetis de facto, rgther than on legal grounds

l (although its historians contihued to comb =chives containing documents on the political divisions of the

Spanish Empire).31 Cecilio BBez, a leading Paraguayan dlplomat and historian and a participant -wnyof the , ------k.------Chaco discussions with Bolivia, stated Paraguay's,-* case simply

in 1904: the country in possession (of the Chaco) -,.

owns it.32 i The 1894 Benitez-Ichazo Protocol S ' In 1\ 94, under Uruguay's guidance, Bolivia again . pressed for abettlement of the Chaco dispute; the result -- i was the ~eni6ez-1chazo~rotocol. This divided the Chaeo - Q - - into two sections, the boundrary running from just abov-e

- -- Fuerte-OIimpo diagonarly to €lie Pilcomayo River (Map-6).73 - - -. - Neither side approved. the protocol: Paraguay because of opposition in Congress and the press; Bolivia because ~ts d

- -- - - PkesGfdent, Mar-iarro-Baptistar, refused to send the flnal dm* - - --=

d to his Congre~s."~'

In the following decade Chaco negotiations would be hampered by political upheaval in Bolivia and Paraquay. Tn - - 1898, Bolivia experienced a bloody golpe when the Liberal

- 1911, ~aragu5yancitizens endured the series of vlclous civil wars, which followed ffom the Liberal Party' "seizure of control control of the government from the Colorado

(Conservative)*regime in 1904.

0 The 1907 Pinilla-Soler Protocol

Despite the political troubles in-both countr.ies, \

-- - blivia continued neg&i&ions-witLParaguay owthe 6 0. on 12 Jamy 1907 the pinilla-Sole Protocol was Y signed. This divided the Chaco in&o two sectlonsi one to -- f 2zzd 'd- i L k- belong to Paraguay, the other to be arbitrated (Map 6).

P-uay-immediately approved the protocol, kmt'Bolivials

Natiorlal Congress hesitated, and before it could-render a

decision, Argentina, whieh was to be the arbitrator, :<. - - . supported Peru's position in a boundary dispute against ' .- - Bolivia. Therefore, Bolivia quickly rejected the proposed F

,agreement. - - - .------

7 Bolivia Expands in the Chaco Bolivia compounded.. tensions with Paraguay over the

-- Ckm f mpf erm-rrti~~q-cr &rniiTw* f ve aeo%s between ------

1905-1911. On 27 December 1905, ostensibly.becaus'e of the

+eat distances betwken the city of Tarija and the, eastern

reaches of the Fonfluence of'the Paraguay and Pilcomayo

rlvers, the Chaco became a self-governing Territorio, with

its oh delegacidn naciona?, separate from the ~eprtmentof

Tarija. The Territory of the Chaco included the region from

Villa Montes 'south-&st to Esteros de ~atifioas well as the -

interior zone of the Chaco. Villa Montes became -the nominal

capital. 36

,r-s On 11 January 1911, Bolivia created the Territorio del

Orlente as an area separate from the Department of Santa - Cruz. The Oriente endosed the area west of and parallel to

------the Paraguay River from ~inMatiaa, nqar the Brazilian border

in the north, to the Pilcomayo River in the south;-and from the'Paraguay River westwgkd to approxlrnatel y t-he 61 ' meridian;. there it bordered the Territory of the Chaco. C =

Puerto Sudrez was the territorial capital. 37 Soon after the establishment of both these territories, Paraguayan

civilians in the Chaco began to run afoul of Bollvian C - ' military units.

> T Despite the failures of of prior protocols,

both countries continued to discuss solutrons to the Chaci)

------problem. On .5 April 1913 their respective diploma't.s signed

the Ayala-Mujia Protocol which voided the terms of the 1907 -- agreement, agreed to maintain the status quo fcJr the next f-'

' two years, and disposed that - if, no final agreement had d occurred by the end of that time, the Chaco disputr would be putb-arbitr&ion,Xr~~t~~c&sto postpone a fjna1 a r h i-t rat ion

were signed by both nations in 1915, 1916, 1917, and 1918. - - i f. Further talks in 1919 and 1921 produced no agreement.'"

\ Save for one occasion, Bolivia was thq aggressor, after 1913, in the penetration of the Chaco. The exce2tlon

was Paraguay's settlement- of two large groups of Mennonites

/ (totalling 3200 men, women, and childi-fen)in %he central

area. The Mennonites-had-chosen Paraguay- on-- the adv~ceof .4 their advance gcouts, and apparently against the winhes of -- the Paraguayan government. The immigrants began neqotlatlons

-- F -- - i

--t-~:~~y-fi-Q-~QfU~hPrtnresland from the casad&company% t *- - - (originally formed by Carlos Casado) in 1921, a-rrived in r"

Paraguay in late, 1926, and settled on their new4 lands in

1927-8 (Map 8).39 h he Mennonites immediately bec'ame a source 0 of irl.ikafi6n between Bolivia and Paraguay, partioula?ly as

the immigrants had settled very close to areas where *"

------Rollvian military incursions h-adoccurred, recently:- t, From 1900 to 1932, Paraguay, .with the aid of -thev% 0

Mennonite settlements and considerable Argentine economic * - - -L -- - -- A- A ------investment. (in land, cat;tle, and' cpebracho industries),

--a consdlidated its eConomic control of the the narrow'strip a* "* A

of lbnd borderipg the iest bank of the Paraguay River. By

1932, investments in land, quebracho, and cattle in the

+ ,>- Chaco totalled perhaps ~Yt50,000,000 (gold pesos ) ; these &

c@ - 7idmtrrerprsttfbed-&kd-&Par-ag1,a~-k&nalr~u~-. - - Narrow gauge privately owned rail networks, perhaps 250,

kllornetres in length (one-third of I?aragua;'s total), moved --

the goods to the Paraguay River transportation network.40

-. . Fortin Sorpresa "s1n the 1920's ~olivlaand Paraguay kearmed their

military forces with new weapons bought in Europe'and North '

~medca.A:' the sdme time, mil*hl:y commartds -k-bokh

nation's efforts to control the Chaco Inevitably ,. militar$, clashes occurred. Most of these skirmishes were ------A- - -&------insignif ;cant, but two, at Fortines Sorpresa and Vanguardla, caused'8erious dyplomatic and polit.ica1 repercussions ------within Bolivia and Paraguay, and dlmost led to war.

On 25 February 1927, a small Paraguayan mll~taryu~~t was captured near Fortin Sorpresa (Map 8, Hap 111.. In the

------ensuing sfruggle,, the -~araguayanofficer In charge was * killed while trying to escape. The Paraguayan gov~rnmen~ 1 immediately protested the Bolivian army's actions, and, for L' the first time, large scare pu5lic demands for miIlrary ------mobilization arose In both countries,41

. The 1927 Gutierrez-Diaz Le6n Protocol. -. After -the Sorpresa incident, '~r~entinawas ail1 r to attract Bolivia and Paraguay back to. theGbarcjalnlncj table 1;

though it was going to develop into full-scale war.42 On I -. 22 April 1927, In Buenos Aires, the two count&s slgnr-d the

~uti~rrez-~ia~Le6n Protocol. Un$ortunately, the dlplornatrc discussions which followed failed miserably, -and Bolivld and

Parsquay were left to contlnue thelr respective pol~c:iesIn -.-. -

C 2 and Paraguay resumed their-explorations, mllitary --- - d eeea&&af ek~hes+,5.- Dc&r 1928, a

large Paraguayan army unit destroyed ort tin Vanguardia, a d - site located justLto the north of Bahia Negra. Bolivia retaliated by overrunning the ~araguayanfortines of.Boquer6n

and Mariscal ,Lbpea f-w-Bolivia and Paraguay, immediately severed diplomatic relations, and war was averted

- -- A - ---A- - - only because the attempt at full-scale mobilization proved a dismal failure iri both cauntrie~.~~Neutral nations, led by

the United States, arranged a ceasefire and-issued an 'f

-- p- - - invitation to Washington, D.C. to resume discussions for a

settlement of the Chaco dispute.

I Military Expansion

By this time it bad grown extremely dfiicu1.t f~r Bollvia add Paraguay *to solve their differences peackfully.

dlplomatie discussions in Washington in 1929, and by the

, a / rapid expansion of Edlivian and Paraguayan military forces, installabions, and communications networks in the Chaco, which .f~lloned.~~ -

-- - 1'930, ~oliviawas forced to suspend secret mohillzatlon plans when Paraguayan cryptographers broke lts

codes and pub1 i~hed-=~esults Lri-local andp international------,

- . .med~a.'~ Despitethis setback, tlolivia pressed on fomdrdl, gradually moving its line of fortines eastward, Qand, more

- - - P - - -

significantly, into the central Chaco (see Chapter ' I 11- Military: Bolivia).

- -- War and Settlement

On 15 June' 1932, a Bolivian mi 1 i tary unl t captured ??ortln Carlos Antonio Lbpez from its Paraguayan garrison.J7

- - This incident touched offpa strP?ng of events whlch 14 ------. 2 -9irectly to war (although Paraguay dld not off lelal ly 'drrlare - war until 10 May 1933 and Bolivia officially acknowledged

--- it). Within a few weeks Beficv~aforces quxekly cmerran a --

section of the Paraguayan front lines. Howcver, Paraquay's / . armed forces, once fully mobillzed, explolfed th5lr -shortcr - C supply lines to push the beeter equipped, but less

effectively led, Bollvian forces back to the footh~llsof

the Andes Mountains. Bolivia was flnally able to stcahll17e

------p-- 1ts military front In June 1935 just to the east of Villa

Yontes and just short of Bolivia's main 011 fl~lds.'""

At this point, on 12 June 1935, concerned neutral

nations were able to impose a ceaseflrr on thr exhaustrd.

' combatants. On 21 July 1938-, after three years of difficult

negotiations-- and a near resumption of hostllltles, ~ol~vld and Paraguay signed a definltlve peace-treaty.4? Paraquay

- 1- - was awarded appraxrrwteiy eigMy percent --of the-~fiaccl - - -

Boreal (Map 8). SFsr.A@ ------* - - - . - -- 1 - 2 22.

------pP

------PP- The Chaco War cost the lives of nearly 100,QOO - - - - P- - * 'soldiers (36,000 Paraguayan and 57,000 Bolivian). The

continual moljilization and expenditures on weapons created - - 7- - - 4 serlous inflation and social dislocations in both ccuntries,

and de-stabilized their political CHAPTER IT1 . - CHACO CAUSATION:

PREVIOUSLY INADEQUATELY DEFINED I The eight theories of Chaco causation analyzed --

beicw are (with the exception of O?l, drsc:usse[l in Chalker t -- - I IV) the important nnes found in the historj (-31 $$+orst lit-r*.

They are prrscnted in an approximate chronr:loijli.nl scacjlrc.nrhr.

Alternative Port

Bolivia recognized from independence on'ward a need for ,-I I / -

major port on the Pilcomayo or Paraguay riv~rsfor the. -

movement of' goods to the ptlantic Ocean. By cr~npl~nent-lnq I pcrts on the Pacific , this ~haco'port wot;ll d redur(~er-onr~n~l r.

pressures being brought to hear by Bzlivia's nelghhours,

As Rain states, "The recent tonf lict in thcb Chd(*n . . . --/- - was directly, caused by Bolivib's search for a ~mrkctn dc,r-ft

habia acariciadc el prdyecto de unir ~1 Oriente bc~l vian no

con el AtlAnti~a."~~ Nrverthelcss, these statements are contradicted by

the fac!ts. After independence, Bolivia's orientation lay

with its western frontiers. The country could not overcome - transportation difficulties on land and the Roor navigability

of rivrrs in the Chacc. Bollvia's government neither

- - - systematically searched,for nor developed a port on the

?drdCJU3~ cr Pilcomayo rivers. Untll as late as 1952

ruccesslvc governments initiated little development in the

------

Dt.lmrt-mcnt of. Santa Cruz and Chaco. Three examples ,G&scussed -

below, illustrate my point.

To The West: Rail Links et a1

~oliv+storica1 western orientation is evident in ------t h fl- r ,l11 -~sten-vhick2mked-theAptinaarr&~e~acif-i~-- -- Cnast, and in the ec~onomic orientation of the political i- -part~c*sin powcLr from 1880 toP1932. - - - ,Rail Links

Prinr to 1900, Bolivia's economic strength'4 lay - - in its silver mines (Table 3); export duties on silver

proxrlded the najority of government revenues. Other

Alnost all this mining activity was centred on the A ------o.

dt sites SUC~as Potosi and Bruru. transportaticn costs for the nov~mentof the ore presented - -

cne of the nation's most severe problems. The m~vcmcntpf

i ore could only be to the west, to ports on the Pacif lc roast

- --as this represented the easiest and cheapest route. z%s an

example, even in the most difficult of times (thr y~,lr-saflr-r

------the War of thd~acif ic Bolivia continued t-o move i ts-min~r.rl1' -

< exports through ports in the west. Only during the Lwrind

1879-1884, when Chile blcrked Rollvian exports t hrc~ilgl-i its -

------. -- old pcrts, was a small tonnage of ore (primarily silvrr)

sent sout-h by mule, on the long and arduous journr-1 t~)tht-

I Argentine port of Rosario de Santa FeS3 (ii long and arfIuo~~%

journey).

9 In 1883, under Conservat iv~Party auspirrhs,

+the pcrts of Antofayasta and Yejilloncs wlth the .;oilb.ht*t-rt

Altiplanc silver mining district (Map 91, Wh~nt h~ r~r*twr~rk

was*completed to-Oruru in 1892 transportat-iyn costs FCJI-

si'lver ere were reduced substantially. Anothrr lirlr*, .j r.31 l-

water network conpleted in 1905, mr~v~dgoods frum La P~Lto

Ycll~con Peru's Paciflc In i-idditicln, ~n 1904 rh~lrb

began construction of a rail lune f rrlh :"r~-lr.d t-z, ki Paz -

tthis- line was-- part - of a final adjustment to the. tr~t(,c~_------pp -

coficluded in April 1884 between Chilc and Eoli~ia).~~

Y Essentially conplete . in 1908, this 1 I nr* oprnf?d up a rni~r-h, .-, ~ . .- . .-. , . .- , A >r7*..-*.,. . - .- -. . . . -.- - . *. ,;,, -.:. .*-, > *:?> ~ r I...... %$* .~ - .j ~ .-* - - ' . ..'I , . , .. . .. - .,L" -r;-;- , *~ -* . .-- . .- . ~-~ ----- ~ -- -, -~~- - - - -~ ------~~ ------~ ~~ .-..F, ,- .a - . . . . .

~ - - ~ ~ - ..-2+ - . - . &. <, ,: -. - - . . - .J \ . ~ -L. . - .--..*

-- shorter and faster route to the Altiplano. By 1911, with the -, "--- - cornplGion. of a line to --Potosi, all major sites on the Altiplano, with the exception of Sucre (which was bypassed

for political rather than financial'reasons) and ~ari-ja,had 'a heen linked. \ - - . -

- - - - - A- -- --LA Therc were few exception to the western orientation of --- 1 the rail network. In 1907, Bolivia began construction of a k- rail line between Uyuni and Villaten. Th$s rail line was -)I

------1 ------Aryrxnt ine inspired. The ~r~entinesconsdr?kted the seckion

fqorn Villazbn to Tupiza, from 1912 to 1925, Bolivia only the --- s~ct~k)nfrcm Uyuhi to T~p~iza.~~ -- The government had plans to build rail lines to other

rcgions, hut with the exception of the stretch to Cochabamba

------(drscuss~dbelow), these did not rnateriali~e.~~

Political Parties. ! The inltiatlon of the rail network occurred under the

aegis of s number of ~ndividuajsin the Conservative Party \ (1884-981. It is not a idence that-three Conservative * Pucsldcnts, of Bolivia--~r+orio Pacheco (1884-81 , Aniceto

Arce ( 1888-921, o FernAndez Alonso (1896-9)--owned;

------large silver mines (~ah1P51, and the fourth--Mariano

------

Baptis= (1892-61, was a lawyer for one of the mine owners. I

(For a complete listing of all Bolivian and Paraguayan . . . the maintenance of &xisting sorial structut-c, the "st~bilization"of the economy, and the expansion of silver through the building of the railwa'y~.~~

The Liberal Party (1899-1920) completed the prdjcct tlf . - linking all the -inip~rt'ant-e~~onnm~rart.as't~f thi-a Xlt iplaTio---. - - -. with the western outlet to the sea. Ironically, the ,l,~bt?r,ils

had come to power as a Federal pzqty--with sut~stantial

their predecessor^.^^

The Liberals' policy decislon were hasp$ on csped~ency.

Bolivia's eronamic strengths in thr dr~cadec,pr-lor- tc~thra I

- - -cZ-kaco -Waslay - w i kh/" n4-:~p3&- UP, :2 t- .& hA~+&f-i G i+ transportation sj-&tem redurcd the c.r:sts c:f pt-odur,t lor, ,ind

as a result strengthened Bolivia's abllity to cumlwt~i'n w the international market. --

/ - 9 -- To The East: Santa Gruz de la Sierra

The early settlers of Santa ~ruzrece~ved enormous land gr#nts and, from that time to the prcs~nt,havp maintained a fzrm of rural aristcc$rdcy ~n v~rt~uali5c~- lation from the rest of the world."*

If propcnents

Cruz--250 kilometres by air iron Surre,

300 kilorne-t~es from Cochabamba, and directly astride thr: - ;- 6 % 3 f' _ -.- 't main route from the Altiplano to the Paraguay River--should- f- . have become an important agricultural and transportation.

centre. Nothing of the scrt occurred. & t Routes b Asider from ports on the Pacific, Bolivian goods had

------thrcc usable routes of access to world trade-3 -- . - unIy pot~ntially -

- - lanes (?lap-2). Spanish explorers and The - - .. . spt t lflr-s 1,ioneered twc; routes between- ~olivia'sAltiplano

c-rc~~c;rdc~~~er tn Tados Santcs, then fol1,owcd down the Marnor6 -2, Rlver to the Amazon River, and the Amazon to the Atlantic

OCL.~+II.The second also began in Cochabamha : j t crossed over

to Santa-Qrut, ran past San Jos6 Robore, and ended at

tlither Galba ~r Corumbd. Ships then carried travellers down

the Pdraguay River to theqantic. Both these routes \ declined in importance after 4776. Instead, most travellers

wentlby a third; more southerly, route to Buenos Aires, via

thp Argent- in^ cities of Salta and TucumAn. After independence

this'route also declined in importance, as movement to the

thrctl natural tracks. The first led from Tarija to Villa

Yontes, the second began- at Sucre and extended to Lagur:illas, the third originated at Cochahamba.and ended on C the pIains near Vallegrande (tc the southwest of Santn ------L

Cru.z).== The centre route was considered the :?asiest for .- -

A- travellers, but after 1900 pclitical considerations (~uc3 was the Conservative seat of government until 1899 and

remained staunchly Conservatiee a•’ter this dnt t? 1 c*c~ns~gndi it . to disuse. @ +. D - --- -

The transportat5or network in the :last had imbrovr3d

very little by 1932. In 1931, Bolivia rornpl~tt*da ~-n,id i

between Cochabarnba and Santa truz, but it was dcslyn~dto ' -- - --

/ - aj d the movement of trcops to the Chacc f rant, ' not 'trl .I li3'

civllian development. In the south th~rrwas only .I sincjlri

425, kilometre road between V~llazhnand Villa Xontr.~,oftrbrt

nut of service because of climatic rondltlon~."~Pt-lot- tcr

f 925 (\.;hen the airline Lloyd A6rer) Bo~,I~.~Idrto w,33 est c*L,L I 5ht~rl

------by two German-Bclivians6? 1 , east-w~sttravel wds e~thr.1- by

foot or by mule; travel was inhibit1.d by thr. sf-c~ett 3000 ri1c.t rra ce J . - 1 cj rad ient between the eastern lowlands and tht-t A1 t lplanr,.

Santa Cruz was tcvelve dal-s by mule from Cuc-hst)drr~G.j"'

(presumably given good tralTelliny wedther); at timcs, th~ 0

mcvement of gccds betkeen the twc: cent rcs w,js c*xt-r-r.ri(*ly

1928, Julian Duguid travelled from Puerto Sudrcz to Sdntd

Cruz and on tn Tarija. On many occasi~ns,hc was shor:kr>d . --- - ),. ),. ~ / , ., h*+,$ 'I.m.. - - - -&I . . . -_ ...... ~>. '* .. , -r; ..:;:~ ------I>' ------' - ,- ' I . -.-. < : . I-:: :1- .:: 1 . &,? . . . ..,-, r . r--,-. - - -- .

i /- .

,' . +pppp------p-. 3 n -- >. -- - ~ -- - ~~ ------~ ------~- -- - - , ~ _ , Lr - - C. , -- 8 . . . by theg5ive ,state 02 the rosds over which fils party . . i travelled, the lack of population in the region, and the f. clhvious false 'designa,t~cjnof 'towns' found on his off,icial

Bolivian maps. San Lorenzo, for example, was described as a

town: 'its poptlldt.ion, he dis'covered consis ed of one family \L

- tot-al ling flve mail c-arrierstravsll jng-- - --

nativ~s."~-

-2 ------R~[-.au%eof the Cllffi~ultroad conditions official: plans -- i > ,. , wc3r-6- drvrloppd tc; tiul,ld a rail system to aid dcvelopmcnt of .

