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FACULDADE DE LETRAS Giray Halıcıoğlu 2º Ciclo De Estudos Em FACULDADE DE LETRAS UNIVERSIDADE DO PORTO Giray Halıcıoğlu 2º Ciclo de Estudos em História, Relações Internacionais e Cooperação Political Islam and Social Polarization in Turkey 2013 Orientador: Isabel Maria Galhano Rodrigues Coorientador: José Maciel Honrado Morais Santos Classificação: Ciclo de Estudos: Dissertação: Versão Definitiva ABSTRACT In the last years Turkish society has gone under major transformations. Since the Ottomans acknowledged that their Muslim identity was the main reason of their backwardness, the social compromise was never maintained again. As a result of Ottoman Empire‟s numerous defeats by the West which it always despised, Ottoman authorities had to make a choice by acknowledging either the issue was Islam itself or the believers. Thus, Ottoman authorities defined that the issue was Islam and accepted that its dominance on the administration should be reduced. This way Ottomans got under an extensive modernization period which extended their life remarkably. Following the fall of Ottoman Empire, young Turkey was founded from its ashes and carried on the westernized reforms. Atatürk also saw the issue with Islam and implemented a series of reforms in the lead of Republican People‟s Party to eliminate Islam from all spheres of social and political life. However, this was not welcomed by the majority of the society and in the first free elections in 1950; society showed its desire for a change and elected the opposing Democrat Party with an overwhelming majority which followed a moderate policy towards religion. In the following years, as the welfare state declined, Islamist parties were able to gain a remarkable ground in Turkish politics. The most important of those was Welfare Party as it was the first Islamist party that was elected with the majority vote. During its 15 years of existence Welfare Party was the main actor in social polarization. Even though it was a party which was elected by majority, its acts that praised Islamic values were perceived as anti-laic by the governing elite and the party was closed in 1998. However, its social base never gave up their fight. In 2002, this time Justice and Development Party became the address of Islamist circles by receiving the approval of almost half of the population. Since then the party is being the voice of the society which rises against status-quo. However, party‟s radical acts in the recent years also drew a contra-opposition against itself which blames the party with being dishonest in its acts, having a secret agenda of Islamizing the country and gradually heading for a civil dictatorship by suppressing the opposite voices. This thesis presents an overview on Islamism, politicization of Islam, Turkish democracy, social polarization starting from the Turkish acceptance of Islam until the present day in the first two parts and argues the effects of political Islam on Turkish society on the basis of social polarization at the last part through using empirical data from primary and secondary sources. Keywords: Political Islam, Islamism, Moderate Islam, Islam, Turkey, Muslim, Ataturk, Welfare party, Justice and Development Party, Democrat Party, People‟s Republican Party, Polarization, Ottoman Empire, Identity, Ideology, Social Uprising, Turban, Gulen Movement, Public Space, Military Coup, Coup d‟Etat, Modernism, Postmodernism, Secularism, Laicism, Laic, Green Belt Project, Greater Middle East Project i RESUMO Nos últimos anos, a sociedade Turca teve as suas maiores transformações. Desde que os Otomanos reconheceram que a sua identidade Muçulmana era a principal razão da sua relutância, o compromisso social nunca mais foi mantido de novo. Como o resultado das numerosas derrotas do Império Otomano pelo Oeste, que sempre foram despresadas, as autoridades Otomanas tiveram que fazer uma escolha; ou o reconhecimento do próprio Islão, ou os seus crentes. Então, as autoridades Otomanas decidiram que o Islão e o seu dominio naadministração deverião ser reduzidos.Esta decisão dos Otomanos conseguiu um longo período de modernização, que alargou consideravelmente a sua existência. Após a queda do Império Otomano, a jovem Turquia foi fundada sobre as suas cinzas e trouxe consigo reformas ocidentalizadas. Ataturk também viu a saída com o Islamismo e implementou uma serie de reformas no governo do Partido Republicano do Povo, para eliminar o Islão de todas as esferas da vida social e politica. Contudo, isto não foi bem visto pela maioria da sociedade e, nas primeiras eleições livres em 1950, a sociedade mostrou o desejo de uma mudança e elegeu na oposição o Partido Democrático com uma preponderante maioria, que seguiu uma politica moderada na religião. Nos anos seguintes, como o estado de bem-estar declinou. Os partidos Islamistas conseguiram ganhar um remarcável terreno na politica Turca. O mais importante de todos, foi o Partido do Bem-Estar, que foi o