Oil Activities and Food Insecurity in Nigeria's Niger Delta

IAR Journal of Humanities and Social Science ISSN Print : 2708-6259 | ISSN Online : 2708-6267 Frequency: Bi-Monthly Language: Multilingual Origin: KENYA Website : https://www.iarconsortium.org/journal-info/IARJHSS Research Article

Asphyxiated by Abundance: Oil Activities and Food Insecurity in Nigeria’s Niger Delta Article History Abstract: The discovery of oil in the Niger Delta in 1956 brought hope of rapid Received: 30.05.2021 socio-economic development of the region. No one knew of the ruinous environmental pollution that was to accompany oil activities. Thus, the euphoria Revision: 07.06.2021 of access to easy petro-dollar that enveloped the region‘s people was devoid of Accepted: 18.06.2021 any apprehension. However, oil activities in the region have been accompanied by Published: 30.06.2021 huge gas flaring and unabated oil spillages. Their negative impacts have brought Author Details about physical and ecological changes on the environment. This study examines Crosdel Emuedo*1 and Okeoghene Emuedo2 crude oil activities in the Niger Delta and their effects on the environment. It Authors Affiliations intently examines the nexus between effects of oil act ivities on the environment 1 and food insecurity in the Niger Delta. The study deployed both qualitative and Department of Political Science and quantitative research methodologies for data collection, analysis and presentation. Sociology, Western Delta University, Nigeria The data for this study were collected using triangulation; structured close-ended 2 Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria, Benin questionnaire schedule, focus group discussions and open-ended target interviews. City The paper found that pollution from oil exploration and exploitation activities Corresponding Author* have acutely impacted the Niger Delta environment with deleterious impact on flora and fauna. It concludes that impacts of oil on the environment have gravely CRO SDEL EMUEDO impaired food security in the Niger Delta. How to Cite the Article: Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo. (2021); Keywords: Asphyxiated Environment, Oil, Food Insecurity, Niger Delta. Asphyxiated by Abundance: Oil Activities and Food Insecurity in Nigeria‘s Niger Delta. IAR J Huma Soc Sci; 2021; 2(3): 61-77 INTRODUCTION Copyright @ 2021: This is an open-access article The Niger Delta has for over five decades been the epicentre of oil distributed under the terms of the Creative and gas exploration and exploitation activities. Hydrocarbon resources; Commons Attribution license which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction crude oil and gas have been the pivot of the Nigerian economy since the in any medium for non commercial use 1970s. Oil related activities have had local detrimental and significant (NonCommercial, or CC-BY-NC) provided the adverse impacts on the environment; flora and fauna in the Niger Delta. original author and source are credited. As a result, the Niger Delta has for over three decades been the focus of both national and international discourses. The Niger Delta consists of saline mangrove swamps that stretches through the coastal areas with 504, 800 hectares (95%) in the Niger Delta and 95,000 hectares (5%) in Akwa-Ibom state (NDDC, 1999; FOS, 2004) The mangrove forests ranks the largest in Africa and third largest in the world (FOS, 2004; NDHDR, 2006). The major rivers in the region include the Niger River, which forms the delta, Kwa Iboe River, Cross River and Imo River. Others are, Benin River, Escravos River, Forcados River, Ramos River, Dodo River, Pennington River, Digatoro River, Bengatoro River, Kulama River, Fishtown River, Nun River, Brass River, St. Nicholas River, Santa Barbara River, San Bartholomew River, Sombreiro River, Bonny River and Andoni River. The region is very rich in aquatic resources with high diversity and abundance of over 200 species of fishes (Uluocha and Okeke, 2004; Ebeku, 2004; Nwadiaro, 1984; Fentiman, 1996; NDWC, 1995). It has more species of freshwater fishes (197) than any other coastal ecosystem in West Africa (Powell, 1993). These wetlands provide a cheap and common source of animal protein for most of its inhabitants (Chindah and Osumakpe, 2005; Davies et al., 2009). Previous studies have revealed that about 16 of the 200 species of fishes found in the Niger Delta have been identified as endemic to the region, while another 29 are near endemic (Moffat and Linden, 1995; NDWC, 1995; Ebeku, 2004).

The Niger Delta, hitherto, was historically and geographically clearly delineated but due to vested interests, the region‘s definition has been mutated over the years. This has made its definition of recent rather problematic. Historically, the Niger Delta is defined as the area bounded by the Benin River in the West, Imo River in the East, Aboh in the North and in the South, Palm Point at Akassa (Dike, 1956; Willink et al., 1958; Akinyele, 1998). The geographical co-ordinates, of the region is between Aboh 050 33´ 49‖N; 060 31´ 37‖E in the north and Palm Point 040 16´ 22‖N; 060 05´ 27‖E in the south; the east-west limit stretches from Benin River estuary 050 44‘ 11‖N, 050 44´ 49‖E in the west to Imo River estuary 040 27´ 16‖N, 050 35´ 27´‖E in the east (NDES, 1997).

