Gender, Sexism, Sexual Prejudice, and Identification with U.S. Football and Men's Figure Skating

Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 DOI 10.1007/s11199-016-0598-x

Gender, Sexism, Sexual Prejudice, and Identification with U.S. Football and Men’s Figure Skating

Woojun Lee1 & George B. Cunningham2

Published online: 24 February 2016 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

Abstract Prejudice against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and trans- Prejudice against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender gender (LGBT) individuals can affect a number of attitudes (LGBT) individuals can affect a number of attitudes and be- and behaviors relevant to sports; however, there is compara- haviors relevant to sports. Parents with anti-LGBT attitudes tively little focus on sexual prejudice among sport fans. As are unlikely to let their children on teams coached by sexual such, the purpose of the present study was to examine the minorities (Cunningham and Melton 2012), and there is a associations among sexual prejudice, sexism, gender, and similar pattern among former players and their willingness identification with two sports: men’s figure skating and U.S. to play for LGBT coaches (Sartore and Cunningham 2009). football. To examine these associations, we draw from multi- In sport organizations, sexual prejudice is associated with a ple perspectives, including Robinson and Trail’s(2005)work reticence to support diversity initiatives (Cunningham and on identification, Herek’s(2007, 2009) sexual stigma and Sartore 2010), lesbian coaches report their sexual orientation prejudice theory, and McCormack and Anderson’s(2014a, being Bused^ against them by opposing coaches in the 2014b) theory of homohysteria. Questionnaire data were col- recruiting process (Krane and Barber 2005), and some lected from 150 students (52 women, 98 men) enrolled at a LGBT employees report feeling the need to hide their identi- large, public university in the Southwest United States. ties (Cavalier 2011; Walker and Melton 2015). Some LGBT Consistent with the study hypotheses, results from a structural athletes report prejudice expressed by their coaches and fellow equation model indicate sexual prejudice held a positive players, resulting in stress and poor playing experiences association with identification with U.S. football and a nega- (Lucas-Carr and Krane 2012; Skogvang and Fasting 2013). tive association with identification with men’sfigureskating. Finally, critical examination shows that even those persons Both gender and sexism were significantly associated with who profess to support LGBT individuals will sometimes ex- sexual prejudice. Men and individuals who expressed sexist press prejudice in subtle, nuanced ways (Cunningham and attitudes were more prone to express sexual prejudice than Melton 2014b). To further illustrate these dynamics, sport were their counterparts. The authors also discuss theoretical journalists largely report progressive, accepting attitudes of and practical implications, limitations, and future directions. gay men in sport, but have nevertheless failed to report on openly gay athletes (Kian et al. 2013). Thus, although ad- Keywords Prejudice . Homophobia . Sport . Attachment . vances have been made (Anderson 2011;Griffin2012), sexual Aggression . Sexism prejudice continues to influence how athletes, coaches, and administrators experience sport. Although scholars have devoted considerable attention to * George B. Cunningham understanding the influence of sexual prejudice on teams and [email protected] within sport organizations, there is comparatively little focus on sexual prejudice among sport fans. There are, however, 1 Department of Sports Studies, William Woods University, some exceptions. Jones (2008) examined the experiences of Fulton, MO, USA women who were fans of professional soccer teams, noting 2 — Laboratory for Diversity in Sport, Texas A&M University, 4243 that the women observed sexual prejudice among other fans TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4243, USA a practice they deemed disgusting. Cashmore and Cleland Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 465

(2011) analyzed responses from thousands of fans, noting that In our study, we sought to understand how fans identified whereas most (93 %) indicated that they opposed sexual prej- with two sports: U.S. football and men’s figure skating. People udice, they nevertheless hurl prejudicial insults at the players, make different attributions concerning the masculinity and claiming to use such language as a form of jest or a strategy to aggressiveness of different sports (Hardin and Greer 2009; thwart the opposing player’s performance. Caudwell (2011) Matteo 1986), and football is consistently rated highly along documented the use of derogatory chants among UK soccer these attributes. On the other hand, although figure skating fans, as well as efforts to combat the prevalence of such chants requires considerable strength, skill, balance, and power, peo- through The Justin Campaign (a campaign that started after ple likely believe this sport is less masculine and aggressive Justin Fashanu’s suicide in 1998 and that is designed to fight than is football. As outlined in the following, we anticipate against sexual prejudice in soccer). Finally, Cleland (2015) that sexual prejudice might also help explain people’sidenti- examined the postings on 48 fan message boards associated fication with those sports. with professional soccer teams. He observed that the overall tenor of the comments was positive. In cases where prejudicial remarks were written, other users frequently rebuked these Sexual Stigma, Sexual Prejudice, and Homohysteria comments, thereby suggesting an increasingly inclusive space. Herek’s(2007, 2009) sexual stigma and prejudice theory of- In the present study, we seek to expand on this work in fers an effective theoretical lens for understanding the role of several meaningful ways. First, whereas scholarship sexual prejudice in sport. Stigma represents Ban attribute that pertaining to sexual prejudice and fandom has predominantly produces a social identity that is devalued or derogated by focused on fans’ language, we depart from this approach by persons within a particular culture at a particular point in time^ instead attending to sexual prejudice itself and how it is related (Paetzold et al. 2008, p. 186). Stigmas are more encompassing to fans’ identification with different sports. In doing so, we than one’s individual beliefs—instead, they are socially con- explore the connection between prejudice toward sexual mi- structed, shared, and reproduced over time such that they be- norities and people’s attachment to various sports—an analy- come accepted within a particular culture and time. Stigmas sis we believe is the first to take place. We also seek to under- shape people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Recognizing stand factors associated with sexual prejudice, with an empha- stigma’s powerful influence, Herek developed his theory sis on sexism and the gender of the fans. Specifically, we around the notion of sexual stigma, or Ba culture’s shared illuminate how sexual prejudice is differently associated with knowledge about the negative regard, inferior status, and rel- fans’ identification with two gender-typed sports: U.S. foot- ative powerlessness that society collectively accords to non- ball and men’s figure skating. To generate our hypotheses, we heterosexual behaviors, identity, relationships, and communi- draw from multiple perspectives, including Robinson and ties^ (Herek and McLemore 2013,p.311). Trail’s(2005) work on identification, Herek’s(2007, 2009) Herek (2007, 2009) suggested that stigmas manifest struc- sexual stigma and prejudice theory, and McCormack and turally and through individuals. Heterosexism represents the Anderson’s(2014a, b) theory of homohysteria. structural form of sexual stigma, whereby institutional practices and arrangements serve to privilege heterosexuals while devaluing LGB communities and individuals. Because the Sport Identification notions of Botherness^ are deeply embedded into sport’ssys- tems and practices (Cunningham 2012), heterosexism subju- Trailetal.(2000, p. 165) consider identification as Ban orienta- gates LGB individuals, even absent individual expressions of tion of the self in regard to other objectives, including a person prejudice. Indeed, Sartore-Baldwin (2013, p. 5) referred to or group, that results in feelings or sentiments of close attach- sport as Ba heterosexist institution organized by ment.^ Peoplecanidentifywithahostoftargets,suchasthe heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity^ (also see team, players, coaches, or sport itself. When they identify with Anderson 2011, for other forms of masculinity present in the sport, people are likely to consider themselves fans of that sport). sport, think of the sport as their favorite, and be strongly at- Sexual stigma is also expressed through individuals by tached with that activity (Robinson and Trail 2005). Their iden- way of enacted, felt, and internalized stigma. Enacted stig- tification with the sport is also likely to influence individuals’ ma is observed behaviorally, such as through the physical behaviors. People who strongly identify with a particular sport abuse of sportspersons who are LGB or thought to be (for do so because of their appreciation of the skills, aesthetics, and examples, see Symons et al. 2014; Travers and Deri 2010). drama associated with the sport, are likely to attend matches or Felt stigma occurs when LGB persons anticipate facing games—even when they must travel distances to do so (Funk prejudice and discrimination within a given context— et al. 2001), and respond favorably to sponsorship messages something that potentially leads to altering behaviors concerning the sport (Gwinner and Bennett 2008). (Herek and McLemore 2013). Finally, internalized stigma 466 Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 occurs when people adopt sexual stigma into their belief germane to sport: gender and sexism. There is consider- systems; among heterosexuals, internalized stigma takes able research showing that men express more negative the form of sexual prejudice and the negative attitudes attitudes toward LGB individuals than do women (see expressedtowardpersonswhoare(orpresumedtobe)a Herek 2002, 2007). Men might feel compelled to adhere sexual minority (Herek and McLemore 2013). to strict gender norms and maintain beliefs and behaviors Herek’s theory of sexual stigma and sexual prejudice aligns that solidify their status as heterosexual. Holding anti- nicely with recent