Plant and Fungal Use in Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi, Sakartvelo

Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae

DOI: 10.5586/asbp.3517 ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER Publication history Received: 2016-06-29 Accepted: 2016-09-30 Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti, Published: 2016-12-30 and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Handling editor Łukasz Łuczaj, Institute of Applied Biotechnology and Caucasus Basic Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Poland Rainer W. Bussmann1*, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana2, Shalva Authors’ contributions 3 4 3 3 RWB, NYPZ, SS, ZK, DK, DT, Sikharulidze , Zaal Kikvidze , David Kikodze , David Tchelidze , and KB designed the study; Ketevan Batsatsashvili3, Robert E. Hart1 RWB, NYPZ, SS, ZK, DT, and KB 1 conducted the fieldwork; RHE William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis, MO 63166-0299, conducted the main statistical United States 2 analysis; RBU, NYPZ, and RHE Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Instituto de Ecología-UMSA, Campus Universitario, Cota Cota Calle analyzed the data and wrote 27, La Paz, Bolivia 3 the manuscript; all authors read, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Botanikuri 1, corrected, and approved the 0105 Tbilisi, Georgia 4 manuscript 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Cholokasvili 5, 0162 Tbilisi, Georgia * Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] Funding Funding was provided by the William L. Brown Center endowment. Abstract In this study, we documented traditional plant use in Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Competing interests No competing interests have Pshavi and hypothesized that (i) plant use knowledge in general would be higher been declared. in isolated high elevation communities, and that (ii) use of home gardens would be much more restricted to lower elevation settings. Fieldwork was conducted in Copyright notice Khevsureti, Pshavi, and Tusheti. Interviews using semi-structured questionnaires © The Author(s) 2016. This is an Open Access article distributed were conducted with 74 participants. In the present study, we encountered 317 under the terms of the Creative plant species belonging to 203 genera of 80 families being used in the research Commons Attribution License, region. Of these, 197 species were exclusively wild-harvested, 73 were grown in which permits redistribution, homegardens, and 47 were both grown in gardens and sourced in the wild. The commercial and non- commercial, provided that the ordinations in plant-space and in use-space were significantly fit by elevation of article is properly cited. informant community, and community itself. Age and gender did not significantly fit the distribution of informants across either plant-space or use-space, respec- Citation tively. Number of use-reports was highest across all communities in the food and Bussmann RW, Paniagua- medicinal use-categories, and informant consensus. Species with especially high Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze use-diversity (UD) tended to be woody species although. Species with high use- D, et al. Plant and fungal use value (UV) were mostly managed/domesticated species from home orchards, gar- in Tusheti, Khevsureti, and dens, or farms. Plant species, and uses, found in our study, showed clear relations Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of to the wider Eurasian cultural complex. The species number found was, however, Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(2):3517. https://doi. far higher than in any published study from either the region or the wiser Mediter- org/10.5586/asbp.3517 ranean and Eurasia. The maintenance of home gardens in Georgia serves as socio- ecological memory. While the great variety of plant species used in the Georgian

Digital signature Caucasus might provide a reservoir for food security climate change is starting to This PDF has been certified using digital signature with a trusted timestamp to affect both natural floristic diversity and gardens both in the Caucasus as well as assure its origin and integrity. A verification continent wide. trust dialog appears on the PDF document when it is opened in a compatible PDF reader. Certificate properties provide Keywords further details such as certification time and a signing reason in case any alterations ethnobotany; Georgia; Caucasus; homegardens; traditional knowledge made to the final content. If the certificate is missing or invalid it is recommended to verify the article on the journal website. Introduction

Pshav–Khevsureti and Tusheti (Fig. 1) are located on slopes of the main Caucasus range, with elevations from 1250 to 4493 meters. The climate is generally cool with a median yearly temperature of about 5°C. The hottest month is July with mean temper- atures between 13–15°C. The region lies in the drier part of the Caucaus and receives only about 450–900 mm of annual rainfall, which especially at higher altitudes falls

Published by Polish Botanical Society 1 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi

Fig. 1 Study area (based on United Nations, modified).

mostly as snow. Dagestan borders Tusheti in the east, while Chechnya and Ingushetia border the region in the north, and the Georgian province of Kaheti borders it in the south. The highest peaks in this part of the Caucauss are Tebulo (4492 m), Komito (4261 m), Dano (4174 m), and Diklosmta (4285 m). Tusheti harbors a wide variety of ecozones, and its very high biodiversity [1,2]. Pshav–Khevsureti and Tusheti are known for Late Bronze and Early Iron Age settlements, starting in the third century BC. Earliest written accounts go back to Ptolemaus [1]. The population of the region consists of Khevsur, Pshav, and Tush ethnic groups, the latter divided into Tsova Tushs and Chaghma Tushs, which are however ethno- graphically almost identical. Linguistically, the Chaghma Tushs speak a dialect close to Khevsurian, Mokhevian, and Pshavian, which all belong to the Pkhovian group of Georgian dialects. The Tsova Tushs speak a distinct language – Tsova Tushetian / Batsbian in their homes, and a Georgian dialect similar to Kahetian in more official settings [1,3]. In this study, we documented traditional plant use in Tusheti, Pshavi, and Khev- sureti, also elucidating culturally important species, and hypothesized that (i) plant use knowledge in general would be higher in isolated high elevation communities, and that (ii) use of home gardens would be much more restricted to lower elevation settings.