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 As such, historically and geographically, the Niger have been conducted in the region. Oil operations in the Delta region comprised presently, of Bayelsa, Delta and region have been carried out with little regard for the Rivers States. Linguistically, ethnographically and environment, as such, unabated spillage of huge culturally, the pre-crude oil Niger Delta, comprised a volumes of oil and massive gas flaring has been closely mix of ethnic groups; Ijoid, Yoruboid, Edoid, Igboid linked to oil operations in the region. The acute and and Delta Cross, with each embracing vast plethora of chronic oil pollution arising from these spills have led ethno-linguistic communities (Amadi and Tamuno, to depletion of environmental resources due to death of 1999; Watts, 2003). The region has four ecological organisms, either immediately or with time (Cole, 1997; zones; Low land Area 7,400km2, Fresh Water Swamp Hofer, 1998; MacFarland, 1998). 11,700 km2, Salt Water Swamp 5,140 km2 and Sand 2 Barrier Islands 1,140 km making a total area of 25,640 HE ESEARCH ETHODOLOGY km2 (Ashton-Jones, 1998). However, the oil industry T R M defined the Niger Delta at the 7th World Petroleum The primary data for this study were collected using Congress in Mexico, as, the area southward from Benin, the method of triangulation; structured close-ended where oil and gas occur in commercial quantities questionnaire schedule, focus group discussions and (Franki and Cordry, 1967). Politically, the petroleum open-ended target interviews. The secondary data industry definition appears to have found favour with sources include; newspapers, magazines, reports and the Nigerian State, thus, it metamorphosed into documents. The primary data were obtained from a OMPADEC in 1992 and in 1999, the NDDC. For in sample survey, in-depth target interview schedules Part 1 Subsection 2(1), of the Act establishing the Niger (ITI), comprising of youths, opinion leaders and Delta Development Commission (NDDC) 1999, the traditional leaders and three focus group discussion Niger Delta is synonymously, defined as, the nine oil sessions (FGD). The sample sizes were: sample producing states; Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Delta, Rivers, interviewee (SI) 150 (Bayelsa 29, Delta 71 and Rivers Ondo, Edo, Cross Rivers, Imo and Abia States of 50), 30 in-depth target interviewees (ITI) (10 youths Nigeria (Abara, D. 2009). (YM), 10 opinion leaders (OL) and 10 traditional leaders (TL). The size of the focus group discussants The rich alluvial soils of the region and the copious (FGD) was made-up of 8 persons each. All the research fresh and salt water bodies have made agriculture; interviews and discussion sessions took place between farming and fishing; the core livelihoods of the people. February and September 2008.The focus group Agriculture is the core activity of rural people (FAO, discussions investigated the knowledge, attitudes and 2006). Besides being the source of income and operational ethics of the oil companies and consequence employment (IFAD 2002; World Bank, 2008), it is an of intra-communal conflicts. The research was antidote to environmentally induced conflicts and thus, conducted in Nembe, Beyelsa state, Afiesere, Delta source of peace among rural people (Messer, et al., state and Okrika, Rivers state. In addition, some experts 1998; de Soysa and Gleditsch, 1999; UNU-IAS (scholars, scientists and engineers) knowledgeable in Report, 2004; Addison, 2005). Indeed, as, a deltaic the oil industry in the Niger Delta were also region with a massive rural population, agriculture is interviewed. the basis of life sustenance in the region. To the Niger Delta people especially women, agriculture is an The research questions were intended to elicit unbreakable source of life sustenance. However, reaction to impacts of oil activities in oil-host decades of oil activities have negatively impacted the communities. They include: patterns of livelihood; physical environment, threatening the subsistent peasant impacts of oil activities on the environment; common economy, the livelihood and survival of the people. The problems in oil-host communities; common sources of situation of the region was captured by UNDP Report oil spills in the community; impacts of oil gas flares on (2006), when it stated that due to mass poverty, the crop production; impacts of oil gas flares on fish stocks; region would be unable to meet the 2015 Millennium nexus between oil activities and income. Development Goals‘ targets despite its stupendous oil wealth. This not a surprise because the Niger Delta has The ages of the 150 survey respondents are quite been variously described as ―the paradox of plenty‖ varied and were categorised into five sets and the (Karl, 1997), ―the oil of poverty‖ (ANEEJ, 2004), ―the distribution of their ages are: - 30–39 (12, 8%); 40–49 antinomies of wealth‖ (Ibeanu and Ike 2006), ―the (18, 12%); 50–59 (24, 16%); 60–69 (39, 26%); 70–79 resource curse‖ (Ross, 2003) and ―Dutch dieses‖ (Sai-i- (57, 38%) respectively. It was also composed of males Martin and Subramanian, 2003), arising from the 123 (82%) and females 27 (18%). The 24 target contrast between the vast wealth of the Niger Delta and interviewees (TI) are categorised into three age sets, its enduring human poverty. Several studies (Frynas, distributed as follows: - 40–39 (8, 33%); 50–59 (13, 2000; Obi, 2004; Shaxson, 2007; Okonta, 2008; 54%); 60–69 (3, 13%) and made up of males 19 (79%) Emuedo, 2010; Emuedo and Anoliefo, 2012) have in and females 5 (21%). the past reported the severe and harmful effects of crude oil on the environment. The results of these studies are not unconnected with the manner that oil operations

