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NC84 July 2020 Edition.Indb Reformulating identity in post war Mozambique: Sexuality and initiation of women...Pafuri Triangle, pp. 57-73 Reformulating identity in post war Mozambique: Sexuality and initiation of women in the Pafuri Triangle1 Teresa K Connor University of Fort Hare [email protected] Abstract This paper explores the initiation of women – or Vukhomba – in Pafuri, Mozambique. As historical literature illustrates, this is an event that is linked to the repression and regulation of sexuality by colonialists, missionaries and independent state rule. However, the paper forwards the proposition that initiation and sexuality are crucial for the self-expression and authority of women, and that it is in fact, central to the way in which people re-orientate themselves after events of war and displacement. Sexuality is part of the allure of the Pafuri as a border region, particularly for residents in South Africa and Mozambique, who share common linkages with each other over international boundaries. The paper argues that Vukhomba is an important aspect of indigenous knowledge that is central to the way in which people manage disruption. Keywords: Initiation; Sexuality; Women; Ritual; Control; Pafuri Triangle; Mozambique; Identity. Lewin and Leap write that sexuality is far more than the act of sex, but is a way of thinking about the significance of the human body that is common to all cultures.2 Sexuality is part of the way in which one conceptualise gender, marriage and kinship, and has important implications for the study of power and stereotype, particularly within the dichotomies produced by gender. Niehaus, Reid and Walker demonstrate that the regulation of sexuality, expressed through bodily encounters between genders and cultures, is a mechanism of control that can transform people and societies.3 This has a particular impact on women, and girls, since the start of adulthood also coincides with a rite of passage, from which girls emerge with a different identity. This identity distinctly revolves around the control of sexuality by men, but also around the expression of sexuality by women themselves. 1 This author would like to thank the Editors and reviewers of New Contree for their comments, as well as the community of Makuleke in Limpopo Province, particularly Norman Maluleke. The term ‘Makuleke” refers to a physical location or village, while “Maluleke” is used for reference to a person or community. 2 E Lewin, WL Leap and W Leap (eds), Out in the field: Reflections of lesbian and gay anthropologists (University of Illinois Press, 1996), p. 2. 3 I Niehaus, “Towards a dubious liberation: Masculinity, sexuality and power in South African Lowveld schools”, 1953-1999, Journal of Southern African Studies, 26(3), 2000, pp. 387-407; G Reid and L Walker, “Masculinities in question”, G Reid and L Walker, Men behaving differently: South African men since1994 (Johannesburg, South Africa, Double Story Publishers, 2005), pp. 1-20. 57 T Connor Transformative rituals such as initiation suggest new beginnings, and a budding and blooming of an individual into adulthood. These events are essential to understand the changes that affect societies themselves, particularly when rituals are used to address past injustices and create a sense of reconciliation. In South Africa, rural rituals such as beer drinks, funerals and initiation are particularly important for those people who have been removed from their original homes, as well as migrants returning home after a long absence.4 One must, as Appadurai suggests consider the possibility that rites of passage are spatially symbolic in that they link people to territory and land.5 For refugees and those affected by trauma in Mozambique, rituals are essential for re orientate and place people upon their return to a place of origin. Rituals are transformative and performative events that embody and reconnect people to lost homes and re-establish contact with old networks.6 This paper is a historical and ethnographic examination of the way in which gender and sexuality has shaped the identity of girls in Pafuri, Mozambique. I examine how girls in Mozambique “become” women, through a ritual process which is both physically transformative to women and sexually attractive to men. This is couched within a historical discussion of the impact of migrant labour and warfare on the regulation of women and sexuality, both in South Africa and Mozambique. Rituals are particularly relevant as transformative events for those affected by civil war in Mozambique, which occurred from 1976 to 1992. Most refugees from Pafuri fled to South Africa or were transported to refugee camps in Zimbabwe, where they remained until their repatriation by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 1994 and 1995. In post-war Mozambique, rituals were often enacted by returning soldiers in order to enliven ceremonies that had once been lost, and to provide cleansing.7 Among women, the rites of female initiation gained particular prominence as events that re-united homesteads and family, and re-established subsistence agriculture.8 As this paper will illustrate, among war returnees in Pafuri, these female initiation rituals were enacted on ancestral land, as this connected people symbolically, through their bodies, to their place in society.9 The sexual elements present in initiation were just as important, as these encouraged ties between spouses and towards ancestral land, elements that were missing in exile. 