work from McCormack and Anderson LGBT attitudes is one way of doing so. Men might also (2014a, b) concerning homohysteria. These authors suggested be more likely to hold negative stereotypes of sexual that homophobia, which is conceptually similar in many minorities, maintain that an LGB orientation is a sign regards to sexual prejudice, is most likely to manifest in a of deficiency, and offer minimal support for LGBT rights culture of homohysteria. Homohysteric cultures exist when (Herek 2002). (a) there is an awareness of homosexuality among a substan- These patterns are also present in sport. Sartore and tial portion of a particular population, (b) homophobia within Cunningham (2009), in their study of former athletes, ob- that culture is high, and (c) people associate gender noncon- served that men expressed greater prejudice than did wom- formity with being homosexual. McCormack and Anderson en. Cunningham et al. (2010) conducted an experimental (2014a, b) suggest that men who express sexual prejudice are study to examine bias toward job applicants presumed to be likely doing so as a way of distancing themselves from homo- LGB. They found that men rated the presumed heterosexual sexuality, something achieved by embracing traditional norms applicant more favorably than they did the sexual minority; of masculinity and activities associated with violence. on the other hand, women did not differ in their ratings. Worthen (2014) has shown that the theory is also applicable Finally, Gill et al. (2006) observed gender differences to heterosexual women. among exercise science students, again with men express- Collectively, these theories offer a useful lens through ing more prejudice than women. Given this evidence, we which we develop the hypotheses. A number of authors have suspected that men will express more sexual prejudice than argued that although it might not be as robust as in years past, will women (Hypothesis 3). heterosexism is still a part of sport (Cunningham 2012; Finally, sexism might also affect one’ssexualpreju- Sartore-Baldwin 2013), thereby suggesting that systems, ar- dice. People who hold sexist views endorse the notion rangements, and practices promote heterosexuality and subju- that men have greater status than do women and, perhaps gate LGB communities and individuals. There is also evi- more germane to the current discussion, that men should dence that people who express sexual prejudice are likely to exude masculinity and women display femininity promote and identify with activities and behaviors considered (Whitley 2001). Sexism is also associated with the notion masculine and aggressive (Falomir-Pichastor and Mugny that there are traditional roles and behaviors for women 2009;Parrott2009; Stotzer and Shih 2012). Within the con- and men that should be upheld (Davies 2004). People text of the current study, this linkage suggests that people who who hold sexist attitudes might develop negative atti- express sexual prejudice are likely to also identify with sports tudes toward persons who do not adhere to these gen- considered masculine, such as football. On the other hand, for dered expectations (Barron et al. 2008). Sartore-Baldwin those who do not express such prejudice, sports lacking vio- (2013, p. 7) recognized this connection, noting, Bthere lent characteristics, such as men’s figure skating, are likely to remains incongruence between the meanings and beliefs hold more appeal. For the person expressing sexual prejudice, surrounding nonheterosexuals and the heterosexist cultur- men’s figure skating might stereotypically lack the character- al norms within sports.^ istics associated with traditional forms of masculinity and is These associations are important in the discussion of therefore insufficient in distancing the self from homosexual- sexual prejudice because gay men and lesbians stereotypi- ity; hence, there is likely a negative association between sex- cally do not abide by the gendered expectations of people ual prejudice and men’s figure skating. In drawing from this who hold sexist beliefs; consequently, sexual prejudice is rational, we hypothesized that fans’ sexual prejudice will be activated (Herek 2009; Whitley 2001). As such, sexism positively associated with identification with U.S. football might undergird sexual prejudice. This position is consis- (Hypothesis 1) and negatively associated with identification tent with recent work from Cunningham and Melton (2012), with men’s figure skating (Hypothesis 2). who studied adults’ attitudes toward lesbian and gay coaches. They observed that a moderate, positive association between sexism and prejudice toward the coaches, and Antecedents of Sexual Prejudice this association held across racial groups (see also Cunningham and Melton 2013). Consistent with this work, A number of factors potentially increase the sexual prejudice we hypothesized that fans’ sexism will be positively asso- one expresses, and in our study, we focus on two particularly ciated with sexual prejudice (Hypothesis 4). Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 467