primeiro partido Islamista que foi eleito com maioria de votos. Durante os seus 15 anos de existência, o Partido do Bem-Estar foi o principal portagonista na polarização social. Ainda que fosse um partido eleito com maioria , os seus actos que pregavam os valores Islamicos foram entendidos pela elite do governo como anti-laicos, e o partido foi encerrado em 1998. Contudo, as suas bases sociais nunca deixaram de lutar. Em 2002, nesta altura Partido da Justiça e Desenvolvimento , tornou-se o lugar dos circulos Islamistas, pois receberam a aprovação de quase metade da população. Desde então o partido está a ser a voz da sociedadecujas origens são contra o status-quo. No entanto, os actos radicais do partido nos últimos anos também delinearam uma contra-oposição contra si próprios com os erros dos seus actos desonestos, tendo uma agenda secreta de Islamização do país e, gradualmente encabeçando uma ditadura civil para supressão das vozes da oposição. Esta dissertação apresenta uma visão do Islamismo, politização do Islão, democracia Turca, polarização social partindo da aceitação do Islão pelos Turcos desde os presentes dias, nas primeiras duas partes e argumentos dos efeitos da politica Islamica na sociedade turca, com base na polarização social, na última parte, atraves de dados empiricos de fontes primárias e secundárias. Palavras-chave: Islão Político, Islamismo, Islão Moderado, Islão, Turquia, Muçulmano, Ataturk, Partido do Bem-estar, Partido da Justiça e Desenvolvimento, Partido Democrata, Partido Repúblicano do Povo, Polarização, Império Otomano, Identidade, Ideologia, Manifestação Social, Turbante, Movimento Gulen, Espaço Público, Golpe Militar, Golpe de Estado, Modernismo, Pós-modernismo, Secularismo, Laicismo, Projeto do Cinto Verde, Projeto do Grande Médio Oriente ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Number ABSTRACT i RESUMO ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii TABLES AND IMAGES vi ABBREVIATIONS vii INTRODUCTION 1 1. METHODOLOGY 9 2. ISLAMISM FROM THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 14 2.1. AN OVERVIEW OF TURKISH PERCEPTION OF ISLAM 14 2.2. EVOLUTION OF ISLAMISM 20 2.2.1. Developments which Paved the Way to Islamism 20 2.2.2. Islamism as an Ideology and Politicization of Islam 24 2.3. WESTERN NATIONALISM VERSUS ISLAMISM 26 2.4. THEORIES OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ISLAM 28 2.4.1. Modernism 28 2.4.2. Radicalism 30 2.4.3. Postmodern Identity Politics and Development Concept 31 3. POLITICAL ISLAM IN TURKEY DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD 35 3.1. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TURKISH POLITICS AND POLITICAL ISLAM 35 3.1.1. Nationalist Modernization: Kemalism 38 3.1.2. Islamic Opposition to Kemalist Modernization 43 3.1.3. Place of Islamist Parties in Turkish Politics 45 3.1.3.1. DP and AP Period 46 3.1.3.2. MNP and MSP Period 49 3.1.3.3. RP Period 51 3.2. EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ISLAM AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF TURKEY 55 3.2.1. Geostrategy of Islamism 56 iii 3.2.2. Islam in Global Politics 57 3.2.3. Turkish Political Islam in the Globalizing World 58 3.2.4. USA‟s Islam Policy 60 3.2.5. Islam in Cold War Politics 64 3.3. 1980 MILITARY COUP 66 3.4. TURKISH DEMOCRACY CULTURE AND PLACE OF RP IN TURKISH POLITICS 68 3.4.1. Turkish Democracy Culture and RP 68 3.4.2. RP‟s Legal Pluralist Model 69 3.4.3. RP‟s Double Standard Policy 72 3.4.4. Lack of Democracy in Turkey and Totalitarian Tendencies 73 3.4.5. Republic, Public Space and Political Islam 77 3.4.6. Islamists‟ Discovery of Public Space 82 3.5. AKP ERA IN TURKISH POLITICS 83 3.6. GÜLEN MOVEMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON TURKISH POLITICS 92 4. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL POLARIZATION IN TURKEY 97 4.1. POLITICS AND POLARIZATION 97 4.1.1. Focuses of Polarization 100 4.1.1.1. Turban Conflict 100 4.1.1.2. Education 113 4.1.1.3. Urban Life and Migration 131 4.1.2. Political Parties and Politics 139 4.2. POLITICAL DISPUTES 144 4.2.1. Public Opinion about Political Disputes 144 4.2.2. Recent Political Disputes 145 4.2.2.1. Amendments on Constitution 146 4.2.2.2. Corruption in Politics 150 4.2.2.3. Ergenekon Case 152 4.2.2.4. Other Disputes 160 4.2.3. An Evaluation of Politicization 161 4.2.4. Expectations from Life and Perceptions 162 4.3. CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT SOCIAL CLUSTERS TO POLARIZATION 163 4.3.1. Social Clusters 165 iv 4.3.1.1. Moderns 165 4.3.1.2. Traditional Conservatives 166 4.3.1.3. Religious Conservatives 166 4.3.2. Political Agenda and Polarization 167 4.4. BASES OF SOCIAL POLARIZATION 169 4.4.1. An Overview of Different Identities 169 4.4.2. State Governance 173 4.4.3. Debates on Religion and Laicism 174 4.4.4. Debates on Political Islam 178 4.4.5. Social Habits and Lifestyles 182 4.4.6. Polarization Axes 183 4.5. SOCIAL UPRISING AND HUMAN RIGHTS 188 4.5.1.
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