IMMIGRANT ANXIETIES: 1990S IMMIGRATION REFORM AND THE NEOLIBERAL CONSENSUS Christina Gerken A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2007 Committee: Robert Buffington, Advisor I-Fen Lin Graduate Faculty Representative Susana Peña Ellen Berry © 2007 Christina Gerken All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Dr. Robert Buffington, Advisor Immigrant Anxieties: 1990s Immigration Reform and the Neoliberal Consensus concentrates on the discursive intersections between immigration, anti-terrorism, and welfare reform that developed in the mid-1990s debates over immigration reform in the United States. Drawing on Michel Foucault’s work, this project analyzes the discursive strategies that created, shaped, and upheld a race-specific image of a “desirable” immigrant. I argue that government debates, media discourse, and public perception were part of a larger regime of knowledge/power that continually produced and reinforced the neoliberal ideal of a responsible, self-sufficient subject. This underlying neoliberal logic with its reductionist insistence on cost-benefit analysis foreclosed any attempt to engage in a serious moral/ethical debate about the merits and effects of the U.S. immigration system. At the same time, my research demonstrates that despite this foreclosure of the terms of debate, the mid-1990s discourse on immigration was characterized by a productive tension between its underlying neoliberal assumptions and other often contradictory values and objectives. In addition, I interrogate how long-standing and deep-seated anxieties about immigrants’ race, class, gender, and sexuality intersected with neoliberal logic in both the public discourse and the legislative process. My dissertation examines congressional debates and mainstream newspapers to illustrate how immigration discourse circulates and how these distinct discursive sites work intertextually within the larger discourse to reinforce, supplement, and even contradict each other. Chapter 3 examines the neoliberal logic behind the restructuring of the family preference category to show how Congress used an explicit pro-family rhetoric to justify measures intended to activate legal immigrants’ capacity for self-sufficient citizenship. Chapter 4 interrogates the discursive construction of “illegal aliens” as “anti- citizens.” Chapter 5 explores the linkages between media and legislative discourse. Chapter 6 focuses on the mainstream media’s use of human interest stories, demonstrating how these stories served as an important tool to negotiate widespread anxieties about immigrants’ race, class, and sexuality. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many individuals who contributed, directly or indirectly, to my completion of this dissertation. Most importantly, I want to recognize the superb guidance of my dissertation advisor, Rob Buffington. Rob’s scholarly insights and encouraging feedback and his willingness to comment on countless drafts have helped to improve my dissertation project immensely. I thank Rob particularly for supporting my project and helping me to clarify my thoughts and my writing. I am also grateful for the valuable input of the other members of my dissertation committee, Susana Peña, Ellen Berry and I-Fen Lin, my graduate faculty representative. In particular, I would like to thank Susana not only for her insightful comments on various chapter drafts, but also for being a passionate teacher and mentor. Her classes prepared me to think about the intersections of race, ethnicity, class, gender, and sexuality and her own inspiring work on Cuban immigrants has served as a model for how to approach these issues in a thoughtful and theoretically sophisticated way. In addition, I would like to Ellen for her confidence in the final product well before it materialized. Her passion about feminism and theory and her continued support throughout my graduate studies have greatly benefited me. I also want to express special thanks to several people whose guidance and support have made a significant and lasting contribution to my academic success. First and foremost, I would to thank Eithne Luibhéid, an extraordinary person and a great teacher, whose enthusiasm and knowledge about the U.S. immigration system as a site for constructing and contesting sexuality have inspired me to formulate my own dissertation project. I am also enormously grateful for the support of the “Sexualities and Borders” Research Cluster at the Institute for the Study of Culture and Society. In particular, I would like to thank Vibha Bhalla, Bill Albertini, Amy Robinson, Joelle Ruby Ryan, Erika Kubik, and Jamie Stuart, who have generously volunteered their time to read my work. Additionally, I would like to express my thanks to the Department of American Culture Studies for providing continued financial support and awarding me the non- service fellowship. I would also like to thank the Department of Ethnic Studies for giving v me the opportunity to teach a variety of classes and allowing me to develop a seminar on my dissertation topic. In this context, I would also like to thank my students from my “Contemporary U.S. Immigration” class, whose questions, comments, and insights helped me to see new connections and explore different possibilities. I also wish to thank the staff at Jerome Library (Bowling Green State University, OH). Special thanks to Coleen Parmer, who spend long hours searching for hard-to-find transcripts of congressional debates and other government documents. A special thank you to all of my friends who made my graduate school years incredibly enjoyable end memorable. In particular, I would like to thank Aukje Kluge and Maria DeRose, whose encouragement and support were invaluable along the way. Others who have given me their time, support, and friendship include: Connie Donald, Richard Douglass, Sue Eberly, Gayra Ostgaard, Anna Pedron, Brigitte Wex, Matt Barbee, and Dustin Tahmahkera. Last, but certainly not least, I would also like to express special thanks to my parents for their emotional and financial support and, most importantly, for believing in me and supporting me every step of the way. I am grateful to each of the individuals mentioned above. Each, in one way or another, contributed to make this a better dissertation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1 INTRODUCTION.. ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Discourse Analysis.............................................................................................. 11 1.2 The Emerging Neoliberal Consensus.................................................................. 15 1.3 Literature Review................................................................................................ 21 1.4 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................... 35 2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF U.S. IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION....................... 39 2.1 The Exclusionary Logic of Early Immigration Laws.......................................... 41 2.1.1 From the Province Laws of 1700 to the Immigration Act of 1990...... 43 2.2 The Neoliberal Reform Discourse in 1995-96.................................................... 59 2.2.1 Immigration Reform in the 1990s........................................................ 61 2.2.2 Restricting Immigrants’ Access to Public Benefits: Welfare Reform . 72 2.2.3 Further Restricting Immigrants’ Rights: Anti-Terrorism Legislation.. 81 2.3 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 90 3 DEFINING RESPONSIBLE NEOLIBERAL SUBJECTIVITY: THE CONGRESSIONAL DISCOURSE ABOUT FAMILY REUNIFICATION.......................................................... 93 3.1 In Support of the Nuclear Family: Continuing America’s Historical Commitments 97 3.2 (Re)defining the Nuclear Family: The Controversy about Elderly Parents........ 105 3.3 Contemporary Immigrants: Prime Examples of Successful Nuclear Families? . 116 3.4 Negotiating the Importance of Race and Ethnicity............................................. 127 3.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 135 4 CRIMINALIZING UNDOCUMENTED WORKERS: THE CONGRESSIONAL DISCOURSE ABOUT “ILLEGAL ALIENS” ............................................................................................ 136 4.1 Alarmist Depictions: Flood Imagery and the Welfare Magnet........................... 139 vii 4.2 Sympathetic Figures: Children of Undocumented Immigrants........................... 148 4.3 Immigrants as a Security Risk: Terrorists, Drug Dealers, and Criminal Aliens. 163 4.4 Economic Considerations: Immigrants’ Impact on the U.S. Labor Market........ 175 4.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 187 5 RETHINKING IMMIGRATION POLITICS: THE MAINSTREAM MEDIA’S RESPONSE TO THE REFORM INITIATIVE ............................................................................................... 190 5.1 The Immigration Discourse in Different Local Contexts.................................... 193 5.2 Media Coverage of the Education Controversy.................................................. 202 5.3 Language and Discrimination............................................................................. 229 5.4 Conclusion..........................................................................................................