Method BPlease think about the sport of men’s figure skating [football] and respond to the following items.^ Sample items include Participants BFirst and foremost, I consider myself a men’sfigureskating fan [football fan]^ and BMen’s figure skating [football] is my Data were collected from students enrolled in physical activity favorite sport.^ Responses were made on a 7-point Likert-type classes at a large, public university in the Southwest United scale from 1 (strongly disagree)to7(strongly agree). The States. The sample included 52 (34.7 %) women and 98 scales had acceptable reliabilities (Figure Skating: α = .93; (65.3 %) men. With respect to the racial composition of our Football: α =.86). sample, there were 7 (4.67 %) African Americans, 10 (6.67 %) Asians, 31 (20.67 %) Hispanics, 2 (1.33 %) Native Procedure Americans, and 100 (66.67 %) Whites. The year in school varied, as the sample included 36 (24.00 %) first year students, We first obtained Institutional Review Board approval to con- 45 (30.00 %) sophomores, 25 (16.67 %) juniors, 42 (28.00 %) duct the research. Questionnaires packets (i.e., a cover letter seniors, and 2 (1.33 %) graduate students. The mean age was explaining the purpose of the study and a questionnaire) were 20.33 years (SD = 1.54, range = 18 to 27 years-old). distributed at the end of the class period to students enrolled in physical activity classes at a large university in the United Measures States. Participation was voluntary, and the questionnaire re- quired 10 min to complete. All responses remained anony- Participants completed a questionnaire asking them to provide mous, and no identifying information was included on the their demographic information and to respond to items mea- completed questionnaires. No compensation was provided. suring their sexism, sexual prejudice, and the degree to which they identify as fans of men’s figure skating and football. We calculated the mean for each variable, such that higher scores Results indicate higher levels of the construct measured, and report the reliability coefficient (α) alongside the description of each Descriptive Statistics variable. We used Swim et al. (1995) scale to measure participants’ We computed means, standard deviations, and bivariate cor- gender beliefs. Swim et al. demonstrated reliability and valid- relations for the entire sample, for women only, and for men ity evidence of the instrument across two studies, showing the only. Results are presented in Table 1. For the entire sample, measure was distinct from other forms of prejudice. Sample means score for identification with football were higher than items include BI would be equally as comfortable having a those for men’s figure skating, t (149) = 16.29, p < .001. woman or a man as a boss^ (reverse scored) and BWhen both Sexual prejudice held a positive, significant association with parents are employed and their child gets sick at school, the gender, sexism, and identification with football, but was neg- school should call the mother rather than the father.^ atively associated with identification with men’sfigure Responses were made on a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 skating. Those who identified with football were significantly (strongly disagree)to7(strongly agree). The reliability was unlikely to identify with men’sfigureskating. acceptable (α =.77). We also conducted a multivariate analysis of variance to We used the 10-item Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay examine gender differences for each of the variables. The Men Scale developed by Herek (1984) to examine partici- multivariate effect was significant, F (4,145) = 10.89, pants’ level of sexual prejudice. This scale has been used p <.001,Wilks’ Lambda = .77. Women and men statistically extensively across a variety of contexts, with consistent evi- differed for each of the variables analyzed: sexism, dence of acceptable reliability, and convergent and discrimi- F (1, 148) = 25.42, p < .001; sexual prejudice, nant validity (for an overview, see Herek 1998). Sample items F (1, 148) = 5.09, p = .03; identification with men’sfigure include BMale homosexuality is a perversion^ and skating, F (1, 148) = 11.34, p < .001; and identification with BHomosexual behavior between two men is just plain wrong.^ football, F (1, 148)= 12.38, p < .001. As seen in Table 1,rel- Responses were made on a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 ative to men, women expressed less sexism, sexual prejudice, (strongly disagree)to7(strongly agree). The reliability was and identification with football, but they expressed greater acceptable (α =.94). identification with men’sfigureskating. Robinson and Trail (2005) developed a three-item instrument to measure identification with sports, with the possibility Hypothesis Testing to adapt the wording to fit the specific sport of interest (see also Kwon et al. 2005, for further reliability and validity We tested the hypotheses by way of structural equation model- evidence). In drawing from this work, we asked participants: ing (SEM) using AMOS software. We treated gender as an 468 Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and bivariate Item MSD1234 correlations Overall sample (N =150) 1. Gender .65 –– 2. Sexism 2.67 1.24 .38* – 3. Sexual prejudice 3.35 1.35 .18* .56* – 4. Identification with men’s figure skating 1.84 1.09 −.27* −.19* −.31* – 5. Identification with football 4.83 1.76 .28* .22* .29* −.20* Womenonly(n =52) 1. Gender ––– 2. Sexism 2.02 .87 –– 3. Sexual prejudice 3.01 1.15 – .30* – 4. Identification with men’s figure skating 2.24 1.27 – .20 −.30* – 5. Identification with football 4.16 1.75 – −.08 .17 −.12 Men only (n =98) 1. Gender ––– 2. Sexism 3.01 1.27 –– 3. Sexual prejudice 3.53 1.42 – .62* – 4. Identification with men’s figure skating 1.64 .93 – −.25* −.28* – 5. Identification with football 5.18 1.67 – .20* .30* −.14

