Journal of Agribusiness 35, 1 (Spring 2017) © Agricultural Economics Association of Georgia

Human Capital, Workplace Violence, and Human Resource Management in Agribusiness: Review and Recommendations

David D. Van Fleet

Human capital is an important resource in agribusiness—maybe the most important. To be competitive in the use and development of human capital, the costs and consequences of workplace violence must be reduced. Agribusinesses must produce goods and services that provide value while, at the same time, assuring healthy, safe work environments. However, that has been limited due to a paucity of research as to the extent, types, and causes of workplace violence in agribusiness. This article identifies what can be done and illuminates areas in need of research to better understand, detect, and prevent workplace violence in agribusiness.

Key words: Human capital, human resource management, practice, research, safe workplace, workplace violence

In their efforts to obtain a competitive advantage, managers increasingly recognize that the resources most important to an organization’s success are its human resources (Lyons and Conley, 2012; Mugera, 2012; Chacko, Wacker, and Asar, 1997). Yet one of the more threatening human capital issues in any business, including agribusiness, is workplace violence, which can have devastating effects on the productivity of organizations and on the quality of life of employees (U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2001). Protecting and developing human capital has been proffered, therefore, as a critical goal for all agribusiness organizations (Shelman and Connolly, 2012). Unfortunately, relatively few employers have established effective programs to combat this problem (International Association of Chiefs of , 1996). Workplace violence refers to willful or negligent acts, including either proscribed criminal acts or coercive behavior, that occur in the course of performing any work-related duty and that lead to significant negative results, such as physical or emotional injury, diminished productivity, or property damage (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2010, p. 45). Workplace violence persists in industrialized countries but is becoming an important concern in developing countries as well (Holt-Giménez, 2015; Bowie, Fisher, and Cooper, 2005). It is clearly an international phenomenon having been noted in England

David D. Van Fleet is professor in the Morrison School of Agribusiness, W.P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University. The comments of Drs. Patrick M. Wright, Ricky W. Griffin, Ella W. Van Fleet, Arthur G. Bedeian, and anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged. Any remaining errors are the sole responsibility of the author.

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(Fevre et al., 2011; Buckley, 2015), India (Staermose, 2013), China (Lo et al., 2011), and elsewhere (Bowie, Fisher, and Cooper, 2005). Even though workplace violence is not new and occurs internationally, it is difficult to predict its magnitude because research is relatively new and most countries do not have organizations specifically focused on workplace violence (Bowie, Fisher, and Cooper, 2005). The first report by the International Labor Organization was published in 1998 (Chappell and Di Martino, 1998), and even when more violent incidents such as homicide are reported, most other forms of physical and emotional harm are not (Fisher and Lab, 2010). In the United States, studies and statistics are more readily available, so that information provides much of the background in this article although the conclusions clearly are international in nature. Statistics for U.S. organizations show that more than three persons die in the workplace every workday of the year, and many innocent bystanders are also affected (U.S. Department of Labor, 2013). Not all of these deaths are the result of workplace violence; at the same time, death and physical injury statistics do not tell the whole story about the many forms of workplace violence. The rate of recurrence and the costs— emotional as well as physical harm—are high enough to warrant serious attention by company owners and managers, as well as by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Many of those violent incidents occur in agribusinesses (agribusiness here refers to industries and occupations that involve the four “Fs” —food (and drink), fiber, forest (products), and (bio)fuel). Although exists to deal with some agribusiness workplace problems (Ferjuste, 2011; Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act, 1983), managers in agribusiness must address the broader issue of workplace violence as both legal and economic consequences stem from it (Holmes, 2013; Russell, 2012; Paetzold, O’Leary-Kelly, and Griffin, 2007). More succinctly, for agribusinesses to be truly competitive in the future (Agriculture and Food Policy Research Group, 2006), workplace violence and its associated costs and consequences must be reduced or eliminated. To that end, agribusinesses must establish a positive atmosphere that guarantees the rights of all employees to a safe workplace (USDA, 2001). However, in agribusiness human resource management has been stymied in its ability to develop highly effective programs due to a paucity of research as to the extent, types, and causes of workplace violence. In this article, I first provide a brief review of the workplace violence literature in an effort to identify the more common types of violence encountered in agribusinesses. Then I turn our attention to what can be done now by any organization, anywhere in the world, particularly through human resource management to prevent or at least reduce such violence. Finally, I illuminate areas that are in need of

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more research in order to better understand, detect, and prevent workplace violence in agribusiness in the future.