Material and methods

Ethnobotanical interviews

Fieldwork was conducted in Khevsureti, Khevi, and Tusheti in July–August 2013, July–August 2014, and September–October 2015. Interviews using semi-structured

questionnaires were conducted with 74 participants (31 women and 43 men) after obtaining their oral prior informed consent. The participants were selected by snow- ball sampling, trying to reach gender balance and represent members of different age (30–80 years). However, most participants were over 50 years old, because only very few younger people remain in remote Georgian villages. All interviews were carried out in the participants’ homes and gardens by native speakers in Georgian and its local dialects (Tush, Khevsur, Psav), and then translated into English. In contrast to many other countries, Georgia counts on a complete flora [4–6], and a broad inventory of vernacular names in all local Georgian dialects [7]. Forest (= includes all non-garden areas) and garden (= area where species are cultivated) species were identified di- rectly in the field, using available literature [4–6], and collected and deposited in the National Herbarium of Georgia (TB). The nomenclature of all species followshttp:// www.tropicos.org, under APG III [8]; the nomenclature of fungi follows MycoBank (http://www.mycobank.org).

Statistical analysis

Distance among informants – plants and uses. Distance among informants was calculated using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling on two distance matrices: one in which columns represented plant species reported, and one in which columns represented uses reported. The resulting ordinations plot individuals who report similar plants or similar uses more closely together. We then fit different environmental vec- tors (community, elevation) and factors (gender, community) to test how a character- istic explains the location of informants in the ordination. We compared these fits to 999 randomized shuffles of the environmental variables to calculate significance.

Informant consensus. Informant consensus (IFC) for a given use-category (UC) was calculated as the number of use-reports (UR) (the use of one species for a specific purpose) minus the number of taxa (t) over the number of use-reports minus one: NUR − Nt / NUR − 1

Plant relative importance. Species were ranked by three metrics: (i) cultural importance value (CI), the sum within species across all plant-uses of the number of informants reporting a plant-use divided by the number of informants reporting the plant; (ii) use-diversity (UD), the Shannon index of uses (calculated with the R package “vegan”, [9]); and (iii) use-value (UV), the number of reports of a species over total number of informants asked in a region [10].

Results

In the present study, we encountered 317 plant species belonging to 203 genera of 80 families being used in the study area (Tab. 1). Of these, 197 species were exclusively wild-harvested, 73 were grown in homegardens, and 47 were both grown in gardens and sourced in the wild. Among areas within the study area, plants and their uses showed only partial overlap in the region, with a wider divergence in uses (Fig. 2). Between the two major areas, Khevsureti and Tusheti, the bulk of unique uses were reported from the generally higher elevation communities within the Tusheti area. The ordinations in plant-space (Fig. 3a) and in use-space (Fig. 3c) were significantly fit by elevation of informant community [plant-space (Fig. 3b), r2 = 0.376, p = 0.001; use-space (Fig. 3d), r2 = 0.185, p = 0.012). Community was also significant in the ordination for both plant-space (r2 = 0.687, p = 0.001) and use-space (r2 = 0.488, p = 0.029). Age and gender did not significantly fit the distribution of informants across either plant-space (p = 0.068 and p = 0.489, respectively) or use-space (p = 0.123 and p = 0.546, respectively).