Gender coded as 0 = female, 1 = male *p <.05 observed variable and specified the remaining variables as and men’s figure skating, respectively. Sexual prejudice held latent variables. For the two constructs with the most a strong, positive association with identification with football items—sexism and sexual prejudice—we created parcels, or (β =.54, p < .001) and a moderate, negative association with Ban aggregate-level indicator comprised of the sum (average) identification with men’sfigureskating(β = −.38, p =.005). of two or more items, responses or behaviors’ (Little et al. The directions of both associations were in the predicted di- 2002, p. 152). Parcels for the sexism constructs consisted of rection, and thus, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported. items randomly assigned to one of three item indicators. For Hypotheses 3 and 4 were also supported. As seen in sexual prejudice, we used prejudice against gay men and prej- Figure 1, both gender (β =.25, p = .03) and sexism (β =.46, udice against lesbians, respectively, as the item indicators, and p = .003) were significantly associated with sexual prejudice. given the high association among these items, we allowed their errors to correlate with one another. Because the identification measures each had three items, we treated each item as an indicator item of the latent variable. We used absolute (root mean square of approximation; RMSEA), comparative (comparative fit index; CFI), and parsimonious (Tucker Lewis Index; TLI) fit indices to examine the overall fit of the model (Kelloway 1998). RMSEA scores .08 or less were considered acceptable fit, while CFI and TLI values greater than .95 are reflective of a close fit of the data to the model. An illustrative summary of the results is presented in Figure 1. The model was a good fit to the data: χ2 (df =49, n = 150) = 93.57, p < .001; χ2/df = 1.91; RMSEA (90 %

CI = .06, .10)= .08, pclose = .03; CFI = .96; TLI = .95. The model explained 36.5 % of the variance in sexual prejudice, 14.7 % of the variance in identification with men’s figure skating, and 26.4 % of the variance in identification with foot- Fig. 1 Summary of the structural equation model. MFS ID – Men’s ball. Hypotheses 1 and 2 predicted that sexual prejudice would Figure Skating Identification. FB ID Football Identification. *p <.05. be significantly associated with identification with football **p <.01.***p <.001 Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 469

Men and people who expressed sexist attitudes were more shape their identification with different sports is warranted. likely to express sexual prejudice than were their counterparts. Furthermore, the field of social psychology has made considerable strides in the understanding of prejudice by drawing from student samples such as ours. These points help allay Discussion potential concerns with the appropriateness of the sample. Second, we explored the association between sexual prejudice The purpose of our study was to examine the association and two sports: men’s figure skating and U.S. football. We do among sexual prejudice, sexism, gender, and identification not know how sexual prejudice might relate to other sports— with different sports. Consistent with our first set of hypothe- those stereotypically aggressive and masculine (e.g., men’s ses, we observed that sexual prejudice held a different pattern rugby), those that are not (e.g., men’s gymnastics), and those of associations with identification with men’sfigureskating that fall somewhere in the middle of that continuum (e.g., and with football. We suspect these findings are largely a baseball). More work is needed in this area to explore these function of the sports’ linkage with traditional forms of mas- possibilities. culinity and aggressiveness, or lack thereof (Hardin and Greer We also see various areas for future research, several of 2009;Matteo1986). These characteristics might be particu- which stem from our preceding discussion. First, we presented larly important for people who express sexual prejudice research evidence suggesting that LGBT inclusive activities (Falomir-Pichastor and Mugny 2009; Parrott 2009; Stotzer only served to further attract a wide range of customers to the and Shih 2012) and in homohysteric environments sport organizations. Future researchers could further explore (McCormack and Anderson 2014a, b). For those fans who this point by considering whether prejudice-reduction efforts express sexual prejudice, there might be a draw to assertive- would affect fans’ attachment to the sport. Second, additional ness, violence, and traditional forms of masculinity—charac- work is needed to consider the influence of sexual prejudice teristics that are largely captured in U.S. football. On the other on identification with other sports, as well as with other fan hand, figure skating largely lacks these characteristics and attitudes and behaviors. Finally, we see opportunities for does not represent a sport through which one might distance policymakers and sport marketers to reduce sexual prejudice the self from homosexuality; as a