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 Oil Activities and the Niger Delta Environment some other parts of the country. The rich alluvial soil of The environment has been described as; ―the the delta coupled with copious web of fish and salt complex of physical, chemical and biotic factors that water bodies provide the necessary incentives for the acts upon an organism or an ecological community and people to engage predominantly in agricultural ultimately determines its form and survival‖ activities; farming and fishing. UNDP (2006) report (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 4). The environment is shows that 60% of the population depends on the vital for human wellbeing because economically, it is a natural, living and non-living resources of the financial capital asset; damages therefore, run down its environment for livelihood. The region due to its huge capital reducing the value of its recurrent services. The oil resources and its vast agricultural potentials was link between poverty and environment is often thought to hold huge economic advantage over other mentioned in the ―sustainable development‖ debate, but regions. However, oil production activities in the Niger is seldom systematically explored (Lele, 1991). In the Delta have over the years resulted in diverse literature the ―vicious circle‖ between poverty and environmental hazards with concomitant effects on degradation is the focus of the nexus; the circle is livelihood patterns and economics of the people. Such Malthusian; farmers, pushed by population increase and hazards include; oil spillage, gas flaring, gas leakage, poverty, extend cropping onto marginal fragile lands, erosion, as well as water and air pollution. Impacts of degrading them. This reduces yields leading to further oil activities on the environment have acutely inhibited impoverishment (Dasgupta and Mafiler, 1994; Pearce the region‘s agricultural potentials. This has made and Warford, 1993; Mink, 1993). The focus on the bleak, the people‘s hitherto traditional patterns of vicious circle of poverty and degradation implies that livelihoods prior the advent of oil. This is not poverty alleviation will necessarily reduce surprising, as it has been suggested that effective environmental degradation, and inversely, arrest and agricultural practices are critical for poverty reduction reverse environmental decline, thus, helping the poor (Schultz 1964; Haggblade et al., 2007). The mode of oil (Leonard, 1989; Cleaver and Schreiber, 1994). operations in the Niger Delta appears perplexing, as, However, oil impacted environments are difficult to peculiarly, they have involved unabated oil spills and salvage, as, it takes between 15 to 20 years for oil huge gas flares. The oil companies it was asserted impacted areas to be put to any use again, including engage in unsustainable environmental practices agriculture (Ekekwe, 1981). (Ibhade, 2001; Oyem, 2001; Emuedo, 2010) and deploy mostly obsolete equipment for oil operations The Niger Delta area is the twelfth richest area in oil (Nwankwo and Irrechukwu, 1981). Studies have shown resources in the world (Klett et al., 1997). Its massive that gas flaring impact micro-climate and vegetation oil deposits have generated an estimated $600 billion (Odilison, 1999, Efe, 2003) soil, air and water quality since 1960s (Wurthmann, 2006). Nigeria has as of (Ekanem, 2001) and human health (Obajimi, 1998; January 2015 an estimated 37 billion barrels of proven Oniero and Aboribo, 2001). It is therefore not surprising crude oil reserves and produces 2.40 million bbl/d that during the survey, oil spillage and gas flares topped (OGJ, 2015). In the agricultural sector, informed the core problems identified by respondents (Table 1). assessment suggests it has very huge rich potentials These two sources of environmental despoliation are (Ojanuga et al., 2003; Emuedo et al., 2007; Ekpebu and here isolated for brief discussion to show their Ukpong, 2013). Its soil has rich deltaic deposits that ramifications and severity on agricultural practices and make it very fertile. The soil can effectively support a hence food security in the region. variety of crops that ordinarily could not grow well in

Table 1: Environmental problems in order of importance States Nembe Afiesere Okrika Total No. % No. % No. % No. % Oil pollution 13 45 32 46 21 42 66 44 Gas flaring 10 34 28 39 19 38 57 38 Land degradation 6 21 11 15 10 20 27 18 Total 29 100 71 100 50 100 150 100 Field Survey

About 56.6 million cubic metres of gas is flared in averaged 76% from 1970 – 2004; thus, daily, the region daily (Gerth and Labaton, 2004). This approximately, 70 million/m3 of gas is flared. This is volume of gas translates to about 17.2 billion cubic equivalent to 40% of African gas consumption and the metres of gas annually; about 16% of the world‘s total largest source of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide gas (GGFR, 2002). Based on per tonne of oil produced, (Moffat and Linden, 1995; Wikipedia, 2007). The flares Nigeria flares the most gas in the world (Cedigaz, emit massive heat with temperatures often reaching 2000). Gas flares in Niger Delta averaged 97% from 1,6000C (Ogbuigwe, 1998). Indeed, in Isoko, Delta 1970-1979, 97% from 1980 - 1989, 95% from 1990 - State, temperature of about 4000C was recorded at an 1999 and 51% from 2000 - 2004. The gas flares average distance of 43.8 metres from flare sites 63

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 (Alakpodia, 1989, 1995). This high level of gas flare destruction (Odilison, 1999; Ubani and Onyejekwe, has for long generated concern among scholars 2013). There are 134 gas flare sites in the Nigeria 131 (Enehoro, 1973; Aggrey 1983; Obadina, 2000; Oghifo, of which are scattered across the Niger Delta, Table 2 2001). Varied studies have shown that gas flaring below. viciously impact the environment (Abube, 1988). Heat radiating from flares leads to micro organisms decline Most respondents in the target interviews and focus (Okezie, 1989) soil depletion (Abara, 2009) poor crop group discussions in the three research locations, hold yields (Nelson et al., 2003), stunted growth the view that gas flares have negatively impacted on the (Orimoogunje et al., 2010), reduced nutritional values Niger Delta environment. Similar view is also shared by (Imevbore and Adeyemi, 1981) and vegetation about 80% of the survey respondents, Fig 1.