3 the edstern lawlands and to provid~another,outlet frcm , ,, Rc,l 1k7i;3 api3t-t from the Pacific ports. Iturralde, a ~olivian

- St.n,lt:~rdurlng the 1910's and 3_9201s, has provided historians . -

.~ttemptsto ?stablish an eastera rail Ultimately,--

hr:wc-~til-, Pcllivia developed its western transportation network

at the Pxpense of the eastern lowlands; the eastern r?

nt>twot-k was ncver huilt bccapse of high cost estwtes and --,\ - -1 pol it iral ranif

In thpsast, only Cochabamba was linked by rail

------t ?*lap,9) .- An extension of this line ~anta~ruz, to be

'2 cunpl~tedby 1926, vaspbandoned a few kilonetres outside of ' \h ause lack funds. / '/caused by of its large accumulated for~icyndebt, but the - immediate cause of lack of funds, was most 1 ikcl y du~'to the , '

extraordinary prdpcrtion of pub1 ic furads hc ing f unnr 1 1td,

7 into the military (a prccess that had hegun in 1921: sec

Chapter' 111; Military, Bolivia 1 and th; westtarn rai 1 - - - - -

network. "s Cochabanha WCIR r'ai 1 .;pl-vi i.c. bi>c.;rust* of t h~

- - plitical and rhetorical skills of some highly r-elgarr{~d

rtenhers cf Congress ( thrscx ~n~lt~drrla ldtf-.r. ~)~-t-sldent, rlf - - -p

Bslivia, Daniel Salan-nca), the formation of an nff.ihor)t 17f

, , t-he Liberal Party in yo-h.ib3nha--t.he Rcpuhllc.~nP.11-ty (t-111 1nt1i

party from 1920-34- Table 6 1, and the p"ruvt:n r_.:-.:,rlr,rnlc:

~npr:rt.ancg~cf the drCL3's ~.lyric.ulturt~. I, '

-- - - Cl~maLrr,~~nd1k1ca:~^1~rysuw*.2ecI th~+~&Lcrns nf kh~-----~-~

eastern trsnspurtat ian systems. The winter r'llns r.ou 1~1,it # %

tlnes make ~t impcsslble tn travel any~herc.~~Ralrlr r,+u?&

the rivers tc swell, and trav~llersmight havt~tc:

-- -

cvercsne a series cf these natural ohstaclrs. 111 191?, PI

r~illtaryunit on tempcrary duty In 3dnt,i Yr-u~wcjb fc~l-~-r.cjf (J

wait c21cjht rmr~th~ur,til tho roads between Sant~jf'~-u/.~irlrI

Cschabart:lba beeark- passable + 70

--- p- Geoqraphy anTAqricuTture ------0 Santa Cruz sits anld low hllls, on f

3rzlned soil. Yost cf the regxsr, surrsundir~yt-Elr% city i i " . - -- A P ------, of natural grassland and low- arf* large gtretches 'i i, T '! v~*ggbtat1 on. 71 -Thrasc factors. plus the 16%-mtude- ( f+e

ftundrf3d ntrt.rrj5) and moderate precipitation (1250 millimetres . i" , cy~ntril;utrdto a relatively pleasant, if somewhat

- - -- - U

6 The Departmr~taf Santa Cruz contalny sene of the

f 1 r1625t - I 1 land j n the co~intry,I-ivall in9 thr

E i-..lj 1 cz:~ .+I-.rurtd Cochsharnba and the Yungas . Sugar cahe, F. - . . ------c t t r r 1 f n I 1s and fruits grcti abundantly

4 111 rhrl ar~a.~?Cattle bere ralsed in huge herds sn the

-j~.,~\~~l~ir~d~1 Z: thr nnrth .3nd the cast. If ~t were not ?or the

1,5 .)f t rarispot-tatl~n,the Department could theoretical 12

/ +1,1r'. SI~L'~~Jlead rt*s3rli- .r 1 ! Rcllvla's agrirultural needs. d

- thls-aq~-l:-d?zunf d~vkopi~niz-%hanot -6ccu ry-a spa -5% or "ta htsf rlr- LC-;f 1 5krt r.h of the reylon shows. /P

, History. -

Rl. 1 lvIan- r_:ff lcial ~nterestin drveloplng the economic

1~:t~r;t i,~ 1 sf thr. Deprtncnt of ~anta

.I n traced ba:k to the beginnings of the-Republic L -

s.'> I derad? later? in 1836, the first colony

3 ------was establi~hed~~--inthe area of the Otuquis .

-- , ------Rrtv:- (XA'E.' 3)--t=>- Yiguel Luis Olid~n.In 1843 an official 2 r erpeiilti~nsailed down the Pilcomayo River in an attempt to 1 find a route to th+.Atlantic O~can~~.Thf. thrrt* s~~l~ng

ships whieh carried the exploration team wi.rt2 l.~stat t 1);. , - Esteros de Patific--a huge, t.r-1ta.111. ~nnc~~~(ri+kllr~sw.;rml~. A

similar expedition in 1844 also ~ndcdIn f~llur-c:, ,-tl thoutJh

I , ~ncctuyageWlivian inmigrat l:Jn Into t hc area.

and parts east. 78q Concessiorrs to pri vatc cnt rctjrc:rlrbt~rs - suffered the sane fate. For example, ik July 1905, tht., . ~yriculturklproducer was undermined with the completion of t t-hp Yiimr~rf--Ycldci~-Railway (Map 9). The urigifjal railwayz/

was abandoned socn after

- f-,er.,~usf-of th~lack-iif chpital and of sufficient markpts-to -

move. However, when.the rubber

Brazl I ian manufartures and agricultural pr:>ducts tc be b :r~tu:rtcd lrrto the Dfhpartment of Ern>, which was at that tlme , Stjka Cruz' only large external market for ifs n*jrlcultuyal

4 . . . ~APfaster and more rellable rall llnks between - t he a1t lplanc an:? the Pariflc Parts encouraged import-

,it ttjn t>f cheaper gmds adconfirmed Eollvla's deslg------rt,itlr>n as a Pac~f~cstate despite its less of a

Far-1 f ii' --seaboard . ,, 82------

Wht-w L'3 Paz dld nct ccne thfrcugh with its promised

1 Ilne betwren C32habanba and Santa Cruz in the 1920'sra3 -. Cruz; rebellions occurred In 1922 and 1924, the Iattrt- nf

tendencies were so strong that In 1925 Ct-ucchos wcrtUs s~ildto s j ng the Argent ine na t. iona 1 anthcni-- i ndc~r*d,h,rd bt*txrl (-10 I rlgl so frir fifty years, 05

-- During the late 1920's only a \.cry few c.~vi1 t,rn

. ~ - ~ ------~-c - ~ --p---p------p- I)cpartr,wnt of Santa Cruz , and 1.t.s 1c)cat.ior) ;~S!FT-J d,+ t hc. mtjor-

populstion increased very little up to 3932 (Tat)lt. 7).

"Only since the rarly 1950 's Have signif j cant and r:rrrls~\t ;ant- efforts been made to develop the area tSanta Cru~l * econcmical ly. "R7 This nry 1 ~c:t, mow thdn .iny ot hr*r- rbvr cir*r~t.c~,

turn, implies that the yovern,ments wcrr not scrlnuhly

decades after the War cf the Trit7lcl A? 1 ianri., ( 1878-1904

tsgether wit.h an analysis of river conditions y~ar-rtjund. 1.

' ~ssurnethey would be 1itt lc. dif f~rcntin t htt yt%ar-six~twc-t~n

1900 and 1932.a9 --

i - Argentine companies control lrd shipp i rlcJ ut? Lqrl~lIIC~WII - - - t.hc Paraguay Rivel- after the War of the Tr~~plk'A1 1 i.i~~c.c.In \, '. J 1885 there were 8-75 vessels servlcincj the various prts,

river.go Nevertheless, vessels with a dr~ftrjrtl;tt f't- t !I,III t wt,

metres rarely vr-nt ure~dun thc P,j t-.~guayNi vrr-; .il:c:vt>

f I ~UI-F~~f 2. 2 met r(>s f(:r the maximum di-l)th [If w,~lt.1

Asuncibn undpr normal condlt ions. g' Tl~e2.2 rwt r+r f i cj~tr-a

their cargo c,apacity is restrr~ted.~"

onJy be navigated for littlp marc th;in six rn:,r~th:-, of t he

1 imitation for a nat ion depending on an out 1c.t IJ~t llf* tl[)pc.l'

easily undrrsl ood. Puertc Si1;1rr7, r3stah1 i stl(-d ~n 1877, b - failed after the Chaco War."5 Fuet-tr~Qui j,jrrci f 200 k~1otw.trc.5 nclrt h of PIICT~C~SuArr-~7---see -- - MA~10 ) , b111 I t twenty-f i ve years . Intrr, ~n 1900, went into liquidation in 1931.96 Note that 1

Q~lij,ltt ro dabs not apppar in Tdhlr 7, and Purrto Subrez

rf:n.lins only a minor port for the handling of Bolivian goods.

Srmr mtj r- i t imfl t rnf f ic: uses the Par,lguay River-. The

__-_- -- - Rr&< i 1 ian r-1tit.s of CnrurnbA (ten kilometres cast of Puertn

d~pthto pt-ovld~an alternative route for rre exports from

1r)ntj d t.stsncr:; f r:>m -th-e Altiplano and road conditions in

t ht. 1 nw1;lnil.i. Thrss fartot-s, I assump, were known to

Cheap Riches

Tn general, dny offic-ial Bolivian interest in the

nat ion5 fXastet-nlands centred on valuable, easily -, r*st*1-,4c.t abl~,rosourc.es . Thc quinine bcom ( 1840-70 ) in

C,~u~~:~lic:dn(above Lake TiticacaIg7 and Coc:habamba",nd

t h~ I rn( 1880-1 91 2 1 in Acre j n the Department of

------Rcni In northern Rolivia, attracted large numbers of private

lessrr number from Cochabamba ended up in the Benig9). i;r~ve;-nmt-nt: and private inter~stin the east only lasted - until the riches ran out Icpinlnt-1 or thr t rxr-r-i trjry ~,is - - - -

lost (as the Eeni was to Brazil .Ion Thc Dt.p,~rtmc-ntof S.qnt,a

Cruz never enjoyed a similsr economic boom.

(. It is clear that,-7 wlth the except ion of t ht. f>,~st~t-r~ departments, the qucst ion of AC 1-r-. t ouc-ht'ci (!I) 1 y marginally un national [RcJ~ivianl llf~. . . In1

Those. writers whn sup+t t t hca '11 t c.1 n,lt I vtl Port t Itt>ol-y ------

- - -- advance 1 ittl; evidence to pt-nvt? Rnl lvla h,-lrl .I SP t- 1 OIIS .~rlr-l

consistent concern for its cast rt.n lLtrir35 1,) lot t (1 lO32.

its neiyhbours; this vulnerability, it is ,ircjac.c-l, (-1-cAaitr.rl ,111

alternativq was a port on o'ne of thc n,~viyablcr1vr:r~ in - - -

drive to the east; this the~ryprposps that ~oliv~a'% - - conclusion of the War of the Pacific. -

. r,,, possr*ssicsn d 'un port utilisable sur le rlo Paraguay ' repr4g~ntaiten effet pour la Bolivie un imp4ratif ;11~~018Idfter the War of the Parif ~c 1 .Io3

Jns6 Fst: iyarribis, Paraguayan Army Chief of Staff

forr-.t* thc Isnd of which she had been deprlvcd [Atacamal ,

Rn1 I VI ~1 t. h(*n snught: out a cornpensat ic-~n somewhere e 1 se

i A1 thotlcjh th~argument for the P;lt~rnative Port Theory-

i s wc?dk, $<:me PV~~P~T'E~prescntcd In $hat s~ction--that

r7nnl-.~rniny,for instance, the early exploration of Bolivia's *

rji)vr5rnment--ran Gc ust-11 to undermine the War of the Pacific

'I'l~(-t~ry,4 low lcvt~lof government- interest in a Chaco port

rxistc~dprior to th~War of the Pacific; more importantly, a I lri s I nt t>rt.st did ,not increase drdrnat.lcalJy after Rol ivia '

lost ,its Pacif ir ports.

liilack of interest in the qcoafter t-he ~ir

ronrt2rns t-hr activities of Bolivian entrepreneur Miguel i Sm51-t.2 Arana ; the scrond , Rol ivia ' s continuiny interest in

thc Tacna-Arica negotiations between Chile and Perh. In 1079-80 Bolivia lost thc War of th~PaciF~~y.

round 1877 Mi-guel SuArez Arana; ,* trucrfir*, bur It

.* Puerto SuArez , a few ki lometres disLant f r-~ln~t hr Dr.,+,.1 1 l~rl

Y --- t.vwn of CorumbA (Map 101.. lo" Th is port-, which W~S'to st-rwth - -- , as a terminal for the shipment of goods from th~nep~rtmrnt

af Santa Cruz , soon proved uselcss becdusc. the c*hanllc*l whlc.h

the upper Paraguay River wh j ch had the rcclu i s i t I-- l)hycilc7

innundated rmst of the area .loH

\ - from his own government in 1875 , I"" Pa ra.j\~;jy l,j.-+vc rwr-m I xs I IJII

Paraguayan govf2rnmrnt dvspite i ync~rinyits prav 1 so%. dr wS9

wrong: in 1887, as described ins-Chdpter IT, Ptlrdglray

snm~tlme prior-- to 1875) .'I2 Although the evidence is not i

-- -- P.~chr.cr_rwas lost, '~oliuiadid not establish anather purt on ------

t frr* t',r r,trjuay Hlver ur1t.i 1 Puertr: Qui jarro (discussed above) j n

1900. ~t&t:her off ic id 1 Rol ivi an concessions designed to

%t I rr1\1 1 ,)tr* t htb dt.v~ln~mcntof rommuni cations and movement cf

\'\ Rol~viaoff irially signed away ay legal rights to . -

Rnl lvi,~'sally rn the War of the Pacific, never r

it 5 (.l,~irnsto ownership of territory lost in the

rhi l~.As a ronseyuence, Perh became embroiled in

t-onrri~~gdit)lomatic and political dispute with Chile--the

'l?,3rnLl-Ar r (-a Controversy. Right from the beginning Peru and---

rh i 1 t- r~t~c.t>unt~t-trdgr~j~t dif f iuulties in theim atterhpts to - -- -

come tn a consensus on the conditions for a plebiscite in

thc. tli sput i~dtt3rritor-y to determine ownership (an integral

> part of the 1883 peace treaty between Pert5 and Chile), and ------these reheated fail=~ gave hnpr to ~olivi,3, wh ir>h had b~c.11

excluded from the original Tacna-Arica discussions, that it i.

at least one of the Pacific pjrts lost duriritj th~W,+Y of thr~

Parif ic.lI4

-- -- Bolivia's interest in Tacna-Arlca, was puqhrd I ntn tll~

after 1884, but re-emerged wlth t-hr lq04 ,-ldjustn~c.nttr) thc t 1895 treaty. Thc 20 Oct-r,bc.r 1904 Trtlat y ~lfT'r*,ic.t., F't- 1 r.nd\Il 1 l,

' ~ndCommerce provided Bolivia with an ~ndrmni by of

-- opposition. In any event, Chilr~refuscd to "Ztfythe* 13114

treaty further.l17 9 be in(: luded in tGnrjuing Tacrra-Arica conciliation. In -. / * 1921 the J,c!ayut> (which was mc,rlitoriny the discussions) i t-uvnrd down this request, stating that the conditions of the 1 w4 Chi Ira-Rol ~vidtrcaty rxclY ded Bolivia f ram further ~nterf>stin the area.llB

In 3923, the Pnlted States initiated international

s~~tjl~tr-tfor k11ivi,in dPmands for a port on the Pacific

Owan. ~~PSPL~PS~~~KNS i~dividwa& ef f0~f3~(V.S. Secretary - --

{IT St,it,cJ Frdnk Re1 logy, for example), by 1927 these hd

f,11 lt~:l."19 Roth Chilp <~ndPcrh ignored American appeals for

> - syrttlfrt lly f(:r no1 in's c;i~~se.Thc f I nal Chile-Pp~.uaccord in

thr Tacna-Arica dispute was signed on 28 July 1929. It was a '

~IIJ~E,111 (rw t I) Rol lv1'3n hopes, and may explain, in part, the ------

:,c~t~ntr-y ' ci ~ic-tic~ns acjainst Paraguay af trr- 1923.

S1rrc.r. 1910 Rol ~viar~officials have rontinucd

(1 is[-usqic~nswith Chile and per& over this question, Through

1975 .I ntrmbc-1- .>f srhemrs had heen suggested as a solution to

Rulivla's problem'.121 As yet there has been no trilateral

.1!1 t-c.t*nit-nt (Pt=r-Banti Chi I c must both agree on a course of

Rol i\.l,3 has nt-vct- lost sight. of its ulti'mat~,

c)h jwt ive. T~Pnation's diplomatic interest in the Chaco

bt~twt-tbn1879 and 1929 was minute by comparison to its . " '.

------)s " - I nt csrtlst- in t-hc Tacna-Aric-,) discuss ions. I.; 1 t-In r.c,mpirt.s t ltt-. -

ir v. twc) :'lis~~ut~y: 9

"'t'his t her:~is .1 rnLl jot- iwsut-. in 30i r f::r.c.~gr~t.1-1,it rt~t~s ------innredse. That 'the h'ar of the pacific Theory, was &decisive

causal facgor in the events leading to the Chaco War is even

The Military's Role in the Chaco

This t hrory propuses 1-hart the ~c:llvianand Paraguayan +-. ------.I d 311 ltary wpm prlnarily respcnsible for the escalation of

21~~lt,r*rdt ir. t r~risionscvcsr the. C!h;=co to f ull-scale war.

Pr-,~~~~,ric-~:~t

cstt'$1: l I !-,fjmf-r)t. ~$354r.t iny rssscntial ly iprlt.pcndentll- of the 1 .L p:,l~ti..a-l+system :lf 1ts akn country. +

Paraguay

'f @ . . . 5ra lt~vztnt~~rnnIds CO~S~L'LICC~~~~Sfparayuayasl dP VII la Hdyrs, Put'rto Sastre, ~uef-t~~~hsddi. Fuerte f)l~~oy otros Iyl 10s fortines Galph,.uatria. -9L-- . . . - - -% - --- t I PI*: :,r;:mayc: ~arieron nt ros ~PS~C:Shacla los, Fste:-os de qat~iio. . . : . . . Pat-

Parayunyan nllltary aetisns prlor to 1932 helped

:.,,if i+ led to - -Nct the* :-c:ndltlons which war. -- unexpectedly,

8.2 1 ~~~-la>hlutnr~ans na~~tain their coentry's aztivities in

The Rsllvldn hlstorlans' ~nciilctrnent,~fParaguay's

Tarayuay's attack cn Piterto Pacheco in ------;.-';.ad?, at Bahfa ?egra, of Bolivian 1900's--an action whi=.h forced Bolivia to att-~npt

* This is a strzny bil 1 :>f in:?l::tr?c_.~-lt. :ior.,cthd.l:-i,i, , . 1922-3 and a very serious 'civil war ensued. Those arms not

~CJR~i n the f r cjhtlny kerf-' incorporated intc the arsenal oaf,

the r~rrwdforces. Iz7= Paraguay's t-11I-'- ltary actions,at i' V,lrtg~i~jrd 1 ,I wrrr. t hr: rc*sult cf local frustration; the attack "

cjl1 . The gtA;v~rnnt-ant::f Porc3gucrl. d1d riot :-r<,ic:t tc;

Rollvra's show nf str~ngthin the Chacn until the mid 1320's.

(3:1 IT ?l~tjitst 1924, Pr-c.sident Luis Risrt reel-cjAnircd his .

c?~:-tv-t1i:n of ex-Lihlte Russian General Juan ~a1ieff.l~~.In L B 1925, President Eliyio Ayala rontinued Riart's ~enrnkrk,France, and Crc

Faraguayan response; Eny lish notr-(3 t h.jt PL~ra~t~~i~ay~,t.LO!. 1 (I - - F'ranr*t* 22 Scptrirtbcr 1927 where he was completing additional ufficer training] . . . I ould'verify directly the almost

P d c.onrplete dhsence of all kinds' of preparations fcr the defence

rjf the Ch;lc:o , . , nxaO Luis Vitt~nel~~and Antonio

wrnt r. c!xr:r=l lrwt historical works afterwards on their

r cllirl! t y'r, t~ffrirtsh~fnr(* and during the Char.<: War. None

c~ft hc thren was necessarily trying to deflect blame onto

- - - - - L - - ." EIII 1 L 1,j ; tat I,t hey WPI-P displeased with the response of

hot h the Paraguayan government and of the military high

t,llrrtru.)r~d t rl Rr:l i.irinn expanslc:n ln the Chaco between 1921-1932.

Othrr Paraguayan%, Angel Rios for disagree with

' % TPI-tazn'.y, Parayuayan doubts concerning the nation's

m1 1 I t .31-y ~-apabi1 I t y a re ~~iggestedin the 1921 Chi le-Paraguay

~r-r~sagreement-: thicj treaty included a proviso that Chile

------1 LitFvr was pttt+ckod by 801ivia .Ia4

Tht. t-v1drnc.e t~l-f~scntcdby Bol ivlan historians to

substantiate the theory that the Paraguayan armed forces - -

I kt8t-v t~spt>nsiblcfur the Chaco War- is flawed. Before 1925 ------z Paraguay's military remained fragment-bd and dlsoryanixcd;

- after 1925 its artivities in the Chapo were rcstraincd by gnvernrnent decisicns. This conrlusion i s rrx-i nfor-c-t-d. by evidence concerning Bolivia's military that will bt. ' pr~sentedin the fa1 Iowj ng scrt ~r~n.

bruta . . "Iu7; with Rol ivian. authors wh(o vlrw it 9 . n I.' -

Rrll ivia'r-; army is partly to blame for the ensuing r- 8 c.r,r~f-l it;t . h'rvert-helrss, I shall argue that its activities,

~~.rrt.lr..ul;~rlythe last act in the Zhaco drama, were for the ,

r LI,~rt the. r-cnsult I-:f pc;l ltiral dccisjons. A brief history

-- rrf t hr Bo 1 .rvi,~n~+rnrd forces rlearly demonstrates this. ------

The War c)f thrl Paclflr: discredltcd thc Bolivian - - - -

estcibllshi.d a new Yilitary College in Sucre In 1891.150 In

t trr: I,*! rn 1880's the army received small arms and artillery a, - frrin~ft-r~rn thc German flrm of h'rupp to replace the substantial

I ris~t.~I nrut-rrd clur ing t.hp War of the Pacific . Despite

P I 1.(Sonditicns were littlc different from the ~~t-t~v1~11sdecnd~ when there had been no 3bl it-ian military

t c5slx;nht> t-ij P~~rC>ijrlayc~nforc.r~sl assault on Puerto Facheco inL

10871. Dunkrrley st~trsthat on several occasions Perh was

T~P1898-9 ::anFalyn In Acre dramatically demonstrated the Bolivian army's in~ffcct ivcncss. Thc Dtbp,3r mt*nt afi Fvnl contained some df the-richest rubbrr- produclnrj at.c.3~in the- world. In the late 1890's Fr-,3zi 1 ian '2nd Prrt~vl~lr~

I entrepreneurs, who made up the majority (I•’ the kwpul,it ion

latter asked their government fcr- mi 1 i t.31-y a ld, ,trlcl c,tr~t),+ small Bolivian unit P c;$nt to the f r-ont.. 'rtlrh II:~Itc, ,-i:-s.::rilpl l~,he.:'l lit t 16. r,thp shcl-t t ~rrc*t Ilrbj wcX~.rbit (11 1011~~~11 II the north, ttiing outnurnber~dand outf:)~~(jht- ; titi. \c,ltl 1 t-l-.t

supported the 1,; brral r;lusr_. (most c:f t hc. c,! 1.1). tl'id \~rylljor-t t.rl ------A- --A ------

Aft.cr 1900, new barracks, schoc~ls,and arms replaced

P ryui~mcnt long obsolete. There was a semi-successful 1 ~~t-tmy~'t-o crlrr~ll Quechua and AymarA Indians into the Erj rr*r. An w.ldemia cle Guerr-a and in tendencoeneral de - ' 1-cst-ah1 1 shed, rtnd the Colegio ~ilitarmoved to

- - - -- LAPaz from Oruru. Five military zones were created: La Paz,

o t I -hi, Pot.osl -Chuqui saca , Tari jci-Santa Cruz-Renr ,,

~+ndt hc nst-t..h-western colonies .155 *

r-clnt inurid to improve the armed forces. The Estado Mayor

c;c'/)r.1.,3 1 WSS ri-~;3tc1d, ronscrlpt ion was legislated in 1907,

I-LJ 11.5 gi~vet-ningret i rernpnt and promot ion were redrawn, a

Germ.3n rheapons wrre acquired in 1907 (again from Krupp).