result, there exists a negative among fans. What are strategies that will effectively reduce association between sexual prejudice and men’sfigure biases and prejudices? What are the characteristics of effective skating. advocates? Organizations such as Athlete Ally and You Can We also considered two factors that might influence sexual Play frequently use high-profile athletes to speak out against prejudice: sexism and gender. Consistent with our expecta- prejudice and discrimination, and these might be the best en- tions, both variables were significantly associated with sexual tities to assume these roles, but empirical evidence is lacking. prejudice: men expressed greater prejudice than did women, Given the prevalence of sexual prejudice in sport and the and the association between sexism and sexual prejudice was importance of reducing it, such efforts are needed. a positive one. The presence of gender differences is consistent with a growing number of studies set within the sport Practice Implications context showing that men—whether former players, parents, or students—express more prejudice toward sexual minorities Our work makes several practical contributions. First, whereas than do women (Cunningham et al. 2010;Gilletal.2006; others have examined the association between sexual preju- Sartore and Cunningham 2009). Similarly, past investigations dice and abusive fan behaviors, ours is the first study we have suggested that, because of the promotion of traditional identified to examine the influence of prejudice on identifica- gender roles and expectations, people who hold sexist beliefs tion with different sports. This is an important extension of are also likely to express sexual prejudice (Barron et al. 2008; past work because we show that attitudes toward sexual mi- Cunningham and Melton 2012, 2013; Whitley 2001). norities can influence the attachments people to have to vari- Collectively, this work supports the notion that sexual preju- ous sports. There is also evidence that identification with a dice largely manifests from peoples’ ideas about gender and sport is associated with attendance at sport events and respon- their adherence to gender norms and expectations. siveness to sponsorship messages (Funk et al. 2001;Gwinner and Bennett 2008). As such, it is possible sexual prejudice is Limitations and Future Directions associated with corresponding fan behaviors. These associations bring to light an interesting marketing Although our study makes many contributions, there are po- and consumer behavior issue. If sexual prejudice is associated tential limitations. First, participants came from a student sam- with identification with U.S. football—the most popular U.S. ple at a single university. We do note, though, that people age sport—does this actually serve as a disincentive to reduce 18–24 (the age of most undergraduates) are a prized demo- sexual prejudice and heterosexism among fans? This is the graphic for many marketers, so understanding factors that mission of various organizations, such as You can Play 470 Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471

(http://youcanplayproject.org/), Athlete Ally (http://www. Compliance with Ethical Standards athleteally.org/),andPlaybytheRules(http:// Conflict of Interest The authors have no conflict of interest. playbytherules.net.au/), among others. Further, a number of All participants provided informed consent to participate. professional teams hold Pride events around their games or The study was approved by the Texas A&M University Institutional matches as a way of welcoming LGBT fans, and the Women’s Review Board. National Basketball Association developed WNBA Pride to support LGBT fans, players, and administrators (see http:// www.wnba.com/pride/). Do such efforts hurt attendance or References drive people away from the sport? The research evidence suggests this is not the case. Instead, Anderson, E. (2011). Masculinities and sexualities in sport and physical potential consumers show increased attraction to sport organi- cultures: Three decades of evolving research. Journal of Homosexuality, 58,565–578. zations that signal LGBT inclusiveness (Cunningham and Barron, J. M., Struckman-Johnson, C., Quevillon, R., & Banka, S. R. Melton 2014a), and publically traded organizations enjoy their (2008). Heterosexual men’s attitudes toward gay men: A hierarchi- stocks increase when they are recognized for their LGBT- cal model including masculinity, openness, and theoretical explana- – inclusive policies (Wang and Schwarz 2010). Furthermore, tions. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9,154 166. Cashmore, E., & Cleland, J. (2011). Glasswing butterflies gay profession- LGBT consumers are keenly aware of pro-sexual minority al football players and their culture. Journal of Sport and Social messages and practices and will demonstrate consumer loy- Issues, 35,420–436. alty to companies engaging in such inclusive practices Caudwell, J. (2011). ‘Does your boyfriend know you’re here?’ The spa- (Tuten 2005, 2006). What’s more, organizations that couple tiality of homophobia in men’s football culture in the UK. Leisure Studies, 30,123–138. LGBT diversity with an inclusive work environment out- Cavalier, E. S. (2011). Men at sport: Gay men’s experiences in the sport perform their counterparts in terms of creativity in the workplace. Journal of Homosexuality, 58,626–646. workplace (Cunningham 2011a) and objective measures Cleland, J. (2015). Discussing homosexuality on association football fan of performance (Cunningham 2011b). Thus, empirical message boards: A changing cultural context. International Review – work only points to the benefits of efforts to reduce sexual for the Sociology of Sport, 50,125 140. Cunningham, G. B. (2011a). Creative work environments in sport orga- prejudice and heterosexism within sport and elsewhere, and nizations: The influence of sexual orientation diversity and commit- there is no reason to believe a different pattern would ment to diversity. Journal of Homosexuality, 58,1041–1057. emerge in the context of U.S. football. Cunningham, G. B. (2011b). The LGBT advantage: Examining the relationship among sexual orientation diversity, diversity strategy, and performance. Sport Management Review, 14,453–461. Conclusions Cunningham, G. B. (2012). A multilevel model for understanding the experiences of LGBT sport participants. Journal for the Study of In conclusion, our primary aim with our research was to Sports and Athletes in Education, 6,5–20. examine the relationships among gender, sexism, sexual Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, N. (2012). Prejudice against lesbian, gay, prejudice, and identification with different sports. and bisexual coaches: The influence of race, religious fundamental- ism, modern sexism, and contact with sexual minorities. Sociology Whereas a number of researchers have examined the asso- of Sport Journal, 29,283–305. ciation between sexual prejudice and abusive fan behaviors Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2013). Contact with lesbian and (Cashmore and Cleland 2011; Caudwell 2011; Cleland gay friends moderates the relationships among religious fundamen- 2015;Jones2008), ours is the first we have identified to talism, sexism, and sexual prejudice. The Journal of Sex Research, 50,401–408. examine the manner in which attitudes toward LGBT indi- Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2014a). Signals and cues: LGBT viduals are related to people’s attachment to different inclusive advertising and consumer attraction. Sport Marketing sports. We drew from multiple theoretical frameworks and Quarterly, 23,37–46. empirical data to show that sexual prejudice is associated Cunningham, G. B., & Melton, E. N. (2014b). Varying degrees of sup- ’ with sport identification, but the type of association varies port: Understanding parents positive attitudes toward LGBT coaches. Journal of Sport Management, 28,387–398. based on the sport such that there is a positive association Cunningham, G. B., & Sartore, M. L. (2010). Championing diversity: for the more aggressive and violent U.S. football and a The influence of personal and organizational antecedents. Journal negative association with men’s figure skating. of Applied Social Psychology, 40,788–810. Furthermore, consistent with past research, we showed that Cunningham, G. B., Sartore, M. L., & McCullough, B. P. (2010). The influence of applicant sexual orientation and rater sex on ascribed both gender and sexism are reliably associated with sexual attributions and hiring recommendations of personal trainers. prejudice. Finally, we drew from recent examples of out- Journal of Sport Management, 24,400–415. reach efforts among advocacy groups and sport organiza- Davies, M. (2004). Correlates of negative attitudes toward gay men: tions, as well as empirical research set in the sport context, Sexism, male role norms, and male sexuality. The Journal of Sex Research, 41,259–266. to show that efforts to help reduce sexual prejudice will not Falomir-Pichastor, J. M., & Mugny, G. (2009). BI’m not gay… I’mareal likely hinder fan behaviors but rather serve to further attract man!^:Heterosexualmen’s gender self-esteem and sexual prejudice. fans to the sports they love. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35,1233–1243. Sex Roles (2016) 74:464–471 471

Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., Nakazawa, M., & Hirakawa, S. (2001). McCormack, M., & Anderson, E. (2014b). The influence of declining Development of the Sport Interest Inventory (SII): Implications for homophobia on men’s gender in the United States: An argument for measuring unique consumer motives at team sporting events. the study of homohysteria. Sex Roles, 71,109–120. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 3,291– Paetzold, R. L., Dipboye, R. L., & Elsbach, K. D. (2008). A new look at 316. stigmatization in and of organizations. Academy of Management Gill, D. L., Morrow, R. G., Collins, K. E., Lucey, A. B., & Schultz, A. M. Review, 33,186–193. (2006). Attitudes and sexual prejudice in sport and physical activity. Parrott, D. J. (2009). Aggression toward gay men as gender role enforce- Journal of Sport Management, 20,554–564. ment: effects of male role norms, sexual prejudice, and masculine Griffin, P. (2012). LGBTequality in sports: Celebrating our successes and gender role stress. JournalofPersonality,77(4), 1137–1166. facing our challenges. In G. B. (Ed.), Sexual orientation and gender Robinson, M. J., & Trail, G. T. (2005). Relationships among spectator identity in sport: Essays from activists, coaches, and scholars (pp. gender, motives, points of attachment, and sport preference. Journal 1–12). College