De La Producci\363N Al Consumo De La Animaci\363N Como

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De La Producci\363N Al Consumo De La Animaci\363N Como De la producción al consumo de la animación como fenómeno cultural: Una breve historia crítica Autor: Xavier Fuster Burguera Director: José Igor Prieto Arranz Trabajo de fin de máster Máster en lenguas y literaturas modernas 2010/2011 Universitat de les Illes Balears Índice Capítulo 1. Introducción 2 Capítulo 2. Estados Unidos: centro hegemónico de la animación occidental 11 2.1 Introducción 11 2.2 La semilla de un nuevo género artístico popular: 12 la animación decimonónica 2.3 El Magic Kingdom de Walt Disney 20 2.4 Warner Bros. y su séquito 28 2.5 Y Europa por extensión 35 Capítulo 3. El papel del arte popular japonés en la animación occidental 38 3.1 Introducción 38 3.2 Imágenes cómicas en Japón 40 3.3 La animación de las imágenes cómicas 47 3.4 De occidente a oriente y viceversa 55 3.4.1 La exportación de las imágenes cómicas animadas 59 Capítulo 4. La animación en la época de la televisión 66 4.1 Introducción 66 4.2 De la gran pantalla al televisor 67 4.3 La televisión, el entretenimiento de masas 72 4.4 Japón y su aventura por Europa 84 Capítulo 5. Nuevas perspectivas globales del consumo de la animación 89 5.1 Introducción 89 5.2 El canon de consumo de animación de Disney 90 5.3 Los adultos: consumidores marginales de la animación 97 5.4 Subculturas de consumo de animación 103 Conclusión. 111 Anexo. 116 Cronología 116 Referencias. 129 De la producción al consumo de la animación como fenómeno cultural: Una breve historia crítica Capítulo 1. Introducción La animación, ignorada y menospreciada, a pesar de ser una variante del Séptimo Arte, todavía hoy sigue luchando por hacerse un sitio digno entre la opinión pública general, aunque ahora mismo sea un fenómeno cultural con un grandísimo potencial y efecto social. El objetivo de este trabajo de fin de máster será dilucidar algunos de los factores de interés académico relacionados con el arrollador impacto que la animación ha tenido alrededor del mundo a partir de los 90. Para tal propósito, me adscribiré a las líneas generales de los estudios culturales que, entre otras consecuencias, han visibilizado el interés de la tradicionalmente denominada “cultura popular” y “de masas” dentro del mundo académico. Mientras que no se puede negar que el origen y la atención de las seis artes clásicas pretecnológicas (literatura, música, danza y teatro, pintura, escultura y arquitectura) tienen un fundamento primordialmente funcional, el Séptimo Arte aparece y se consolida en un contexto estrictamente comercial y tecnológico. Independientemente de los otros factores que hayan podido operar a la hora de consolidar las imágenes en movimiento como un nuevo arte de consideración académica, no hay que perder de vista que tanto el cine en general, como la animación en particular, son fundamentalmente negocios y, como tales, deben crear una serie de beneficios económicos a las personas involucradas en su creación para su perpetuidad. Y si el nuevo medio audiovisual está teniendo un especial impacto y continuidad sociocultural en todo el mundo, es por los beneficios a gran escala que genera a sus productores una vez que pasa a los enmarañados sistemas mercantiles de la globalización. Por tanto, no es de extrañar que en estos últimos años el mundo académico haya empezado a mostrar interés en las expresiones audiovisuales (cine, televisión, videojuegos, Internet) entendidas como unas nuevas formas artísticas pertenecientes a un complejo cultural dinámico. Tomando las perspectivas heurísticas sugeridas por Hall y Whannel en The Popular Arts (1965), trataré la animación como un producto de entretenimiento afectado por “the standards provided by publicity and the mass-production machine” (30). No podemos negar que la animación es un producto que llega a gran parte del mundo y puede ser analizado como “the end of a complex historical and social process” y un “active [agent] in a new phase in the life-history of industrial society” (45). Cabe pensar 2 que esto es posible y altamente productivo si, inspirados por la filosofía de los estudios culturales, alzamos nuestra vista más allá de las formas culturales que han venido siendo incluidas tradicionalmente dentro del canon artístico, arbitrario y elitista. En el caso particular de la animación nos encontramos un ejemplo de arte “popular” que depende de unos patrones preestablecidos que generan unos productos y unas respuestas determinados en su audiencia, a pesar de que el “genuine contact between audience and performer” (66) se manifestará de manera excepcional, condenando fatalmente la consideración general por los dibujos animados (270). Cuando el cine se sumó como el séptimo ítem a la lista de las artes clásicas como una nueva expresión cultural derivada del avance tecnológico, las películas de imagen real obtuvieron una rápida acogida entre cualquier tipo de público, mientras que la animación continuó estigmatizada y relegada a un consumo minoritario. Esto parece irónico si tenemos en cuenta que la producción y el consumo de las dos variantes cinematográficas están