In 1905 Yluntes gave a four-year [:ontract t-o General

! 1 ltt'5. I q7 An uf fic ial German mission, contracted by Mcntes '

,- when he was Bolivia's Ambassador to Germany, replaad tk

Frr-nr-h ~rt1911. The mission returned to Germany in 1914 when war brcke out in EU~C~C,~~"hdl-in9 improvcd some. dspects of

Bolivia's military structure,

The greatest changes during thc pel-lud 1900-20 ,~~.c~sr

I f rnm the policy, pushed ~nergetically by. M[-)rites, of

garrisoning Bolivia ' s out lying rexjiclns. lg" Fc)l-t inrls- wt.1-th - 2 ----

established in a number of areas in eastern Holicr~,l .J

-% (Tahlr 8) . The greatest r.onct3ntrat iun

although smaller numbers lay along the Pt~r-uv~,ln~n13 Rt-,lrll l,ln - -

'*. For-tines wi3re not a new concept. Clevrln nrjtc.5 t htlt

Pilczmayc, River during the 1880 ' s as gr~vnr-nrwntr1pprovc413

Rr:l ivian explorations ofY.hat are,j wet-I. r'd~.r-lrhdrlut -

(Table 12),16' - --

-- east--was nz'n-existsnt ; was t3.1 weak t rj 'JIA.~ rd t hr. CIS -frontiers------well as th ma or Wtltipianu crntrrs- in addition, many of the colonization projectsthe army was

supposf~dt.t~ pr-otc~thad not materia 1 ized . However, the yr>vt..rnment i:h.~r~ye~to the military structure outlined above

fl,?lt,rsd t hih deelin~.Aftcr 1995 the strcnyth of the military

dnd numkwr of fort ines steadily increased.

The government c-ontrol led this initial Bolivian

n;~1 i tary penetration of the Chaco. For instance, in 1912,

--- - wtwn the hnrrn+~jc 6%qxx+~- ti* tft Paraguay becane se-F~OUSr < v . . . por consiguiente las relaciones diplomaticas sf. pusi~t-vr~vidriosas y era prcciso tomar medidas de :-at.Jt.t~rrnilitar. El preside-nte Villazdn resolvib fluvr,, en previhion dc futuros acgntecimientos enviar ,+lyiinos cderpos de linea a las fronteras del Orkente 1, di.1 ~udc&r? . .163

This gran';m ose plan evlporated at the outbreak of h~~rI tl w,~F'L,T~~ army rc~main'ed a small f~t-ce(approximately -1.._ -- 2900 offic~rsand men)164 used for internal police duty

Tn 1920 there was another go the ~epublicarn- -...- -a- _ I _ 'b- d

~aavedr'3 (1920-5) briefly set up a 'Republican Guard'16" * .9 - - tt: cm%nt.erarmy inf lttertce OR the palit~escf the nation. - In 1921, Saavedra elevated C,olnnel Hans fiandt to t hta

E rank &f 6~ner-a1 and handcd him thc. ~~c~stof Cc?mmandt-r- in- d \ Chief of the Bol ivian Armed Fnrr-+c-s. Ih'undt had hr*,rldt>d t h~

------oriyinal German military nilbsicn of 103 1-4, 11r.forc. '. re.turning to his home cr~untryeo fight in thi- C;rtx~t-.. War. &-

" Whif e commanding varlous unlts on thr ~~1str-t-11 f t-clrrt 11,. r*cl\ts

- to the rank of ,Brigadier-Gencral. In 1919 hc> t-~ttlr-nrrl t r,

trusted fe3w c>f his hjrjh-ranking off icc.1 s.

--- of the Repuh11::an Party prior tn 1930, and aid rkr-!t ~~bv7rr~ly ------SL~C>S(who remained in office to 1930). In turn, Siles was

ahl e tc, ,+1q)ca~~thc major facticns within the military after

thc d~~pirturcof Kundt to Germany.17*

S~jr.r-rhs!iiveBol i vian gnvc

estahl~shrdrji3,ils for the mi litary. In the Chaca the army +

- - - - ccrltinued its c2xploration and cxpansicn to the south and

rb;l.rit- Tnit'lally the fortines were built farther and futher

c3i;wrl t hc Pi 1 (.clrwyu and Paraguay rivers, as t-he army explorers

- - - - fullowt?d the two natural communication routes. The trackless

<111(1 1rnknc:wn Chaco hrartland was ignored for the time being.

Thcx 5f.C'6Jnd phase of Bolivian fortin construction

c,t.t.urz-~cl i n t-hc midst of the 1922-3 ~ara~ua~ancivil war. I'

P .I r-n3 f I-om Vir-kers; Ltd. , of Lordon, suff icicnt to re-equip

thp army- tutally with modern weapons, i?cluding armoured

fight vehiclcs dnd airc-raft-. The apprr;ximately •’1,800,000

xeyulred to pay for the sc+~~-lsitions-wassiphone& off -

f r-cm t1u2 1927 Billan, RPAdlca~Axdxl~iI-flLLT3 Fel I mann

Selardr suggests the weapons 'were bought in the wake of the .

clash at S~rpresa'~~(Chapter 111, hut in fact the &a1 had Nevertheless, before 1928 Silt~sand his m~lit,iry

I -- -< ------relations with Chile (as a result of R011x'i;-1'1-, t'xr*l~lcl~trrl

st511 remains (30nfLIS~:~. What -1s kn:iwn i :I3 I n I 5 t 11'4 t

------t hirt Siles knew nothl of the att

the document^.^'^ Aftrr TWO, how&ir~r, t:uEsirl tf;~:,v~.r,31]

mi 1 itary budyet fr;rcrd ~-t*di~c:tlc:ris lri t hf* s i /c' ',f fr,rr.r.s

- - - stationed in the Cha~o.~~~ I

-2 Tn 193.0 S> lrs tried Po prolong his ,term of off ice. - , . - * , + .* The army (minus Kundt ar3 several other high ra -- '--- r,filr.rbr:>1 irrlmediately stepped in, arrested ~ileiand 'the 3 - other persons involved,--. formed a Military Junta: and' PSI ,it~li ~;h~d a' sivj.3 ian coal ition party to elect a new leader.

------In,1 C)?l Danir:l ~a-liimanr:a was proclaimed president, and.. -

- -- - in.1929,-bl-~$ereg the three-- Comte- - - - - S~it7erland.~~~During its period of rule, fhc rnllitary neither bought weapons nor 9 * dr-Lmclt5 &a11 y r-~x~ilrltxli,ts presence in thoe Chaco. Salaman~a' s

cjovr~rnm"rnt,Ln .Tune f 932, requisitioned for Bolivia ' s Cuerpo * I

dc Avidcibn th~oritire transpcrt fleet cf Lloyd A6f-eo - 8 I ------Rn 1 iviano, \in~1 uding four Junkers F 13Lsr three ~unkers

r W .>4s, ,~rtdt hrtsc Junkers Ju 52/3m heavy transports; the I e

I;lttt>r had bc~nbought just months before the outbreak of . - .rSPI . war.1g' Yi! nrw fortlncs were built during nilitary'rule

One small prublrm remains. The relationship between

'44 Z . f- (brgnn, as stated above, by two Gernqn-born ~oyns1. and ------iv ------the rn~llt~tr-yhas never ken clarified. It is pcssible thtat

General Kundt , when -he travelled to Germany in -1926 and 1929, - -- - -T II . C I * th~rChacn War bear more res1x:nsi hil i t y for th,. in i t lcit ion of

d - - - --P. the war than the growing confidence of th~army; thq-wr t t -'

];.C ~~SCUSSC*~more f11 ri the sr~ction c.nt it Itbd "n;ttlitbI - - Salarianca".ls3 The a till l<>ok~dto th~Plol~vl~.tn

------president for di 1-ectjon. Mope impcrT-tant I y, thr army had --

-spl lt into a nwh*cl.r of factions, rac*h sc t-arn'tll Lntj for

weakened military rftorts on Ro171vl,l's Fr-rlnt 1t.t

Merchants of Death---. .

- that int.~rnati anal ;+rns'mc-~-r:liar~ts ,lnd t hrsi r ,it-jc.r~t s h(:lil_jttt t t>

tn sel 1 mcrr wpaprls tr: hc>th 51463s.

. . . they ha\.? made- toehniccfil 1 y jm'-,ili~lr* c'cbt-t ,I ~rt wars (not

------Sehneider, Krupp, C.urtIss-Wr-I yht , BuPurit , I . 1 . 1 (:kkf.t-,

- .- anh a host of smaller,firms) . A -nuhbf:r of th~rc*f~ ;-n~,5.1 1;i -. . . . --

A weapns tr~Goth -. sid~s lr! ihe 1920'5

~~ve~-dlothrr~ sold equipment through

The 'gerchants of Death' prolonged tho Chaco War--it ,

J s dtjiil~tful I f chit h~r-Paraguay or Bol ivia cc'uld have ------

sustain~dthr war p3st I~Sfirst yeair without the

mr~i_lnartimctisefft;rtr-, of nunprous nqinns eager tc yet around

- , - --- tht> informal -League sf Nations arms AS an- - - -- 3 tl, t,hc C/i.chr:s 1:_:vdkiarl ,yovcrnment provided the end-use

dr~c.iln~t.nts nf~rsdrdby its ZPt-:s jnvks Brnr.) Vatlc~nal Enterpr'ise .I

f.3c.t ct:t-1, t c9 i*sport sm;=l 1 arms ,to--Rclivia, fr6m 1932 to

1(1?4, I"q ~ndthe Frrnch aircraft firn of Pctez probably = -- d 1ic;l l)tdcl P,II,.I~U.I~t o ct:t.a111sevrn Poter 25 ' s from t hr

------govfit-rlrnr5nt of Estonia In 1933. J 4 - 0 TI),; 'Arms' P/Ierr:hants ' were wi 1 1 inq servant s of Rc E ivia

,+r~tlP,~t-dyuly. This conclusion clearly emerges from the

\ Cr->nunittee Investigating the Munitions Industry of 1934-6-- c.clrnmonly known as the Nye Committee from the name cf the

. sfmator chairing the lnvestlyation, Gerald Nye. ------

------Tht* Sye ~omrnlt%ec spent tw; years rsp%riny the

cornplexitles of international arms sales and produced

* -- ~itq~r.dsirnat.ely,IF?, On0 pag~sof testimony and dccumentation. Lhp?z, wrs a silent partner in Wekh d Ashton iarl lmpr7p4rt f LrrI

run Ly t&c: Rrlt ish cit.l~ens,+nil b;jstd 111 I,.+ Wt.l>t:- ,trd

Ashton was, in turn, the Bolivian afjr~ntf~jr Curtlss-Wrlyht,

whlch rvas then in the l:r:_)ues.j .c?f sel 1lncj ;t 1,1rt~crl~irhcr t3f

- -

alrcraft to Bolivia. The Lb~jez-Webb-Aslitc>rktr-tu~tv~rdt'e kds f= 311t?c:~eh by Centrals Kundt dnd RllbL):i, whu sulll~:~t c*cl PIIL t tbtl

A~;.::raft ,leeThere 1s n:;. lnrr ~ri~nat1 ncj 1~6~1dt~n:'t\which ~;h:)wl?

------> - --

t h.3 t f he arms i.r.lnt:fd:.tllt tJr ; hill iw\hr*il PI ~JII.:ti. 01

Bol i17td int~war. The m:~'r~hrxr~;:I€ ttl~,-:~rrln~t krbr~ w 'tr, C,*.,~tIII~I'J

in2ustr-y, but tki~irflnal repart '4tt.t~htb5 11:) iil,irvr- f ,t *=

Yore importantly, histori,ir,s h.rivr* f.41 1 t.:l t :) (.st .thl iljll i

W,jr c The isrit is r 1 y i I ? t y I f I t r.,trl t)(# J

shswn that their efforts to -pr:svldr. ,irns t r, P,i r,rg~i.iy,;r~:.l

RcJ'~rtia bent beycnd wh,+t f.lt hct nat, ~c;n wdnt c.d, it hctt t 1,r- .it 1'1%

firns pravided the funds- tu buy thnse we,~prir:h, r tit t t~r.

in the Xi-F;. Cr-nnittee nor anywhere e 1.;c. havr~ I ri~~1'5t ; 1j.i t.11 rs

found .11 1 thr-ee ccrrd~t ~t:r,s~tr~sent. in the* C~~C'O(13 <,t;tit~.

Yuch of the criticism sf thc .lrris nr?r::hdrlts 7jrr.w :3tut

P .c , < ;i3

I - ~ - - - nf- ~-WW+~-,~1imrrs-~1gs1n~~-~~~indlscriminateselling of

I wpapons by a mall, but very powerful, arms manufacturing'

(-jrutl~\--,li drd by pr~l it lc i,3ns, hankers, and other interest I I

":c~vt~~-tht.1 c.ss, hi storisns should ~IPscclpt j cal cf the evidence

~js~zrr*\~ntcrl; unfortuaately, it is ton distorted,

arns f lrms to :>;Ic of his- South American-bdsed agents, given .. .t~,fstf I I~~;III~I= I 11 thr~?r'y~ Cclrnrnl t t~eir~v~..st ~qatiun strengthens

1929 Depression eccnonlc conditions priar to 1935, but ~n Sof ivia t.hrec

clne expork prsduct, tin, whos~vdlu:~ was rt>nk~.oll~*dby tt]~

f l~~c.t-i~ati~ns of an internat i ~lr~alru,-lrhrlt ; t ht~~nfus ior~

export in Bolivia; by the

4 QI. p~-:s\rided CJX~PI- s~v-tintypc rc:c.nt. i-jf gr~vc~r.nr:tt~rtf.t-(B\rf>rttttA% 9

, (Table 9) . The 1929 Depressic:n st r-11:-.i; i 1:-i.:i i t1:1[1!it ry lha-it-:.i, f4;-I)&,q ~C;~;,&X,-OL~~~~P~rtrltrr~rtr~rfirin 1977, 1928, and

19?2 ,in4 the country was having great difficulty making any -

6, off 11.1~l t?~pefid~tur~s;~~Tn an effort to offset these ------@

# T a 1 I y, hob~v~r,thc depression on1 y aggrilvated a

Daniel Salamanca

. . . Salamancd began to give ncre and more of his attmrt~nntc th- &am tttrr+cr qtresticm, w:ti~k+--- D 2s easily soluble w~thfirm righteous stands . . . MP huilt up thr army . . . at the expense of every other yovrrnmcnt service. He also pushed the army into an rver morP esp3nsive . . . program in the €*am+ -- ., . . at this pk>int Salamsnca decided to break with % tr3gl:sa ?el senor Salarndn~a'"~~, and Pol ~vlansdt-th ~?plt t,

.\7pr' t he qutast IcrI :;.f S,?! <3r!,irrc*,-l's g111 11 . Ftll lnann \'(*I ,r rdt.

wr~tethat Salx1ancd cill~wcdthe 1111l~tcl~-yta C~LL~~L_L~Crrl~ll~ll - - --- LJ, f*\,dc.rrt ,&r-rnando Silcs, who, as Galarra stated, kept the

p;11 t.lc.,j l and pub1 ic opposition quiet about dornestrc piicy h

1930 Siles .(:a1l{-d :-:ut.the reserve? against Parayuay.'06 He

H~st::t.i,rrls whc: hcld this theory f~rustheir dttent~on

rLrl t ht. f,%r*l tt~itthe many foreign firms in the important ------

I r f I r r rail way const rurticn, and loans (oi1 wi 11 3

th~tthe fbrcign firms f~spondt+dto aeclining economic ' I,

- -

Atfacks an 'For~?iynImperialism' as a factor in the

and suggested that American (and other foreign) companies r-r-rdted a situatron that forced Bolivia tofight a war s$ L *= --- the country could pay off Americanfinancial obliqati~na.~~~ Paraguayan authors, loo~in~suspiciously at American resource-bas'ed investments in Bolivia, have concurred with this analysis. Pedro ~iancio*talkedof the " . . . intereses del capitalism0 . . .w20e Foreign authors have also suggested that foreign interests may havekntrolled the .

------olitics in Bolivia. "Bolivia, controlled by Anlerican utlet to the sea for her oil and tin.w2os I. Korabl which he identifies

------

as foreign investors aligned with the local bourgeoise of L: some complic~tyfor the Chaco War, and concludes that U.S. 'Monopolies' used the Chaco War to increase their economic / klbyd.2lO dominance of Bo k

. minerals, rail, ,and other major industries dated from - -before the turn of the century, In the 192Q's, attracted hy low labour costs and encouraged by the advice of the U.S. State Department, American companies,began to invest heavily in Bolivia. By 1931 American, capital controlled much of Bolivia's export pr09tion~~~(in large part because Simon Patifio, the largest tin producer in

1 - Bolivia and owner of many other companies there and abroad, i ------

registered his enormous holdings in Delaware in 1924212)./: , American investments totalled mdre than $100,000,000. -. - -- e Rtd

On(& 3 x f he concentratkn of major Eolivian industries in

L Arnr*rir

stated t hdt the Amerlcan iendlny institution would receive ------

i t s piyrnr*nt s out of c_lc:t.~rnmrnt rc.vrnues TIrst ; to ensure

thlf-;, c-rsntr-ol over the c011ection ~f taxes and ~ts

th,rt fr)relyn :-:lricrrns with large investments ~n Bcl iv~a i

O 1 t t curtI ti .?r F~:reiqn" ( i .e. "American"

rktAq.at IVP situiit ion, but for that. Charo War thp cvidt-ncc fur

3 1 n R 1 via srrms only to hav.e heightened tensions

1 rl, Lt n.i t I r)rl dlrcsdy un the k:rink of war.' The actions of * \

- IV, ~~r-i~\.lrfrr\-idcnr..t.. for this ccnclusion. ------

This thecry--a suh-thcrne of the Foreign Imperialism

thes15~-states that L$rgontlna was behind Paraguay's . ultimately ~r~entlnaescalated thc' dlplomat ic dispute into , A

.\ whlch was about to for -a'por.t narkets ,tgalnst \ ,

'\ .qrgcntina 's ai 1 prndurt lcn. \ . "

L ( 1921-5 ) tried to cr~unterChlrj Ar-

inadvertently strayed ints Argentin:. ,IL~-spar-P."* Tn 1'7.21, x -. / :riflut~rwt~:>n the start ctf the Chaco Har. So historian . . - - B

~-~ - - -:;l&JsL i>t-:;\.:

L THE EARLY f3JSCOVERY OF 011, IN BOLIVIA -

Analysis , A 4 -

rb~r.rltc, wh irh rlrlrnl natcd in the'Cbr-c: War. Yr~tcrthel~ss, the ,

.ins 1 ysi .; tlr-t?spntt.d ~rtChaytrr 111,

d I scus.sic>n Ilrt ~,t-oto;.~>ls In Chapter TI, dccs provide * .i~l,jgf-stivedr-vir-knnc that the early -discovery and

t887 prc~tor~ols,both of which Paraguay rejected, and the

~ldntry ' tc:-e~tan-e sf the principle of drplomatlc

- % t t s kl.t";..l;is~ cf the :npsrtdnr~ of the Chacc larids Ba1 ivia's political centrps were a cnnsidcr.~hlt-~ (1 ~stanrrf I-tm ,

terms rjf the !3bl ivia-Parag~ay char.::, disl.'btt-, t;::rnt~rs-,.:-1,!'f t-r.y , * iC;lf .'31 In f~ict,2han9,jes i:~ the Rol ivl,tn-P,i:-.ii.j~;.-~y,u~

- > h'2:js::n bclie\~r>sneajly settled thr. dispvt-cj .~rlrf t.h,tt !.if -l..?. . - ~-- -~ rn % I2 1906 there had been najsr ail disc b7& ~jlfjrir~t-k:f' ------. . - 7------fringes of th'e Gc! it ia;~?hack;. - TI;c< f:~~~innpnrj.i.~;f Hc:l j L. i ,jrl - . Ey this time [I3001 the Chaco dispute had taken, on all the cha~acteristicsthat prevailed until th~-outbreakof war in 1932."33

W,*rren is correct in assuming that thc ccnditions, , / L wh~chcfirec.tly rj'tve risfl to war arose much rardicr tihan is- * g~.rle,r-llly ht.1 zr2ved ttul , he is on1 y rartly ccrrect in

at.jst~mir~ythat .=ill the elehents responsible for the Cbaco War

- ---- in ~)l~tc.f~by 1900. Historians have 'cjener.llly focussed on

a n11nLer c~f far.,tors which became h'ighly visibl-e iin the

'C to rrjnf 1 LC-tin 1937 began relativmly insignificantly in' the i *

- :Yinyun 1llm~enr~~4~az,iduo'tim_doAn_ta- - - - - LJ~Ifim ica y dc tantas c3pinioncs cncont ra'das anttA, durante y clespu4s de la yuerra [del Chacol :.(:no ct pc~t-rEleo.'~"

> e ThPsc y~fds,written in 1922, echo the thcucjhts of the

gl~.rnby to thr Gational Congress in 1921: "kl aparecer en. thc~pT&IC do TI&, has czmf~nurd3-0 thcyr~~cylt-clay: ~n the

c:i l have appeared. '37 Thcbr;f2 pcy hl*i t cxrs h,\lr~ldcv~l nprd tht*i 1-, . - - L --q themes based upon works first pub11shr~'d 111 the 1920's 'tn(3

1920'~.'~~In additi.2n, articles discussing oi 1 ~n Roli'v~s

llmits of the Chavo.