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 3 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Location Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruit, leaf, leaf, Fruit, stem Bark, branches, fruit, stem Fruit, leaf Fruit, Fruit Branches, fruit, leaf Fruiting Fruiting body Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Urdzani (Urdzani (Aluda Khev.) (Aluda (Aluda Khev.), Khev.), (Aluda (Tursa Tush.), Tush.), (Tursa ალუდა Khev.) (T’sirchua Khev.), Khev.), (T’sirchua ალუდა თურსა ურალუზანი (Ch’ich’k’ot’i ჭიჭკოტი (Ch’ich’k’ot’i Tush.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Purpasha), (Ants’li), ანწლი (Ants’li), (Uzani), (Uzani), (Uzani) (Ts’erts’a) (Kiwi) გუდაფშუტა (Gudapshut’a) გუდაფშუტა (Gudapshut’a) ყვავთკუსა (Q’vavtkusa) უზანი ძახველი (Dzaxhveli) ქამა (Kama) უზანი ანწლი (Ants’li) წერწა Georgian name (transliteration) კივი ფურფაშა ცვარიო (Tsvario) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Cultural (protection), food (protection), Cultural food, tea), human (alcohol, medicinal (blood pressure, and utensils lungs), cough, (walking sticks) tools food) (human Food Cultural (necklace, pickled, (necklace, pickled, Cultural walking sticks), protection, food), medici - food (human utensils nal (hypertension), (walking sticks) tools and Food (alcohol, human human (alcohol, Food food), medicinal (intestines, khinkali) Food (human food), medici - (human Food and nal utensils (heartburn), (arrows) tools Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food 191 52 51 325 12 324 276 188 10 Collection # TUSH 86 Pall. L. L. (Batsch) (Batsch) L. Lindl. sp. Species used in Tusheti–Khevsureti (forest = includes all non garden areas; garden = area where species are cultivated; Tush. = Tushetian; Khev. = Khevsurian; Phsh. = Phshavian). = Khevsurian; Phsh. Khev. = Tushetian; Tush. cultivated; species are where = area garden areas; garden all non = includes (forest Species used in Tusheti–Khevsureti sp. sp.

Calvatia gigantea Lycoperdon Bovista Bovista Viburnum opulusViburnum Agaricaceae Schaeff. arvensis Agaricus Viburnum lantana Adoxaceae Lonicera caucasica Sambucus ebulus Tab. 1 Tab. Actinidiaceae callosa Actinidia Family / Scientific name Family Rostk.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 4 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Garden Location Leaf, root Leaf, Leaf Leaf Leaf, stem Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body, Spores Fruiting Fruiting body, Spores Fruiting Fruiting body Leaf Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Tatabo Tush.) (Tatabo (Kholhnuta Khev.) (Kholhnuta თათაბო Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Jinjlaq’a) (Phothlovani (Phothlovani (Ch’arkhali) (Ts’erets’o) (Tsitheli Phkhali) (Tsitheli მანგოლდი (Man ფოთლოვანი goldi), ჭარხალი ჭარხალი ჯიჯლაყა წითელი მხალი Phkhali) (Ts’iteli წითელი მხალი Phkhali), (Ts’iteli წითელი ჯიჯლაყა jijlaq’a) (Ts’iteli წითელი შხამასოკო shkhamasok’o) (Tsiteli წერეწო მალათუ (Malathu) მალათუ (Malathu) Georgian name (transliteration) მერცხალა Mertskhala charkhali), წითელი charkhali), მხალი Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food food) (human Food Food (phkhali)Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food), medici - (human Food nal wounds) (bleeding, Food (human food), medici - (human Food nal wounds) (bleeding, Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food 43 42 24 39 23 22 194 190 189 Collection # TUSH 89

L. L.

Pers. (L.) Lam. (O. F. F. (O. L. sp. L. ssp. cicla L. ssp. L. Continued

Beta vulgaris (L.) Moq. Beta vulgaris Amaranthus retroflexus Atriplex hortensis Amaranthaceae Amaranthus paniculatus Amanitaceae Amanita muscaria Macrolepiota Lycoperdon pyriformeLycoperdon Schaeff. Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Pers. Müll.) Coprinus comatus

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 5 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Location Forest Bulb Leaf Bulb Bulb Bulb Leaf Leaf, stem Leaf Leaf Stem Leaf, stem Part usedPart Leaf, seed, whole stem, plant Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety - - - - (Im - (Dza (Tsatsar (Nat

(Qathanat (Shishgil Svan.) (Shishgil იმერული პრასი პრასა - ხახვი კლდისნიორა (K’ldisniora) eruli p’rasi) (P’rasa-khakhvi) (Shebu Khev.), Khev.), შებუ (Shebu Tush.), შებუ (Shebu შიშღილ ნაცარქათამა katama Khev.) katama sara Svan.) sara ძაღლთჟოლა Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation Tush.) ghltzhola ნაცარქათამა Khev.), zarchatari ქათანაცარა

(Mtis (Mtis (K’ldis

(Ghanzili) (Isp’anakhi) (Ch’lakvi), (Ch’lakvi), (Marts’q’vi) (P’rasi) (Khakhvi), ხახვი (Khakhvi), (Marts’q’vi), (Marts’q’vi), ღანძილი პრასი ნიორი (Marts’q’vi), ნიორი (Niori) ჭლაკვი ჭლაკვი კლდის ხახვი khakhvi) (Marts’q’vi) კევის ხე , საღსაღაჯი (Kevis khe, Saghsaghaji) khe, (Kevis ხახვი ღანძილი ისპანახი მათუთა (Matuta) Georgian name (transliteration) მთის ghandzili) ხახვი ნაცარქათამა (Natsarqathama) Food (human food) (human Food food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food food) (human Food Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Food (human food) (human Food Food (chachapuri, human human (chachapuri, Food food, khinkali, phkhali, pickled) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali), (human Food (dye) tools and utensils Use-category (use Use-category description) (phkhali)Food Food (human food, phkhali, (human Food pickled) (pickled) Food 17 18 15 16 217 14 20 294 79 Collection # TUSH 19 78 80