Source: Created by author from field data

A major area identified by the people where gas the fact that about 76% of the survey respondents hold flares have impacted negatively on the environment in the view that gas flares have led to the reduction of crop the Niger Delta is food production. The pervasiveness production in the region, Fig 2. of this notion in the Niger Delta is clearly manifested by

Source: Created by author from field data

Gas flaring is considered illegal in most countries of operations in the Niger Delta has been associated with the world; it occurs only in circumstances, such as incessant flaring of massive gas quantities across the unplanned maintenance, disruption to the processing region Table 2. system or emergency shutdowns (Hyne, 1999). Oil

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 Table 2: Sites of Gas Flares and Numbers S/No State/LGA Locations Operator Flare Points Akwa-Ibom 1 Ibeno Qua-Iboe Terminal (Mkpanak) Mobil 1 2 Ikot Abassi Shell 1 Bayelsa 3 Yenagoa Gbarain-Ubie GGP* (Obunagha) Shell 4 4 Yenagoa Etelebou Shell 4 5 Yenagoa Opolo-Epie Shell 2 6 Yenagoa Zarama Shell 5 7 Yenagoa Gbarantoru Shell 1 8 Southern Ijaw Osiama (Korokorosei/Endeware) Agip 3 9 Southern Ijaw Tebidaba (Olugboboro/Olugbobiri) Agip 4 10 Southern Ijaw Ogboinbiri Agip 2 11 Southern Ijaw Nun River (Oporoma) Shell 4 12 Southern Ijaw Diebu Creek (Peremabiri) Shell 5 13 Nembe Nembe Creek Oil field Shell 1 14 Nembe Santa Barbara Oil field Shell 1 15 Nembe Obama flowstation Agip 2 16 Nembe Odeama Creek flowstation Shell 1 17 Nembe Robertkiri flowstation Chevron 1 18 Ogbia Kolo-Imiringi Shell 5 19 Eleme Alesa Shell 1 Delta 20 Isoko South Uzere Shell 3 21 Isoko South Olomoro Shell 2 22 Isoko South Ojini-Ozoro Shell 1 23 Isoko South Irri Agip 4 24 Ndokwa Kwale Agip 2 25 Ndokwa West Kwale Okpai Agip 6 26 Ethiope West Oghara Pan Ocean 1 27 Sapele Obene Shell 3 28 Ughelli North Otorogu Shell 4 29 Ughelli North Eruemukowhoarien Shell 1 30 Ughelli North Afiesere Shell 3 31 Ughelli North Iwhrekhan Shell 2 32 Ughelli North Ekakpamre Chevron 3 33 Ughelli North Kokori Shell 5 34 Ughelli South Otujeremi Shell 2 35 Warri South West Amenam/kpono (offshore) Total 1 Rivers 36 Bonny Tamuno Jumbo Chevron 1 37 Bonny Bonny Island Shell 3 38 Bonny Finima Bonny Mobil 4 39 Degema Awoba flowstation Shell 1 40 Emuoha Rumuekpe Shell 2 41 Eleme Ebubu flowstation Shell 1 42 ONELGA Ebuocha Agip 4 43 ONELGA Ogbogu/Akabuka Total 2 44 ONELGA Obite Gas Plant Total 1 45 ONELGA Obagi flowstation Total 1 46 ONELGA Okwuzi Shell 2 47 ONELGA Egi, Ibewa gas plant Total 3 48 ONELGA Obiafu-Obrikom Gas Plant Agip 3 49 Ahoada West Akala-Olu (Oshie flowstation) Agip 50 Ahoada West Ubie flowstation Shell 2 51 Cawthone Channel Shell 2 52 Etche Umuebelu Obigo oil fields Shell 2 53 Akuku-Toru Idama (Idama flowstation) Chevron 1 54 Akuku-Toru Krakama flowstation Shell 1

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77

55 Akuku-Toru Belema flowstation Shell 1 56 Akuku-Toru Ababoko, Ekulama flowstation Shell 1 57 Akuku-Toru Soku flowstation Shell 2 58 Asari-Toru Alakiri flowstation Shell 1 59 Ikwerre Agbada11 flowstation Shell 3 Edo 60 Gelegele Dubri 1 Overall 134 *Gas Gathering Project

The surfeit of gas flaring sites has had acute adverse independent researchers however, this volume is impacts on the environment. The flares generate awfully trivial (Green Peace, 1994; Dublin – Green et extreme temperatures that heat up everything around it. al, 1998; Banfield, 1998; Iyayi, 2004). Decades of They also emit cocktail of toxins CO2, VOC, CO, NOx, unabated oil spillages it seem have had adverse impact H2S and particulates (Obioh, 1999; Kindzierski, 2000) on the environment, as shown by the Powell and White around the clock. These have caused grave harm to the (1985), impact assessment of the 1983 Oshika oil spill. environment, especially on plants, wildlife as well as on The study revealed that the incident killed both floating humans in the region. Massive gas flaring has continued and submerged aquatic fauna; water lettuce, crabs, and unabated despite the plethora of laws on environmental fish. Other studies have also shown that crude oil causes protection. The observance of environmental laws the death of even birds beside crabs and fish (NDES, mainly in the breach by the oil companies led to 1997; Egborge, 2000; Orubu et al., 2002; Otukunefor Robinson (2006) assertion that in the Niger Delta, oil is and Biukwu, 2005). Additionally, crude oil also reduces nothing but a ―curse‖. soil fertility (Osuji and Nwoye, 2007), smothers or kills crops, reduces yield (Edema et al., 2009) and causes Aside gas flares, incessant events of oil spills and 60% reduction in household food security (Ordinioha the huge volumes involved has constituted another and Sawyer, 2008). It also reduces quality of food major source of environmental despoilment in the Niger crops; the ascorbic acid content of waterleaf was Delta. The records from the Department of Petroleum reduced by 36% (Nwaoguikpe, 2011), crude oil reduced Resources (DPR), showed that from 1976 to 2005 about the protein content of cassava by 40% (Osam et al., 3, 121, 909.8 barrels of crude oil was spilled in 9,107 2011). incidents in the region Table 3). In the opinion of