Workplace Violence

Workplace violence in one form or another occurs frequently (Haynes, 2013; Morgan, 2013). But what exactly is workplace violence? The U.S. Department of Labor defines workplace violence as “an action (verbal, written, or physical aggression) which is intended to control or cause, or is capable of causing, death or serious bodily injury to oneself or others, or damage to property. Workplace violence includes abusive behavior toward authority, intimidating or harassing behavior, and threats” (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.). The definition employed here, contrary to many traditional definitions, indicates that behavior is labeled workplace violence if it is work-related and leads to negative work results, regardless of where it occurs, regardless of whether the harm is physical or emotional, and regardless of the relationship between perpetrator and victim. This definition means that workplace violence can originate from employees toward other employees, managers, or an organization itself. It also includes behavior directed from managers or outsiders toward employees (Van Fleet and Griffin, 2006), and it even may occur off premises. These are important distinctions as organizations strive to assure a positive workplace atmosphere.

Workplace Violence in Agribusiness

Nearly 60% of all work-related homicides in 1998 occurred in retail trade and services (Sygnatur and Toscano, 2000) and half of the homicides at work happened in food and beverage establishments (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). From 2005-2009, while those employed in farming, fishing, and forestry had low instances of workplace violence (0.8% of the total), those in food preparation and service-sector retail occupations had a much higher rate (7.2%) (Harrell, 2011). In 2009, the rate was 13.2% in service-sector retail sales which includes convenience store clerks, gas station employees, bartenders and other sales clerks (Seckan, 2013). A sample of some of the most severe violence in U. S. agribusiness over the past 33 years is shown in the Appendix (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2010). But these are just examples of severe instances of workplace violence in the United States. The most common forms of workplace violence are far less severe. For example, lower-level supervisors in many agribusiness organizations have been known to threaten employees, show favoritism, use inappropriate (usually authoritarian) styles of

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management, and show little consideration for the problems of their subordinates (Asbed, 2012; Watch, 2012; Dominguez, 1997). Higher-level managers have ignored poor supervision at lower levels of organizations and even supported poor supervisors in order to show a “solid front” against criticism (Human Rights Watch, 2012). Such less-severe behaviors are more significant than they might appear at first glance because they clearly increase the likelihood of violent responses to managerial actions.

Sexual Harassment

One form of workplace violence that merits special attention in agribusiness is sexual harassment. Although much of the workplace violence facing agribusiness employees, especially females, seems to occur in developing economies (Chedotum et al., 2013, Olubunmi and Otufale, 2012), there are problems in the United States as well (Yeung and Rubenstein, 2013a, 2013b). Sexual harassment, especially among migrant workers, is far too common—including subtle forms such as telling off-color jokes, using vulgar language, obscene gestures, unwanted sexual demands, inappropriate touching, and physically violent forms including rape, assault, and homicide (Asbed, 2012; Human Rights Watch, 2012; Waugh, 2010; van Hightower, Gorton, and DeMoss, 2000). Unfortunately, in agribusiness, due to the large number of female employees and their level of education and immigration status, violence frequently includes sexual harassment by managers as well as by fellow workers (Carrrington et al., 2013, Yeung and Rubenstein, 2013a, 2013b; Magley et al., 1999). For example, a 2009 survey of women in Iowa meatpacking plants found that 84% had experienced some form of sexual harassment at work, yet 91% of these victims indicated that they do not report it (Rubenstein and Armendariz as reported in Yeung and Rubenstein, 2013a). Among the more common forms of harassment were comments about their bodies (56%), unwanted physical contact (41%), being propositioned for sex (30%), and 26% indicated that they were threatened with termination if they resisted. One study of grocery store employees indicated that clients and customers were also a source of sexual harassment (Gettman and Gelfand, 2007). Another group, female farm workers, have been exploited for some time (Castañeda and Zavella, 2007; Adams, 1995). Ninety percent of U.S. female farmworkers indicate that sexual violence of one form or another is a significant problem (Dominguez, 1997; Kamm, 2000; Kamm and Rosenthal, 1999). Those workers report that they constantly have to deal with unwanted touching and propositions for sex by supervisors, and reports indicate that a substantial number of them have been forced or coerced into having sex