Station, TX: Center for Sport Management Research of Sport Management, 19,58–80. and Education. Sartore, M. L., & Cunningham, G. B. (2009). Sexual prejudice, partici- Gwinner, K., & Bennett, G. (2008). The impact of brand cohesiveness patory decisions, and panoptic control: Implications for sexual mi- and sport identification on brand fit in a sponsorship context. norities in sport. Sex Roles, 60,100–113. Journal of Sport Management, 22,410–426. Sartore-Baldwin, M. L. (2013). Gender, sexuality, and prejudice in sport. Hardin, M., & Greer, J. D. (2009). The influence of gender-role sociali- In M. L. Sartore-Baldwin (Ed.), Sexual minorities in sports: zation, media use and sports participation on perceptions of gender- Prejudice at play (pp. 1–10). Boulder: Lynne Rienner. appropriate sports. JournalofSportBehavior,32(2), 1–20. Skogvang, B. O., & Fasting, K. (2013). Football and sexualities in Herek, G. M. (1984). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A factor- Norway. Soccer and Society, 14,872–886. analytic study. Journal of Homosexuality, 10(1–2), 39–51. Stotzer, R. L., & Shih, M. (2012). The relationship between masculinity Herek, G. (1998). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men scale. In C. M. and sexual prejudice in factors associated with violence against gay Davis, W. L. Yarber, R. Bauserman, G. Schreer, & S. L. Davis men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13,136–142. (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 392–394). Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and Thousand Oaks: Sage. racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Herek, G. M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and Personality and Social Psychology, 68,199–214. gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66,40–66. Symons, C., O’Sullivan, G., Borkoles, E., Andersen, M. B., Polman, R. Herek, G. M. (2007). Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory C. (2014). The impact of homophobic bullying during sport and and practice. JournalofSocialIssues,63,905–923. physical education participation on same-sex-attracted and Herek, G. M. (2009). Sexual stigma and sexual prejudice in the United gender-diverse young Australians’ depression and anxiety levels: States: A conceptual framework. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), The equal play study. Melbourne, Australia: Authors. Retrieved Contemporary perspectives on lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities from https://www.beyondblue.org.au/docs/default-source/research- (pp. 65–111). New York: Springer. project-files/bw0236.pdf?sfvrsn=2. Herek, G. M., & McLemore, K. A. (2013). Sexual prejudice. Annual Trail, G. T., Anderson, D. F., & Fink, J. S. (2000). A theoretical model of Review of Psychology, 64,309–333. sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Jones, K. W. (2008). Female fandom: Identity, sexism, and men’s profes- Sport Management, 1,154–180. sional football in England. Sociology of Sport Journal, 25,516–537. Travers, A., & Deri, J. (2010). Transgender inclusion and the changing Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: face of lesbian softball leagues. International Review for the A researcher’sguide. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Sociology of Sport, 46,488–507. Kian, E. M., Anderson, E., Vincent, J., & Murray, R. (2013). Sport jour- Tuten, T. L. (2005). The effect of gay-friendly and non-gay-friendly cues nalists’ views on gay men in sport, society and within sport media. on brand attitudes: A comparison of heterosexual and gay/lesbian International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50,895–911. reactions. Journal of Marketing Management, 21,441–461. Krane, V.,& Barber, H. (2005). Identity tensions in lesbian intercollegiate Tuten, T. L. (2006). Exploring the importance of gay-friendliness and its coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76,67–81. socialization influences. Journal of Marketing Communications, 12, Kwon, H. H., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2005). Are multiple points 79–94. of attachment necessary to predict cognitive, affective, conative, or Walker, N. A., & Melton, E. N. (2015). The tipping point: The intersec- behavioral loyalty? Sport Management Review, 8 ,255–270. tion of race, gender, and sexual orientation in intercollegiate sports. Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). Journal of Sport Management, 29,257–271. To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the Wang, P., & Schwarz, J. L. (2010). Stock price reactions to GLBT non- merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9,151–173. discrimination policies. Human Resource Management, 49,195– Lucas-Carr, C., & Krane, V. (2012). Troubling sport or troubled by sport. 216. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 6,21–44. Whitley, B. E., Jr. (2001). Gender-role variables and attitudes toward Matteo, S. (1986). The effects of sex and gender-schematic processing on homosexuality. Sex Roles, 45,691–721. sport participation. Sex Roles, 15,417–432. Worthen, M. G. F. (2014). The cultural significance of homophobia on McCormack, M., & Anderson, E. (2014a). Homohysteria: Definitions, heterosexual women’s gendered experiences in the United States: A context, and intersectionality. Sex Roles, 71,152–158. commentary. Sex Roles, 71,152–158.