sign in sign up
<<
Home , Intercultural relations

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

International Journal of Intercultural Relations

journa l homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

Confused or multicultural: Third individuals’

a b,∗

Andrea M. Moore , Gina G. Barker

a

Liberty University, United States

b

Coastal Carolina University, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article : This study examined the cultural identity of third culture individuals, defined as people

Received 30 June 2011

who lived outside their passport country during their developmental years. A qualitative

Received in revised form

approach utilizing in-depth interviews with 19 participants from six different countries and

12 September 2011

with varied intercultural experiences was employed in order to explore their perceptions of

Accepted 31 October 2011

identity, sense of belonging, , intercultural communication competence,

as well as positive and negative factors attributed to their experiences of a life on the

Keywords:

move. Results show that third culture individuals are more apt to possess multiple cultural

Third culture kids

identities or a multicultural identity than a confused cultural identity, as previous

Third culture individuals

Cultural identity had indicated. Additionally, results suggest that while they lack a clear sense of belonging,

Multiculturalism they are competent intercultural communicators and perceive their experiences as mainly

Multicultural identity beneficial. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Intercultural adaptation

Intercultural communication competence

1. Introduction

McLuhan (1962) correctly foresaw the world changing into a “global village.” Developments in transportation and com-

munication technology have rapidly removed geographical barriers. As a result, the world is becoming more and more

interwoven and interdependent. is not only a descriptor of an era, but also the dominant logic of many peo-

ple’s lives. Children of corporate employees, military and government personnel, and aid workers are subjected

to a wide variety of different and experiences, as their parents move from one country to the next.

These internationally mobile children and adolescents are known as cultural hybrids (Bhabha, 1994), global nomads

(McCaig, 1992; Grappo, 2008), cultural chameleons (McCaig, 1996; Smith, 1996) and third culture kids (Useem, Donoghue,

& Useem, 1963). Mainstream literature favors the term third culture kids, as it focuses primarily on the children of parents

living abroad. Pollock and Van Reken (2009) offered this, often cited, definition:

A person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents’ culture. . .. [He/she]

builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each

culture may be assimilated into [his/her] life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar

background. (p. 13)

The definition is not limited to young people, however, nor does this research deal with children, but rather with

these individuals as adults; therefore the term third culture individuals (TCIs) will be utilized. What makes the intercultural

∗

Corresponding author at: Coastal Carolina University, Department of Communication, P.O. Box 261954, Conway, SC 29528, United States.

Tel.: +1 843 349 2916.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.M. Moore), [email protected] (G.G. Barker).

0147-1767/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

2 A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

experiences of TCIs unique is that they move between cultures before they have had the opportunity to complete the critical

task of personal and cultural identity development (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). They blend their home culture with the

host culture(s), thus becoming truly multicultural and achieving what has been labeled a third culture. This third culture is

shared with others who have had similar experiences (Useem et al., 1963).

Much of the literature in this field (Bennett, 1993b; Fail, Thompson, & Walker, 2004; Gaw, 2007; Hoersting & Jenkins,

2011; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999), stresses the negative effects of a lifestyle of change and mobility,

including difficulty acquiring a sense of identity and a sense of belonging, experiences of marginality and rootlessness, etc.

Meanwhile, research on biculturalism and multiculturalism (e.g. Adler, 1977; Baker, 2001; Berry, 2008) indicates that

it is possible to successfully hold multiple cultural identities and truly feel at home in more than one culture. There is

also a growing body of evidence that links biculturalism and multiculturalism to benefits such as increased intercultural

communication competence and open-mindedness. Christmas and Barker (2011), for example, found that biculturalism was

correlated with both cognitive flexibility and intercultural sensitivity.

Yet, despite the fact that TCIs, because of their culturally mobile upbringing, represent the very essence of multicultural

beings in a global society, systematic studies of multiculturalism rarely include TCIs. In addition, Lyttle, Barker, & Cornwell

(2011) noted that while mainstream TCI literature addresses benefits as well as detriments of the third culture experience,

most of these have not yet been empirically tested.

This study addresses the seemingly contradictory findings in regards to TCIs by examining the ways in which TCIs’

intercultural experiences have impacted their identity as adults. A qualitative approach utilizing in-depth interviews with

TCIs from different countries and with varied intercultural experiences was employed in order to gain a more complete

and comprehensive understanding of how key concepts are inter-related and reflected in the third culture experience. The

study explored TCIs’ perceptions of their cultural identity, sense of belonging, multiculturalism, intercultural communication

competence, as well as positive and negative factors attributed to their experiences of a life on the move.

2. Review of literature and rationale

As background for the study, literature related to intercultural adaptation, cultural identity, third cultural individuals,

and multiculturalism was examined. This literature is generally based on a view of culture as a self-sustaining system that

reproduces itself through communication and that consists of meanings, beliefs, values, and norms that guide behavior

(Jandt, 2004). Culture undergirds every aspect of human activity, including the political, economic, social, and religious

domains of society (Navas, Rojasb, Garcíac, & Pumaresd, 2007). In essence, culture does not just surround an individual; it

also impacts who he or she becomes.

2.1. Intercultural adaptation and cultural identity

Foundational to this research is the process of intercultural adaptation, defined as “individuals upon relocating into

an unfamiliar cultural environment, establish (or reestablish) and maintain a relatively stable, reciprocal, and functional

relationship with the environment” (Kim, 2002, p. 260). Underlying much of the early research on intercultural adaptation

was the assumption that individuals were leaving and unlearning one culture with the goal of assimilating into a second

culture more or less permanently. The native cultural identity would thus be replaced with a newly acquired one (Kim, 2002;

LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993).