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with supervisors to keep their jobs (Meng, 2012; Tamayo, 2000). Whereas gender is a significant risk factor for women, age is also important with the 16- to 24-year-old age group at greatest risk (World Health Organization, 2002), and males as well as females affected.

Non-Sexual Harassment

Both female and male employees face less severe physical violence, including other harassment that may occur in subtler forms that, while not specifically against the , nevertheless result in emotional harm even if no physical injury occurs. Ignoring a worker or practicing its opposite behavior—over-supervision—could both be forms of harassment. Unnecessary changes in working hours, location, or duties could be harassment. Name-calling, insults, teasing—even dirty looks or eye-rolling—could be construed as harassment. Managers or senior employees may abuse their power by taking undue or unfair advantage of others (e.g., switching assignments or equipment, asking for personal favors). Yelling, using offensive language, and belittling or demeaning language are all forms of workplace violence. Any sort of coercive behavior that leads to negative emotional harm is workplace violence, even if not defined as such in extant .

Bullying

Yet another form of workplace violence is bullying, which is apparently even more common in the workplace than originally estimated, affecting as many as 96% of workers (Biro, 2014). Earlier researchers suggested that each year about 10-20% of workers encounter bullying (Einarsen et al., 2011; Rayner, 2002). This adult workplace problem (Gurchiek, 2005) can result in considerable emotional if not physical costs (Tracy, Lutgen-Sandvik, and Alberts, 2006). It is costly in many ways--litigation, lowered productivity, morale, and turnover, to cite a few examples. In extreme cases, not only the individual but also the whole organization can be threatened (Goldman, 2009, 2010). In 2008, the American Psychological Association estimated that U.S. businesses lose a staggering $300 billion per year due to incidences of workplace bullying (Wright, 2016). Yet that does not begin to reflect the damaging emotional effects that can linger for years. So bullying is a form of workplace violence that must be addressed and eliminated, too (Martin, Lopez, and LaVan, 2009). Workplace bullying may vary in form from one culture to another. Research has shown that even disciplining an employee in the presence of other employees can be considered a form of bullying that constitutes emotional workplace violence (Van Fleet

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and Van Fleet, 2012, 2014). And the form of bullying is changing for the worse, with electronic aggression or cyberbullying becoming widespread (Law, et al., 2012). Cyberbullying can occur through devices such as cell phones and computers and may use tools such as email, text messages, social media sites, blogs, or chat rooms to transmit embarrassing pictures, videos, websites, or even fake profiles or bios. Cyberbullying is unique because it can happen 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, even when the employee is at home (Lohmann, 2012). It may be anonymous and difficult to trace or to delete.

Abusive Supervision

Closely related to bullying is abusive supervision which seems even more impactful than bullying by coworkers (Tepper, 2007). Abusive managers may have overly aggressive personalities or have been poorly trained, but in any case, they create dysfunctional environments. Abusive management at higher levels can “flow down” through the organization leading to abusive supervision at lower levels (Liu, Liao, and Loi, 2012). Abusive supervision has been found to be perceived more by female than male subordinates (Ouyang, Lam, and Wang, 2015). Their behavior as a result of these perceptions can result in turnover, poor attendance, poor performance, lower job and life satisfaction, lower levels of commitment, or combinations of these (Palanski, Avey, and Jiraporn, 2014; Tepper, 2000).