Table 3: Records of Oil Spills in Nigeria, 1976 – 2005 Qty Qty No of Qty Spilled No of Qty Spilled Year Recovered Year Recovered Spills (Barrels) Spills (Barrels) (Barrels) (Barrels) 1976 128 26,157.00 7,135.00 1991 201 106,827.98 2,785.96 1977 104 32,879.00 1,703.01 1992 378 51,187.96 1,476.70 1978 154 489,294.00 391,445.00 1993 428 9,752.22 2,937.08 1979 157 694,170.00 63,481.20 1994 515 30,282.67 2,335.93 1980 241 600,511.00 42,416.83 1995 417 63,677.17 3,110.02 1981 238 42,722.00 5,470.20 1996 430 46,353.12 1,183.02 1982 252 42,841.00 2,171.40 1997 339 81,727.85 1983 173 48,351.30 6,355.90 1998 399 99,885.35 1984 151 40,209.00 1,644.80 1999 225 16,903.96 1985 187 11,876.60 1,719.30 2000 637 84,071.91 1986 155 12,905.00 552 2001 412 120,976.16 1987 129 31,866.00 6,109.00 2002 446 241,617.55 1988 208 9,172.00 1,955.00 2003 609 35,284.43 1989 195 7,628.16 2,153.00 2004 543 17,104.00 1990 160 14,940.82 2,092.55 2005 496 10,734.59 Total 9,107 3,121,909.80 550,232.90 Source: Compiled based on data obtained from Department of Petroleum Resources, Dublin-Green et al., (1988), Egberongbe et al., (2006).

Indeed, release of petroleum hydrocarbons into the 1997). Evidence from the author‘s field data shows environment, whether accidentally or due to several spills were not cleaned months or even years anthropogenic activities, is a major cause of water and after they occurred. For instance, a spill that occurred at soil pollution (Benka-Coker and Ekundayo, 1995; Epubu community in December 1998 was not cleaned Benka-Coker and Olumagin, 1996; Holliger et al., up until a year after. Also, at Aleibiri community, a spill 66

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 that occurred in March 1997 was only attended to, 8 The high concentration of hydrocarbons in streams in months after, following youths protests. Another the region may not be unconnected with the severe oil example is the case of Akenfa and Ogboloma pollution from oil spills into the environment Table 4. It communities where spills that occurred in October 1995 is therefore not surprising that the incessant oil spillages were cleaned December of the following year. The into the environment has led to pollution of the effect of these unattended spills is the worsening of ecosystem with adverse impact on biodiversity; fish ecological devastation, in addition to other immediate stock and marine lives in the region. The impacts of oil social economic effects. In fact a spill that occurred at activities on the Niger Delta environment have been Osima creek in Agbakabiriyai, near Nembe on February rather widespread because oil in the region is strewn in 28, 1998 ignited a fire that lasted for eight days and small pools throughout almost the entire region, unlike razed the entire community. The fire destroyed over the Persian Gulf and North Sea areas, where oilfields 400 houses, and displaced about 130,000 persons. It are concentrated mainly offshore. As, a result, oil appears however, that the effect of oil on the aquatic exploitation and exploitation activities have led to the environment is even much severe that those earlier establishment of oil and gas facilities in almost every stated. corner of the region. Crude oil spill have either acute or chronic toxicity, or a combination of both, on soil Also, two independent studies in 1997 revealed that properties and micro-flora (Odu, 1972, Odu and Udo, total petroleum hydrocarbons in most streams in the 1975, Isirimah et. al., 1989, Amadi and Antai 1992a, b; Niger Delta are between 360 and 680 times higher than Amadi et al., 1996). the European Union‘s permissible levels (HRW, 1999).

Table 4: Some Severely Oil Polluted Sites in the Niger Delta Location Environment Impacted Area (ha) Nature of Incidence Bayelsa State Biseni Freshwater Swamp Forest 20 Oil Spillage Etiama/Nembe Freshwater Swamp Forest 20 Oil Spillage & Fire Outbreak Etelebu Freshwater Swamp Forest 30 Oil Spill Incidence Peremabiri Freshwater Swamp Forest 30 Oil Spill Incidence Adebawa Freshwater Swamp Forest 10 Oil Spill Incidence Diebu Freshwater Swamp Forest 20 Oil Spill Incidence Tebidaba Freshwater Swamp Forest Mangrove 30 Oil Spill Incidence Nembe creek Mangrove Forest 10 Oil Spill Incidence Azuzuama Mangrove 50 Oil Spill Incidence Delta State Opuekebe Barrier Forest Island 50 Salt Water Intrusion Jones Creek Mangrove Forest 35 Spillage & Burning Ugbeji Mangrove 2 Refinery Waste Ughelli Freshwater Swamp Forest 10 Oil Spillage-Well head leak Jesse Freshwater Swamp Forest 8 Product leak/Burning Ajato Mangrove Oil Spillage Incidence Ajala Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Uzere Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Afiesere Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Kwale Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Olomoro Freshwater Swamp Forest QC Ughelli Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Ekakpare Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Ughevwughe Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Ekerejebe Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Ozoro Freshwater Swamp Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Odimodi Mangrove Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Ogulagha Mangrove Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Otorogu Forest Mangrove Oil Spillage Incidence Macraba Mangrove Forest Oil Spillage Incidence Rivers State Rumuokwurusi Freshwater Swamp 20 Oil Spillage Rukpoku Freshwater Swamp 10 Oil Spillage Source: FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEEP-IUCN 2006 Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project.