4 PA McAllister, “Beasts to beer pots: Migrant labour and ritual change in Willowvale District, Transkei”, African Studies, 44(2), 1985, pp. 121-135. 5 A Appadurai, Modernity at large: The cultural dimensions of globalisation (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1996), p. 179. 6 MH Pedersen and M Rytter. “Rituals of migration: an introduction”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44 (16), 2018, pp. 2603-2616. 7 S Arnfred, Sexuality and gender politics in Mozambique: Rethinking gender in Africa (Rochester, New York, Boydell & Brewer, 2011), p. 10. 8 S Arnfred, Sexuality and gender politics in Mozambique: ..., p. 12. 9 T Kaiser, 2008. “Social and ritual activity in and out of place: The “negotiation of locality” in a Sudanese refugee settlement”, Mobilities, 3(3), 2008, pp. 375-95. 58 Reformulating identity in post war Mozambique: Sexuality and initiation of women...Pafuri Triangle, pp. 57-73 In this article historical material is used on female initiation rites in southern Africa to support and inform ethnography in Pafuri. These historical sources reveal that the colonial control of sexuality resulted in bias and misinterpretation, which was particularly prevalent against African sexuality during the colonial era. Local initiation and sexuality was misconceived as being “pathological, perverse and primitive”, and European sexuality as “healthy, normal and civilised”.10 This was common in much of early colonial encounters in Africa, particularly among the missionaries who first made contact in the Pafuri and upper Limpopo valley. Swiss missionaries in the 1870s reportedly continually fretted about the “nefarious influence of women who drank and/or participated in spirit-possession ceremonies”.11 In 1912, Junod12 referred to the sexuality of the Tsonga as “vile and immoral”,13 while African colonial governments as well as independent states usually repressed African customary rites of initiation, as they were regarded as barbaric. However, as Gengenbach points out “control is itself a colonial construct”, and tells us very little about the meaning and everyday practise of these encounters.14 I conducted fieldwork in the Pafuri Triangle, Mozambique, for two years during 1999 and 2000. Visits were preceded by a two week residence in Makuleke village, where I secured the services of a community elder who assisted me throughout my work in the Pafuri region. Fieldwork was limited due to visa restrictions, as well as the high cost of work outside of South Africa, but I did spend a total of four months in the field. I collected information based on a survey of 28 households (out of approximately 110) in Dumela, a village near the border triangle. I also conducted ethnographic research and observation in two other hamlets located alongside the Limpopo River, towards the settlement of Mapai. During 2013, a workshop was held to gauge the impact of the Limpopo Transfrontier Park, and information provided by participants was essential in determining the conditions of residents in Pafuri after my period of fieldwork.15 The historical work of Junod, Earthy and Harries is used to supplement first-hand data, 10 D Kulick,and M Willson, “Introduction: The sexual life of anthropologists: erotic subjectivity and ethnographic work”, in D Kulick and M Willson (eds.), Taboo: Sex, identity, and erotic subjectivity in anthropological fieldwork (Routledge, London and New York, 2003) p. 4. 11 H Gengenbach, “What my heart wanted”: Gendered stories of early colonial encounters in southern Mozambique”, JM Allman, S Geiger, and N Musisi (eds), African women and colonial history (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 25. 12 HH Junod, The life of a South African tribe, 1 (Attinger Frères, 1912), p. 7. Henri Junod (1863-1934) was a Swiss missionary, ethnographer, anthropologist, linguist and naturalist, who was stationed at the Shiluvane Mission Station just outside the town of Tzaneen in Limpopo Province. 13 S Arnfred, Sexuality and gender politics in Mozambique: ..., p. 80. 14 H Gengenbach, “What my heart wanted”, JM Allman, S Geiger, and N Musisi (eds), African women and colonial history, p. 20. 15 The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area a decade after inception: Taking stock of current socio- ecological research. Workshop held at the Southern African Wildlife College, 24th to 25th July 2013. 59 T Connor but mainly contextually,16 but these are mainly used contextually and do not imply that current practises are unchanged. Ultimately, the article aims to examine how the control of gender and sexuality in Pafuri – historically and concurrently – influences the identity and visibility of women within a context of war, violence, work and sex.
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