~r6viousTheories

Hlstor-ians haw. sill lt t%h~3 1 l-t-nr-oru]~~~~.~~: r;q

lnto a number of thenes. TJIZ naj=r rubr-~rtc.ue:_ E

.<81 -. The general nanifestations of Fo c lrjn II'IEJ~>I:I+.A1rw1 h.~vt* i

. - t(3; this ther;rl;, Sr;l ivia was fcrcft8 t f i;jFlf TT~~',~C~UJ~~~:?~:~.-

I . . >large, unnamed, fnrriy;~:3i 1 c:,nparlies could i.rotrl:t ~helr --'

investnents arid cc-r!~f.lt f rc3r1 vd l i~;ll::?o r,.sc,lj'f-i-c>li'f,:-) f;(, r.rr.atcc3 thf. situation in th'e *Chaco for their own gain came

3 . . 1 I fi-r:rn thr. Bolivian l~ft,from artic'les published

I <~ftrrthr war. ". . . the ~61ivian .left had, after the

rftlft~.it, 1 cjkt.rt 1111 the 5t-c.x-y apparently begun in Paraguay that

Stsnd.jt-d f~il.had sorzehclw forced Bolivia to go t~ war with- - - - - \ I

------, Pt-op:rn~nts rlf the Standard 011 theory, a msre . -

ct,.trt:I,-trd nil wa; behind Rolivla's efforts to expand. in the . . o 7'h~s11(11 ~rfstems from the r.ornpanyrs efforts tc:

- St,irldar-:l !ill and Royal Datch Shell forced Bolivia and* a

I-: f ,i 5t~nselr-sswar st the cnnd of which the . - A -- . . . de 1932 a 1935, uns nuevtlc-ia petrolera rntre grandrs rrnpresas not-ti-,imt71-1c-an,3.i y brltanicas sobre el detnnantrl [It- un .3nt i 911~' 1 L t ~r.1 11' dl- f ronreras . - (>nt;r-t. Fk-1 I 1.1 ,, y P,31.clf~ll,l)*. . . 7 -1 -l

Some B::~li\~ianaut h~r-s have simp1 .~f1r.d t hr. st r.tli)g l th.

Fellpdnn Vt-:lnr-de hlancs Royal ~utc-hShc.1 1, r.l,ilt~inqth~s

company was behlnd F'nragua~' s mi I r t,i t-y .ic: t LL'L t ley ~itti~~

Chaco in 1927-8 ~vl?~i\hc.onc-e++led .ill t.ff(:t-i to 'tc.tjrtl

Bolivia's oil lands.'"J The pr-es~11!\1~t1~111 :~f J 5 t t llr)tJ 1 i-

----

literature. Eliu Cnlle, ,3 Parcigi~dy-inhi5t OI-~CI~I,'htal ~,-V,~S,

" lcis f~rthrc:~cc~ntr-ib~~yr-!r~t.~?s ;i prc t ',-..~,~:,:II- (21 cL:, t .I 11 i ~ludl! ILI -

r.ncon;ldas lui.h.+s int et-in~~:~;:. 1.1 I r4t ,-IS hi,>t.6*11 I d

D +- Standard Oil y la R0p-l Dtrtr+-r-;-r :'L2A5 Ttrr fret firr --

::c;:~t:t-cl ::)f c;i 1 a1so ~:ISl-:eer~ ~-~x~~r~e~,:~(~:!lI)}, ft; r-1.1 grl ,+t:t 1111 I c, .' , , i A 1934 editorial In the Yew R.rtrtuk:I~(. (,ir~Ilrt~tcad *if.jtr.x-, (I

ertbroiled Ro 1 ivia . """" 1 -

The Search for a Port f:~rt11~ E:<~~r;rt :~f oil 1.; P ~incther popular- thf-mc for h~ st srI ,~rli. 11 rT1, 11 I 5 h*~r

initiated by Bolivia with the r3bjcr:t-ivr-3, I:;I , rlf *

- . , -~ ------. , securj,,ng. ~TTPSS t-c' thc nax~ig;lhl r: P;.it-.-e;: li j vfrt. I ri :;rr.(i.r* t rl ,*

develop its oil res.ervps, "'247

. .'-i * I I., Thes~>-~t:h;-_.r>rj.,-\i1;ic:k in~tidtingfactur--oil-- to the Chaco War. The evidence

4 t hc.y rl,bpl oy is r:r)rit:rad ictory -2nd c~Ft.enignores the

po~utc~d out t hat although She1 1 had the cantract. tc ------

-. rxplor-P Par.rlgt1~3yan land% for oil, the company was more

b helrr~,ind not ~n Parclgu~y."*R S~iferheldstates that - - - -

, w i t h an cxt rAns~ve knc3wl~dge &of the oil ~ndustryin eolivia) , '2

T SLISLI~X~~st runcjly that many of the Bolivian author ' s

I)t.: I t.f 5 c~onc.c~t-n~ng St.,*n(lnril ni 1 's art ions from 1925 to 1935,

11('q I nt~[ ti9 i n t hr. 1920's. ?50 The Argentine press ,' in turn, f pr~~lmbly fol lowed the lead of Argentine politicians, 'who,

k control of Bolivia's .

over to Argentina. 5

------p

------

caused 10 whether- oi 1 evpn existed ~ritf~g Chaco. IAprr c.l',ilms on unc hand: I.

- - -- f avour-able for r~i1 fields. Kain, rln ttlc ::t hrlt. flanrl cl i ~~~itjl-t~r;'~;. . He n:,tcxd (in 1C)35) th<;lt "Nr: k>et~-cxltburu. . .- lhctsl tl~bt*!,

- - -- - will he found, in. ~7ifi.w iif g~~)i~;~iclt~'I-P~K~It %.qf7'>3 li

con~luslonshal:~ he~ns111)st ant i,it ~d by cl t- ~,l1 lrllj :Ior~t*..I f t rtr.& C

T~Pt:xplnrations r:E the last khirty ylN4irC,would %r*r.tli t c h~v~rarlf ~rruc-d t ht* f3,l r 1 1 I~I-\-tlr-:l I c t t tl,jt k)(-t r:~I I~IIIH deposits of ::omrnerr:ial va11i~dc> nut rx i5t I 11 t !).it part. of the Chaco held try ISsra~ju:+y ic-,of ,J~JII~*14, 1935 . .b. .------

Yy ccnvictiorl r-nain? t h.lt thls w~isfnr~t ,I W,*I t-t-t8,~lta:l

* the Charo -oil deposits and ycoy:~>lrti::sin L it L~-, possi hle, h:$wevet-, that. .sr:;me ;ispe::'ts. r::f tdhfa o i 1 c-t~r~tI f:~+f~-i,,sy . . during that period' inf 1ucl.nccl.d the kcrr ~t:,rsell .le~hlt 4 :;ns r;f .L@ bnth Paraguay and Bol ivis. r >

At present, the role_ of -. Ch31-c dispute is sadldy

3f the facts is

d - - .. C -- - -?fKT% win ;i-Tii-TcTJ~T~FrViM-r_,f arid dpv.elopment of

-oil in the Wnrld, in Latin ~rnrricayandon the periphery of

the Char.r). -

History

rr.9 ir;ns In the* wc:rl J including the T?nitrd States, the Near

-- - Edsk, dn& Ballvia; mdny were mined in pre-historic times. -- --- 9 Tht, first r-ormel-raial 611 production began in the United

St,~tr.5--trr Pr~nnsylvanla--in 1859. Over the next one hundred

- [st-udr ai 1 ,~ndt br refining proyess for its byproducts ."54-.7

w>rrjr.r:>€ sev(-'rdl refineries and marketing agencies. Within

rgest corporation in

thrl w:lrlcl, ,~ndcontrolled nost of t -

4. a >---. St dnd.4 I.:] ' s hti ld OVP I- the market wou only Ee broken with s - ri thr d~srovrry(of oil in Baku, Russia, in the 1870ts, -sl 3 si~c.c-t.ssful nut ch efforts to discover oil in the Dutch East

;rr.c>s"t.c.ut)on uf St~l-rdar-c!&l for violation of anti-t-rust laws. - - -- -

Tn 191.1 Standard Oil was spla into a .number o-•’smaller

inde~wridentccmponent s. The largest unit, Standard Oil of --

-9t-w J:lrsey, r?ceivGd Ilttle oil reserve8 in the Cnited i Thr3 search for oil I Ln a1 1 r::>rntlt-.i c)f t h:. tL,t1-1 11 I Fnrfaign firms began an intensiy~search for oil in

* (1r~rn.inrf for rri 1. This demand cojnriri~dwith the introduct.ion , ,~r~di)rr~J lfc-raticn of the ~nternalcombustion engine. In 1900

koi- Id (:I 1 pr-r~tlnr.tInn was 149.5 mil1 ion barrels;' in 1912 it

------hSrSi inrrcascd t3 352.4 miIIion barrels; by 1924 1,014 -d

mi l 1 1 I :~nhnrr-t.1 s wcArt3 rstr.3~-ted f r~rnthe grfiund. 260 In 1920

standard Oil established a Brazilian subsiduary in

I In th(t next decade the company added affiliates in 1

------Rol ivij to 1937 . 1500-1880.

Thr discovery of 011 in Bolivia predates th~

=.Sl).jn i sh cicrnyur~st. Oi1 set>Lmgcs ,3lcng t he cast-ern s"lc1pr of

thc Andtas Nountains were often recorded by the earliest

Si11-\ -s, and must have been known, and possibly

I utll~~:rd,hy th~earliest inhabitants c~fSouth America. The ------

St1'1n1 sh f r t st mi ncd these cpen pools in the sixteenth ------::~kn t ury .2s On 9 January 1867, Bolivia's first oil

runt-ession, in the Pruvince of Salinas, Department of

TarijL*WAS let t.u two Crrman citizens, Francisco Hokst ------7------A? --

-- - - , and Eduardo

complete :or\cWc7ss~ons, I ;:hs wcrr re1 ;isc.d t.r~permit. a better return r:n i.nt7estmr.nt.s and, hopefully, 3 y reater exploitst icn of the riches .271

T,a rqe nunhers of rsoncessj ons were 1 et hy Plol i.xr;.a . 27'

On 15 Yovcnkcr. 1911 the tj:;v.ornmc~-nt ac;l;lin refcrn2d its f~:>n::'c-~ss.;j.onlaws; these allowed a number of large Rol-iivinn syndicat-es to buy tracts of potential oil-bearing lands."73

Unfr:rtunately, these government r-:ffnrts failed; Rclivian capitalists lacked sufficient funds to develop oil as a v i~trle domest.; c or export product.. The only serious Rol ilr-ian attempt, at this time, to develop producing oil fields was led hy T'uis Lavadenz--a Cr~cefic"~"--who organized the

Sindicato de Oriente Boliviano, in 1912. On 11 September

1914 a concerned yovrrnment cnce again redrew its laws t-c restrict the size of si! concessisns and reduce the length of tine they could h~!ld h6,fore developncnt must. hegin. Thest-! changes occurred primarily because speculatiun on the nil -hearing lands, rathelr than serious dpvel opment, had

~c~urred.'~~

1912-1.6.

Lavndenz ccmplet-ed an initial survey of his concession but shortages of funds forced him ts seck foreign investment to keep the project alive. He interested

Percival Farql~har(an American entrc~preneurwith mu1 t-iple ec~nomicinterests in several areas of S:::u.th Anerica i.n Santa Cruz and ~lls::o\~ereds. r1:-h OL~fleld, but his company

:-::1 1

Snuth America. " 7"

Lavsdenz then approached a Royal Dutch Shell subsidiary, Ruttafje Petrul~umXaat ~chapy"~~,to help drvclop the fleld. This company also drilled exploratory wells and found oil, but thcn cancelled further operations after

Argentina rejected an application that would have allowed the ryonpany tc mcvc the crude oll by rail tc Bucnos Alrcs.

In 1916 Lavadenz formed a Chllean-Bollvlan company, the rhi lrdns providlny the ms jnrlty of cap1 t al .'7s

1916-20.

On 12 December 1916 the Bolivian government again rc-organized its r7haot.i~concession laws in s ful-thcr attempt to stop speculation on the three million hectares cf oi 1 concessions then heing 1eased. "79 Heavier taxation was intrcduced, regulations gcverning drilling tightened, leases circumscribed, and very restrictive ti-me limits for t,he devel opment of product ion were introduced. Chi lean capit:alist:s prr;vidc;l.d th~nsjority of the new ftlnding for exploration and dcvelopnent, during t-his period."so h'evc*1-thc+less, neit.her thci I- ef f 1-~r-t.snor those of Rcl ivi.an c>r

British nil interests were sufficient to develop any l9?O-37.

On 24 February 1920'"" , in the last months hefcro the fa1 1 ;-;f t.he I,iI:er;.ll F);irty, th~Rr:livian yovet-nrnent agai~n nffer~::llarye tracts of potential :>il-bearing lands ts nati.unal and .Eorcxi cjn compani.es (Tablc 121 , i.n an ef fc:rt t.~:

incrcasc investment in c>il and ultimately t~ induce producticn,

There was a new influx of foreign investoi-s, including the Richard Levering Co. (with leases in Chuyuisaca, Tsrija, and Santa Cruz), and William and Spruille Rvaden. Th- Brsdens

2:-qi:i red t.11~rclncess i ons c-:wn-r.d t:y t:h!-* Chl lr:-L,avadc!n~ cr~nsortium,along with a number of smaller unit^."^" In 19211-

Levering and t.he Rradens werp bought. nut by Standard 0;1 .2"4

Thus heyan the nodern era of oil exploration and exploitation

in Bolivia.

To prevent. such massive transfer sales from ::ccurrintj aga i n , on 20 June 3.921 , the :??w Repuhl ican ycvfrnment:

brought in r(~strict.iv,~laws governiny the ownership and

tlevel r:~:~rnc~ritcf oi 1 rcncessi r:ns. ?"" The nctw qoc-e~rnment

d::knowl r?:l.~.;.dStandard ' s acyu.is it ions 3nly aftcr heated C,rrst War; 1t5 c-fforts AC.L.(. aided h1- off1~1alsI-~f thr

U.S. stat^ Department. 2"7 World War I, declln~ng~rodu:-t~>n at a nlirnb~rof major Pnltrd Statcs f ~c~lds,and hlyher wcrld

only last another thirty years at ~ul-rentconsurn~tion

Ic~~c~s.?"O

"Thiq undertaking was launched . . . at a time when concern over American oil supplies was beginning to bccome arut~.""~~

Standard djsrnvered cll In Bolivia during 1924; by the foll-wing year, the company had several wells in limited produr:tior~. In 1927 production ave~.ayed71 barrels pet- ::lay2"' at sites in Rcrnejc, Sanandita, and Camiri in the department r;f Tar1ja iTnhl~I?), and th(- rcmpany was contlnn~ng exploratlun :>n the rernalnder of ~ts7,000,000 he~tares

I r:r,lt~d ln ;13 1 I ~glon~;of Rollvia. '9"

With the acs-juisition of the Levering and Brndrn concessicns, Shndard owned the richest oj 1 df.pcsits in

Bolivia. Other important c:>noessionaires included Jacob

Rackus, who hzd l

795 D:.bspitc this 1 a rge f I gure, :>nly Standard s~lr:cei,*ded in producing commercial quantities of oil.

St.andnrd wanted to hold it-s Bzl ivian lands as fut~re produ:-.tion when its other sources shoald begin to

This pc1 S cy had sericus consequences for its Bolivian operations after the? company failed to develop large scale ci.1 prc:ducticn. Tn 1933, Bolivia confiscated Standard's assets when t,he company refused to refine aviation gssolin~ fc:t- t-~ICmi 1 itary during t.he Chac:: War (the company c.c!nsidrred i-ts refusal an attempt to rermin neutralzg7). Standard

,-, t~-, sumpd r.~-:r-itrr-r~ll wh~:-i Rcl ivian nfficials realized the,tjr- country's technicians did not have the expertise to run the? rr?f i neries .

In 1937, the Bolivian government, under extreme pressure from a large sectcr of the population, expropriated

Standard Oil."9a This action occurred after it was learned that Standard h.-ld, cluri.ng the war, shi.pped parts of r;ne of its moth-balled refineries into Argentina and capped most of

Lhc. cj. 1 wells."sg There were alsc rumours that Standard had shipped oil to Paraguay, during the war. These ruxours were, ~rrfa( l , wrrv Argent ~nrpropaganda designed to separat r the Stand,ard 011 C.>mp;lny from J ts Bollvlan GI 1 f~~ld$.

Stand;$t-d t-

IQ37, <.TI ;-~-,l-tF;c~lr-;~i~~r Arg~ntina r:?fused t~ 311:;~3j.l i::-s[3u:.i-.d in P,::l i vin tc bc. shipprtd ::n i ts 1-i.ii 1 1 ines t.o the port ~f Ruenos Aires. Standard had nc cthor inexpc?nsive al.tc?l-nst.ivr~for- thta movc-.ment. of oil. F::r instance, company officials estimated it wsuld ccst $12,000,000 to build (3 pipeline from t:he Villa Y0ntr.s rcjcjicn acr-osn t-he Chac::: tro the Paraguay River. The oil could not be moved to any

Pacific port. because the cost of pumping the crude oil ovei- the Altiplano was considered prohibitive.301

Critical Decade

Advncatcs :;f th~Fcrelyn Imperlalisn, Stri~gglcfcr

Cnntrcl cf Bollvia's 011, and Srarcb for a Port for thr

Evrort r~f011 thporlps nalntaln that the later surgc r~f0x1

~~>ipl:~rat]on and devc-1;pr:rnt In Bolivia from 1921 t 1;. 1932 ~'3% resEtonslblc for thp ~vrntswh~ch led to th,. Chaco War. For

~nst,jnce,Ph] 11p suggrsts thc3t 1918 was the f~rstycar In whlrh serious Interest was aroused in sil In Rol~vla~~';Rout hr.1 lcv~s191 9-20 RciS thc ?rl t lcril d';t:.. ?03 4 5 t C: t 11 P

suyg~stlonthat the Pariy exploratlL;n fqr cll was

slgn~f I r,tnt , th~.srand cthflr h~st::r zaris--Rc:l:v~,jn,

Pard*jx;,iyan, fore1gn--arp rcnvinced that : what c-aused the Chaco War. "Bolivian oil interests and those cf fore~gninvestors in th~ orient^ . . . providrd a powerfui incpntive for the use of armed force . . . 11 305

Neverthclrss , a 1t h~>ughSt~ar~rl~ird acted wj t-h inrredj bl e stupidity at times, there is no evidence to suggest that it,

.:r .Any cthcr cil co~npany,was respcnsibl~fur the Chaco War.

What factor Dr factcrs did then initiate the Chaco

War:' A t.t?r:t-at i VP hypot-h:-.sis ran he suyy:~stcd, dev~!lo~!~df rorn what. were, to appearances, a number of unlikely coinridcnces present in the Depa;-t.ncit: ::)f Tasi ja n th~south-cent.:--;i I

region cf Rclivia in the first dccade of this century.

These coincidences include: the geopolit,ical nature of the

Department of Tarija; governmental interest in tho area-- partic~11arl.yan ext-ensive mllitary presence heyinning in

1905; civilian exploration and exploitati.cn after 1905 in th~dr<-\a t-c the west cf Tarija; and the discovery c:f oil in the Departments of Tarija in 1G9B306 and Santa Cruz in 1906.

This disc-nvei-1; :::f oil Icd RI::~ ivia tc: expar;d its inter'csts The Department. of Tarija had long remained isslated f I-:-:m th~t-cast. of Rcl i via; the r-oi~ntryr s c~ii.;ternmr_:stcivi. l i~n sett.l:>ments lay primarily in the north and west in the

,-irc3s I-:!-?tween roc.habamh;1 and Santa Cru7 , "07 Tarija "has remained the only D~psrtmentalcapital in highland Bolivia t-o be wit.hout. rai1 t-ransport. "'oe Instead, t-he Department. 's principal links were with Argentina, to the south. In

,3dd j tion, befare 1900 there appeared t.o be little growth potential in Tarija compared to its neighbouring Departments

(Table 1). Tari ja had no large cattle ranches cr extensive agl-i::ultural production such as that found in thc Departrncnt. of Santa Cruz, no large scale mining operations such as those situated in the Departments on the Altiplano, and no val~abl.~,essi ly ext-ractahle resouces such as thr rubber trees faund in the Depl-tmnnt :>f Reni.

Nrvi..rt.heless, gnverrirnent expressed a si y11i.f l.cant interest in this region in the first decade of this century.

Tn 1905, the Rclivian ycvernment established the Delegacidn

Nac-iondl del Gran Chaco, separating that t-erritory f ror! thc Department sf Tai-j j;i, Ostensively the new dolegati.cn was necpssary "para el servicio de ~:>lonizaci:3ny exploitacionr2s

.I -1 rlo Pilctormyc-: y t-.t>~.ritcrii:s;~dyac.cntes. , . I1308 M1:rrl lo, and Avsnradc; concurrently the towns of Yazuibn ,~d i71 I la Mcnt~srvprc. ~stahli shisr?. The armyF\ headquarters for south-c~ntralR:?llvla was ~n the :-.lty nf Tar~ja.Tarlja

nctably Santa Cruz--as places of exile for vocal supporters cf c:ppc:sltron partles. Army units statlnncd in th? c.ast

A1 I this military activity in the Depart~mentof

Tarija after 1905 created tensions between Bolivia and

P~r'aguay. In 1910 t-here was a war scare. 31" At the end of

1912 another crisis cccurred on the frontier with Paraguay:

. . . por- !-.onsiyuiente las relaciones di.plomAticas se pusieron vidriosas y era precisci t.3mar medidas de cai-Acter milit,ar. El presi dent-e Vi l lazbn resclvid pues, en prfvision de fut-uros a::ontecinif>nt.~s, cnviar algunos cuerpcs de l inea n Iss fronteras dcl Oriente y del S-u:l?ste . 3 1 1 f?r:yinniny in 1912-1-3, I"loli.\;i,tn rnilitar-17 pat]-ols began tc: Yontes (now an important c~ntrcfar the oil industry)316; the1

3n thr rnute b~tw~enTnrlja and Santa Cruz. In 1907 he fn~inded2 vil lagc, ru1dq3d de Manso, a few ki lomctres tc th~

.~~13~tnf Fortin Guachalla. 317

Triljo pcnrtratrd the Chscc? hy way of the Pllcom=+yc

Rlvrr; by 1907 he had explored more than halfway to the

Oil seems to have be~nthe notive fr~rthis 'larly

stru-turr was surh that oil ~:~oolshad formed along tl-P of the resource were ann~unced.~"

Offjrial interest extended beyond government prorlamations and legislation. Luis Lavadenz (discussed

,~bcvr)was ::ne of the early oil entrepreneurs pioneers in

Bclivia; from possibly as early as 1900, hr spent the yreatc~- t!ta,.,~rncs (3 r~c~r~:hr~rcf IJtat nandc Sl lc.5' -df:~nr,t ~n 1927 3'9

F~llmannV-lards ~xplalnsthat, "la ,~~:rrra. . acnbi5 di3

L" :.!..?I 3:' v.i l '~t-d ~1 ~1"tI-hl rc: h.ist ,j LJC~J-~Ilnu5 ~'t-1s;;n,3 ji'i tctn

~1 lr- jadns :Ir r.i la r*omo 1 qs ccngrnsal~sb~l1vlan::s de arlt!al

in^: a 11770 ~11PA/.+ I- t7r'vU~ d c'il\.ul9~5 ndn05, t:llt dc::,~ m~ntJ ('r! that

1 nf l~icnt1s 1 ~ndlvtduals, connected to ~mportantpol ~ti:-lcins, a:-q111J ~d many r;f the nl I concessions In Chuqulsaca, rrt the peri<~:laround 1311. He d~dcite the 1.ornpanies Sind~cato(Iel

(71'7 ~hnt~'Rt3 1 7 t-1 anto, and Communidad Petrol 1 fer-a Sant a Cruz dc.