Later work by Berry (1997, 2008) has highlighted cultural adaptation as a two-dimensional process in which the individual

undergoes two independent processes of acculturation, or culture learning; one to the culture of origin and one to the host

culture (Berry, Trimble, & Olmedo, 1986; Mendoza, 1984; Szapocznik, Kurtines, & Fernandez, 1980). Thus, it is possible for an

individual to be highly acculturated to one, both, or neither culture (Birman, 1994, 1998). It should be noted that individuals

do not necessarily acculturate evenly across every domain of society. Navas et al. (2007) found, for example, that assimilation

is more likely to take place in relation to a host country’s political and economic systems than to its system. Berry

(2008) recognized four different outcomes of the acculturation process and labeled someone who is highly acculturated in

both home and host cultures an integrator. Bennett (1993a) saw individuals engaged in the integration process as constantly

defining their own identity and evaluating their behavior and values in contrast to and in concert with multiple cultures. They

incorporate aspects of other cultures with their home culture perspectives. The notion that it is possible for an individual

to function simultaneously in two different cultures and alter his or her behavior to fit a particular cultural context is also

articulated in the alternation model of cultural adaptation (LaFromboise et al., 1993). This model also assumes that it is

possible for an individual to have a sense of belonging in two cultures without compromising his or her sense of cultural

identity.

Cultural identity is believed to be an important factor impacting how individuals adapt interculturally. Casmir (1984)

defined cultural identity as “the image of the self and the culture intertwined in the individual’s total conception of reality”

(p. 2). Collier and Thomas (1988) saw cultural identity as validated from within a particular culture through interpersonal

relationships, and suggested that it may vary in scope, salience, and intensity. Sussman (2000) argued that a cultural identity

typically does not become salient until cultural transition commences.

Kim (2008) suggested that an individual who frequently experiences acculturation may achieve an intercultural identity,

described as “an open-ended, adaptive, and transformative self-other orientation” (p. 364). A key element of this dynamic

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx 3

and integrative cultural identity is a clear self-definition, which enables one to see past cultural stereotypes and focus on

commonalities rather than on differences. A similar concept of an intercultural identity that is complex, but stable, and with

a clear self-concept, was furthered by Sussman (2000).

2.2. Third culture individuals

One group that actively engages in intercultural communication during the span of their childhood and beyond is third

culture individuals (TCIs), also referred to as third culture kids. The term was first coined by Useem et al. (1963), who described

the third culture as a complex combination of an individual’s home culture and host culture(s), which amalgamated to form

a third culture. TCIs develop “new types of selves” (p. 170), and thereby form a unique culture that is shared by all TCIs

and reaffirmed in association with other TCIs. Although different definitions of TCIs articulate various levels of intercultural

exposure (Cockburn, 2002), some studies (e.g. Lyttle et al., 2011) suggest that length of exposure is secondary to the age of

exposure, i.e. during childhood and/or adolescence.

Some of the greatest challenges that TCIs face are in forming their sense of identity and sense of belonging (Bennett,

1993b; Fail et al., 2004; Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999). When adults adapt

to a new culture, they typically already have a sense of who they are and where they belong. TCIs, by contrast, move between

cultures before they have had the opportunity to be socialized into their home culture and form a personal identity (McCaig,

1996; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). Their identity development is often disrupted and they have to focus on adjusting to new

environments instead of gaining a sense of self (Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). Another important difference between adults

and children in this regard is that adults are more likely to encounter a host culture in a wide variety of contexts (Navas et al.,

2007), whereas children are more likely to experience a host culture mainly in the context of social relationships, where

they encounter different ways of thinking, communicating, and acting.

It has been reported that the mobile lifestyle of a TCI can result in a clouded sense of identity (Murphy, 2003), or a

confused identity (Grimshaw & Sears, 2008; Cottrell, 2006). When returning to their passport countries, TCIs often perceive

themselves as culturally marginal and terminally unique. They find that they do not fit into the cultural mainstream of the

society that they have been raised to consider their own (Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999). This, in turn, may lead to loss and grief

(Gilbert, 2008). Another common side-effect reported in the TCI literature is that of rootlessness (Bushong, 1988; Pollock

& Van Reken, 2009; Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999; Wertsch, 1991). Fail et al. (2004) found that most TCKs either feel like they

belong in multiple places or else nowhere.

TCIs are most comfortable around other TCIs (Cockburn, 2002; Greenholtz & Kim, 2009; Peterson & Plamondon, 2009;

Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). Not only do they feel fully understood among those who have a similar mindset and worldview;

TCIs also tend to feel part of a special in-group who grew up with a sense that they represented something greater than

themselves, be it their country, government, or God (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). In addition, as a result of growing up in

an international environment, TCIs typically possess a strong intercultural skill set, including fluency in multiple languages

(Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2003), ability to adjust easily (Fail et al., 2004), open-mindedness (Dewaele & Van Oudenhoven, 2009),

and interpersonal sensitivity (Lyttle et al., 2011).

2.3. Multiculturalism

The concept of multiculturalism is based on the idea that an individual can successfully hold two or more cultural identities

(Baker, 2001). In his important think piece, Adler (1977) characterized the “multicultural man” as a person whose identity is

adaptive, temporary and open to change, rather than based on belonging to a particular culture. Such person, he said, “lives

on the boundary,” is “fluid and mobile,” and committed to people’s essential similarities as well as their differences (p. 26).