Other Workplace Violence

There are, of course, numerous forms of workplace violence ranging from physical attacks or assaults that harm a person or property, to social ones that harm a person’s standing or acceptance in his or her group, to emotional ones that harm a person’s psychological well-being. These include (1) physical threats, disrespect, condescension, degradation, name-calling, or insults based on race, gender, religion, sexual orientation or other forms of incivility (Cortina et al., 2001); (2) managers who use their power to take undue or unfair advantage of their employees such as assigning them unreasonable tasks or having them do low-level personal chores for the manager; (3) spreading rumors or gossiping about employees; or (4) teasing or laughing at someone because of their personal appearance or sexual orientation (for a more substantial list, see Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2010, pp. 46-47).

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Forces Affecting the Risk of Workplace Violence

Organizations with higher incidences of violence and aggression are less effective (Johnson et al., 2013). Yet almost all organizations and individuals have some propensity for workplace violence. However, certain forces can act to increase or decrease that propensity. To reduce or eliminate violence, both managers and employees need to be aware of issues or situations that may cause violence to erupt. As shown in Figure 1, those influences include economic, social, and political forces outside the organization; inherent characteristics and dispositions of individuals; and the organization itself—its culture and managers (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2014). Any one of these forces could be so strong that violence results but, generally, workplace violence occurs when two or more of these forces combine to increase the stress individuals feel in organizations.

Source: Van Fleet, D. D., and Van Fleet, E. W. (2010.) The Violence Volcano: Reducing the Threat of Workplace Violence. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing (IAP). Used with permission. All rights retained by IAP and no other use is permitted without written permission from IAP.

Figure 1. Environmental, Individual, and Organizational Influences on Workplace Violence.

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Economic forces especially affect many agribusiness workers due to the seasonality of some activities and the uncertain fluctuations in markets. Knowing a worker will move on soon may empower a manager to behave less responsibly and allow the manager to overlook the problem. Bad economic times and shrinking job markets can cause so much stress that some individuals resort to violence because they feel it is their only recourse. Social factors, particularly diverse demographics, are also a significant force in agribusiness. Whereas age and immigration status are important, gender is especially important because of the increasingly large number of females in many agribusinesses (Sachs et al., 2014; Van Fleet, Van Fleet, and Seperich, 2014, Chapter 16; Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010). Diverse demographics also include political, religious, and gender identification differences. In organizations with highly diverse and stressful environments, all members within them can expect to face increasing incidents of interpersonal conflicts and possible workplace violence because of miscommunication, social or cultural differences, and differences in power (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2006). More powerful individuals tend to treat those with less power in parent-child relational ways. “Even protectiveness and benevolence toward the poor, toward minorities, and especially toward women have involved equating them with children” (Bateson, 1989, p. 107). Treating women and minorities like children is not an effective way to manage an organization, and that treatment can lead to increases in workplace violence. Individual factors are also closely tied to workplace violence. Some individuals seem to have “short fuses” and quickly resort to violence when things do not go their way or while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Other individual factors (e.g., hostile attributional bias; and hatred based on race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics) also could lead to aggression or even violence (Jacobs and Scott, 2011; LeBlanc and Barling, 2004). In an agribusiness organization with considerable diversity, there may well be substantial tensions based on some of these individual characteristics. Typically, employees do not resort to physical assault; rather, they engage in emotional forms of workplace violence, such as shouting, spreading rumors, fomenting malicious gossip, or simply being rude to others (Porath and Erez, 2007, 2009). Stress and frustration can build over time, and the corresponding individual propensity for serious physical violence can escalate (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). But workplace violence cannot be attributed solely to outside forces. “What happens here” is also influential (Griffin, Stoverink, and Gardner, 2012). The organization’s culture and its management (including and perhaps especially its frontline supervision) can increase or decrease the potential for violence (Griffin and Lopez, 2013). When