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 Implications of Oil Activities on Food Security in the 1998; Emuedo, 2007). The main crops grown in the Niger Delta region are; oil palm, rubber, raffia palm, mango and Food security is the accessibility of all people, at all coconut. Others include cassava, yam, plantain, banana, times, to enough food for an active and healthy life cocoyam, tomato and pepper. Cassava, yam and (Reutlinger, 1987). Food security has two aspects; plantain are staple food items in the region. Most rural ensuring that adequate food supplies are available, and dwellers usually use locally fabricated cassava mills that households whose members suffer from under copious in rural communities to process cassava into nutrition have the ability to acquire food, either by garri, the main staple food in Southern Nigeria (Akpan, producing it themselves or by being able to purchase it 2005: 151) and other by products such as starch, akpu (Riscopoulos et al. 1988). Food insecurity on the other and tapioca. hand, refers to deficits or shortfalls in actual per capita daily calorie intake below the minimum per calorie Since the advent of crude oil in 1956 to date, about intake recommended by Food and Agricultural nine out of every ten rural dwellers in the Niger-Delta Organisation (FAO) and World Health Organisation oil communities live in poverty and gross livelihood (WHO) for maintaining the human body-2450kcal/day insecurity (NDHDR 2006; Onakuse and Eamon, 2007; (Riscopoulos et al. 1988; Shapouri and Rosen, 1994). Emuedo, 2007; 2012). This may not be unconnected The concept of food security requires that resources not with the dearth of agricultural practices due to the only exist, but that they are also available to the people. negative impacts of oil activities on the environment. This is because in developing countries, the rural Agricultural practices were hitherto the dominant economy is anchored on agriculture. Hence Thurlow economic activities and the main source of livelihoods (2008) opined that the linchpin for improving the in the Niger Delta. Agricultural practices; farming and quality of human life is agriculture through sustenance fishing account for 90% of all forms of activities and of the supporting ecosystem carrying capacity. employs about 50% to 68% of the active labour force According to the field survey, main patterns of (FOS, 1985). But farming methods are subsistent with livelihood in the region‘s oil communities are fishing, over 90% of the farmers deploying traditional farming farming, hunting and craft making in that order Fig 3. practices using basic tools (Stanley, 1990; Azibolomari,

Source: Emuedo (2010)

Fig 3 shows that about 93% of the people of the the region Table 5. It has also led to the deployment of Niger Delta depend on the natural environment (fishing more areas to cultivation of food crops in oil-host 37%, farming 34%, hunting 15%, craft making 9%) for communities. Indeed, Ojimba and Iyaba (2012) reported their livelihoods; while very few are involved in other that more hectares of land are deployed for farm crop activities. Thus, dwindling agriculture has adverse cultivation in oil producing communities than in non-oil impact on the peoples‘ well being. This is because producing areas. They reported that 454.61 hectares of dwindling agricultural practices will lead to paucity of farm lands were cultivated in oil producing areas, food production and food scarcity. Food insecurity compared to 347.10 hectares in non-oil producing areas. results in human suffering arising from ineffective Moreover, more people 454 are engaged in crop income earning (Braun et al., 1992). The effects of oil farming in oil producing areas compared to 316 in non- pollution on the environment on agriculture in the Niger oil producing areas. Despite this increase in the hectares Delta have been widely acknowledged (see Ayodele, and number of people farming in oil-host communities, 1985; Ibeanu, 1997; Obi, 1999; Roberts, 1999, 2005; there were higher and better yields in the non-oil Inoni et al., 2006; Emoyan et al., 2008). This has led to producing areas than in oil producing areas (Ojimba and poor crop yield and severe food production deficit in Iyaba, 2012).

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 Table 5: Estimated yield and demand for some food crops in the coastal wetlands of the Niger Delta in 2010 Crops Supply/MT Demand/MT Deficit/MT Cassava 14,8 97 24,41 3 -9516 Maize 1, 774 4,6 02 -2,828 Y am 12,4 62 24,47 5 12,013 Plantain 3, 385 8,4 73 -5,788 Vegetable 7,7 66 13,55 4 -5,788 Fruits 8,7 52 14,83 9 -6,087