Rollvln (the latter estahllshed In 1916 by the Chilr-an i.nqi 1)c3c\rs F:c:nig and L311'3s ) (4s 17~~1ng had import ant

[:;.fin.-ctlons to h~ghoff ~r-.?alsIn the Bollvlan government. 331

Yr~vc~1-the1 rss, 1 lt t 1 t. 1s known of thp act zvit 1rS of thr.s:.

Lnflu~ntlaloll rntreprrneurs In tha cxploitatlon of o11 aftc>r- 19nfl.

Yovenber 1.9111 constituy:? el prine~-:~en la cadena dc

.3rcritecirnl cr:tc-)s que j han ;$ dr.srmbc::ar, aiios m.4~ tard:?, en

la Guorl-a d:?l Chaco, f1332 And, ~f course, Fellnann

5'el 3rd~:'5 1311 "st.ampc:dr3" orc~.rrredbcr-a~:qc of condit i.c)ns that arose with the discovery of nil fron 1588 to

I C)nG. YJI-.;~ su~-.l-~::r-ts thi s vir-.wpl nt. : "f :-:lrn as edr-ly ;3s 'I 906, At- p~~~~s(-r~t, th~r-:-, arc-? nr: tfr;cumi~nts wh irh y i vf, ~ik::ir:ivt.r prc~of that the czincident-a1 events in the Department of

7'21- i :ja kc-yj nni ng in 1.9115 were raused by the discovery c:f ci. 1 .

The rese~lrcher, instead, is left with a problematic series r~fr::pi s~dtswhi:::h prc:bahl y arc? connerted.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

Thr Cha(--o War- 1.s an imp:-jrt.;3nt histcrir..:ll event ,

not r:nly for the two countries involved--both Rolivia's and

Par-ayl~ay'sft~tur~ would he greatly ;iffec:t.ed t:y t.h~w<~r---But

also because it involved nations and organizaticns on an

i nternat-icnal scale. Nevertheless, ident.if icatisn cf t:he

factors responsible for the Chaco War, and in particular, of t.he fact-ox- which init.iated the events which led to war, has

been hampered by the uneven quality of the resenv~hinto t.h~

subject. There have been tcc many answers, Lind nct enough questions and research.

In an sttrmpt to overccmP sane nf the linitaticns of

t.hc nvai l'rlhle materisl , th:i.s thesis was dividcd i.nt.r: twc

sections. The first section (Chapter 111) describes

eight pcpular theories t-hat attempt tc cst:ahl.ish th:? fai:.t.ot-s

responsible for the Chsco. Each warrant-s some consideration

as ..-I factcr in thc Chacr; War; hcwever, tfrcir siyriif icance

has hcon considrrably :>v:?rstated. S~m~l;;rly,th:. tltr~::rurn that Bc,llvr,3 rr~or~n:;ed,frc;n thc t~meof ~ts1n:3t-pnlc~nc-e, the v~~lnerabllltyof the: n,lt c::11' s Paclf ic Lml t s tc~ft.rr.ii~r1 Inr-ul sir:n and thprrful-c. turn~dto the eastern lowldnds ~$5an alternative outlet also cyan no 1ortyr.r h~ %(-I-3 CIIIC~IYo~-ivanrcd. RI:I lV371 L-.JYC~Yatt~ii.l+ed any conrrlrted nr r+:;ns~stanteffort to develop any part of ~ts

I clwldnds; thr dcvclopnc.r.t af an ill t ~l~lancral l systcm 12 nkrd to the T' iclf 1.- ncarl y destroyed thp economic we1 1-belng of nolxvin's cther regions.

Argentina's lnny-standlng rplatlonship with Paraguay, ant3 that r~lation5hi p' s impact or; thr Chacsc, is anotht?r The tern "Foreign Imperialism" is often a catch-all designed to place blame fcr failures on fact-ors out-side the national control. The acti~i~iesof large American corporations, ynvrrnments, and individuals in third-world regions has been subject to great controversy, and many times have been viewed with distaste, but those named have not always shown to he responsible. In Bolivia, the depredaticns of American economic int-erests aggravated a serious domestic situation and therefore may have helped create ctsndit~i:~nsrt-i.t:ic-nl t.:~the Ch;*no War.

Standard Oil's position in Bolivia exemplifies the st rengt-hs and weaknesses of the? acrusat-ion nf Fore i.gn

Imperialism. Its activities in the critical period from 1921 to '1932 are nc:t above reproach--dismantli.ng a refi-nery and smuggling it out of the country during a war, or capping wclls whrxn t.hc :::il produced might have ser~7ed,?s s de?isiv.o stimulus to the expansion of Bolivia's eastern econony, are not: pcl i tr ic;; l I y astutc.3 ECVPS--but otherwise, t-he cnmpany maintained a reasz:iably low profile while worki.ny under The 3th~rtheories mentioned in Chapter 111 suffer from t-he same f li-~WS.The Great Depression, in a sirnil.ar manner to I?:-:reign Imperial ism, only aggravated an already tense situaticn. Pr~sidentDaniel Salananca of Rolivia was not an autznumous actor; he followed publis =pinion and the dict-;it:~s of his party's pclicies against Paraguay and in some ways was manoeuvered int:] declaring war. By the same token, it. :-:an be argued that the arms merchants were serving the dictates nf their customers.

Dcstr-u::t-icr~ :r:f the ei.cjht thi..cries c-itcd lcavc:>, fevt ., prlssjbilities f:;r id:-+ntifying the primary fac.tor i-:-~f;~::ons~.nl:~> f::~ th(: Chacc-: W,I~-. The ix.:tr-ly di.sc:;\-ery c:f oil -in R~lix-i:*-- rather thc~nth~ later Standard Oi.1 porisd--remains the nost p!~-omisinglead. This discovrrp ocrul-I-i.d i~nthe D~pai-tnctntof

Tarija, circa 1305. It was accompanied by a ::urious set of

,-.>,i,incidcnoes-% which included : st.rc~rlgysvcrnment irit c.trest,

::i-u,ilian interest. (inc1:;dincj l::rrs:I:ns ::s:tn:~::t.-:l cl~sclyt.:3 t.1-1~:c~:>\~~:'rimc:~nt ) , an spans ic:n c:f the mi 1 i tL11-y L.:I-~S~IICPj- n t.hf area, and the :lisr_.overy r;f :r:i l in Bal ivia at that: t j-ni~>..,

T hyp:t-2??r-~si..:2that th,o llr-pr.rl-t.m~.r~tc;f T;;rija w;~$ net, i.n 1907, ~hr.:-r:l,-: c:f ::! 1, 1-:r'fr;rif t.11:- t->rai7f forr-.i.cjn dominance-x r-:?mains littlp l.:nown to historians, r:urh IFss undc>rstood hy t.h:s~n. Rc 1 ivi,; ' s houn: cr Gust c*ycl~ cf rccncn;.ic deve 1 ~pmer~t, th~development oE tin dnd rubber, political problems, and the onyc.;iny Tacna-Arj.::a discussions overshadc;wed r.vent.3

:,ccurring in the east. At the time of discovery the physics!

Loundaries cf the- oi1 rcscr:l.lr::es were nct we1I unticrstr:url; w1-i.-n I ittle development occurred, politi.cal interest, and r-c:nsequcntll- puhlic interest, declined. Nev~lrtheless, the search for oil in the Department of Tarija, beginning in

1905, initiated Bclivian expansion in the Chaco. Eltimat-ely it led to the Chaco War. 1 This is- shgk byban analysis o•’publication dkso'f +< -- material wr'itten about %he Chaco War; interest peak& during . the war and then declined within a few years after the.fina1 peace'treaty was eignea in 1938. Since 1940'the output of publicatbns one'the Chaco War has continued -at,a moderate pace. The research for this subject comes from a bibliography no~~beingaesernbled by+the author of this - ,- this,-S'he-r~-+i-8w-rwcMi~a~yof th-*ace Was~+--but

h C. L. Chrigttman,-2Xhe Chaco War: A Tentative Bibliography of its Diplomacy," The Americag 26 (1969-70):54-6'5, provides'a very good partial one. illiam'~.Garner,-The Chaco ~ispute. (Washington:.Public Press, 1966), p.24. 3. The geographical data comes from: Joseph Pincus, The Economy of Paraguay (New York: Frederick A. ~raeger,19681, p.452. The-climatic data is extracted from: Werner -- - - Schwerdtf ~er-~~-.~\cl~i~tesof Central and South America, World Survey of Climatology Volume 12 (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientigic-Publishing 'Company, 19761, p.37-40. See especially p.39 for -the author's isotherm diagram foro, January; p.40 has a similar diagram for July. 4. Garner, The Cham Dispute, pp.23-4. 5. Julian Duguid,, Green Hell: A Chronicle of Travel in the Foreats in astern Bolivia (London: the Century Company, 1931). # -- - 6. Pincus , The Economy of Paraguay, pp. 85, 452-3. 'pincub gives an excellent overview of the geography andaclimate of

the region afong with a &escrkption of the vegetation. Re------discussea the poor drainage as a major fact~-rin the lack of t Q -r 1 ag Lb. Uee a& , Pa3tleNation (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1935), p.57. De'Ronde was an honourary Lieutenant-Colonel in the ~Sraguayanarmy during the war--the dy-4- aeeortting to his ahttaaents-,-and he. saw some action during 1933. His book is an unabashed declayatioa for Paraguay, but does contain some excellent descriptive geography of the Chaco. Ee talked of 1.5 metres of topsoil present in the Chaco. Pincus' and de Ronde's - - Lp- - - -- &------r;. works are off set by some hisforiansv declaref ions that the Chaco had an excellent climate. The latter are incorrect. *-

% 7. ~rthrE.. Elliot,-Paraguay-: its Cultural Heritaae, Social

8. J.' Valerie -lifer, Bofivia: and, ~bcatibnand sPolitics ------Since 1825 (Cam'ri-dge: Caiiibricge University Press, El72 1 , p.14. F0r.a further description of Uti Poesidetia de Jure see: Harris-G. Warren, Paraguay:- an Informal History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 19491, p.288. s: rolutiok of a mlc Societp (New',York:Oxford University Press,

10. ~ifer,Bolivia, pp.9-10. . . 11. Klein, Bolivia, p.70.

- - 12. Warren, Paraguay, p.287. * - 13, Fifer, Bolivia, p.10.

------14, Emiterio Cano de la Vega,.The Bolivian andParasuayan , Boundary Dispute-New York: Bolivian Consulate General, S957), p.8. See also Warren, Paraquay, p.264. * 15. Klein, Bolivia, pp.35-6. . 16. The comes from: Leslie Rout .Jr ., . Politics of the Chaco.Peace.Conference 1935-1939 (Austin: University of Texas, 19701, p.3. Rout's reference was extracted from: Great Britain, British and Foreign State Papers 1853-1854, Vol. XLVII, p.1257; Bolivian protests are detailed in Cano ' de la Vega, Bouliidary Dispute, p.8; Fifer, Bolivia, pp.176-7, . discussed the treaty clauses. - 17. Warren, Paraguay, p.185. - - 18. Fifer, BoIivia, pp.178-80. - 19. Cecilio BAez, The Paraguayan Chaco (New York: nap., l9O4), pp.23-4 ----- 20. Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace Cohference, p.8. 21. Warren, Rebirth of the Paraquayan -Republic: the First CoIorado Era, 1878-1904. (Pittsburgh: Unfversity of Pittsburgh Press, 1985), pp.169, 171. , a .I - - ?.

* 22. Rout, Politics sf the Chaco Peace Conference,- p.8. %- ,? 23. Carlos R.. Centuribn, Historia de- oultbra paragpaya, 2

vols. (Asunci&~: Ortiz--Gue.irrero,1961 1, -2:-439 ------p------A

4 25. A large number of worka on the War of the Pacific are available. For a more concise account, consult: Klein,

- - Bolivia, pp.LM-B.--Fif=r, ~d6\'ia, pp, 51-60. - -- - 7, 43 + 26. Warren, Rebirth of theqaraquayaa- Republic, p.155. 27. Julio Diaz Argiiedas, Historia del ej&rcito de Bolivia 1825-1932, (La Paz,n.p., 19401, p.40. SuArez Arana built - Puerto Pacheco 400 km north of the 1879 protocol boundary. . &n 1884 Bolivia nationalized the project at his request. Warren,- Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic, p.154. 28. Warren, ~ebirth-&-the Paraghayqn Republic, p.157. - ': \ 29. Ibid., pp.155-8. \ 30. Rout, There was subject. See Christman, "Chaco War," pp.56-7.

3.N. ~ndrev~leren, "Dispute Between Bolivia and Paraguay," Current History 29 (January 1929):661.

32. Bdez, The Paraguayan Chaco, p.25; John C. de Wilde, "South American Conflictg: the Chaco and Letitia", Foreign Policy Reports 9 (May 24/33):59; Warren, Paraquay, p.288.

33 . Cano de 13 Vega, The Boundary Dispute, p. 10. Rout, - -1---- - Politics of the Chaco Peace Con'ference, p.11..

-- -- 34. War%, Rebirth of the .Paraquayan-Republic, pp.158-59. - r j I 135. Centurih, -, ist to ria 2:440. dout, Politics 'of the Chaco War, pp. 1,l-$2. - -- - - 36. Jose Lava den?,-La colonizaci6n en BoGvia durante la primera centuria de 8u independencia (La Paz: Talleres Grdficoa de la Intendencia de Guerra, 19251, p.64. - -

37. Ibid., p.66-. - - 38. Rout, Politics of the Peace Conference, pp*12-13,

39. Joseph winfield Fretz, Pilqrias in Paraguay: the Story of-the Mennonite Colonization iq Sotrth America (Scottdale: Herald Press, 1953); [email protected],84,90. 40. me-atatus of Paramy's railwayp m$work seems aomewhatp - - confused. Warren, Paraquay, p.283, stated Paraguay hhd 723 kilometres (k~)of rail as'of 1928; 280 km were narrow gauge- and presumably located in the Chaco. De Wilde, "South American Conflicts", gave a figure of 440 km-for 1933; hie -

-totals agree with Warren's only if they did not include _the- - -p chacoTneEiork, ~o~d~.~~aln,--~~indthe azco War, u- - Current History 42 (1935):471, believed that half of the mileage of Paraguay's rail system existed in tKe Chaco. Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace Conference, p.42, used a figure of 420 km. Paraguay'e economic conditions prior to . the,Chaco War are described in Warren, Paraquay, pp.280-82. -

4 1 41. .Henry G. Doyle, "~oliviaand Paraguay Moving Towards

Settlement of Chaco Dispute," Current History 31 (~ovember <, 19291:378. The physjcal description of a fortin (plural

- fort i ne aa)Lis- de8_~_lib&~inthesio88ary~--- pp-,

> 42. Vergilio Sampagnaru, Causas geogrAfica& de la querra del Chaco AJeea: Veriag von Wilhelm Gronau, 19351, pp.3-5, -- Argentine arbitration played a large role in mediation attempts in the Chaco between 1906 and 1938. .+ 43. ~drianEnglish, Armed Forces of Latin America ondon don: Jane's, 19841,-~~348.Georg von Rauch, "The Chaco War," Armies and Weapons- 28 (November 1976):63. R - 44. David H. Zaok Jr., The Conduct of the Chaco War (New York, Bookman Associates, 19601, Chapter 11. English, Armed

Forces, p.348, 5-s

A------. 45. Carlos Jose ~efrkndez,La quSrrZ del chac5, 4 vola. (Buenoa Aires: Pellegrin, 1.956-?), 1:18,

46. Jos6 Fellmann Velarde, ist to ria de Bolivia, 3 vola, (La .. Paz: Editorial "Los Arnigqs del Libro", 19701, 3:157. Siles denied signing the orders for the attack.

47. Georg von Rauch, "The Chaco War," Armies and Weapons 28 (November 1976) r63, 48. An enomus number of works have been written on the

------Y C6 aco'war. A number are &ed as primary sources in the sections on Bolivia's and Paraguay's, military in Chapter - 111. Other notable works include 2ookfT-~onductbofthe Chaco

-?War and two works frorn'ataff officers who served in the- . -- Chaco*War and later became presidents of their countries. ~afae% Franco, Doe batallas de la querra del Chaco: Gondra, '. Picuiba-Yredaque (Bueno8 Airea: ~ditorialYegros, 19591;

----David Toro R., -Mi ------en la ra deL ?~haco(La Paz actuacibn QliiZk - : ------. n.p.,- 19411.- , - . . * ... - ', . 3 49.+Rout, Polstics. of the ~haco'peac'eConference, p.176. - 50. George Eaer, Inflation and Development in Latin America:

A Case History of Inflation and Stabilization in Bolivia, ------Can Ar3ortUniverTityofMichigK ~kess,19681, pp.106-9. Eder does not directly attribute inflation-to the onset of the Chaco War; rather he sees the Great ~e~ressionas the prime cause for the devaluathn of Bolivia!~currency. This is not borne out by the data expressed in T ble 10; near the end of the war Bolivian currency declined p ecipitoudy, * probably the'reault of deficit financing toe pay for mobilization and military equipment. By 1937 the eychange rate was only 3.0 and this had further declined to 1.8 in 1939. Compare the latter figure to that of 1920. ------51. Kain, "Bolivia's Claustrophobia," Foreiqn Affairs 16 (1938):704. 52. Luis ~efiaioza, Historia ecodmica de Bolivia, 2 vole. -(La Paz: n.p., 1953-41, 2:343.. 53. Charles F* Geddes, Patifio: the Tin Kinq (London: Robert Hale, 19721, p.22. n % * t William Carter, Bolivia (New York: Praeger, 19711, p.49. +$-- - .. ' . .$g --> I -7- 55. The rail line between Antofagasta and Uyuni began aa a" link between the caliche and mineral deposits in the Atacama

deaert*, and the ports on the Pacific. he-- extension------bf--- these -- -- - IZneii int* Bolivia +inthe mid-1880 a represented a natural progression eaatward. )\ 56. Pifer, ~olivla. pp. 190-1. lifer stated that construction of ,this line was obstructed by the Antofag.asta (Chile') and Bolivia Railway Co. which then held the monopoly'for the moveraen€ of goods by,* -L ink0361 ivial This-- company------controlled the Aric &-and &lo1lendo-la Paz 1,ines. . 57. Xo%a6s Alcazar, Abel Iturralde, el eentinela del petrbleo, (La Paz: Editorial La Paz, 19441. The author-- .) .- 32

-- - -pp------f -. B included a section on the political discussions concerning the plans to build rail fines in the east. For iktance, 3 a pp.262-71 includes political debate in 19215on the - - feasability of a line to Smta Cruz. 58. James Dunkerley, "The Politics of the Bolivian Army: Instit tio a1 Developinent.,to 1935" (Ph.D. dissertation,

4 Nuffiel olleg~,Oxford,-1979), ~~62. - - -- F -- - - w A -- r rr - '59. James M. Mallop, ~olivia;the Un~omp~etedRevolution. (PittsburgK: University of Pittsburgh Press, 19701, p.19. See also, Klein, ~olivia;p.163. % + - - 60, Cartef, Bolivia, p,2L-- . - - - - 61. Fifer, Bolivia, pp.~9-i3.

C % 62. ~vidioUrioste, La fragua: comprende la primera faz de

gla campafia del Chaeo hasta la caida de Boquer6n y el v abandon0 de A~ce(n.p., n.d.1, p.23. 63. Rout, Politics of the Peace Conference, p.42.

- i 65. Margaret a. Marsh, Bankers in I&riivia (New York: Vanguard Press,- 1928), p.14. It n P 4. 66:Duquid, Green Hell, p.142. Fifkr, Bolivia, pp.202-5,

describes Duguid's trip as an advanced scouting expedition 'i for an ambitious E~glishscheme to develop a large section of territory in the north-east Chaco c. Puerto Suhrez. - Duguid was a free-lance correspondent for two English

papers; his travelling companion was Mamerto Urriolagoitid, -, later president of Bolivia, 1949-51. . I 67. AlcAzar, Abel Iturralde. ... &8. Klein, Parties and Political Change in B~livia1880-1952 (Cambri-e University Press: Cambridqe, 1969); p.103. - .. . - 69. Duguid, Green Hell. his travel8 were delayed nn numeroue occasions by overflying rivers. I 'Ff - - - 70. Julio Diaz Arguedas, ist tor la del E jercito d& Bolivia 1825-1932 (LayPaz, n.p., 19401, p.336.

? 71. Carter, ~olivia,pp.21-3. - . , .-- A 72. .G. Richard Fletcher, "Santa.Cruz: a Study of Ecrosomic - ~dwthin Eastern Bolivia," Inter-American Economic ~ffairs' 29 (autumn 1975):27.

-- ;?

73. ^La-vadenz,La colonizacibn en Bolivia, p.2. + 74. Rout, Politics of the Peace Conference, p.8.<

- - -75. League oflht ions Thaeo Csmission , Dispute-Between- +------Bolivia and Paraguay (Geneva: n.p..;'1934):17d.

76.,01af J, Storm, El rio ailcomayo y el Chaco Boreal (Bue- nos Aires: Cornpailia Sud ricana de Billetes de Bango, 18921, pp.8-21. - L ------* ------

77. Lavadenz,_. La colonizaci~n,p.2. ' - 78. N. Andrew Cleven, The Political organization of .Bolivia (New York: Carnegie In~titut~e,Washington, 19401, p.162., 79.+Pehaloza, Historia econbmica, 2:392-3. I '80. United states-Government. Papers Relating to the Foreign , Relations of the United States 1882 (washh-ington:U.S. -- ~6vernmentPrinting Office, 18831, p.29. - I--- - A ------81. Fletcher, "Santa Cruz," p.27.

82. Fifer, "Bolivia's-Pioneering Fringe, I" p.5. 83. AlcAzar, Abel Iturraldh,. pp.262-69. William L. Schurz, Bolivia: a Commercial and Industrial Handbook, U.S. Depart-

ment of Commerce Special Agents Series-No. 208 (Washington:- $ Government Printing Office, 19211, p.87. 84. Fletcher, "Santa Cruz", p.26. See also Dunkerley, Poli-

tics of the Boliviqn Army, p,174. ' 85. Fifer, "Bolivia's Pioneerins Frinqe," p.26. see.note 6.

of his book suggested--that the ~e~rtmentof Santa Cruz ahould separate from the Republic of Bornvia and form--its + I own nation; this bitterness was created by ~6divia'sneglect

of ita eastern 10wlapds~ <.--. -- - - 86. Eddardo Romecin, "Agricultural Adaptation in Bolivia," - Geoqraphical.Review 19 (1929):248; "Ae Bolivian-Paraguayan Z Boundary Dispute," Geoqraphical Review 19 (1929):153'. see also: Cleven, Political Organization, p.165.