L. Vved. L. L. L. L. L. Fisch. & Fisch. L. sp. L. Continued

Allium porrum Allium sativum Allium fistulosum Allium kunthianum Anacardiaceae Pistacia mutica C.A. Mey. Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa Allium victorialis Spinaca oleracea Spinaca Chenopodium foliosum (Moench) Asch. (Moench) Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Allium ursinum Chenopodium album Chenopodium

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 6 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest, garden Garden Forest Forest, garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Location Whole Whole plant Seed Leaf, root, Leaf, root, stem Stem leaf, Fruit, whole stem, plant Leaf, seed, whole plant Leaf, seed Leaf, Bark, leaf, leaf, Bark, petiole, stem Leaf, stem Stem leaf, Fruit, stem root, Leaf Stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Lagi Khev.) (Ch’imi Tush.) ჭიმი (Ch’imi წყლის ქონდარი Tush.) kondari (Ts’q’lis ლიმი (Limi Svan.) ლაგი (Ch’imi Tush.) ჭიმი (Ch’imi ჭიმი Khev.), (Tsipkhala Tush.) (Ch’imi Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Angeloza) (Ts’q’altkondara (Ts’q’altkondara (Niakhuri) (Uk’vdava) (Dutsi), დუცი (Dutsi), (Kindzi) (K’ama), კამა (K’ama), წყალთქონდარა or კვლიავი კვლიავი K’vliavi), or (K’vliavi), ძირა (Zira) (K’vliavi), უკვდავა ლიმი (Limi), მათუთი (Matuti) ნიახური ანგელოზა (Marts’q’vi) კამა ქინძი (Dutsi) (Matuti), მათუთი (Matuti), მათუთი (Matuti) ღიმი (Ghimi) დუცი Georgian name (transliteration) მარიამძმარა (mariamdzmara) - - khinkali, pick (chave, Food medicinal (diar spice), led, rhea, heartburn) rhea, Food (pickled) Food Cultural (decoration) Cultural Food (human food, pickled), food, pickled), (human Food (toxic) poison food) (human Food Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (chachapuri, human human (chachapuri, Food food,- khinkali, phkhali, pick sats’ebai) led, Food (chachapuri, chave, chave, (chachapuri, Food - food, phkhali, pick human led), medicinal (anthelmintic, asthma) Food (pickled) Food Use-category (use Use-category description) food), medici - (human Food nal (gums) 71 73 38 27 28 26 25 90 87 75 13 74 Collection # TUSH 11 L. L. L. L. L. Bordz. L. Continued

Carum carvi Chaerophyllum aureum Pall. maxima Astrantia (M. nemorosus Anthriscus Spreng. Bieb.) L. graveolens Apium Angelica tatianae Angelica L. graveolens Anethum Coriandrum sativum caucasicum Chaerophyllum Schischk. Conium maculatum (Bieb.) (Bieb.) latifolia Agasyllis Boiss. Chaerophyllum bulbosum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Apiaceae Aethusa cynapium

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 7 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Garden Forest Location Leaf, stem Leaf Stem Leaf, seed, stem Stem Stem Leaf, root, Leaf, root, stem Leaf, seed, stem Leaf Bulb, stem Bulb, Leaf, seed, whole plant Stem Leaf Root root Leaf, Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Lagi) ლაგი Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Tsisk’ara) (Tetri დიყი (Tetri (Shushana) (Sasuka) სასუქა ცისკარა ქარქვეტა (Karkvet’a) (Diq’i), დიყი დიყი (Diq’i), (Diq’i) თეთრი diq’i) შუპყაი (Shupq’a) შუპყაი (Shupq’a) დიყი (Diq’i) დათვფეხა (Datvphekha) ცერეცო (Tseretso) (Marts’q’vi), ოხრახუში (Marts’q’vi), ოხრახუში (Okhrakhushi) კოფრჩხილა (K’oprchkhila) მარიამა (Mariamdzmara) Georgian name (transliteration) შუშანა სტაფილო (St’apilo) Food (chave, human food, human (chave, Food sats’ebai) phkhali, pickled, Food (human food) (human Food Food (pickled) Food Food (chave, human food, human (chave, Food sats’ebai) phkhali, pickled, Food (pickled) Food Food (pickled) Food Food (human food, sats’ebai), food, sats’ebai), (human Food medicinal (toothache) Medicinal (haemorrhoids) Medicinal Medicinal (cancer) Medicinal Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, tea) (human Food Food (pickled) Food Food (human food, sats’ebai) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food food) (human Food 184 183 153 151 150 149 148 147 36 119 209 116 185 Collection # TUSH 109 110 -