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individuals are stressed in their personal lives and feel that there are too few ways to reduce that stress, and are then put into a sick organizational environment1, that individual’s propensity to engage in violence is likely to increase. If that same individual is in a highly supportive work environment, the propensity for violence is reduced substantially (Geddes and Stickney, 2011). Organizations that treat people poorly may have employees who resort to violence to “get even” in some way (Griffin and O’Leary- Kelly, 2004). Human resource management must act to help develop positive workplace environments to reduce or prevent those circumstances.

Managing Workplace Violence Through Human Resource Management

Developing a positive workplace atmosphere (Luthans and Youssef, 2007) and addressing issues such as workplace violence are fundamental goals of human resource management. Workplace violence must not be permitted to damage those human resources. Achieving the agribusiness goal of preventing such violence depends on effectively combining different resources to produce goods and services that provide value to customers while, at the same time, assuring a healthy work environment. In agribusiness, though, human resource management has been limited due to a paucity of research as to the extent, types, and causes of workplace violence in agribusiness organizations. Human resources include the people an organization employs, as well as the way in which all members carry out their various jobs, tasks, and functions. It includes how wages, salaries, and other rewards are allocated and the impact brought about by those allocations. Human resource management refers to the all-inclusive set of managerial activities and tasks concerned with developing and maintaining a qualified workforce that contributes to organizational effectiveness. Research and the from practicing organizations have identified human resource management as one crucial factor in the effective performance of organizations (Wright et al., 2005; McWilliams, Van Fleet, and Wright, 2001). Effective human resource management is, then, a vital strategic concern for agribusiness organizations throughout the world (Wright, McMahan, and McWilliams, 1994; Howard et al., 1991; Howard and McEwan, 1989). Basically, human resource management involves the four goals outlined below: 1. Compete Effectively. Recruiting and selecting individuals who have not only a high probability of good performance but also a low propensity for violence enables organizations to compete effectively. Human resources are necessary to all organizations and it is important to have the right kind. Human resource management has a fundamental goal of clearly understanding how an organization competes, the kinds of

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human resources necessary to enhance its ability to compete, and the most appropriate methods for attracting and developing human resources likely to perform well for the organization while having a low probability of engaging in workplace violence (Horalíková and Berglová, 2002). 2. Quality and Productivity. Following recruitment and selection, training and reward systems help to keep stress at manageable levels which, in turn, reduces the pressures that can lead toward workplace violence. Manageable levels of stress and a low probability of violence make it easier to achieve quality and productivity. Quality and productivity generally co-occur so that improving quality almost always increases productivity. Human resource management contributes to the achievement of quality and productivity by assuring the best workforce, including one with a low propensity for violence (Horalíková and Zuzák, 2005; Howard et al., 1991). 3. Legal and Social Obligations. Organizations have a legal obligation to provide safe working conditions so preventing workplace violence is necessary to fulfill . Human resource management must assure that the organization complies with relevant legal and regulatory requirements in dealing with employees to minimize financial penalties, negative publicity, and damage to internal corporate culture. The organization should foster proactive human resource policies to assure that it recognizes its social obligations beyond its legal ones. It can do this by making the respectful treatment of employees an important component of its corporate social responsibility (McWilliams and Siegel, 2011, 2001; Thompson, 1986). Those progressive policies may be important in enabling the organization to differentiate its products, enhance its reputation, avoid further , and attract workers unlikely to engage in violence (McWilliams and Siegel, 2001). Assuring legal and socially responsible policies and actions to support them should be an important element in a firm’s strategy to create and sustain competitive advantages (McWilliams, Shrader, and Van Fleet, 2014; Rotter and Herbert, 2013; Heyder and Theuvsen, 2012; McWilliams and Siegel, 2011; van Esterik, 1999). 4. Personal Development. Finally, human resource management can increase employee confidence and reduce the individual propensity for violence by providing opportunities for employees to learn and improve their positions both within an organization and in their communities (DeNisi and Griffin, 2014; Cascio, 2012; Gómez- Mejia, Balkin, and Cardy, 2012). Human resource management should involve training and development beyond basic job-related information. Courses could be offered in basic English, mathematics, science, stress management, wellness and fitness, and personal financial planning as well as career development and mentoring programs. In this way, human resource management is part of the psychological the organization has with its employees (Wright and McMahan, 2011). A psychological contract is the overall