The concept of shifting among identities was further examined by Sparrow (2000), who related this experience of one of the

women she interviewed: “I think of myself not as a unified cultural being but as a communion of different cultural beings.

Due to the fact that I have spent time in different cultural environments, I have developed several cultural identities that

diverge and converge according to the need of the moment” (p. 190).

Additional dimensions of multiculturalism identified by Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000) include cultural

empathy, open-mindedness, emotional stability, orientation to action, adventurousness, flexibility, and extraversion. The

importance of flexibility, in particular, has been emphasized as critical to multicultural effectiveness (Arthur & Bennett,

1995; Hanvey, 1976; Ruben & Kealey, 1979; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997; Torbiorn, 1982).

Another prerequisite for multiculturalism is intercultural communication competence (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005),

which is generally defined as the knowledge, motivation, and skills to interact effectively and appropriately in a different

culture (Wiseman, 2003; Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Intercultural communication competence is closely related to the

concept of (Earley and Ang, 2003). A culturally diverse society requires members to not only possess

language skills (Northover, 1988), but also to negotiate, respect and integrate differences, thus promoting multicultural

coexistence (Boulding, 1988; Chen & Starosta, 2004).

Two similar constructs are those of intercultural literacy (Heyward, 2002) and biculturalism (Benet-Martinez, Lee, & Leu,

2006; Ramirez, 1984). An interculturally literate person is competent not only to communicate but also to shift between

different cultural identities and operate from the standpoint of an insider. Bicultural competence, according to LaFromboise

et al. (1993), is marked by knowledge of the beliefs and values of two cultures, a positive attitude toward both, and

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

4 A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

communication competence in both. A bicultural person is not between two cultures, but rather a part of both (Phinney &

Devich-Nevarro, 1997).

2.4. Research questions

From the review of the literature, it is evident that much of the research on TCIs has focused on the negative effects

of a mobile and transitional lifestyle on their identity development. The literature on multiculturalism, by contrast, has

highlighted the positive effects of acculturation in multiple cultures. Empirical studies of the multiculturalism of TCIs are

few (Dewaele & Van Oudenhoven, 2009; Greenholtz & Kim, 2009) and a more complete picture and theoretical framework

have yet to emerge. This research attempted to fill this gap by examining the cultural identity of TCIs to see how the two

constructs relate and whether TCIs in fact have multiple cultural identities and may be considered multicultural.RQ1: To

what extent do third culture individuals experience a sense of confused cultural identity, a multicultural identity, or multiple

cultural identities, respectively?

This study also aimed to understand the extent to which TCIs are able to successfully alternate between two or more

cultural identities and be culturally literate in multiple cultures, as suggested by the acculturation models described by Berry

(1997, 2008), Birman (1994, 1998), and LaFromboise et al. (1993).

RQ2: To what extent and in what ways are third culture individuals able to successfully alternate between two or more

cultural identities and be culturally literate?

Finally, while mainstream TCI literature has described both positive and negative aspects of the third culture experience,

empirical studies involving TCIs are still few in number and the need to more systematically document the impact on these

individuals remains.

RQ3: What benefits or detriments from their experiences abroad during their developmental years do third culture individ-

uals perceive as adults and in what ways have these experiences impacted their intercultural communication competence?

3.

Method

In order to investigate the cultural identity of TCIs, a qualitative method was chosen. Qualitative approaches focus on

studying phenomena that occur in natural settings. They provide detailed descriptions of socially constructed realities and

the meaning assigned to particular experiences (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). The ability to seek in-depth understanding is

the strength of this method, as the researcher “builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of

informants” (Creswell, 1998, p. 15). Because TCIs’ experiences are complex and diverse, a qualitative method is generally

recommended (Fail et al., 2004; Sparrow, 2000). A qualitative method was chosen for this study also because the cultural

identity of TCIs remains an under-researched area and the research questions called for an in-depth and holistic investigation,

which a quantitative method would not be able to achieve (Cools, 2006).

This study employed a qualitative data method known as biographical phenomenology or life story interview-

ing. The purpose of phenomenology is to capture the lived experience of participants from their own descriptions (Marshall

& Rossman, 1999). Seidman (1991) noted, “At the root of in-depth interviewing is an interest in understanding the expe-

rience of other people and the meaning they make of that experience” (p. 8). Using this method allowed participants to

express themselves in their own words and through their own stories and to remain at the center of the research process,

as interpretations are derived from participants’ descriptions or stories (Chaitin, 2004).

3.1. Participants

TCI participants in this study were recruited through snowball sampling and personal networking. Since no precise

definition of TCIs exists (Cockburn, 2002), participants who had spent at least three of their developmental years (age

6–18), outside of their passport country were chosen. Middle childhood (ages 6–12) has been identified as the time when a

rudimentary identity is formed and interpersonal dependence is grasped, while early adolescence (ages 12–18) is marked

by comprehension of social norms and increased cognitive complexity (Newman & Newman, 2003). Six nationalities and 23

countries of residence, including all continents, were represented in this study. The sample consisted of 11 females and 8

males, 18–44 years old, who resided in their passport country or another host country. Six of the participants were children

of missionaries, twelve were children of business employees, and one was a diplomat’s child.