sp. sativus

L. Grossh. Spreng. Asch. M. Bieb. L. L. ssp. L. ssp. Continued

Petrov. Schischk. Libanotis transcaucasica Libanotis W. D. J. D. J. W. officinale Levisticum Koch Hippomarathrum microcar Hippomarathrum pum sosnowskyi Heracleum Manden sect. Villosa Heracleum Heracleum leskovii M. asperum Heracleum Bieb. Heracleum alpinum Araceae Arum orientale Mill. vulgare Foeniculum Petroselinum crispum Fuss. (Mill.) Daucus carota sioides Falcaria Ligusticum alatum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Daucus carota

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 8 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Leaf Leaf, root, Leaf, root, stem Leaf, whole plant Leaf Leaf Leaf, whole Leaf, whole plant leaf, Flower, whole plant Leaf, root, whole plant Leaf Leaf Stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (

(Melik’uda (Melik’uda (Melakuda (Melakuda (Melik’uda (Giera Tush.) გიეში (Giera მელაკუდა Tush.) მელაკუდა Tush.) (Tsitsaskuda), მელაკუდა მელიკუდა Tush.), balakhi Tush.), Ts’q’lulis წყლულის ბალახი balakhi Tush.) (Ts’q’lulis (Melik’uda Tush.), Tush.), (Melik’uda წყლულის ბალახი Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(T’arkhuna) (Abzinda), (Abzinda), (Avshani) აბზინდა გიეში (Gieshi) ტარხუნა ძირხვენა (Dzirxvena) (T’ilch’iri), ტილჭირი (T’ilch’iri), ფარსმანდუკი (Parsmanduk’i) ფარსმანდუკი (Parsmanduk’i) ველური ტარხუნა (Veluri tarkhuna) (Veluri წყლულის წამალი tsamali) (Ts’q’lulis ჯორთკუდა (Jortk’uda) Georgian name (transliteration) ჯორთკუდა (Jortk’uda) ავშანი - food, tea), me (human Food - in chil dicinal (bedwetting throat), sore flu, cold, dren, veterinary (fever) food) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali, (human Food pickled) Medicinal (rheumatism, (rheumatism, Medicinal wounds) Food (tea), medicinalFood (anti- di - cholagogic, inflammatory, panacea, kidneys, uretic, liver, ulcers, stomach, throat, sore tools and utensils wounds), (dye) (wounds) Medicinal Medicinal (heart) Medicinal Medicinal (wounds) Medicinal Food (human food, sats’ebai) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food Utensils and tools (brooms) tools and Utensils 32 33 29 8 7 9 81 6 35 Collection # TUSH 5 34 L.

L. M. M. Bieb. L. L. L. sp. Continued

L. Artemisia Artemisia absinthium L. dracunculus Artemisia Arctium lappa Achillea millefolium Achillea nobilis Achillea Achillea ptarmicifolia ex Heimerl Rupr. (Willd.) - leucanthe Chrysanthemum mum Achillea micrantha Artemisia vulgaris Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Asteraceae Achillea grandiflora Bieb.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 9 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Garden Forest Garden Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Forest Location Forest Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf, root Leaf, Leaf Leaf Leaf Seed Leaf Leaf Leaf, whole Leaf, whole plant Part usedPart Leaf Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Kharnuq’a (Kharnuq’a ხარნუყა Tush.) (Berdznuli salata) (Berdznuli Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation ვარდკაჭაჭა Svan.) (Vardkach’ach’a -

- (Mts - (Mts (Mts’are (Mts’are (Gho

(Kulmukho) (Gvirila) (g ქადა ხარნუყა მწარე kharnuq’a) ვაზისძირა (Vazisdzira) ris qada), ხარნუყა (Kharnuq’a) ღორის მწვანე სალათა salata), სალათა vane (Salata) მწვანე სალათა salata) vane კულმუხო ნეგო (Nego) გვირილა მზესუმზირა (Mzesumzira) ბუერა (Buera) Georgian name (transliteration) ხაპრაი (Khap’arai) ნარი (Nari) გვირილა Gvirila) Food (human food, soup) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (chave, human food, human (chave, Food phkhali, sats’ebai) Food (human food) (human Food food) (human Food - me (smoking), Cultural gastro cough, dicinal (asthma, panacea, system, intestinal tract) respiratory Medicinal (gastro intestinal intestinal (gastro Medicinal heartburn) system, Medicinal (flu, inflammation, inflammation, (flu, Medicinal toothache) inflammation, oral Food (human food) (human Food Food (chave, phkhali) (chave, Food Use-category (use Use-category description) (sats’ebai) Food medicinal (sats’ebai), Food (hemorrhoides) Food (chave, tea), medicinal (chave, Food (toothache) 176 175 173 171 172 167 145 241 14 208 Collection # TUSH 83 84 191