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set of expectancies held by the employee with regard to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide to the individual in return. The individual’s motivation to work is a function of how much s/he wants what the organization offers and how likely s/he thinks s/he will get it (Vroom, 1995). Breaches in the psychological contract, including unfair discipline or termination, reduce motivation and may have other serious negative consequences, including violence (Zhao, et al., 2007).

What Agribusiness Managers Can Do

Clearly, agribusinesses cannot ignore the workplace violence problem (Asbed, 2012). Action must be taken and it must begin with top management, which not only works to eliminate dysfunctional aspects of work environments but also works to establish a positive work environment (Clarke, 2009; Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). Organizations must develop and articulate a strong anti-violence policy, including the explicit prohibition of harassment and bullying in any form. That policy must include administrative controls and procedures for reporting incidents when they occur, combined with a clear support system for employees who are harmed (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). Those policies must be in the language(s) of the employees and made readily available to them. Agribusiness organizations can initiate the following five actions now. 1. Policy/culture. Establish policies to develop cultures that reduce the propensity for violence (see examples at Corporate Alliance to End Partner Violence, 2003; Society for Human Resource Management, 2014; YMCA, 2014). Because of the relatively large number of female and migrant workers, human resource management in agribusiness has the particular challenge of managing diversity. Managing this diversity is difficult, but one thing is certain: it should always start from the top. Upper management must support and reinforce diversity with clear and consistent organizational policies and practices. An organization’s vision and mission should clearly articulate a commitment to supporting diversity. In this way, an agribusiness develops a culture that supports diversity throughout the organization. 2. Communication/feedback. Improve communication and assure fair performance evaluations to lessen feelings of distrust and resentment. There should be day-to-day interaction with honest, consistent communication and informal feedback about performance (Bitsch and Olynk, 2008; Bitsch et al., 2006; Clarke, 2009). That performance should be recognized and appreciated with compensation and benefits based on rules and procedures that are clear, understandable, and acceptable to employees

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(Bitsch and Olynk, 2008; Bitsch et al., 2006; Clarke, 2009). The rights of troubled workers must be balanced with those of other employees (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). 3. Safety/security. As part of management’s role, in general, and human resource management, in particular, safety and security must also be addressed. Organizations must assure the safety and security of personnel and equipment, including protection from violence. A safe environment tends to be one that is also relatively free from workplace violence. Hazards and security risks should be identified and eliminated if possible (Cascio and Boudreau, 2014; Bitsch and Olynk, 2008; Bitsch et al., 2006; Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). Efforts should be made to provide working conditions that are tolerable to employees as well as safe (Bitsch and Olynk, 2008; Bitsch et al., 2006). 4. Training. Train both managers and employees in positive work behavior to reduce the propensity for violence. All managers must be involved (Bitsch and Yakura, 2007) and they, along with all other employees, must be trained in proper behavior and how to recognize when others are feeling excess stress (Bitsch and Olynk, 2008; Bitsch et al., 2006; Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007). When correctly performed, that training will establish the respect referred to earlier and build the trust that is necessary for the effective functioning of an organization (Barney and Hansen, 1994). It could also be used to take advantage of an organization’s diversity to build effective teams based on trust, understanding, and mutual respect (Brovelli, 2012). Effectively managing diversity means being flexible—where appropriate, rules are meant to be bent but probably not broken. Indeed, it would be desirable for company rules to include “the proviso that managers had the right and responsibility to grant exceptions up to a certain limit? Managers would then not have to ’bend the rules’” (Veiga, Golden, and Dechant, 2004, p. 89). Of course, any such rule bending involves risks to the manager but, when the welfare of others is involved, it may well be worth it (Badaracco, 2001). It is easier to manage diversity effectively if all members of an organization are properly trained. Diversity training that is designed specifically to enable members of an organization to function in a diverse workplace has been shown to be an effective means of minimizing conflict associated with diversity. The best diversity training involves proversity (Graham, 1997). Proversity is progressive diversity whereby the focus of the training is on common characteristics that individuals bring to the workplace rather than on their differences. Proversity training, then, seeks to develop individual characteristics that support diversity. Otis Redding’s “Respect” song (Stax Records, 1965, and made popular by Aretha Franklin) sets the framework: R E S P E C T – “all I’m asking is a little respect.” Further