3.2. Data collection and analysis

The data collection protocol was designed to accommodate geographically dispersed and culturally diverse TCIs and

to be convenient for the participants. Interviews were conducted November 2010–January 2011 face-to-face in public or

semi-private locations in Virginia, U.S. and in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Additional interviews were conducted utilizing the online

TM

video-conferencing application Skype . These interviews were similar to the face-to-face interviews in that the researcher

and interviewee were able to interact through real-time audio and video transfer and participants felt comfortable in the

privacy of their home. All interviews were conducted in English by the primary researcher and each lasted 30–45 min.

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx 5

A semi-structured approach was used with open-ended questions that were few in number. The interviewees were

first asked to give a chronological account of their intercultural experiences. Next, they were asked to describe how these

experiences have influenced their sense of “who they are.” In discussing their acculturation, identity formation, cultural

identity as adults, and ongoing movement among different cultures, participants were allowed to choose the vocabulary that

seemed most appropriate to them. The interviewer, herself a TCI, sought to be sensitive to the emotional issues involved and

to prevent any personal biases or theoretical conceptualizations of the topic from influencing the interviews. The interviews

proceeded with questions about how participants perceive themselves as able to function in different cultural contexts and

concluded with a discussion on where interviewees see themselves as belonging.

Throughout each interview, the interviewer utilized active listening skills and verbal prompts to encourage the intervie-

wee. Probing techniques and follow-up questions were employed as needed in order to obtain comprehensive data and to

ensure that the interviewees’ accounts were properly and contextually understood.

All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed for analysis. The analysis was conducted by the primary researcher

in several steps as outlined by Giorgi (1985). First, the entire data set was read for a comprehensive overview. Next, the

data were analyzed while making notes in regards to elements of continuity, incongruity, and inter-related variables appar-

ent in the individual responses as well as recurring patterns evident among transcripts. When analyzing the data, the

researcher was cognizant that interviewees were not simply recalling facts, but interpreting their past in light of the present

(Bergman, Eklund, & Magnusson, 1991). Finally, prominent themes emerging from the analysis were clustered, categorized,

and interpreted with attention to the research questions and theoretical framework that guided the study. Excerpts from

the transcripts were selected to illustrate and exemplify the various findings. At this point in the process, both researchers

collaborated in reviewing the analysis. Each theme was compared to the original transcripts to ensure that they accurately

reflected participants’ descriptions of their experience as stressed by Marshall and Rossman (1999) and that no disconfirming

data had been overlooked.

4.

Results

The most prominent themes emerging from the analysis of the 19 interviews with TCIs were their ability to shift identities

depending on cultural settings; ability to blend different cultures into a single identity; lack of a sense of belonging; perceived

benefits and detriments of the third culture experience; and competence to communicate interculturally.

4.1. Shifting identities

Seven interviewees described their ability to shift identities, adapt to different cultural settings, and being fully accepted

in two or several cultures. One TCI said,

I’m like a hybrid, right? I can function in both cultures. So I can go to Brazil and nobody would ever notice that I’ve

been living in the U.S. for my whole life, and a lot of times here in the U.S. people are surprised when I tell them that I

was born and raised in Brazil.

Participants spoke not only of their ability to blend into their various environments, but also of their ability to adapt

internally. One interviewee elaborated, “In certain circumstances I’ll think like a German, and in other circumstances I’ll

think like a complete British person, and then I just have my American moments.”

The first research question guiding this study – “To what extent do third culture individuals experience a sense of

confused cultural identity, a multicultural identity, or multiple cultural identities, respectively?” – addressed the nature of

TCIs’ cultural identity. Participants spoke of their ability to shift between identities depending on the cultural context, which

translates as having multiple cultural identities which they alternate between. Such shifts in identity take place intuitively

rather than as an intentional effort to fit in, and TCIs seem to take this capacity for granted. One participant explained, “It’s

not like I think, oh, okay. I’m in Brazil. I need to act a certain way. It just comes to you naturally because that’s what I’m used

to. I don’t even think about it. It just happens. Depending on where you are, you just act a certain way.”

The second research question asked, “To what extent and in what ways are third culture individuals able to successfully

alternate between two or more cultural identities and be culturally literate?” It was obvious from the analysis that the TCIs

in this study are able to successfully alternate between two or more cultural identities. This ability to shift between cultures

with ease demonstrates intercultural literacy. TCIs possess the language proficiencies and communication competencies

necessary for effective cross-cultural engagement.

4.2. Blend of cultures

Nine participants described their identity as a blend of the different cultures they have lived in. They are unable to separate

them and, therefore, behave in a manner consistent with their blended identity regardless of the country they are in. They

have incorporated elements of the two, or more, cultures they have experienced into a single, blended identity. One TCI said,

“I have one identity, but I understand both cultures. I know how to put them together in one piece which is me. I know how

to mix both of them in a way that I can adapt wherever I’m at.” Some expressed how their sense of identity does not come

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

6 A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

from a particular country, but from the experiences they have gathered in each country that has made them who they are

today:

I don’t feel like identity has to be you pertaining to a country. I see how you can pertain to several cultures, and feel

identified with several cultures. I have sort of combined and blended different cultures into shaping my identity now.

I definitely have a mix of cultures, and I think I like it more that way.

These findings demonstrate, in response to the first research question, that certain TCIs possess a multicultural identity as

a result of having blended different cultural aspects into a single identity. These TCIs do not separate their different cultural

identities in order to adapt to specific cultural contexts; rather, they behave in a way consistent with their multicultural

identity regardless of where they are. Some of these TCIs have incorporated two cultures, while others have incorporated

three or even more. This does not mean that they have a confused identity; they are very well aware and sure of their cultural

identity, it is just different from most people’s single-culture identity.