L 87. Robert J. Alexander, A~olivia:Past, Present, Future of , its Politics (Stanford: Praeger/Hoo.ver, 19821, p:5. . - .,

*. -% - - - 8 9.Warren, Rebirth of *he Paraguayan-Republic .AWarrenls: ,------v A- - sectiofi on the status of river commerce on the Paraguay . -.

River is ,farsand away the beat treatment of river ko-nditions' ' a 'which existed prior to the Chaco War. ., 0- . 90. bid., pp.187-88 __ ------r ------R------5 91. Ibid., p.223:

-e 92. Rout, Politics of the peace conference, p:22. See note 35 at the bottom of the page, + D 1 93.' ~ain,"Behind thc,Chaco War", p.472. He noted that 1000

ton ships ~ould*sail as far up .the Paraguay River as Puerto * i Sudrez. t 94. League of Nations chaco Commission, ~ispute,p.17. The corpmissi-orrerare9por;silrf-the rep--e' ~u~rezln 1933.and found the area nearly deserted. The . , engineer responsible for the establishment-of Quijarro-" ted that the river at:that point showed a minimum depth metres., Fifer, Bolivia, p.194. 1, 95. League of'~ations Chaco Commission, Dispute, p.17. Quijarro's status, aa.a port was aided in 1903 when Brazil ceded to Bolivia under the teuns of the 1903 Tteaty of Petropolis fohr strips of land along the Paraguay River. 96. Frederick W. '~anzert, a hi ~ounda;~contr&erey in the,

Upper.Amazon Between Brazil, Bolivia, and ~eru,i.903-1909.~" I r Hispanic American -+Historical geview 14 (November 1934):439.

1 ------Pp -- 97. Fifer,- Bolivia, pp.109-10.- -T------

P- 98. Fletcher, "Santa Cruz", p.27. , - .. 99. Marig Hiraoka, "Settlement and Development of the Upper - Amakon : The East Bolivia Example, " The- ;Lomrnal-gfQevehphg-_.

Areas 14 I (April 1980): 330. *-- 100. Pefiahza, Historia econ6mica, 2:197-8. " 4 --==>

101. ~unkerley,Politges of the Bolivian Army, pp.116-7. 1

------c- ib2. English, "The Chad0 War, " Army huarterly4and Defence

Journalt109 (1979):350. 1' 103. Pierre Mondain, "La Guerre du Chaco,'" Revue Histor,ique 267 (1982):45. -

3 104. Jose FelixEstigarribia, ,The Epic of the Chaco: Marshal ~stiqarfibia's ~ernoire of the Chaco War 1932-1935, ed. and annot. Pablo Max Ynsfran (Austin: Universjty of Texas Press,

, - 105. Kain, "~olivia's'clairstroPhob%a;'. - . 106. Eduardo Arze Cuadros, La,econbmia de Bolivia (La Paz: Editorial "Los Amigos .del Libro", 19791, p.343. Fifer, B~livia,p.182, dated the event 10 1880. - 107. Kain, "Bo1ivia"i Claustrophobian, p.708. 108. Fifer, Bolivia, p.1827 109. Arze Cuadros, La econhia de Bolivia, p.343.

111. Roberto ~uerejazu ~alvo:Masamaclay: historia politics, diplomatica y milit- de la querra del Chaco (La Paz: n.p., 1965), p.16.

114. A partial bibliography includes: Bo-livia [a journal published in New York1,-"The Settlement of the Question of Tacna and Arica necessariiy affects Bolivia. Our Rights in the Area are Cle,ar and ~gfinite..:", Bolivia (Sept/Oct. 19291:.3-5, 17-21; E. M. orchard, "Tacna-Arica Controversy_,-" _- -- - Foreign ~ffairs1 (~epteaer1922) :29-48; R~OMeneses,- El Imperative GeoqrAfico (La Pa:- Editorial Renacimiento, $- --There are numerous Bolivian nd foreiqn- titles on-- this aubject. . + i , 115. Fellmann Velarde, Historia de Bolivia$ 3:39-40., / ---1

116.,Fifer, Bolivia, p.66. \ . 117. Encina, Las relaciones, pp.271-3.

b .\ 118.- Fifer, Bolivia, pp.72-3. 119. Kain, "Bolivia's Claus,trophobia," p.707. 120.. Ernest Galaraa, "Debts, ~iitatorshi~,and '-. "Revolution in Bol$via and Peru," Foreign Policy Report 7 (May 13 1931):108. Encina, Las Relaciones, p.271. .?

- 121. works on this subject continue to appear atrregular intervals. Some of the titles include: Boiivia (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores), Rumbo a1 mar (La Paz: n.p., 1963);- J.R. Brochan, "Bolivia Looks to the Sea: Efforts to Regain a Port," Americas 134 (1976):380-1; Jorge Escobar . Cusicanqui, El derecho-al mar (La Paz: Jnventud, 1964);"Luia F. Guachalla, La cyestih portuaria y las neqociacimea de ,1950 (La Paz: Editorial "Lo8 higos del Librow, 1976); Abel _ Pena y Lillo ~scobs,Bolivia, prisoner0 qeogrdfico de America (~a'paz:nap., 1980).

A 122. Klein, Political Parties, p.102. 123. Jack child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America, (New York: Praeger,, 1985):61.

125. Kain, "Behind the Chaco War"~,p.472, described Para- - guay's blockage of Bdivian exploration down the Paraguay River. Fellmann Velarde, Hietoria de Bolivia, 3:99-100, described Paraguay's blockade of Bolivia at Esteros de Patiho. 126. Warren, Paraquay, p.298. Estigarribia also believed officials from his country were very cbncerned to not infla- me the situation. Estigarribia, he Epic of the Chaco, pp.6-8, - '127. he weapons sold are discuh;ed in: Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.194; Ferndndez, La querra del Chacg, 1:128; Angel F. RLos, ~a*def&sa de~l ~haco;verdadee y mentiras de'una victoria (Buenos Aires: Editorial Ayacucho,

1950); p.26.' ------128. Paul H. Lewis, Paraguay Under Stroesaner (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980b, pp.7, 21. L 7 - 129. The dates when the weapons were bought $ome from Rioe, La defensa deL Chaco, pp:24-6. The date for the establiah- ment of the military zones comes from: English, Armed Forcee . of Latin America, ~7347.On the other hand, Luis Freire Esteves, El paraguayan Constitutional 1870-1920 (Buenos b <- - " Aires: G. ~ena-y Cia-, :1921), p. 267, gives the date as 6 April 1909. -- - 130. Rios. La dekensa'del Chaco, p.30. /' 131. ~erndndez,-~a querra del Chaco. p. 60. -

133. English, Armed Forces of Latip America, p.348. - --7 - 134. DunkerPey, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.194. 135. This lack of preparation is discussed by a number of eources. These include: Estigarribia, The Epic of the Chaco, pp.8-9; English, Armed Forces of Latin America, p.348. -- - - 136. Warren, Paraguay, p.305. 137.- Idem., Rebirth of a Nation, p.255 138. Kain, "~ehindthe Chaco War," p.468. P ------139. Dunkerley, Polities of the Bolivian &, ~1.147. - 140. ~stigarribia,The Epic of the-Chaco, p.6. 141. Luis Vittone, Las fuerzas armadas paraquayas1 en sus distinctas epocas (Asuncibn: Editorial El GrAfico, 1969), p.183. , . 142. Antonio E. GonzAlez; Preparacibn del paraquay para la guerra del Chaco (Aauncibn: n.p., 19571, p.14. -- 143. See the introduction to Rios, La defensa del Chaco, pp. 7-17,.

# 144. Dunkerley; ~alikk&&-t%e Bolivian Army, p. 194. -- - - 145. Gonz&lez, 'Preparac56n del Chaco, F.?Z- - --- * ,' 146. Diaz Argiiedas, Historia deL- ejercito de Bolivia, p.*420. ,. \ \ \ 147. Pedro N. Cihncio, La guerra ael Chaco I~uenos-~ires:~a' ,\ <- ~anguakdia, 1933 . - 148. This viewpoint was expressed primarily By the Bolivian -,\ left. Julio -, 61 balance de la experjencia socialis-

- - ta boliviana, 1952-1964 (~adrld:Artes Grdficos y Editorial, . 1969), p.24. Another important author is,Gustavo Navarro, better known as Tristan Marof. Some foreign historians have ' also discussed this point. They include: Klein, "David Toro and the Establishment of 'Military Socialism' in Bolivia,* -Hispanic American Historical Review 45 (February 1965):31. 149. Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.222. + 150. Klein, Parties and Political C,hanqe,p.27.' '151. Diaz ~rbiie~das,Historia del ejbrcito de Bolivia, p.23; Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.222. P

- -- -- 152. Dunkerley, Politics.~•’the Bolivian Army, pP.82-4. e 153. C. Blanco Galindo, Reaumen de la historia mifftar de Bolivia (La Paz: Intendencia de Guerra, 19221, p.187. In L900 the Liberals were-a-fso forced to send units to Acre. They fared little better; the Acre was lost during their rule. Louis A. Tambs, "Rubber, Rebels and Rio Branco: the Conquest for the Acre," Hispanic American Historical Review -26 (August 1966):254r73. \

++ 154. Geoxge Philip. The-Milits- irrSsuUr4mr-ic~t-p*l& ie~--- - (London: Croom Helm, 19851, p.106.- 155. League of Nations, Armament ~earbooE.(Geneva:League of .Nations Publicationsl, 1932:88. See also: Diaz Argiiedas, ' Historia dei ejbrcito de BoliviA, p.25; Cleven,Political - Organization of Bolivia, pp.155-56. -- 156. Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.128. '157. Diaz Arguedas, Historia de ej6rcit.o de Bolivia, pp.~758-75. 158.,Ibid., pp.761-66. See also: English, Armed Forcee, .p.89. English believed the Germans accomplished little dur- -ing their three years. C i59. Dunkerley, Politice of the ~olivian'~rm~,'. p.180. - 160. Cleven, Political Orqanization of Bolivia, p.162. 161. Lavadenz, La colohizaci6n en Bolivia, p.8. .

163. Diaz Argiiedas, Histpria del -ej&rcito de Bolivia, p.335.. 164. Alexander, Bolivia,- p.57. - 165. Philip, Military in South Amekica, p.107. 166. Ibid. 1

167. Dunkerley, Politics of the ~olivianArmy, p.168. - - - - -

168. Frederick Nunn, Yesterday's Soldiers, flincoln: univer- I sity of Nebraska), p.333. 169. Klein, "David Toro," p.26. /'- -- 170. Dunkerley,, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.180. 171. Fellmann Velarde, Historia de ~o'livia,3:137, 118. ! -172. Dunkerley, Politics of the ~ollvianArmy, pp.181, 190.

\ 173. Ibid., p.192. Dunkerley stated the funding for the weapons came from funds provided by the 1927 Dillon, Read Loan. On the other hand, Klein, Parties and Political Chan p.102, believ* the the arms purchase became possible be u- as &=&-the -ney- Ftrnds+-7 4meskart han--wenI+ u---- pay off Vickers; a contemporary writer, Ernest Galarza, "Debts, Dictatorship and Revolution in Bolivia and Peru," Foreign Policy Report 7 (May 13/31), p.106, mentioned that $5,000,000 of the 1928 loan was ]used for this purpose. 174. Fellrnann Velarde , '3:138.

> 175. Fifer, ~olivia,pp.140-50. 176. Dunkerley, ~bliticsof the Bolivian Army, p.191.

.I . 177. Fellrnann Velarde, Historia de Bolivia,-'3:157. pa - 178. Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.218. 179. Klein, Bolivia, pp.176-7; Idem., Parties and Political Chansle, pp.109-14,- 180. Rauch, "The Green Hell ~ikWar," Air Enthusiast Quarterly 2 (n.d.):209. -

181. William Green, The Warplanes of t% Third Reich (Lon- \-\ don: Macdonald, 19701, p.405. Bolivia received the-f2st Jli 52m8 built, although other nations, including Ge@any, had * some on order. Fifer, "Bolivia's Pione~Fringe,"p.6. stat- /, ===/ ed that the airline .was heavily subsidized by the 'Bolivia'n. -- n. " government. - b ? s 182. Rather interestingly, the sights and bomb - raca a for, ". these civilian Junkers i4 34 aircraft turned up in almilitary - warehouse in Villa Montes in 1933. This incident is discuss- - ed in a book by Thomas Wewege-Smith, ran Chxo Adventure: the Thrillinq and Amazing Adventures of a Boliyian Air Caballero ondo don: Butchinson & Co., l937), pp.127, 142.- Wewege-Smith was a British 'mercenary pilot hired in 1933--on a one year contract--to fly one of t.he.Jynkers W 34s. 183. Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace Conference, pp.2i9- 21. - -- -- 184. Fenner ~rockwa~& Frederick Mullally, Death Pays a ~ividend(London: Victor Gollancz, 1944), p.8. '-+. 185. Garner, *he Chaco Dispute, pp.92-3,.

186. Bohumil Bad'ura, "Ceskoslovehsk$ zbrane a Diplomacie ve VAlcepo Gran Chaco," Sbornik Historicky 24 (1976):184. .. 187. Rauch, "Green Hell Air- War," p.210. O

------, 188. United States Government, "Hearings Before the special Commission Investigating the Munitions Industry," (40 ~ta.) United States-*senate,73rd Congress, washington, 'D.C., 1934-35, pp.726-8. 189. Ibid. 1 190. The '~erchantsof Death' theme was very popular with - the public in the 1930'~~and a considerable number of work6 on this subject were published. The more reliable; and.leas' sensational; books included: H.C.. Engewecht, One He1 1 of

~usiness(New York: Robert M. ~c~ride,1934) ; Philip Noel- ,- i Baker, The Private Manufacture of Armaments ilonddn: Victor .L Gollancz, 1936); and W. H. Williams, Who's Who in Arms (Lon- don: Labour Research Department, 1935). -The 'Merchants 02 - - Death' is3a very slippery subject because so little'documen-T ' tation cm*-armstransfers has med.

131. -Ehgelbrecht, One Bell of a Business, pi22. i f 192. Kfein, Bolivia, p.185, - i93. Max Winkler, Investments of United States Capital in Latin America (XU+., 1928),,p.76; Garner, The ChacoDispute, p.92; Marsh, pp.4-5. Paragtiay's exports were barely affect- d - I

- 1 U ------. - - - - - \- - , -- +

------' .

ed by the 1929 Depreasisn. Werner Baer, "The Paraguayan E'co- a nomic Condition: Past and current Obstacles to Economic aodernization," 1nte;-American ~conomic~f f airs 29 (Sumher

7 1975):Sl. ,+ - \ I 194. W. Fox, Tin (London: Mining Journal Books, 19741, p.64. 195. Marsh, Bankers in Bolivia,,p.4.

196. Garner, The Chaco Dispute, p.92; Marsh, Bankers in 2

Bolivia, p.4. Lo - 197. Dunkerley, Politics of the Bolivian Army, p.212. ~hese actions included cuts in military spending; Bs700,OOO in *I930 and Bcr?,800,008 in r931.Deapite these drastic measures - - the military budget as a pkrcentage-of government expenditures rose from -23.6 to 31.3.

* 198. Klein, Bdlivia, pp.182-4.

199. Malloy, Bolivia,' p.72. - - 200. Ciancio, La Guerra del Chaco, p.12.

'201. Fellmann- Velarde,- --- ~lstoriade Bolivia, 3:180. ------202. Porfirio Diaz Machicao, Historia de Bolivia: Salamanca; la querra del Chaco; Tejada Sorzano; 1931.-1936 (La Paz: Gis- bert y Cia., 19551, p.15. +- , . 203. DavEd Alv&tegui, ~alamanca,su qravitacibn sobre el destino de Bolivi, 3 vols. (La Paz: n.p,, 1957-62), 3:323.

, 204.'Paraguay, Ministerio de Relaciones' Exteriores, Los ori- ginha de la-guerra del Chaco (Asuncibnr Imprenta National, - 19341, p.16. SalamaXca, in 1931, called Paraguay the "peque- +k~paisw and "la &s miserable de la republiquetas sudameri- canaa".

205. Daniel Salamanca, Menzza-jes y memorias posturnas (Cocha- - bamba: Edit~rial~Canelas,19361, p.12. 206. Galarza, "debts, D4ctatorahip and Revolution,"~p.l08.

207. J.'M. de la Cueva, Bolivia: imperialismo y oligarquig (La Paz: Editorial Roalva, 1983), pp.56-7. i 208. Ciancio, La guerra del Chaco, p.12. - 209. Elmer ~avls,"Paradigm in Paraguay," New Republic 74

t >- ., 210. L., Iu Korableva, "Cbakskaia Voina v Osveshchenii Ameri-

kanskikh I~torikov,"Amerikanskii Ezhesodnik (1980):211. a.

211; "~he'~con6rnicsof the Chaco War," New Republic 74 (@. - G 22/34):33. I 212. Winkler, gp.77-9; see .also Marsh*, Bankere, --- r -- in + 213. Marsh, ~ankerain Bolivia, pp.4-5. - 8 . 214. Ibid., p.5.

215. Urioste, La fragua, p.24. o

' 216. Justo Rodas Eguino, La guerra del ~hacd(Buenoa. Aires, Ad bBCrnahe, 19381, pp.22-28. - - - .-- 217. Fellmann Velarde, Historia de Bolivia, 31145. A Para- . guayan Gold Peso was equivalent to Argenkina's Gold Peso--a' , legacy of th.e war' of the Triple Alloiance. In the^ 1920's ohe Argentine Gbld Pesa was equal to U$$0.9648. Winkl.er, Investments, _p,138>- - \ ------1- \ 8, 218. Fellmann ~el'arde,'Historia de ~ol=via,=3': 116. The quote comes from: Davis, gParadigm in Paragulay," p.38.' 6 9 219. Rout ,-Politics o5 the Chaco peace conference, pp. 58-9: . . 220. English, Armed Forces of Latin America, p.360.' C ff I. 221. Rauch, "Green ell Air War," p.210. ' .... 222. Rout, Politics of the Chaco peace-~bnference,p.5-4. -- 223. Fifer, Bolivia, ppL185-92. D. .

224. Horacio Carrilfo, EI ferrc5carril a1 oriente boliviano - - (Buenos Aires: Imprenta y Casa Editora "Coni", 1922); ------J ' . 225. Fellmann ~elarde,Historia de ~oli- 3:3!?, 51.

--. . ,A " 226. Rout, Politics of the ~hacoPeace Conference, pp. 56, 238; Fifer, 33oLfivia, pp.192, 221-23. 7 .* 227. Warren, ~araqua~~'*~.297. The argument -&=net Argentine

mediation and the country's neutral position in the dispute ' + between Bolivia and Paraguay canfalso be+found in Warren, < <.' ~3>~:>;+',&*-x~-b,?~&~ 2- r> - .- -.. ------. '* 4 d* - z6a a. a. " - 4-- *LA - - - --* - - a -- _ -A - - -2 ---, . , A ------. I -..- 123 ' - * ------. _,

_ --- 1 ------. A

- L ------< -- v 4 * and Rout, Poli a of the Chaco Peace conference, pp.141-88. -~out'saccount>~cusaee Saavedra Lamas' stazlling tactics; they were an attempt to aid Paraguayan demandsand Argentine influence in the area, - , 228. ~ifer,Bolivia, p.196. The author also talked of Dara- guay's fear that Bolivia wsuld place warships on the Para- -

guayaiver and reduce- Paraguay's-- security.A - _ - . - c- 229. Fellmann Velarde, Historia de Bolivia, 3:70. Bryce Wood, The United States and Latin American Wars 1932-1942 (New York: Columbia University, 1966):24.

230. Garner,- - The Chaco -Dispute, p.48.

231. Rout, Politics of the Ckaco Peace Conference, p.22. . P ih- 232. nanley 0. Hudson, "Recent ~erritdrialDisputes Before -C the ~ea~ue-ofNatione, w-, pp. 100-19, in, problems of Peace {Londona: George Allen & Unwin, 1934), p.115. z -- -- - 233. warren, Rebirth of theparaquayan Republic, p.162 -

234..Alfred M. Seiferheld, Econbmia y petrbleo durante la

querra -delCham LAsunciAn~EIElector,1 - - -

235. Harm Espe-jo, Bolivia en Sus Diversas Fases, p.105. I

23'6. Pedro N. Lbpez, Bolivia y el petrbleo. (This cafn be - aeen in the efforts of this author to clarify Bolivia's position.

237. See the works by; ~eiferheld,Econbmia y getrbleo durante la guerra del Chaco; Sergio Almaraz, *trbleo en Bolivia (La Paz: Editorial Juventud, 1958); and F. william Gonzalez, Historia del petrbleo boliviano y su defensa en la Oguerra del Chaco i~a~az: nap., 1981).

238. Lbwz, Bolivia y el petrbl'eo; Alcilzar, Abel It~rralde;~~ Harm Espefo, "801ivia en sus diversaspfases.

23% AS an =mpIe: @ein&"herican Oil Companies in Lath America: th'e Bolivian Experience," 1nter-~mericanEconomic Affairs' 18 11964); Mira Wilkins, "Multinathnal Oil Compa- nies in South Abrica in the 19208s," Business Elistory --

- 240. Seiferheld, Econbrnia y petrbleo, pp.447-58, He discussea each theme in turn. 241. James- Dunkerley, ~~l'iticaof the Boliwian Army, p.232.

242: Seiferheld, Ecogbmia y petrbleo, p.448.

C 243. Augusto Roa Bastoa, "Hacia el pluraliamo democrdtico'en Paraguay," Cuadernos- Hispanoamericanoa 408 (1984):9. h 244. Fellmann Velarde, ist to ria de Bolivia, 3:147.

A - -- 245. Elio M. Colle, El drama del Paraquay (Buenoa Aires: Editorial Claridad, 19361, p.105. 246. "Economics of the Chaco War," New Republic 74 (February - 22, 1934):33. - - -- r - - 247: Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America:' Ihtionalist Movements and State Companies ((New York: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 19821, p.195. , Rout*, Politics of the Chaco Peace Conference,

Seiferheld, Econbmia y petrbleo; p.449. Fifer, Bolivia, p.210. 1

Lbpez, Bolivia y el petrdieo, p.147. -- 252. Kain, "Behind the Ckco War," p.469. - -

253. Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace conference,-. - 254. Albert L. Danielson, The Evolution of OPEC. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 19821, p.99. - - J 255. Philip, Pi1 and Politics, p.8. Please note, however,, that Carter, Bolivia, p.21, suggested that oil reaerves in - 19.71 in the Chaco were estimated at 170 million barrels. Danielson, The Evolution of OPEC, p.74. - - - Ibid., p.111. - Philip, Oil and Politics, p.9.