A major complaint by the people during the field their impoverishment. According to Udo and Fayemi work centred on their stifled financial status arising (1975) a 4.2% crude oil pollution level reduced from poor farm yields, due to soils infertility from germination and yield of maize crop (Zea mays L.) by environmental despoilment. There are two major an average of 50% and 92% respectively. A study by sources of environmental despoilment in the Niger Inoni et al. (2006) showed that oil pollution depresses Delta; crude oil pollution from spillages and gas flaring. crop yield, hence farmers income. They asserted that an Crude oil pollution has acute adverse impact on farm oil spill of about 10% reduces crop yield by about 1.5% crops (Udo and Fayemi, 1975; Amakiri and and plummet farm income by over 5%. Overtly, oil Onofeghara, 1984; Ekundayo et al., 2001; Omosun et pollution has been shown to have adversely impacted al., 2008; Emuedo, 2010). It takes 15 to 20 years for cocoyam (Colocasis esculenta), yam (Discoroea spp), soils impacted by crude oil to be suitable for agriculture pineapple (Ananas comosus), cassava (Manihot again (Duke and Burns, 1999; Ekekwe, 1981). Signs of esculenta), banana (Musa sp), pepper (Piper spp.), okra oil pollution were quite visible during the field work. (Abelmoschus esculentus) and waterleaf (Talinum For instance, it was observed that most farm crops triangulare) (Dublin–Green, 1998, 1999; Dung et al., lacked the decidedly luxuriant green colour usually 2008). associated with plants in the rain forest zone. Also, the physiological structure of the crops does not show sign Also (Emuedo 2010) reported the virtual extinction of healthy growth; they seemed stressed in the extreme. of certain fauna and flora; edible frog (Okhere), small Such crops as observed are not expected to produce red cray fish (Iku-ewhewhe), iguana (Ogborigbo) and much yield. According to Udo and Oputa (1984) a cocoyam (Idu). Thus, oil spillages have far reaching major associated effect of oil pollution of the effects on the agricultural output of an affected area and environment is changes in soil properties. These include concomitant multiplier effects on the socio-economic decrease in soil water holding capacity, loss of soil well–being of the people (Osuji and Adesiyan, 2005). In structure, exclusions of air from the soil, and production addition to oil pollution, farm yields in the Niger Delta of hydrogen sulphide, among other changes. All these are further exacerbated by the effects of gas flaring. changes adversely affect plant growth (Udo and About 75 % of the associated gas produced in the Fayemi, 1975). Oil pollution either destroys or retards region is flared; representing a pollution equivalent to plants growth; severity of impact increases with the 45 million tons of CO2 daily (Ite et al., 2013). The volume of oil in the soil. Seeds planted in oil polluted general belief in the Niger Delta is that food crops soils generally absorb the oil and get destroyed. Oil cultivated close to gas flare sites produce lower yields spills also leads to loss of farm lands and deforestation. and in their opinion, are even not as rich, as, those planted far was from gas flares. Studies by Salau (1993) This shortens fallow periods, leads to soil infertility, and Adeyomo (2002) established the relationship which results in poor quality and reduced output between gas flaring and decline in food crop production (Izeogu, 1986; Gbadegesin, 1997). As, Osuji and in the Niger Delta. The study reported a 10% decrease Onojake (2006) stated, the high presence of oil in soil in crop yield at a distance of 1000 metres, 45% decrease deprives the soil of oxygen, leading eventual death of at a distance of 600 metres and 100% yield loss at a soil fauna from asphyxiation. Crude oil also inhibited distance of 200 metres from a gas flare point (Table 6). the germination and growth of Abelmoschus esculentus, In addition, Odjugo (2010) reported that gas flaring (okra), a vegetable widely grown in the region (Oyedeji reduced the yield of egusi melon (Citrusllus Lanatus) a et al., 2012; Agbogidi, 2010); leading to poor crop popular seed vegetable commonly grown by farmers in yield. Thus the respondents‘ assertion appears largely the Niger Delta, by 85.7%, 82.1%, 75%, and 32% at right as poor crop yield would lead to low income hence 500m, 1 km, 2km, and 5 km respectively.

Table 6: Gas Flares and Crop Yield in the Niger Delta Distance of Farmland from Flare Site Percentage Loss in Yield of Crops 200 metres 100 % 600 metres 45 % 1000 metres 10 % Source: Salau (1993:19-22)

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 Myriad studies have linked gas flaring to low Rivers and Delta states decreased by 41.7% and 15% in agricultural production in the region, thus, impairing 1995. This is occasioned by land sequestration for oil livelihoods and incomes (Alakpadia, 2000; Daudu, activities. Besides further constricting women access to 2001; Aregbeyen and Adeoye, 2001; Udoinyang, 2005; land, this has led to increase in land fragmentation and Inoni et al., 2006). Specifically studies have shown that decline in crop production in the Niger Delta. It is a gas flaring reduced the yield of sweet potato (Ipomea well-known fact that arising from its topography, land batatas) (Udoinyang, 2005), cassava/yam (Odjugo, is scarce in the Niger Delta and scarcer still is arable 2007) at over 2km distance from flare sites. It is land. For instance, it is estimated that of the 2,185,000 admitted here that oil spills and gas flaring are not hectares that is the land area of Rivers and Bayelsa unconnected with the oil industry elsewhere in the states about half of it is swamp land which hampers world. The salient point however, is that the operations agriculture. In Delta state, of 1,769, 800 hectares, which of the oil companies (volume of oil spills and gas represent its total land area, about a third are similarly flaring) in the Niger Delta are not in conformity with swamps. Thus, continuous loss of land to oil spillage acceptable international standards. It was observed that and other oil-related activities is basically the the oil companies operating in the Niger Delta use the destruction of women‘s means of livelihood. Another ―open pipe flare‖ method that degrades the related factor that has also impeded food production and environment, due to its huge soot generation; and agriculture in general is the land sequestered for oil considered obsolete to flare gas, instead of the ―ground activities by the oil companies. For instance, about 7.7 open flare‖ with Sand Banks that is more environment hectares of land is required to site an oil well and a friendly and used in all other African oil producing helipad. Also, land is also needed to construct access countries, Europe, Canada and America. road, pipelines, borrow pits, waste disposal sites and seismic lines. As such, across the region, oil Another factor that has also impeded agricultural communities have lost much of erstwhile farm lands to practices and stunted incomes in the Niger Delta is oil activities. To get a glimpse of the huge land quantity of land sequestered by the oil companies for oil requirement for oil operations, in the Niger Delta the activities. Oil activities without even its attendant situation of Okrika, (Table 7) typifies situation in all oil negative effects are a hindrance to the availability of communities in the region. About 818.08 hectares of arable land for agriculture in the Niger Delta. A study land was lost by the community to oil activities, and carried out in 1995 revealed that between 1992 and this deprived over 900 women of farm lands (Adeyemo 1993 land area under food crop production in Bayelsa, (2002).