L. L. M. Bieb L. L. L. Desf. L. L. L. L. “greek” Continued sp.

Matricaria chamomilla Matricaria Lapsana grandiflora Lapsana communis Lactuca serriola Lactuca sativa Lactuca sativa Inula helenium Helichrysum arenarium Moench Pyrethrum parthenifolium Willd. Helianthus annuus Petasites vulgaris Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Cichorium intybus Cirsium

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 10 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Location Fruit Leaf Leaf, root, Leaf, root, seed Leaf Leaf, root, Leaf, root, stem Leaf Leaf Stem Leaf Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety -

(Pandur - ბურბუშელა (Burbush Tush.) ela ფანდურპაპაი papai Tush.) papai ნადირისფხალი (NadirisPhkhali) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation ” -

(Saghvidzla) (Saghvidzla) (Gvirila) (Ghich’a) ირმისტუჩა (Irmist’ucha) საღვიძლა საღვიძლა ვირისტერფა (Virist’erpa) ყვითელი ყვავილი “ იმერული ზაფრანა - “Im qhvavili (Qhvitheli eruli zaphrana”) საღვერავი , ირმისმხალა (Irmismkhala) ღიჭა გვირილა Georgian name (transliteration) სარწყილა (Sarts’q’ila) Food (human food) (human Food Food (chave, phkhali) (chave, Food (whistles), food Cultural - food, tea), me human (chave, gallstones, dicinal (diuretic, liver) Food (tea), medicinalFood (arthri - cough, cold, tis, bronchitis, lungs, headache, expectorant, vasodilation) Food (human food) (human Food Food (pickled) Food food, phkhali) (human Food Medicinal (toothache) Medicinal Use-category (use Use-category description) Medicinal (wounds) Medicinal 159 301 300 313 299 291 283 243 Collection # TUSH 242 Bieb. Bieb.

Fr. Adams L. L. sp. Continued

Berberidaceae Bankeraceae repandumHydnum Taraxacum confusum Taraxacum Wigg. officinale Taraxacum Schischk. Tussilago farfara Tussilago Tagetes patula Tagetes Serratula quinquefolia (L.) Hill. asper Sonchus ex Willd. Pyrethrum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Pyrethrum roseum M. Bieb.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 11 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Location Forest, garden Stem Branches, fruit, leaf, stem Leaf Bark, Bark, branches, fruit, juice, stem root, Bark, stem Bark, Part usedPart leaf, Fruit, root Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety - შდიხ (Shdikh Svan.) (zhakhvar Svan.) ჟახვარ (zhakhvar Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation ესკალძმარა (Esholts Khev.) mana (Murq’ani) თხილი (Tkhili) (Arq’i), შავი არყი არყი (Arq’i), arq’i) (Shavi (Arq’i), მეჭეჭიანი არყი (Arq’i), arq’i) არყი (Mech’ech’iani არყი (Arq’i) Georgian name (transliteration) მურყანი (Murq’ani), ღანძილი (K’otsakhuri), კოწახური (K’otsakhuri), კოწახური (K’ots’akhuri) Construction (fences, tim - Construction (fences, food, ber), food (human phkhali), medicinal (cough, tools and utensils gangrene), utensils) (household Construction (timber), (household tools and utensils utensils) Medicinal (big heart) (big Medicinal Construction (posts, timber), - food), fuel (fire food (human firewood),medicinal starter, wounds), (arthritis, goiter, (beer tools ladle, and utensils dippers, cups, brooms, bowls, mortars, utensils, household wheels, spinning sleds, plows, trays, handles, tool spoons, alcohol) for vessels Use-category (use Use-category description) Construction tools and (timber),utensils food) food (human (dye), Food (human food, tea, (human Food food, foodtqhemali), (human phkhali), medicinal (gallblad - tools and utensils liver), der, (dye) 9 46 45 44 Collection # TUSH 21 41 Doluch. L. Trautv. Roth C. A. Mey. Continued

Corylus avellana Betula raddeana Betula pendula Betula litwinowii Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family L. Berberis vulgaris Betulaceae barbata Alnus

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 12 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Garden Forest Garden Garden Forest, Forest, garden Garden Forest Garden Forest Location Forest, garden Leaf Flower, leaf Flower, Leaf, stem Leaf Root Leaf, root Leaf, Fruit, leaf, leaf, Fruit, root Fruiting Fruiting body Leaf Fruiting Fruiting body Part usedPart Branches, fruit, leaf, stem Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Khushkhusha) (Giera Tush.) გიერა (Giera ხუშხუშა Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation შდიხ (Shdikh Svan.)