Zbid., pp.15-19. , * -

Carl Solberg, Oil and Nationalism in Argentina: A - History. (Stanford: _Stanford University, 1999):54. 2621. Ralph W. Hiddy and Muriel E. Hiddy, Pioneerinq in bi Buaineae 1882-1911, History of Standard Oil Company, ~01.~3 (New York: Harper C Broa., 19551, pp.m-9.

263. Harold Francis Willialcison 61 ~rnoldR. pa&, The Ameri- can Petrelem Industry 2 vols., Vol. 1- 1859-1899 The Age of Illumination (Evanaton: Northwestern University Press, 1 ------1959),- 1~9. - - --

264. Lbpez, Bolivia y el-petrbleo, p.202. -

265. Philip,.Oil and--- Politics, p.193. A

t d 267.,Lbpez, Bolivia y el petrbleo, p.202. -- 268. Fellmann Velarde, Hil~toria de Bolivia, 3:47. 269. Ibid., 3:25. 270. Almaraz, Petrbleo en Bolivia, p.69. I' I' J 271. Marsh, .Bankers in Bolivia, p.15.

- -A ------P -- --- P------272. Klein, Bolivia, p.77. - - . 273. Fellmann Vefarde, Historia -de Bolivia, 3: 274. Parker, Bolivians of Today, pp.159-60. 275. Cleven, Political Organization, p.163.

276..- Klein, "American Oil Companies:" p.49. 277.'~lcdzar, Abel Iturralde, p.52.

- 278. ~chu.rz,Handbook, p. 138. + t

- -- - - P- - 279. Almaraz, Petrdleo en ~olivia,pp.70, 74. 280. Mareh, Bankera in Bolivia, p.60. 281. Philip, Oil and Politica, p.2,.- 282. Almaraz, Petrbleo en Bolivia, p.86. 28,3. Aldzar , Abel Iturralde, p. 52. 284. Almaraz, Petrbleo en Bolivia, p.81. There is the strong suspicion that- eve ring and Braden were agents- for Standard Oil--that company's poor reputation had precluded efforta to gain lucrative oil lands in Bolivia. Spruille Braden deniee this; in his memoirs, Diplomats and Demogoques: the Memoirs of Spruil.le Braden (New Rochell: Arlington Houae, 19711, he claims that he and his father sold their c~ncessionsbecauae ' of financial problems. They .were able to sell the -concession to Standard for a substantial profit. ------pa- - - 285. Almaraz, Petr&leQ en Bolivia, 286. Alcazar, Abel Iturralde. As an example, pp.28-9.

- - -- - 287. Solberg, Oil afid Nationalism in Argentina, ~~$3. -- 288. Standard Oil Co., Configeation: A History of the 0&1 Industry in Bolivia (New York: n.p., 1939), p.1. C - 1 289. solberg, Oil and Nationalism, p.52.. - : - 290. Philip, Oil and Politics, p.8.

t 291. George ,Sweet Gi'bb & E.H. Knowlton. The Resurgent Years: . 1911-1927. Historyof-Standard OilCo,, v301-~2. (New York: Harper & ROW, &954), p.382. 292. Ibid. - 293. Fellmann Velarde, H=istoria de Bolivia, 3:149.

29:4. Ibid., 3:86. Marsh, Bankers in ~olivrep.60. '

s 295. Almaraz, Petrbleo en Bolivia, p.70. - - 296, Philip, Oil and Politics, p.33. See note 53.

297, Actions described as stupid by U.:S. State Department -. -- officials. ------298. Klein, "American 'Oil Companies,"- pp.63-4.

- - ? - - - 299. Fifer,.Bolivia, p.222.

'a 'a 300. Philip, Oil and Politics, p.196. 301. ~ab,"Behin Chaco War," p.473. In the 1960'8 Bolivian engineer the problems associated with the transfer of oil coast; Bolivian oil7produc- tion in the lowland8\ cananow be pumped to Arica, ~h'ile. Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace Conference, pp;237--8.- 302. Philip, Oil and politics, p.193.

, - 303. Rout, Politics of the Chaco- P-eace 'conference, p.25. - ~. 304.. Philip, Oil and Politics, p.)7. I 305. Garner, The Chaco Dripute, p&33-4.

\< 306, Ldpez, La econhia de Bolivia, $s22_3.

r- 307. Kain, "Behind the Chaco War," p.470.

, . 309. itt tone, Las fuerzas armadas paraguayas, p.176. - , 310. Ibid., p.177'-

311. Dunkerley, politic* of the Bolivian Army,. pp.173, 175.

- , 312. Nunn, Yesterday's Soldier, p.121.

------313 ,Di az - ArqiiehXi~t~i~Le+&re-~-p.-335~ -- t - 9. 314. J.W. Lindsay, h he War over the Chaco," International - Affairs 14 (March 1935):234-5; Rout, Politics of the Chaco Peace Conference ,. p. 20. 315. Lavadenz, La ooloni.zaci6n en Bolivia, pp.65-6. 316. Di az Argiiedaa ,' Hiatoria del e jCrcito, pp. 515-6. 317. Vittone, Las.fuerzae armadas paraguayas, p.177,. 318. Diaz Argdedas, Historia del ejCrcito, pp.515-6.

2 319. Lavadenz, La colonizacih en Bolivia,'p.66. , - - -- - 320. Ameriagn Bankers Associatioh, The South Amerlcarr West CoaZ (?~ed'~ork: n.p., 19251, p.34. 321. Alcazar, Ahel Iturralde, p.173. - . 322. Fellmann Velarde. Historia de ~oiivia. 3:25. '.. r

324. Parker, Bolivians of 'Today, p.160. 325'. Fellmann Velarde, Histokia de Bolivia, 3:63. - 326. Ibid., ,3:78. - & - - - r w

327d Ibid., 3:103.- P P -228. Ibid., 3:97. --

- - A- , *--

-- 332. Fellmann Velarde, Historia 'de Bolivia, 3:63. 333. Marsh, Bankers in Bolivia; I p.61. --Z' \ I 334. Urioste, La fragua, p.7-8. 1 L*

335. ~eilaloza,Historia econ6mica de ~olivia,2 :221.1 336. Cbarle~~A.Gauld, The Last Titan:

- - !Stan_f_ord:institute of Hizpanic American- ~nd~uso-~rbz&-lian Studies,, 19641, pp. 240-1. Simon Hanson, "The Farquar Syndi- cate*in South America, " Hispanic American ~iz~rical,Review 17 (August 1937):314-26. Unfortunately, this articlie does not discuss in any detail Farquhar's extensive holdings in Bolifia and Paraguay. - P i L -4 TABLE 1

BOLIVIAN POPULATION: DEPARTMENTS AND CAPITALS , - OFFICIAL CENSUS OF 1846,1900,1950 -----r'------L-i DEPARTMENT ,1846 1900 1950 ------capital - -- LA PAZ 412867 426930 948446 La Pa5 42849 52697 321073 7 1 COCHABAMBA 279048 326163 490475 - - - - -mc-ha bamba so396 , 21881 80795 J ORURU b 95324 86081 210260 Oruru 5687 13575 62975 -

POTOSI 243269 , 325615 *- 534399 Potosi 16711 20910 45758

CHUQUISACA 156041 196434 ' 282980 -- Sucre 19235 20907 40128

-:TAR IJA , 63800 - 67887 126752 ' -it Tari ja 5129 6980 16869

I BEN1 48406 25680 119770 \ Beni 3J94 2556 10759

I -*- -

C' + / ' ...... TOTALS 1,378,896 1,633,610 3,019,031

SOURCE: Herbert Klein, Bolivia, p.297. * - * ------

\ -- A ------I \ II TABLE 2 +' ...... PARAGUAYAN LAND SALES 1875-1900 -- Publiclands Yerbales

'1875 ? 6

(area in hectares- includes land in Paraguay 'proper) SOURCE: H,G. Warren, Rebirth of the,Paraquayan Republic, p.172. 1 TABLE 3

SOURCES: Her&&- Klein, Bolivia, p.,298. Eduardo Arze ~uadrga. La economia de Bolivia, p.248. Luis.Pefiafoza, La econhich ae Bolivia, 2:166; 1 -

,J- , - . , ------A L--- -- * *- . -.- -.-. 132

L 1

9- - - ,. ------* I - - 0

- - - --. ------e - - ..- '.. * 8 - TABLE. 4 -- e . Y -- BOLIVIA & PARAGUAY POP ON ...... 'a GOVERNMENT REVENUE \

YEAR REVENUE fl , ' EXPEND POPULATION , Bolivia Paraguay Bolivia Pafaguay - paraguay

Bs SF Bs , ? - - --

D 1855 6 7 os 8 9 -' 1860 , 2224286

2.. 1 * ,2 3

..I 4 525000

5 ' 6 7 8 9

- 1870 1 2 3 4 ?f 5 6 7 8 9 1880 1 2 3 4 5 ---- 6 7 8 9 1890 '1 - next page) -, ,-* ?"'L'3 . > 4 . .. ,. *+ - - - - _ i - '__>- -C1 ---A- 4-- - -- r

-. 13 3 ' t

------* - - - I 1 ' %

- - -- - . - q (Table 4 continued) > - 2 2731507 3 5859266 - - 4 4910472 - 5 512'&43 -- - 5 6 5832867 7 5752841 . ,-- 8 9383135 9 9170312 - 1900 9856963 490719 1. 6223000 11412746 7483000 2 6503000 11018316 8725000 3 15392704 11531068 4 7232000 ,r-- 8555000 , - -- 5 7858000j - 9502000 6 10402000~ 11689000 7 13167000d 14614000 8 11604000! 18619000 9 11847004 10116000 1910 12744000[, 13540000 1 16914000 -, 18151000 - 2 20165000 17237000 S 3 22019000 J 22074000 d I/ Y* r d 4 18901000 I 19940000-. Y 5 12826000 $ 14791000!+':k.. 613399 , ------6 Fi907.000 -30709D3 1-8568006" 34-88506 622600 d-7 19. 050 21922000 631939 M-i -b B 2&%00 29149000 i 641419 9 em977000 , 32236000 651000 1920 30552000 31848000 - 660806 1 23@7000 - 31060000 6707~8 2 22943000 ' 36466000 q 680779 3 ' 30216000 -2868209 35448000 3541967 690996 4 43063-000 .a 41495000 , 70136.1 5 41957000 . 33342000 800000 ,. 6 44829006 I I 48399000 812000 <7 5b86244' 5146461 824000 8 44894000 ' 5948782 54478000 9 48346000 54081000 843905

' 1930 ,34668000 6427419 43373000 6220341' -

fsmkEst -- Eduardo Arze Cuadros, La economia de Bolivia, pp.241,256,446. Arthur ~liiot,--Paraguay, pp. 10, 37-8.

Harris Warren, ?Aniceto Arce 19'41 , Francisco Argondoha 437 . Manuel Argondona 172 Candelaria Argondona 176 Daniel Alvarez 280. Hermanos Ortola 29 Hermanos Dorado 1109 Adolfo Costa du Rels 22 Juan A. Ferndndez 22 Hermano Per6 491 Fblix Recilla 59 dD CHILEANS Ezequiel y Elias Balmaceda - 125

H&ctor Boeche 12- - - ~elchorConcha y Toro 355 Enrique Concha 324 Domingo Concha 44 Pedro Cuadro 5 RAmon ~onoso 18

, Gregorio Donoso 77 Pedro Huerta 26 Javiek ~uidobro* 54 ' , Rafael Larrain 35 misc. 198

TOTAL % 6000

SOURCE : Eduardo. .Arze Cuadros, La economi a de Bolivia, p.246. 1 - TABLE 6 i ...... BOLIVIAN & PARAGUAY PRESIDENTS: 1880-1936 ...... DATE BOLIVIA PARAGUAY 1880 . Narciso 'campero Bernardino Caballero - A--- 1884 Gregorio a Pacheco d 1886 Patricio EScobar -

1888 Aniceto Arce -- - - 1890 J. Gualberto Gonzdlez 1892 Mariano ~=~tista 1894 Marcos Mori nigo 1895 J. Bautista Eguzquiza 1896 S. Fernandez ~lorko 1898 Emil io Aceval 1899 J. Manuel Pando 1902 Hector Carballo 1903, Juan A. Escurra . 1904 Ismael Montes Juan Bautista Gaona 1905 Cecilio BAez .' 1906 - Benigno ~erreira 1908 E. GonzAlez havero 1909 - Eliodoro Villazbn 1910 Mapuel Gondra 1911 Albino Jara et a1 -- - *&m-pe&a-t--& ------1912 ' - 1913 Ismael Montes Eduardo Schaerer 191% Manuel Franco

1917 J. Guti6rrez Guerra 6 a 1919 Jose Montero 1920 Manuel Gonard 1921 Bautista Saavedra Eusebio Ayala 1923 Eligio Ayala 1924 Luis A. Riart 1925 Felipe GuzmAn Eligio Ayala -- 1926 Hernando Siles 1928 J. Patricio Guggiari - 1930 Junta Militar . 1931 Daniel Salamanca

1932 Eusebio Ayala - 1934 J.L.Tejada Sorzana -1336 David R. Toro

SOURCES : Herbert Klein, Parties and,Political Chanqe, p.411. Harris Warren, I Paraguay, pp. 357-8. ' - a4i - f I- Table 7

...... tonnage '% Bs. % CHILE ' 97719024 80.95' 155599118 85.21 Arica . 46340558 65797316 v Antofagad 33276357 46294684 ,Mejillones 5107346. 38197527

PERU

Mollendo , Punc.

ARGENTIIVA La Quiaca Bal f ividn Tartagal

BRAZIL 5653405 4.68 11142826 6.11 Porto Velho 1895616 3750636 ~3 *Para 1612983 3879658 '-. Puerto Acre 1231552 3000009 ...... Pt, Sydrez 913344 519522. SOURCE: William Schurz, Bolivia', p.57, -

-- B - - TABLE 8 ...... FORTINES DATE ' COUNTRY FORTINES AREA

1662 ? (5) ;*

- 1879 Paraguay ? V. Hayes 1880 ~olivia ?. SW rjhaco

4. Bolivia Bella Esperanza Peru' I1 .a Crevaux SW Chaco 11 Quijarro n w Campero I1 11 C. Fotheringham , Gen. Viejobueno

Bolivia Aboroa I 1900 Paraguay Galpbn NE Chaco n ' 1900 x Patria 11 . ? Nanawa ' Chaco Bdivia D'Orbi-gny H Guachal la n Murillo

Crevaux ' Campero Ball ivih . .. ' > I.. Esteros -, .-: Linares - -. 'f<$ Bol ivia Sorpresa Chado w MuAoz n n (I Cuatro Vientos

N Tinfunque n- A1ihuata

Paraguay 2 >-- Bolivia San Matias ~haco 5 N . Vitriones rn n Paredes n - n> Pando n - (Table 8 continued -on next page) Paraguay Boquerbn Chaco w To1 edo w

Bolivia Vanguardia I NE Chaco w 14 de Deciembre Chaco I

Paraguay Carlos A. Lbpez Chaco ., Bolivia D.P. Ferndndez It n Cabezbn w Platanillos w Arce I1 Bal liviAn Ravelo n Napducay 11 . Ingilvi Paraguay Corrales Bolivia Jayacubas Bolivia Bolivar Chaco 11 Loa 1I w Camacho '1, w ...... Col. R-ermosa II , SOURCES: This section is compiled irom a considerable - number of source.s. ,There is no one source which can be reli- r ed on to pr~&e-dtatxforthe-the-eatakti8h-mentafal1------fortines. At this time the table is incomplete. There were considerably more fortines built in the mid-1920's and the two years prior to outbreak of full-scale war in 1932. - e Authors consulted included Josd Lavadenz, Olaf Storm, Carlos FernAndez, Jos6 Fellrnann Velarae, Luis Vittone, Porfirio - Diaz Machicao, Julio Diaz Arguedas, Roberto Querajazu Calvo, and Emetio Cano de la Vega. I TABLE 9 BOLIVIAN TIN PRODUCTION 1897-1935 3 DATE ORE BARILLO REVENUE f /ton

8 48800 29280 129611140 329.5 9 48500 29100 99924440 257.5 - 1920 47050 28230 112282400 296.1 1 - 31810 19086 42909300 165.4 2 53480 " 32088 67911790 159.5 3 50430 30258 80612470 202.3 4 53440 32064 84220180 248.8 5 54330 32598 79618760 261.1 6 53640 32184' 83321870 291.1 7 66620, 39792 97838020 289.0 8 76470 42074 89710120 227.3 9 85180 47081 102590520 204.0 1930 69030 38772 74866163 142.0

'I 55714 31637 48386220 118.0 - ' ,2 38796 20918 37122307 136.0 -- 3 ?%&IM7556fE233- rn 4 41019 23202 99574011 230.0 5 49531 25282 115071909 226.0 ------L--

- s0f)Rces: , x Eduardo Arre ~uadros, La. economi a de Bolivia, p. 250. Herbert Klein, Parties and Political Chanqe, p.397. Luis ~efialoza,La econbmica de Bolivia, 2:208-65. A - TABLE 10 - BO~~VIANLOANS 1908-1934 ------*------YEAR . LOAN Anlbunt ...... 1908 J. P. Morgan - •’500,000 8.0 9

1910 Banco de la Nacibn •’1,500,000 5.0 -- - - 1 t 2 3 Credit Mobilier •’l,OOC,OOO 5 4 X6.8 15.9 14.1 Chandler, Equitable Trust $2,400,000 6.0 18.1 A 20;8 19.3 Ulen Contracting $2,253,000 6.0 21.3 17.4 Stiffel-Nicolas, Equitable $~~,OOO,OOO8.0 15.8 16.4 Anglo-South American Bank $2,916,000 8.0 17.1 . ' Patifio (private) = •’600,000 8.0 17.7 . 17.5

- Dillon, Read - 6- $14I ~GO--@O@- I 7 . -18--1f--- Dillon,,Read F $23,000,000 7.0 17.0 4 18.0 t- , . 17.8 17.8 2 ? (U.S.) $20,000,000 ,? 14.6 3- 12.3 4 Swiss Bank Corp. •’525,000 ? '11.9

SOURCES : Arthur Elliot, Paraguay, pp.38-9. Margaret Marsh, Bankers iri Bolivia. New Republic 74 (1!333):33. Philip ~oel'~aker,Private Manufacture of Armaments,

p.219 --

Albert~Pafacios, "Economic Conditions of Bolivia",-- -- / --

BPAU:784-5. -- --- Luis Pefialoza, La econ6mioa de ~olivia,2: 150, 185, -- 233-4. 9 --l Harris Warren, Rebirth of a Republic, pp.232-3. -- - Marsh provides the majority of information presented in%. this table. In addition, her work provides a great deal of documentation on the terms of the individual loans. EXPORTS, ' IMPOl'.TS: PARAGUAY, 1930

Country - - Exports- Imports- Argentina \ Belgium

England *

France

Germany

Italy , Japan

Spain

, - - Uruguay' SOk RCES: Bulletin Pan American Union 65 (1931):665. Bulletin Pan American Union 62 (1928):826. Figures in Argbntine Gold Pesos ~ranciscoHokst Salin. TAR

-- - - - Eduardo Harres - - - I _------Pa f d Santa Cruz y Jos4 Froildn Po Sara SC &' Surutu i Mandiuti Sindicato Sucre Azer'o iCH Vit iacua R 11 1- Comaaait i I1 t perserverancia Angel Ibdfiez

Juanita Octavio GuzmBn ' Caupol LP , I n n .I San Ram4n.-;-,' * San Ernesto It ' I1 I

- I I Santa Rosa V. Saavedra Sara qC

Carmen ' Rambn Correa Sara SC La Previsora Miguel Velhco Sara SC Los Compadres ' Alej. Vargos 0. Vallggr. SC Pilgrims Hart Mix Azero CH Progrese La Incendiaria Seis de Agonto San Jorge I Riqueza w ~ 25 de Mayo Jorge V -- La Descubierta La Auxiliadora 9t San Martin -, El CBrmen Las Fuentes Venus Diana \ I PioGiZ ~6stor Azero ICH Copacabana Favio Es*T inoza Pacajed LP - - Remedios Porf irio Pareja Sicasiqa LP San Antonio . A. Camponovo Pacajes LP Maria Esther , ~nrique-~alombo * I Dalrnacia M. Miloslavich n

(Table 12 continues next page)

-- - (Table 12 continued)

- t 128 La Proveedora Luis A. IbdAez, Cerpado SC 7850 Enriqueta' Ivar Hoppe Chacu TAR 208 San Estebdn . M. Ciscovich Pacajes LP 3000 Triple Alianza A. Fornelio Ch. n

1914 10000 Matilde - A. del Carpio Chaco TAR 1914 1400 Buena Fortuna Guill. Fichner tt ------. 1914 80 San Juan EstebAn Cblac Picajes LP " 1914 500 ~l~~~orvenir~i~uel~eldsco Cercado SC *I 1914 500 La Central - " B

1914 500 Iq Esperanza n 1914 3156 EA Campamento 11 {J

1914 20000 T.ar$gle jas Angel Sandoval Cordillera - - 1gX4 15000HFTacuru n " SC i-- -'I914 300000 Parapeti n 11 1914 75000 Pirapb II 11 1914 399850 Lagunillas Carlos ,Calvo n 1914 500000 Blanca J. M. Aponte *I

1915 5000 Porvenir . 2 Alej. Cdrdenas Paca jelqLP 1915 30000 Blanca Vilda ' C. Castellanos Chaco TAR 191 5 64 Primitiva - alv. Campero I1 1915 48900 Ayacucho Ivar Hoppe Azero CH n 1915 200000 Progreso __ Poderosa' de ------.- - - Bbl iviano Chuquisaca w w r 1916 300000 Demasias 1916 200000 Bona arte 11 *I 1916 22600 San %rge Sindicato Sucre Chaco TAR 1916 120000 Jog& Miguel A. Bonilla R. Caupol. LP Carrera - 1916 400" " 2orgk Cerverb n 1916 7000 San Francisco D. Rivadeneira Pacajes LP - 1916 lOObO La Codiciada Guillermo Afiez Vallegr. SC 1916 3600Verdun . Marcos Vega 11 1916 4000 La Inexpugnable Samuel Villazbn " 1916 100000 La Unibn . Gregorio Moreno " " 1916 - - I00 Los 3 Socios- .Ignacio Arana Cordill. SC 1916 . 30 Bolivi'ana Guillermo Afiez Nuflo de ------Ch-&vez SC-- - 1916 30 San Pedro Maria Mancilla - I1 ; -- -- ;206$66 El -E+mvmw-- uailon ISercado Cercado Si

I917 5 'La PaceRa C. del wsfillo ' Murillo LP - 1917 125425 Caupolicdn y Carlos &&as rn - - - Ca f &cot0 s 1917 9000 ~delmira Jos& Montellano Chaco TAR - (Table 12 continues next

C - - - (Tablk 12 continued)

1917 10000 ~aralela'la Jos6 Zamora H. 1917 2000 Paralela 2a Gerardo GuzmAn 1917 10000 Montellano - M. - Baldivieso 1917 500 San Francisco Mois& Blacut 1917 84 Pi'edra Buena bavid Blacut 1917 150 El CArrnen Adriana Blacut 1917 184 Colon. Moisds Blacut 1917 300 Proviaencia Il 1917 1400 La Igualdad Manuel Lbpez C 1918 420 Salvadora Moisgs Blacut 11

SOURCE: Pedro Lbpez, Bolivia y el petrbleo, pp.257-60. CODES: CH= Chuquisaca: SC= Santa Cruz; LP= La Paz AP TAR=*Tari ja (1 h, This table was compiled by Lbpez prior to Bolivian acceptance of the transfer of the Braden and Levering concessions to Stanqard Oil in 1921. Lbpez represented an extensive segment of the populace against Standard Oil being allowed to enter Bolivia. Lbpez's book does not include many official concessions prior to 1900 but we know from Klein, "American Oil Companies", p.48, that the 1880's and 1890's were a period uf- stxung natieal--in*er-egk-i-~-og-, an& -the-mw-eompitn L ee- -- were given large concessions to exploit. Who owned these concessions, where they were located, and what happened to them cannot be answered at this time. Table 13

Oil Production in Bolivia ...... -. YEAR Camiri Bermejo Sanandita

SOURCE : Alfre3-Seiferheld, Economia y petrbbeo, pp.457-8. note: his figu'res are in cubic rnetrv MAPS

SOUTH AMERICA ). \ MAP 2 BOLIVIA AND- PARAGUAY

BRAZIL MAP 3 THE CHACABOREAL: GEOGRAPHY, CENTRES

'VlU MONTES A AA PARAGUAY : 19.32 - -n f - MAP 5 - - PROTOCOLS: 1879-1894 MAP 7

BOLIVIA8S PACIFIC C'OAST: 1825-1884

BOLIVIA

. mAP 9 1. BOLIVIA'S RAIL NETWORK: 1868-1925 MAP 10 - -- - - , - _i

,\K , '$ .-!