Table 7: Arable land area lost to oil related activities in Okrika LGA, Rivers State (Ha) Name of oil No. of Area Total area Area for Area for Area for Total land area field wells per well for wells activities around Helipad flow station for oil activities well Bolo 10 6.3 63.0 1.2 1.4 6.3 71.9 Iwokiri 9 6.3 53.7 1.2 1.4 6.3 65.6 Mbikiri 8 6.3 50.4 2.4 1.4 6.3 60.5 Agokien 34 6.3 214.2 2.4 2.8 6.3 225.7 Ele 11 6.3 69.3 2.4 2.8 6.3 80.8 Oraberekiri 21 6.3 132.3 1.2 1.4 6.3 141.2 Wakama 26 6.3 163.8 1.2 1.4 6.3 172.7 Total 818.08 Source: Salau, 1993; Adeyemo 2002; Emuedo 2010

Land sequestration to oil activities has therefore, bearing stress on available land for agriculture in the become a major concern in the region because with new region (Watts 2007). oil find, more wells would be drilled and land for agricultural activities would accordingly reduce. The The aquatic environment has also not been spared picture of arable land lost to oil activities would be constant pollution from oil activities. Various studies clearer, when we put into perspective the fact that the (Okpokwasili 1996; Lee and Page, 1997; Snape et al., Niger Delta today harbours a massive oil infrastructure. 2001; Liu and Wirtz, 2005) have shown the negative Presently, the Niger Delta hosts about 6, 284 oil wells, impact of oil pollution on the marine environment. Oil 257 flow stations, over 7000km of oil and gas pipelines pollution of the aquatic environment leads to poor water in land area of about 31,000 sq km, 10 oil terminals, 2 quality (Anoliefo, 1991; Emuedo et al., 2014) and this petroleum institutions, 10 gas plants, 30 marginal oil has impacted adversely on fishing in the region. Oil field operated by local oil companies; located in 1,500 pollution of the mangrove ecosystem has caused communities (NDRDMP, 2006; Watts, 2007; Steiner, damage to aquatic life, changes in water quality 2008). The land required for these activities including (Anoliefo, 1991) and radically disrupted the ecological staff housing by the oil companies have put over- balance of the mangrove ecosystem (Eteng, 1997). The 70

Crosdel Emuedo, & Okeoghene Emuedo; IAR J Huma Soc Sci; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 61-77 mangrove, ecosystem which constitutes the basic ponds in the region have been abandoned as they have nursery for aquatic species has drastically reduced. become uneconomical to harvest or maintain. Indeed Several studies have shown that water quality impacts most of the survey respondents acknowledge the fact on species composition, assemblages and distribution of that impacts of oil pollutions in the region has resulted plankton (Boney, 1983), benthos (Dance, and Hynes, in the dramatic reduction of fish stocks in the Niger 1980; Jones, 1987; Hart and Zabbey, 2005) and fish Delta, as shown on Table 8. (Boney, 1983; Kutty, 1987). As a result, most fish

Table 8: Impact of Oil Activities on Fish Catches in the Niger Delta Parameters Frequency % Distribution Decrease in fish catch 121 83 No decrease in fish catch 4 3 Neutral response 21 14 Total 150 100 Field survey Indeed, numerable flora and fauna in the Niger Delta have been negatively impacted that some of them are now virtually extinct, Table 9.

Table 9: Effects of oil pollution on sampled flora and fauna of the Niger Delta Flora and Significance Remarks Fauna Major staple food widely grown in the region; a Farmers stopped farming it since the mid Coco yam main source of carbohydrate like yam and 1970s due to very poor yields cassava A dominant fresh water fish; a major source of Electric fish Extinct since the early 1980s protein found mostly in fish ponds Tiny reddish fresh water Cray fish. Not eaten by Decrease catch noticed in the early 1980s Iku-evwevwe Urhobos, sold and also used for sacrifice and now, it is virtually extinct (appease spirit of bed wetting) A common fresh and salt water fish in the region The fresh water type has been very Cat fish found in natural water bodies; a major source of scarce since the 1990s; now found in protein commercial fish farms Large scaled fresh water fish, not eaten by Has become virtually extinct since the Ohorhe fish Urhobos but killed for sale early 1980, in the area A dark smooth skinned fresh water frog found in Edible frog It has now virtually extinct as it is hardly natural water bodies; a source of protein and also (Okerhe) found now used for medicinal purposes. A type of small fish that moves in a very large It has now virtually extinct as it is hardly school, caught by fisher men along with Cray Iseun found now though Cray fish is still fish; source of protein for most poor people as it available in the markets is sold at very cheap rate. A small fresh water fish that moves in a very It has now virtually extinct as it is hardly Igieneba large school, caught usually in shallow streams found now in the markets and rivers A small fresh water fish found in large schools usually at the beginning of the rainy season, It has now virtually extinct as it is hardly Epepete caught by people even with ordinary basin in the found in the markets early mornings or late evenings and sold very cheaply Source: Emuedo, 2010.

Thus, in the Niger Delta, changes in the main, rudimentary and did not go beyond the search for environment due to oil activities have inhibited medicinal herbs, fuel, game, fish and construction agricultural practices; leading to occupational materials. Environmental sustainability was maintained disorientation and constriction of food production. as available resources outmatched the needs of the people. Today, the Niger Delta environment has Concluding Remarks changed and continues to change rapidly. Oil and gas Until the advent of oil, a delicate balance existed activities have infringed on the people and their between the people of the Niger Delta and its fragile environment, leading to the opening up of previously ecosystem. Exploitation of natural resources was in the pristine ecosystems. This has resulted in alteration of 71

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