Only one TCI in this study appeared confused about her cultural identity and during the interview expressed the sen-

timents of “not wanting to just put aside a certain culture,” but was, nevertheless, unable to reconcile the Hispanic and

European cultures that she had experienced. Another participant spoke of an in-between state and how she did not define

her cultural identity in relation to any of the countries she had lived in, but rather, described herself as “international.” A

third participant identified herself as simply “American.”

4.3. Sense of belonging

A third prominent theme emerging from the analysis, although not specifically articulated in the research questions, is

that of belonging. The experiences which have resulted in multiple cultural identities or a blended, multicultural identity

described by the TCIs in this study have also caused some of them to lack a sense of belonging. Four participants talked about

how they are able to adapt and fit into different cultural contexts and environments, but feel like they do not truly belong

anywhere. For example, one TCI said, “I’ve never really felt like I belonged in any of the countries.” Another TCI said,

I don’t feel like I belong, I feel like a tourist when I go to my home country. Yet, I feel like I can fit in and adapt easily

without having that sense of belonging or attachment to that culture. That’s what’s incredible about this lifestyle, that

you can be sitting at a table with somebody from Brazil, somebody from Argentina, and somebody from the States,

and switch languages in two seconds, and it’s not even a conscious effort.

Others talked about how they lack a sense of belonging because they feel different and do not fit it. One interviewee, who

was born in the U.S. and had lived in four different countries, spoke of being “in-between.” Another TCI, who has also lived

in four different countries, talked about not having a sense of home and explained, “It’s never just one place. There are little

things that you’ll pick up everywhere you live, whether it’s values or traditions that you take with you everywhere you go, so

you’re not 100% entirely at home anywhere.” Seven participants said they feel like they belong in two or three cultures; four

identified a sense of belonging to a country other than their passport country; and two feel like they belong in their passport

country. However, six of the TCIs in the study, despite their ability to shift cultural identities or blend cultures, still did not

feel a sense of belonging to any specific culture(s) and several of them articulated a strong desire to belong somewhere.

4.4. Benefits and detriments

When asked whether TCIs perceive their experiences as mainly positive or negative, 15 out of the 19 participants answered

emphatically that their experiences had been mainly positive. Another three described a combination of both positives and

negatives, and one said it seemed like a negative experience at the time, but positive in retrospect. Those who identified

the third culture experience as positive also mentioned some of the negative aspects, but it is worth noting that they came

to light after follow-up questions drew particular attention to them. Detriments of the third culture experience include not

having a clear definition of where you’re from, not being close to extended family, having to say goodbye to friends, the pain

of leaving what is familiar, not growing roots anywhere, and lacking a sense of belonging, as discussed earlier.

However, most participants perceive their experiences abroad as more beneficial than detrimental. The most common

benefits identified were the ability to adapt easier, speaking multiple languages, being able to communicate with more

people, being aware of different cultures, having a broader worldview, and most predominantly, having an open mind. One

TCI said about being open-minded, “I’m not socially paralyzed because I don’t know how to work or relate to other people

with other points of view or from different backgrounds.” Another said, “It really opens up the person culturally and just

increases tolerance and acceptance. You have a much broader knowledge that ‘Oh, not everybody thinks like me.”’

The third research question guiding this study was, “What benefits or detriments from their experiences abroad during

their developmental years do third culture individuals perceive as adults and in what ways have these experiences impacted

their intercultural communication competence?” As discussed above, participants in this study were very aware of how their

experiences have impacted them. They spoke with clarity and assertiveness about both the benefits and detriments of a life

on the move; however, they all agreed that the positives far outweigh the negatives, particularly the ability to understand,

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx 7

adapt to, speak with, being aware of, and open toward people from different cultures. This leads to the last prominent theme

and the second part of the research question, addressing intercultural communication competence.

4.5. Intercultural communication competence

TCIs in this study believe their experiences have helped them develop the ability to communicate effectively and act

appropriately across cultures. One participant said, “You sense things, so you pick up on things quite easily.” They are

sensitive to cultural differences and able to adapt easily when traveling to a country they have not lived in. Many expressed

a desire to continue to travel, live abroad and/or befriend people from other cultures. Several expressed feeling restless when

staying in a single country for too long. One TCI, who has lived in the Middle East, Africa and Australia since graduating from

college, said, “It’s my identity. It’s part of who I am. And I think it’s affected me in the fact that I don’t want to live in America.

I feel like overseas is part of who I am and [I] almost get this restlessness that I have to move.”

5.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the cultural identity of third culture individuals (TCIs) with particular attention

to how their intercultural experiences have impacted their sense of identity, sense of belonging, multiculturalism, and

intercultural communication competence.

The results indicate that TCIs are more apt to possess multiple cultural identities or a multicultural identity, rather than a

confused cultural identity. Their accounts of shifting among multiple identities closely corresponds to the alternation model

described by LaFromboise et al. (1993), which suggests that it is possible for an individual to fully participate in two different

cultures. The findings confirm that it is possible for an individual to be fully functional and literate in more than one culture

without compromising his or her sense of identity. The individual never loses his or her native cultural identity, but adopts

a new one and is able to successfully alternate between the two. This identity closely corresponds to that of an integrator,

as proposed by Berry (2008) and the ethnorelative stage of integration, as proposed by Bennett (1993a). The results of this

study suggest that when TCIs alternate between cultural identities, they do so intuitively and with ease, as also reported by

Sparrow (2000).