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echoed by Rodney Dangerfield (Dangerfield, 2004), employees want respect from fellow employees and supervisors. To have respect, one needs to develop empathy, understanding the perspective of others in the organization. Indeed, understanding is critical. Everyone needs to understand and accept that cultural factors cause people to have different values and to react and behave in different ways. As members of an organization develop understanding and respect for one another, they learn to tolerate differences and work around them. Differences in benefits, family arrangements, religious holidays, and the like, will occur as an organization strives to accommodate the diverse needs of its workforce. The important factor is to exercise care so that preferential treatment does not occur and is not perceived as occurring. 5. Planning ahead. Despite all of this, however, workplace violence incidents of one form or another may still occur. Thus, organizations must develop plans for emergency situations (beyond the scope of this paper). Detailed contingency plans should be made and a “crisis management team” identified that would be empowered to act when a violent incident occurs (Van Fleet and Van Fleet, 2007).

What Researchers Can Do

As just indicated, several things can be done now; but, to facilitate their accomplishment and improve future action, more research needs to be conducted (Griffin and Lopez, 2005). Understanding why workplace violence occurs and the implications of that for organizations is a vital area for future research. It is also of significant practical relevance, particularly for agribusiness organizations which have highly diverse workforces with considerable disparity in terms of economic condition and security. Clearly, specific problems and hypotheses need to be articulated, but then the critical step is to document the extent and magnitude of the problem through the development of more and better data. Using more and improved data, future work should explore the extent of workplace violence in various agribusiness sectors. Are some sectors (e.g., food/fiber production) more prone to violence than others? Similarly, are some levels of management (e.g., first- line supervision) more prone to violence than others? Most of the current information concerns farm manual laborers and meatpacking plant workers. Would the same pattern exist in dairies, restaurants, supermarkets, textile plants, leather operations, golf courses and NFL playing fields, or other sectors of agribusiness? There is evidence to suggest that it very well might (Young, 2016; Beam, 2011). Information from that research would then enable testing whether the ideas presented hold for different agribusinesses or only for selected types, and whether the results pertain only to a particular

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organization/industry sector or particular country/culture or they are generalizable. That information could also be used to extend existing research on predicting and controlling those most likely to engage in violent behavior (Quick, McFadyen, and Nelson, 2014). Similarly, future work should determine what forms of workplace violence are present in various agribusiness sectors. Suggestions for dealing with that violence could be quite different for low-level violence as opposed to more severe or damaging forms. This information could also be useful to practitioners in understanding the warning signs of potential violent eruptions. Related to these questions, would differences in the extent of workplace violence in agribusiness vary with the degree of disparity between harassers and victims in such factors as wages or income? Or is it more closely tied just to particular levels of wages or education of victims or perpetrators? Future research should carefully examine causes and effects because consequences (e.g., attitudes, distress, and deviance) may contribute to negative behaviors (Tepper, 2007). Insights provided through this review imply that future research should consider the interaction of the forces underlying workplace violence in addition to viewing them separately as has been done in the past.