sujetos prácticamente a los mismos parámetros. La diferencia esencial entre ambas, no obstante, es determinante: mientras que el movimiento que nos ofrece la primera viene de la captura de imágenes fotográficas, la segunda depende de dibujos o pinturas creados sobre un papel en blanco por el ser humano. Es decir, depende de un ejercicio que, debido a su inversión en creatividad e imaginación, es generalmente repudiado tanto en la Academia como en la opinión pública general del adulto sosegado. La historia de la aceptación de la animación en el mundo académico presenta analogías con otras manifestaciones “populares” como la literatura infantil y fantástica, los videojuegos o los juegos de rol, antes que en otras como la ficción pulp, la música pop o el movimiento hippy. Estos tres últimos ejemplos de cultura “popular” pueden analizarse como consecuencias de la masificación de la población, un mayor acceso a la educación (y cultura) y la consciencia de que la mismísima clase media es responsable directa a muchos niveles de toda la producción de su entretenimiento. Los productos artísticos derivados de este tipo de manifestación de cultura “popular” tienen una razón de ser bastante contenida, pues están creados por un tipo de artista afín al consumidor, por sus compartidas naturalezas ya sean clandestinas, subculturales, estéticas o marginales y ciertas condiciones históricas. En cambio, otros productos artísticos de corte popular como la literatura infantil, los videojuegos, los juegos de rol y, de alguna manera, la animación, no tienen 3 tendencia a completar el circuito comunicativo satisfactoriamente, especialmente en el triángulo de emisor, mensaje y receptor. Mientras que los productos derivados de la ficción pulp, la música pop o el movimiento hippy van a estar hechos por un artista adulto, que normalmente permanece en esta subcultura, y dirigidos a un consumidor igualmente adulto que se siente identificado con este movimiento subcultural, aquellos provenientes de la literatura infantil o fantástica, los juegos interactivos o la animación van a estar confeccionados por adultos, pero con un receptor infantil en mente. O, si no explícitamente infantil, “infantiloide”. Esto repercute directamente en la forma y contenido finales de los productos artísticos populares que generan, por no decir en su forma de consumo y su valoración social. Ya sea un libro de ilustraciones, un videojuego o un cortometraje animado, estos van a tener las características propias que los artistas encuentran apropiadas para el consumo infantil. Una dimensión didáctica, normalmente moralizante, unida a un planteamiento ocioso, casi interactivo, y una expresión simplista suelen ser los marcadores más comunes de que una obra artística está orientada al consumo infantil (Nodelman 2008: 76-81). Y, consciente o inconscientemente, la animación hereda muchas de estas características. Pero esto nos aleja de la idea de Hall y Whannel de que los productos culturales populares están producidos por y para una audiencia que comparte un trasfondo subcultural (1965: 66, cf. 269-270). Al mismo tiempo nos recuerda la paradoja de que la audiencia infantil poco puede hacer para la crítica y producción artística orientada a ellos mismos. Y mucha de esta producción viene de nociones idealizadas de la niñez por los adultos (Nodelman 2008: 190). Como la animación a duras penas ha pasado la barrera de lo marginal, cualquier adulto que defienda esta nueva estética va a ser prejuiciosamente ignorado o desdeñado por las tendencias más elitistas debido a lo poco (o demasiado) desafiante que, intelectualmente, resulta esta inmersión artística. El debate que todavía genera la tensión entre los productores y consumidores artísticos que no coinciden en su posición ni generacional ni ideológica se ve acrecentado cuando este arte viene a democratizarse. Mientras que el uso de videojuegos o literatura infantil se puede quedar fácilmente en el ámbito privado, el consumo temprano de materiales audiovisuales se convierte necesariamente en una actividad comunal, al igual que todo el entretenimiento en forma de espectáculos. Hasta la domesticación del televisor a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, la gente tenía 4 que exhibirse públicamente si quería disfrutar del entretenimiento audiovisual, exponiéndose a la opinión general que merecía el consumo de este arte “popular”. Según los prejuicios culturales que encontramos en la mayor parte de occidente, la exhibición pública del consumo de este arte popular se dignificará o legitimará según las preferencias de las construcciones discursivas proyectadas por cada comunidad desde las autoridades académicas, comerciales, ideológicas y políticas. Un adulto viendo dibujos animados en una sala de cine en presencia de otros adultos y proyectando evidentes señales de regocijo, está poniendo en seria duda su madurez y criterio artístico, que son a su vez algunos de los pilares básicos de la figura pública del adulto occidental (esto se contrastará productivamente, en el tercer capítulo, con la construcción social del adulto en Japón, a través del tatemae).
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