Adler (1977) and Boulding (1988) noted how intercultural communication competency promotes an individual’s ability

to integrate cultural differences in order to transform oneself into a multicultural person who knows how to foster multiple

cultural identities. TCIs in this study confirmed that growing up interculturally provided them with a strong intercultural

skill set. While Adler (1977) described the multicultural person’s identity as adaptive, temporary and open to change, the

cultural identities of these TCIs are adaptive and open, but not necessarily temporary. Their identity is shaped by the different

cultures they have experienced, and they have internalized these different cultures and made them a permanent part of

who they are. In that sense, they have acquired the kind of intercultural identity that was theorized by both Kim (2008) and

Sussman (2000); one that is open-minded, adaptive and with a clear self-definition.

TCIs with blended identities are different from those with shifting identities in that the former are unable to compart-

mentalize their different cultural identities. They have integrated different elements from each culture, thus forming one

multicultural identity to which they adhere consistently regardless of the country, context, and culture they are in. The vast

majority of participants described themselves as having a blended cultural identity or multiple cultural identities that they

shift between, but not both. This finding adds to the existing literature on multiculturalism as well as third culture. It was

beyond the scope of the current study to determine what causes a TCI to develop one type of identity rather than the other;

however, this is an important direction for future studies.

The fact that many TCIs possess bicultural or multiple cultural identities does not indicate that they have a clouded

cultural identity, as suggested by Murphy (2003) or experience confusion over their identity, as reported by Grimshaw and

Sears (2008). Participants in this study clearly articulated their different cultural identities and described their ability to

shift between them; in fact, to most participants, this ability came naturally and without any effort. Only one participant

appeared confused about her cultural identity; one identified herself as American; and a third participant as international.

Pollock and Van Reken (2009) noted in their pioneering work that TCIs move between cultures before they have had

the opportunity to complete the critical task of personal identity development. However, TCIs in this study did not express

feelings of grief caused by a loss of security, trust, and identity, as reported by Gilbert (2008). On the contrary, many of

them believe their intercultural experiences enhanced their childhood and enrich their lives even today as adults. The main

benefits of the TCI lifestyle articulated by these TCIs include adaptability, cultural awareness, fluency in multiple languages,

and open-mindedness. This is consistent with Dewaele and Van Oudenhoven’s (2009) study, in which both third culture and

multilingual individuals scored higher on open-mindedness.

The findings also reveal that a sense of belonging to a culture and having a cultural identity are not necessarily one

and the same. Participants described their ability to shift between different cultural identities or blend identities without

necessarily feeling a sense of belonging to any of them. Whereas some have a sense of belonging to one or several countries,

others do not feel that they belong in any particular country. Fail et al.’s (2004) research also revealed that most TCIs either

have a multiple sense of belonging or no sense of belonging at all, which causes them to feel marginal to the mainstream.

Greenholtz and Kim’s (2009) in-depth case study of a TCI’s cultural identity revealed a worldview that is simultaneously

ethnocentric and ethnorelative. TCIs broad worldview is often at odds with that of those who have only experienced a single

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

8 A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

culture (Cockburn, 2002; Peterson & Plamondon, 2009; Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009; Wertsch,

1991). In fact, the concept of third culture is founded on the notion that all TCIs share and are oriented toward a common

culture that is unique to them (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009).

The concepts of biculturalism (Benet-Martinez et al., 2006; LaFromboise et al., 1993; Phinney & Devich-Nevarro, 1997;

Ramirez, 1984) and intercultural literacy (Heyward, 2002) were also highlighted by this study. Bicultural competency is

marked by knowledge of cultural beliefs and values of two cultures, a positive attitude toward both groups, and communica-

tion competency in both cultures. Intercultural literacy and cultural intelligence refer to the understandings, competencies,

attitudes, and identities necessary for successful cross-cultural engagement. The interculturally literate person is able to

consciously shift between multiple cultural identities and operate from the standpoint of an insider. Many of the TCIs in

this study are bicultural; others are literate in more than two cultures. Participants did not necessarily identify themselves

as literate in every culture they had lived in. Time, age, and level of exposure to a particular culture are likely intervening

variables. They did, however, perceive themselves as sensitive to and able to easily adapt to cultural differences. This finding

is consistent with those reported by Lyttle et al. (2011), who found that TCIs have heightened perceptual skills and increased

interpersonal sensitivity as a result of intercultural exposure during their developmental years.

5.1. Recommendations for future research

Acknowledging the limitations inherent in a qualitative study, such as the inability to generalize the findings or replicate

the exact research process, the results provide a nuanced understanding of the cultural identity of TCIs and suggest several

new directions for research. Additional qualitative studies are needed to examine more closely the factors that cause TCIs

to acquire a multicultural identity as opposed to multiple cultural identities. The notion of TCIs having a confused cultural

identity should be explored further. Alternatively, a sense of identity and a sense of belonging to a specific culture may have

been treated as the same construct in previous research, while this study was able to differentiate the two.

A new instrument with subscales for TCIs’ different types of cultural identities and related variables needs to be developed.

The multicultural personality questionnaire (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000) is a useful tool for measuring certain

aspects of multiculturalism; however, Dewaele and Van Oudenhoven (2009) only found a difference between their TCI

sample and the mono-cultured control group in two of five subscales: open-mindedness and emotional stability.