(Datik’a (Datik’a

(K’ombost’o) (Briuselis (Briuselis (Shaldaq’i) (Lashqara), (Lashqara), კომბოსტო სოკო (Shalgi) ბრიუსელის კომბოსტო ლურჯი k’ombost’o) (Lurji (Q’vavilovani k’ombost’o) (Q’vavilovani კომბოსტო ყვავილოვანი კომბოსტო შალგი პირშუშხა (P’irshushkha) ლაშქარა შალდაყი თალგამი (Thalgami) წითელფეხა (Ts’itelpekha) k’omb o s t’o ) Georgian name (transliteration) დათიკა თხილი (Tkhili) s o k’o Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food food) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali, (human Food sats’ebai) Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (fractures, (fractures, Medicinal furuncle) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food Construction (fences, tim - Construction (fences, food, ber), food (human phkhali), medicinal (cough, tools and utensils gangrene), utensils) (household 57 56 54 55 53 31 298 48 49 Collection # TUSH 48 95 - G. L. ssp. L. ssp. Pers. L. var. L. var. L. red L. L. K. Koch. Bull. L. subsp. ra L. subsp. Continued DC.

Metzger Brassica oleracea Sprouts Brussles gemmifera Brassica oleracea Brassica oleracea Brassica oleracea cauliflower oleifera Brassica campestris Brassicaceae rusticanaArmoracia & Scherb. Mey. Gaertn., B. Boraginaceae M. caucasicum Symphytum Bieb. pifera Brassica rapa Boletus erythropus Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Corylus pontica Boletaceae Boletus edulis

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 13 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Garden Forest Location Root Root Leaf, root Leaf, Leaf Leaf Whole Whole plant Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf, stem Root leaf, Flower, young, leaf seed, stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Khokhnuta (Khokhnuta (Khavart’a) ხავარტა (Gomat’i Tush.), Tush.), გომატი (Gomat’i Tush.), გომატი (Gomat’i ხოხნუტა Khev.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

მდოგვი ბოლოკი (Shalgi) (Mits’is ხავსი (Mits’is (Mthis ბოლოკი (Mthis თეთრი Boloki) (Tetri (Shavi შავი ბოლოკი (Shavi Boloki) (Bolok’i), ბოლოკი (Bolok’i), მთის boloki), შავი ბოლოკი boloki), Boloki) (Shavi წიწმატი (Ts’its’mat’i) საღებავი მათრახა (Sa - ghebavi matrakha) მიწის khavsi) (T’q’is ტყის წიწმატი (T’q’is ts’its’mat’i) (Giera), გიერა (Giera), მინდვრის წიწმატურა (Ts’ts’mat’ura) mdogvi)(Mindvris ხატოტი (Khat’ot’i) Georgian name (transliteration) ბოლოკა (Bolok’a), შალგი თალგამურა (Thalgamura) Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (cold, cough) (cold, Medicinal Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Food (chachapuri, phkhali) (chachapuri, Food Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Food (chave, human food, human (chave, Food medicinalphkhali, pickled), hangover, poisoning, (against - veteri snakebite), parasites, nary (helminthes) Use-category (use Use-category description) (phkhali)Food Food (human food) (human Food 249 248 247 181 168 43 69 286 66 60 Collection # TUSH 250 59 (L.) L. L. L. L. L. var. L. var. L. var. L. var. L. var. L. var. L. var. rapa var. Continued

white black Raphanus sativus Raphanus major Raphanus sativus Raphanus major Raphanus sativus Raphanus major Lepidium sativum Isatis tinctoria Bryophyta moss Ground Cardamine hirsuta L. arvensis Sinapis L. orientalis Bunias Capsella bursa-pastoris All. Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Raphinastrum rugosum Brassica rapa

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 14 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Location Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf, stem Fruiting Fruiting body Seed, stem Flower Leaf, root Leaf, Flower Leaf, stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Kvisha (Kvisha (Balansa Khev.) (Machika Khev.) (Machika მხალი Mhkhali Tush.) ქვიშა ბალანსა (K’enk’esha კენკეშა (K’enk’esha Khev.) მაჩიკა Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Melakuda) (Kitsdzishl) (Kartskhvi) (K’anapi) (Machit’a), (Machit’a), (Sve) მჭივანა (mch’ivana) ვირთბატრა სასტვენა (Virtbat’ra), (Sastvena) ვირთბატრა სასტვენა (Virtbat’ra), (Tsik’niq’ura) სვე მელაკუდა კანაფი კიცძიშლ მაჩიტა მიჩიგტარაი (Michigt’arai) Georgian name (transliteration) ქარცხვი Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Food (chachapuri, chave, chave, (chachapuri, Food food, khinkali, human phkhali) Food (phkhali),Food medicinal, (whistles) tools and utensils Food (phkhali),Food medicinal Food (beer)Food liver) (hepatitis, Medicinal Food (human food), utensils food), utensils (human Food (rope) tools and Food (phkhali,Food pickled) food, sats’ebai) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food 285 284 194 193 158 65 64 62 63 Collection # TUSH 61

Boiss. Bieb.