I I '\. ;.: .- --, -A. . , d .

8.- . i . 1 ' MAP 11 ' I 8. 1 ~RTINES

-* P BOLIVIAN TWHS

IPURIICUWAII TW&I , -

0 BOL~IANFORTINES

PIRA6UIYIM FORTIYES WU

4 t ------+ l! 4 MAP 12 OIL IN BOLIVIA GLOSSARY

-- Audiencia-:can be ti-anslated as Royal Court. Nominally - Audie~cesare judicial divisions; however, a few audiencias (Charcas) incorpqrated political power in addition to their legal.functions. Caliche- these were conglome'l.ates of salt cokpounda, - rich in-nitrates, found inland in the driest areas of verythe * - - Atacama desert. # - Fortin- military garrisons in the outlying frontiers of Bolivia and Paraguay; they could be substantial structure with proper defences or temporary buildings sufficient to protect the occupants from the elements. Golpe- a change of'government by means of a revolutio - 3 G~ano~theaccumulation of hundreds of years of bird dropp-

ings found at specific locations along the west coast of a South ~rnericafrom Peru to Chile. -These accumulations occa- 4 sionally reached 30 metres. M.N.R. - Movirniento ~acionalistaRevolucionario; a moderate leftist party in Bolivia which, while in power from 1952-64, began the first systematic development of Bolivia's eastern

lowlands. ' Protocol- the copy of a treaty prior to>government ratifica- tion. ,= Quebracho- an extremely hard and insect-resistant tree; these features made it perfect for railroad cross-ties. Its - wood could also be essed to produce tannic acid which- - _ was,used for - >' - - Uti Possidetis de jure- "that who owns by law"- a region belonged to a country because of legal and not economic or political defintion. Uti ~o&idetis de facto- the country that politically and economically dominated a region owns it.' 1

viceroyalty- the district/province ntrolled by a Viceroy s -& f P AlcAzar, Mois4s. Abel Iturralde, el centinda del - petrbleo. La Paz: Editorial "La Paz",' 1944.

Alexander, Robert J. Bolivia: Past, Present, Fl,?tureof --- Its Pulit-ics, Sanford: Praeger/Hoover, 1982.

Almaraz, Sergio. '~etrbieoen Boliv'ia. La Paz: Editorial Juventud, 1958.

Alvarado, Julio. El balancede la experiencia socialista 1Madrid: Artes Graficos y Editorial, 1969.

- - --. ------pp .Alv&stegui, David. Salamanca. 3 vols. N.p.: Talleres Grdfico Bolivia~os,1957-62.

American Bankers Association. The South American West Coast. ?New York: ~1.p.~1925.

Arze Cuadros, Eduatdo. La econdmia de Bolivia. La Paz: Editorial "Los Amigos del Libro", 1979.

/ Baer, Werner. "Paraguayan Economic Conditions: Past and

Currc~tUbstacles to no& Rodern-ization. " ------Inter-American Econom ffairp 29 (summer 1975):

49-43, -/ ------F

BAez, Cecilio. The Paraquayan Chaco. New York:In.p., 1904.

Bad'ura, Bohumil. Ceskoslovensk& Zbrane a Diplomacie ve Vdlce o Gran ~ha&o. Sbornik ist to rick^ 24 ..- (1976):137-85. 'Barros Boy=, Luis. The Problem of thePacific a& Lhc New Policies of Bolivia. Baltimore: Sun Job Printing Office, 1924.

Bedregal, Guillermo. Los militares en-Elolivia.

La Paz: Editorial Los Amigos de& Libro, 1971. - ----

Blanco Galindo, Carlos.-Reaumen de la historia militar de Bolivia. La Paz: Talleres de Intendencia de Guerra, 1922. ,

- - 1 -

Bolivia [a journal published in New York1.z "The Settlement o"•’.theQuestion of Tacna and Arica'necessarily affects Bolivia. Our Rights in the Akea are Clear - and Definite..." Bolivia CSept/Oct. 1929): 3-5, 17-21.

Bolivia 4Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores). Rumbo a1 mar. La Paz: n.p., 1963. *. Borchard, E .M. "Tat5na-mica ~ontsovers~." F~reign-ATfii~ ------1 (Sepgember 19221:29-484 - Braden, Spruille. Diplomats and Demoqogues: the Memoirs of Spruille Braden. New Rochelle: Arlington House, 1971. e rock man, J.R. "Bolivia ~ooksto the Sea: Efforts to Regain a Port." ~rnericas$34 (1976):380-1.

Byockway, Fenner & Frederick Mullally. Death Pays a

Dividend. London: Victor Gollancz, .1944. . 7F

Bulletin Pan American union. "Recent Economic Progrese rn Paraguay." Bulletin Pan American Union 62 (1928): 822-6. - . "Paraguay." Bulletin Pan American Union 65 (1931):664-5. \ I

C Cano de la Vega, Emiterio. The Bolivian and Paraguayan Boundary DiBpute. New York: Bolivian Consulate

General, 1927. '

Carrillo, Boracio. El ferrocarril a1 oriente boliviano. Buenos Aires: Imprenta y Casa Editora "Coniw, 1922.

I barter, William. Bolivia. New York: Praeger, 1971.

Centuribn, Carlos R. Historia de la cultura paraquaya. 2 vols. Asanci6n: Ortia Gtterrero, 1961.

Child, Jack. Geopolitics and Conflict in South America. 4 i . New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1985.

Christman, Calvin Lee. The Chaco War: A Tentative , Bibliography of Its Diplomacy. The Americas.26 (1969-70):54-65. +

A Ciancio, Pedro N. La gucrra del Chaco. Buenos Aires: La Vanguardia , 1933..

~ieven.N. Andrew. "Dispute Between Bolivia and Paraguay. " Current History.29 (January 1.929):661-3.

. The Political Orqanization of Bclivia.' Washington: Carnegie. Institute, 1940.

Colle, Elio M. El drama del paraquay. Bums Aires: Editorial -Claridpd, 1936. -- - --

I I - - - - - + - 7 -- - - I - Commission of Inquiry and Conc liation. "Bolivian- Paraguayan Boundary Dit pute." Bulletin Pan American Union 63 (1929):1077-97. 1 v P ~oibett,Charles D. The Latin Lericin Miclitary as a Socio-Political Force. Coral Gablea: Centre For 1 Advanced International Studies, 1972. Danielscin, Albert L. The Evolution od OPEC. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982.

Davis, Elmer. "Paradigm in ~araguay.I' New Republ ic %74 -(February 22/34):32-4.

De-Rande, Philip. Paraquay: a Gallant Little Nation: New Yark: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1935.

De Wilde, .John C. South American Con•’1 icts: he Chaco and - --- Leticia. Foreiqn Policy Reports 8 (May 24/33):58-66. -'-'I J --- Dtaz Arguedas, Julio* Historia del ej6rcito de Bolivia 1825-1932. La Paz: n.p., 1940. boyle, Hen* G.' "Bolivia and Paraguay Moving Towards Settlement of the Chaco Dispute." Current History - , 31 (November 1929):375-8. ------J -

ii Duguid, Julian. Green Hell: A Chronicle of Travel in the Forests of Eastern Bolivia. London: The Century Company, 1931 i Dunkerley, James. The Politics of the Bolivian Army: Institutional"Development to 1935. Ph. D. Dissertation, Nuffield College, Unive Oxford, lQ79.

Eder, George. f flat ion and Development in ~atib~merica: a Case History of Inflation and Stabif ization 1r1 - Bolivia. Ann Arbor: University of ~ichiganPre~s,

- -- - - 1x8. i

Elliot, Arthur Elwood. Paraquay: its Cultural Heritaqe, Social ~ondithmsand EducaEia~Prob~erm. New York: -- Columbia University Press, 1931.

Encina, Francisco A. Las relacignes entre Chile y Bolivia (1841-19631. asantiago: Editorial Nascimiento, 1963. Escobar Cueicanqui, ~or~e.El derecho a1 mar. La Paz: Editorial Juventud, 1964.

Engelbrecht, H.C. One Hell of aSBusiness. New York: Robert'M. McBride, 1934.

English, Adrian. "The Chaco Waran Defence Journal 109 (1979):350-8. er - - -

/ -. Armed Forces of Latin ~merica.yndon: Janes's, -,/ 1984. Y C

Estigarribia, 'JosC F. The Epic of the Chaco: Marsha& Estiqarribia's Memoirs ofsthe Chaco War 1932-1935.

4 Austin: University of Texas, 1950

La Paz: Editorial "Los Amigos del Libro", 1970.

+, Ferndndez, Carlos Jose. La guerra del Chaco. 4'vol.s. "Buenoa Aires: Pellegrin, 1'956-? -

0 Fifer, J. Valeries "~o~ivia'sPioneering Fringe." Geoqraphical Review 57 (January 196'7):l-23. L

+ . Bolivia: Land, ~ocatlonand Politics Since 1825. Cambrkdge: Cambridge University, 1972. '

- d Fletcher, G. R..i. "Santa Cruz: a Study of Economic Growth in Eastern 8ol %via. Triter-Ameacan -~fc~noKlc%ffair s - - 29 (Autumn 19.751323-41.

Fox, Wiffiarn. Tin. &ondon& --

Freires Esteves, Luis. El Paraguayan constitucional %, 1870-1920.- ~uenwAires: G. Pefia y Cia, 1921. /- Fretz, Joseph Winfield. Pidqrirns in Paraguay: the Stdry of ~ennonite'~

i Gala za, Ernest. "Debts, Dictatorship and h&volution In 5 . Bolivia and Peru." Foreign Policy Reprt 7 (May 4.3Li'3if :101-18. ' . - - --

/ I Gandia, Enrique de. Historia de Santa Cruz c#e la Sierra; \una nueva reptlblica en Sud America./~uenoahires: Talleres ~rdficos,Argentinos.de L.4. Rosso, 1935.. -- a. I Ganzerk, Frede#ic willlam. "The Boundary Cantroversy in the

i 'upper Amazon Between Brazil, Bolivia, and'peru, I -- 1903-1909. Hi'spanic American Historieak Review 14 (November 1934):427-49. -

Garner, WiXliam R. The ~hacoDispute; Washington! Public Affairs Press, 1966.

Gauld, Charles A. The Last Titan: Percival Farquhar. Stanford: Institute o•’Hispanic American and Luso- Braziliag Studies, 1964. /--\ s \ i Geddes, Charles F. Patiho: the Tin ~j!n~. " - .. London: Robert Hale,

1972*/t--1

Geographical Review. "The Boliyia-Paraguay Boundary , Dispute." ~eoqraphicalReview 19 (1929):151-3.

'Gibb, George Sweet & E.H. Knowlton. The Resurgent yeare -- --- 1911-1927. History:-of Standard Oil Co., vol. 2. - R~ftoPk:ffappEreRUw, m. ------

~onzAlez,Antonio. ~reparabibndel Parasuay para la guerra del Chaco. Asuncih: nap., 1957. Gonzalez, Franklin William. Historia del Petrbleo Bolivia y au Def ensa en la,Guerra del Chaco. La Paz: nap., 1981.

Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. London : Macdonald, 1970.

Guachalla, Luis F. La cuestibn portuarik,~las negociaciones de 1950. La Paz: Editorial "Los Amigos del.Libron, 1976.

Hanson, Simon G. he Farquhar Syndicate in ~&th ~merica. Hispanic American Hisforical Review 17 (August 1937):314-26.

I arm Espejo, Carlos. Bolivia en sus diversas fases, Principalmeqte Econ6mica. Santiago: n.p., 1922.

Hiddy, Ralph\ W. Muriel E. Hiddy. Pioneering in Biq BrrsjilTess W-2-i-91 t;nrstoryuftheStarrdarct - -- Company, vole 3. New York: Harper & Bros., 1955.

,Hiraoka, Mario. "Settlement and Development of the Upper Amazon: he East Bolivian ~xamhle." Journal bf

8 Developins Ateas 14 (April 1980): 327-47.

Hudson, Manley 0. "Recent Territorial Disputes Before the ~ea~ueof Nations," pp. 190-19, in, Problem* of Peace. London: Ge.5rge Allen 6 Unwin, 1934. '

Kain, Ronald S, "Bolivia's Claustrophobia, " Eoreiqn Affairs 16 (1938):705-12.

. . "Behind the Chaco War." Current History 42 (19351: 468-74. li

Klein, Herbert S. *American Oil &mpanies in L4tin America." 1 nter American Econ-omic 8ffairs 18 (autumn 1964):47-72. . "Ddv~dToro anq.the EstabJishment ,ofj "Military SocialismH in Bolivia." Hispanic . American Historical Review 45 (February 196.5)-: a - 25-52.

I . Part.ies and Pol-itical.Change in Bolivia ------1880-1952. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969. a . Bolivca: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic . society .- York: bkersity,of 0'jrfol.d , 1982. -- --- 7

I . Korableva, L. Ui. "~hakskaiaVoina V Osveshchenii ~meri,'

kansklkh Istorikov." Amerikanskii ~zhegod~Q' (1980):196-215.

~avidenz,~os&. La colonizacibn en ~d.liviadurante 15 rimera centuria de su independencia. La Paz:

Fallere'sGraficos de la Intendencia de ~uerra, . a . d

, League of Nations. Armament Yearbook. 1932. Geneva: n.p., 1932. I

.League of Nations Chaco Commission. Dispute Between

Bolivia and and P,araquay. Geneva: n.p., 1934 .a

Lewis, Paul H. Paraguay.qnder ~troessner.Chapel Hill: , University of North Carplina Press, 1980. '" b f"

*hipez, ~edrdN. Bolivia y el petr6leo. 5,

La Paz: ntpt. 1922. --- .4 za

Machicao, Porfirio Diaz. Historia/- de Bolivia. VoL. 1: Salamanca, La Guerra dhl Chaco, Te jada. ~o'rzano, d 1931-1936. La Paz: Gisbet y ,Cia, 19h. 0 \ - - r - Z Ma1 loy , James M. Bolivia, the Uncampleted Revolution. A Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970.

,Marah, Margaret A. The Bankers in Bolivia. New York: vaPg$ar& Press, 1928.' ' B

Meneses, Romulo. El impqrativo qeogrAf9co. La Paz: Editorial Renacimiento, 1943.

~ond>in,Pierre., "La Guerre du Chaco: Paraguay Contre > Bollvie (1932-1935)." Revue,Historique 267 (1982): 43-64.

I 9 Montenegro, Carlos. Frente a1 derecho ael estado el oro "e "e la Standardtoil. La Psz:>ditorial Trabajo, 1938.

------

New ~e~u~1LC. "EmnoEi1 c-p- s of, thepChaFo-War.+ -NewpRepuilic " 74.(February 22; 1934):32-4. . Noel Baker, philip. The Private Mantifacture of Armaments. London: Victor Gollaqcz, 1936.

Nunf,Frederick. Yesterday< Soldiers. * Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1983.

~sbohne,Harold. Bolivia. London: Univplisity of 0kfo;d .* Cr Press, 1964.

Bulletin of the Pan American Union 59 (1925): 774-88. . Paraguay (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores).Los oriqines de la querra del Chaco. -Asunci&p: Imprenta National, 1934. * -.

Parker, William. Bolivians of Today. 2nd ed. ' 6, .London: Hispanic Society of America, 1922.

Pena y Lil lo Escobar , Abei . Bolivia, prisoner0 rqeagr&iE de America. La Paz, -nap.,1980. I, *. % Peifaloza, Luis. lfistpyla econ6mic;t'ade Bolivia. 2 vofs. .d La Paz: n.p. ,w1953-4.

: Philip, George. The Military in South London: Croom Helm, Ya5 / - . Oilhand Polil5ics En South America: NStionaZi. Movements and State companies. New Yark: cambridge'

University1 - Press,- - - - -1982. ------

Pincus, Joseph. The Economy of Paraquay. < New York: Frederick A. Praggdr, 1968.

Querejazu Calvo, ,Roberto. Masamaclay: historia poljtica, diplomAtica y militar de la querra del Chaco. 6- La Paz: n.p.,1965. '

Rauch, Georg von, "The Chaco War." Armies and ~~apons I 28 (November 1976):fi3-9. 1 0 I

. "The Green Hell Air War." Air Enthusiast Quayterly'! -2 ------2 f no*. +: 2B7-23. I i--

I Rios, Angel F.-La dpfensa del Chaco: verdadee y mentiras de I nna victoria\ Bnenas Aires: Editorial Aymcb, i 1950~ \ . . Roa Bastos- Augusto. "Hacia el pluraligmo d&norrdtico en I Paraguay." Cuadernos ~ispano~mericanos#lo8 t- a (1980):s-17. ' , -- il

c b e Robs Eguino, Justo. La guerra del.Chaco. Buenos Aires: A. Bernabe, 1'938.

Romecin, ~duardo: "Agricultural ~da~tationin -Bolivia."

fl Geoqraphical -Review 19 (1929):248-55. , - sl ie B. Jr . Politics ofp the Chaco ~,eaeeConference , 35-1939. Austin: University of Texas, 19JQ.

Sampognaro Virgi lio. ~auG*geographicas de la gGerra ' del Chaco. Jena: Verlag yon WiIheJm GronAu, 1935. I . . Schurz , W.L. Bolivia: ,A. ~o&;rcill +arid Industrial ..Handbook. ,/ Washington: Government Pr.i?ting Office,*1921. v

The ~hacoDispute Between ~olivi~and Paraguay. Foreign Affairs 7' (1928/9P:650-5.. -

Schwerdtfeger, Werner (ed.).'~l'imatesof Central and south America. World'Survey of ~llmatdlogyVolume 12. Y

Amsterdam:Elsevier Scientific Publishinq 1 c . Company ,' 1976. "s .a Seiferheld, Alfrecfo M. EconomCa spetrdleo durante la , guerra del' Chaco,. .Asunci&n: EI Lector.,,l9@3.

p- - -p ---- solberg, Carl E.*Oil ana Nationalism in ~rqentlna:.~~ History. Stanford: stanford ~niversity,~ress,1979. , )r _ e Speratti. ~uan.~iatoria* de. la armada national' en -el perioda - . 1925-1937. Asunkidn: Talleres Grdficos Salesiana, - 1972; -

Standard Oil Co. ~&fiscation: A Historyr of the 011 --- ~ndustryin Bolivia. ~ew'York: n.p., 1939. .?> , (. --7 Tambs, Luis A. "Rubber, Re$ls and R~OBrahco: the Conquest Y for the Acre." His anic American Historical Review 46 (August 1966):2q4-73. o

United States Government. Relakinq to the Fpreign

Relations of the SQtes, 1882. -Washingtsn: ------L -- - Government Printing ~ffick,1883.

a I -- . Hearinqs Before the Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry (40 parts).

- -- Y,Sc Senats-l3rd CoOngress- Persucnt t~ S, Res 206- ---- *------" Gov boc Y4. m92:H35 Pt I-4Q (1934-6).

Urioste, Ovidio. La4 fraqua; comprende la primera faz d_e_ 1s campafia del Chaco hasta la caida de Boquerbn-.y el. abandon0 de Arce. ?La Paz: ne.p., 1933? b '

Warren, Harris G. ~araiuay:An ~nforhalHistory. * ~~rrnan:ri.-.~niversity. . of Oklahoma, 1949

a . ~ebitthaf the Paraquayan"Republic: the First . . , 1878-1904.'~ittsburgh:University of ress, 1985. a.

, Wilkins, Mira. ",~&iaational Oil Companiesrin Sputh A America in/ /ihd 1920's. " ~pbinessHistory Review ' 48 (Autumn 1974)?14-46. ------I -

-- - + Wil liarnson, Eiarold Frances & Arnold R. paum.- The American _ _ Petroleum Industry. 2 ~01s.VOI. 1- 1859-1899, the Age of Illumination. Evanston: ~orthwestein University Press, 1m. L Winkler, Max. Inve-stments of United States Capital in Latin -, o Arneuiea. N.P., 19.28: reprint ed., Port Washinggon: Kennikat, 1971.

Wood, Bryce. The United States and Latin American Wars. --

- -- - New -York: Columbia University PreSs, 1-966. ------I , . ?

Zook, David H., 3r. The Conduct of at-he &ico War."" New York: Bookman Associates, 1961. i ui ------4 =a -- - 7