Finally, the present sample included TCIs from the expatriate, diplomat, and categories, but no military chil-

dren. Future studies should take into account how these categories and factors such as socio-economic status, immersion in

the host culture, as well as length and age of exposure, impact the third culture experience. Also, while the present sample

represented a wide array of cultures, it did not take into account cultural differences or unique cultural components, which

may have affected transition and adaptation. A more comprehensive study should take these into account.

5.2. Conclusions

This study explored the complexity of TCIs’ cultural identity as impacted by their diverse intercultural experiences. A

differentiation between those TCIs who have acquired multiple cultural identities that they alternate between and those

TCIs who possess a single, multicultural identity emerged as a key finding. In addition, a differentiation between a sense of

identity and a sense of belonging was made, suggesting that it is possible to have one without the other.

Both the positive and negative aspects of the third culture experience remain rich areas to explore. The results of this

study indicate that there may be more benefits to growing up interculturally than the TCI literature has indicated. Given the

value that TCIs can bring to an increasingly globalized world, the academic community needs to continue to pay attention

to this unique group that is growing in size. Parents providing the opportunity for their children to become multicultural

beings should also be aware of the potential benefits, as summarized by one TCI in this study, “The one thing [being a TCI has]

helped me the most with is relating to different people. It makes it a lot easier to adapt to new situations and environments,

and just a lot easier to get to know somebody because you’re not just used to this one thing, you have multiple experiences.”

References

Adler, P. S. (1977). Beyond cultural identity: Reflections on cultural and multicultural man. In R. Brislin (Ed.), Culture learning: Concepts, application and

research (pp. 24–41). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Arasaratnam, L. A., & Doerfel, M. L. (2005). Intercultural communication competence: Identifying key components from multicultural perspectives. Inter-

national Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(2), 137–163.

Arthur, W., & Bennett, W. (1995). The international assignee: The relative importance of factors perceived to contribute to success. Personnel ,

48(1), 99–114.

Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Benet-Martinez, V., Lee, F., & Leu, J. (2006). Biculturalism and cognitive complexity: Expertise in cultural representations. Journal of Cross ,

37(4), 386–407.

Bennett, M. J. (1993a). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural

experience (pp. 109–135). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Bennett, M. J. (1993b). Cultural marginality: Identity issues in intercultural training. In M. R. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp.

109–135). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Bergman, L. R., Eklund, G., & Magnusson, D. (1991). Studying individual development: Problems and methods. In D. Magnusson, L. R. Bergman, G. Rudinger,

& B. Torestad (Eds.), Problems and methods in longitudinal research: Stability and change (pp. 1–27). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx 9

Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5–68.

Berry, J. W. (2008). Globalisation and acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(4), 328–336.

Berry, J. W., Trimble, J., & Olmedo, E. (1986). Assessment of acculturation. In W. J. Lonner, & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp.

291–324). London: Sage.

Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. London: Routledge.

Birman, D. (1994). Acculturation and human diversity in a multicultural society. Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-

Bass., pp. 261-284.

Birman, D. (1998). Biculturalism and perceived competence of Latino immigrant adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(3), 335–354.

Boulding, E. (1988). Building a global civic culture. New York: Teachers College.

Bushong, B. (1988). Where do I sleep tonight? MKs and mobility. Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 352–356. October.

Casmir, F. L. (1984). Perception, cognition, and intercultural communication. Communication, 13(1), 1–16.

Chaitin, J. (2004). My story, my life, my identity. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(4), 1–17.

Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2004). Communication among cultural diversities. International & Intercultural Communication Annual, 27, 3–15.

Christmas, C., & Barker, G. (2011). Assessing intercultural experience: Differences in acculturation, intercultural sensitivity, and cognitive flexibility between

the first and second generation of Latino immigrants. In Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Communication Association New Orleans,

LA, November 17–20.

Cockburn, L. (2002). Children and young people living in changing worlds: The process of assessing and understanding the ‘third culture kid’. School

Psychology International, 23(4), 475–485.

Collier, M. J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Cultural identity. In Y. Y. Kim, & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 99–120). Newbury

Park, CA: Sage.

Cools, C. (2006). Relational communication in intercultural couples. Language and Intercultural Communication, 6(3&4), 262–274.

Cottrell, A. B. (2006). Third-culture kids: A challenge to traditional acculturation paradigms. In Paper presented at the American Psychological Association’s

114th Annual Convention New Orleans, LA, August 10–13.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dewaele, J., & Van Oudenhoven, J. (2009). The effect of multilingualism/multiculturalism on personality: No gain without pain for third culture kids?

International Journal of Multilingualism, 6(4), 443–459.

Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Fail, H., Thompson, J., & Walker, G. (2004). Belonging, identity and third culture kids: Life of former international school students. Journal of Research

in International Education, 3(3), 319–338.

Gaw, K. F. (2007). Mobility, multiculturalism, and marginality: Counseling third-culture students. Special populations in college counseling: A handbook for mental

health professionals. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association., pp. 63–76.

Gilbert, K. R. (2008). Loss and grief between and among cultures: The experience of third culture kids. Illness, Crisis & Loss, 16(2), 93–109.

Giorgi, A. (Ed.). (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.

Grappo, R. (2008). Building resiliency in global nomads. Foreign Service Journal, 85(12), 76–96.

Greenholtz, J., & Kim, J. (2009). The cultural hybridity of Lena: A multi-method case study of a third culture kid. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,

33(5), 391–398.

Grimshaw, T., & Sears, C. (2008). ‘Where am I from?’ ‘Where do I belong?’: The negotiation and maintenance of identity by international school students.

Journal of Research in International Education, 7(3), 259–278.