Conclusions

Existing research regrettably is predominantly from one segment of the many agribusiness industries in specific geographic regions. That research, although limited, tells us that workplace violence is alive and well in agribusinesses, particularly against women and migrant workers. Such violence may consist of actions by managers toward employees, or employees toward other employees, managers, or the organization itself. It may include physical violence against individuals or a company, sexual or other forms of harassment including bullying, and work sabotage. Or it may consist of less violent actions such as name-calling, insults, teasing, dirty looks, or eye rolling. Any sort of coercive behavior that leads to negative emotional harm is workplace violence. Legal and economic consequences of such violence will be imperative to compete effectively in the future, so agribusinesses must move quickly to balance the rights of all employees to a safe workplace. Human resource management would be the best approach if only we better understood the causes and warning signs of violence at work in agribusinesses. The literature provides numerous suggestions for preventing and dealing with workplace violence, much of which is applicable to agribusiness organizations. The current body of literature, however, suggests weaknesses in our current understanding in

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agribusinesses. It is hoped the examination provided in this review will trigger ideas for future work.

References

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Appendix

A sample of some of the most severe violence in U. S. agribusiness over the past 33 years.

1984, San Diego, Calif.—An ex-security guard killed 21 people at a McDonald’s. 1991, Killeen, Texas—A man drove a pickup truck through the front of a Luby’s Cafeteria (now Luby’s, Inc.) and executed 22 people before shooting himself. 1995, Littleton, Colo.—A man distraught over marital problems opened fire in a crowded grocery store, killing three people (including his wife) before he was subdued. 2000, Pittsburgh, Pa.—Three were killed and four others wounded at a McDonald’s. 2000, Sandy, Utah—A man killed two and wounded three at a Chevys Fresh Mex restaurant. 2000, New York City, N.Y.—A Wendy’s ex-employee killed five and wounded two. 2002, Pittsburgh, Pa.—In a restaurant shooting, three were killed. 2002, Silicon Valley, Calif.—A biotech company worker killed his boss, then himself. 2003, Irvine, Calif.—A bagger at Albertsons supermarket killed two and injured three before being fatally shot by police. 2003, Boynton Beach, Fla.—A worker at the Golf Leaf Nursery killed his estranged wife, a man he believed was having an affair with his wife, and two other employees. 2004, Kansas City, Kan.—A ConAgra Foods meat-packing plant worker shot seven co- workers, killing five of them, before killing himself. 2005, Oak Lawn, Ill.—A restaurant employee shot and killed two of his coworkers. 2006, Pine Bluff, Ark.—A suspended worker returned to the Tyson Foods processing plant to shoot and seriously wound a co-worker. 2006, Denver, Colo.—At a Safeway, Inc., warehouse, a gunman killed one, wounded five, and set several fires before being killed by police. 2007, Santa Cruz, Calif.—An employee of the Lode Street Wastewater Facility killed his estranged wife, a supervisor, and then himself. 2007, Phoenix, Ariz.—An argument in a bakery escalated to the point where one employee left but returned and shot the other employee several times. 2008, West Palm Beach, Fla.—A gunman opened fire inside a Wendy's, killing a firefighter and wounding five other diners before killing himself.

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2009, Lakeland, Fla.—In an attempted murder-suicide at a Publix fresh produce plant, one worker attempted to kill a co-worker before shooting and killing himself. 2010, Philadelphia, Pa.—A terminated Kraft Foods employee returned to the worksite and killed two employees. 2013, Portage, Wis.—One Subway fast-food worker killed another. 2014, Moore Okla.—One woman beheaded and two others stabbed at Vaughan Foods. 2015, Peabody Mass.—A sous chef at P.F. Chang's was stabbed to death by a co-worker. 2016, Amarillo Texas—Police kill Walmart employee who had held another employee hostage.

Even those charged with keeping our food safe are not themselves safe:

1998, Los Angeles Calif. —A USDA employee killed a supervisor and union representative and then himself. 2000, Alameda County Calif. —One state and two USDA inspectors were killed.