Hanvey, R. G. (1976). Cross-cultural awareness. In E. C. Smith, & L. F. Luce (Eds.), Towards internationalism: Readings in cross- (pp.

44–56). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Heyward, M. (2002). From international to intercultural: Redefining the international school for a globalized world. Journal of Research in International

Education, 1(1), 9–32.

Hoersting, R. C., & Jenkins, S. R. (2011). No place to call home: Cultural homelessness, self-esteem and cross-cultural identities. International Journal of

Intercultural Relations, 35(1), 17–30.

Jandt, F. E. (2004). An introduction to intercultural communication (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kim, Y. Y. (2002). Adapting to an unfamiliar culture: An interdisciplinary overview. In W. B. Gudykunst, & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and

intercultural communication (2nd ed., pp. 259–273). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kim, Y. Y. (2008). Intercultural personhood: Globalization and a way of being. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(4), 359–368.

LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 395–412.

Lyttle, A., Barker, G., & Cornwell, T. (2011). Adept through adaptation: Third culture individuals’ interpersonal sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 35(5), 686–694.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McCaig, N. (1992). Birth of a notion. The Global Nomad Quarterly, 1.

McCaig, N. (1996). Understanding global nomads. In C. D. Smith (Ed.), Strangers at home (pp. 99–120). New York: Aletheia.

McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: The making of typographic man. Toronto: Random House of Canada.

Mendoza, R. H. (1984). Acculturation and sociocultural variability. In J. R. Martinez Jr., & R. H. Mendoza (Eds.), Chicano psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic

Press.

Murphy, E. (2003). Monolingual international schools and the young non-English-speaking child. Journal of Research in International Education, 2(1),

25–45.

Navas, M., Rojasb, A. J., Garcíac, M., & Pumaresd, P. (2007). Acculturation strategies and attitudes according to the Relative Acculturation Extended Model

(RAEM): The perspectives of natives versus immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31(1), 67–86.

Northover, M. (1988). Bilingual or “dual linguistic identities”? In J. Berry, & R. Annis (Eds.), Ethnic psychology: Research and practice with immigrants, refugees,

Native peoples, ethnic groups and sojourners (pp. 207–216). Berwyn, PA: Swets North America.

Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2003). Development through life: A psychosocial approach (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Peterson, B. E., & Plamondon, L. T. (2009). Third culture kids and the consequences of international sojourns on authoritarianism, acculturative balance,

and positive affect. Journal of Research and Personality, 43(5), 755–763.

Phinney, J. S., & Devich-Nevarro, M. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of

Research on Adloscence, 7(1), 3–32.

Pollock, D. C., & Van Reken, R. E. (2009). Third culture kids: The experience of growing up among worlds. Boston: Nicholas Brealey.

Ramirez, M., III. (1984). Assessing and understanding biculturalism: Multiculturalism in Mexican-American adults. In J. L. Martinez, & R. H. Mendoza (Eds.),

Chicano psychology (pp. 77–94). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Ruben, I., & Kealey, D. J. (1979). Behavioral assessment of communication competency and the prediction of cross-cultural adaptation. International Journal

of Intercultural Relations, 3(1), 15–17.

Schaetti, B. F., & Ramsey, S. J. (1999). The expatriate family: Practicing practical leadership. Mobility. Employee Relocation Council.

Seidman, I. E. (1991). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for research in education and social sciences. New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Smith, C. D. (1996). World citizens and ‘rubber-band nationality.’. In C. D. Smith (Ed.), Strangers at home (pp. 189–201). New York: Aletheia.

Sparrow, L. (2000). Beyond multicultural man: Complexities of identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(2), 173–201.

Spitzberg, B., & Cupach, W. (1984). Interpersonal communication competence. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W., & Mahoney, J. D. (1997). Early identification of international executive potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 6–29.

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002

G Model

IJIR-855; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

10 A.M. Moore, G.G. Barker / International Journal of Intercultural Relations xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

Sussman, N. M. (2000). The dynamic nature of cultural identity throughout cultural transitions: Why home is not so sweet. Personality and Social Psychology

Review, 4(4), 355–373.

Szapocznik, J., Kurtines, W., & Fernandez, T. (1980). Biculturalism and adjustment among Hispanic youths. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,

4(3&4), 353–375.

Torbiorn, I. (1982). Living abroad: Personal adjustment and personnel policy in the overseas setting. New York, NY: Wiley.

Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). Third culture kids: A special case for foreign language learning. In T. Tokuhama-Espinosa (Ed.), The multilingual mind: Issues

discussed by, for, and about people living with many languages (pp. 165–169). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Useem, J., Donoghue, J. D., & Useem, R. H. (1963). Men in the middle of the third culture: The roles of American and non-western people in cross-cultural

administration. Human Organization, 22(3), 169–179.

Van der Zee, K. I., & Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2000). The multicultural personality questionnaire: A multidimensional instrument for multicultural effectiveness.

European Journal of Personality, 14(4), 291–309.

Walters, K. A., & Auton-Cuff, F. P. (2009). A story to tell: The identity development of women growing up as third culture kids. Mental Health, &

Culture, 12(7), 755–772.

Wertsch, M. E. (1991). Military Brats. New York, NY: Harmony Books.

Wiseman, R. L. (2003). Intercultural communication competence. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Cross-cultural and intercultural communication (pp. 191–208).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Please cite this article in press as: Moore, A. M., & Barker, G.G. Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural

identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2011), doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002