Fr. Klotzsch L. L. Steven Continued

Cornaceae Silene wallachiana Silene Melandrium boissieri Schischk. Silene lacera Caryophyllaceae Melandrium balansae Humulus lupulus Cantharellaceae Cantharellus cibarius Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Campanula lactiflora Campanula rapunculoides Campanula Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Campanulaceae biebersteiniana Campanula Roem. & Schult.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 15 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Location Fruit Fruit, leaf Fruit, Flower, Flower, fruit Fruit Leaf leaf Fruit, Leaf Fruiting Fruiting body Bark, Bark, branches, fruit, stem Stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety კლდის დუმა (K’ldisduma Tush.) კლდის დუმა (Potoli), (K’ldisduma Tush.) კლდის დუმა (K’ldisduma Tush.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Lurjk’aba) (Sazamthro) (Gogra) (Gogra) გოგრა გოგრა კიტრი (K’it’ri) კლდისვაშლა (K’ldisvashla), (Pkhija), ჯორისკუდა (Jorisk’uda) საზამთრო ლურჯკაბა შვინდი (Shvindi) Georgian name (transliteration) შინდანწლა (Shvindants’la) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food (pickled) Food Food (human food, phkhali), (human Food medicinal- (furuncle, tooth wounds) ache, Food (human food, phkhali), (human Food medicinal (arthritis, chaps, furuncle, rheumatism, corns, wounds) toothache, Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food), utensils food), utensils (human Food cleaner, (barrel tools and tool stirrer, sticks, fighting handles) Use-category (use Use-category description) Utensils and tools (walking tools and Utensils sticks) 101 100 99 282 85 281 280 93 92 Collection # TUSH 91 Sims (L.) Boriss. (Thunb.) (Thunb.) C. A. Mey. L. flat L. flat L. Continued

Cucurbita pepo Cucurbita squash Cucurbita pepo Cucurbita L. sativus Cucumis Sempervivum caucasicum ex Boiss. Rupr. Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus var. & Nakai Matsum. lanatus Sedum oppositifolium Crassulaceae Sedum caucasicum Fr. Gray Fr. Cortinariaceae Cortinarius violaceus L. mas Cornus Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Cornus australis Cornus

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 16 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, garden Forest Garden Forest Garden Location Fruit, leaf Fruit, Branches, Branches, fruit, leaf Fruit Leaf Leaf Fruit Leaf Fruit leaf Fruit, Fruit Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Chada Tush.) ჩადა (T’sveda Tush.), (Ts’q’veda) Tush.), (T’sveda Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Motsvi (Motsvi (Chaduna) (Chaduna) (K’ets’era), (K’ets’era), (Shtoshi) (Katsvi) (Ghiva), ღვია (Ghiva), მოცვი მაღალი maghali) შტოში კეწერა სარცხი (K’ets’era) ქაცვი შვიტა (shvit’a) ჩადუნა ღვია (Ghvia) ჩადუნა ყაბაყი პატისონი p’atisoni) (Q’abaq’i Georgian name (transliteration) ყაბაყი (Q’abaq’i) Food (human food), medici - (human Food nal (diabetes) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food), utensils food), utensils (human Food wash to (brush tools and tools) Medicinal (diabetes, (diabetes, Medicinal vitamins) Medicinal (urinaryMedicinal system) Food (phkhali)Food Medicinal (eczema, prostate (eczema, prostate Medicinal veterinary (skin , toothache), problems) food, phkhali, (human Food medicinal (bruises)pickled), Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food 318 205 112 154 113 192 170 111 103 Collection # TUSH 102

L. L. L. var. L. var. L. var. L. var. Continued

Oxycoccus quadripetalus Gilib. arctostaphylos Vaccinium Ericaceae Empetrum hermaphroditum Hagerup Eleagnaceae rhamnoides Hippophaë Equisetaceae arvense L. Equisetum struthiopteris Mattheucia (L.) Todd. Cupressaceae Junperus sabina Dryopteridaceae (L.) -mas Dryopteris filix Schott. Cucurbita pepo Cucurbita patisson Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Cucurbita pepo Cucurbita giromontia

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 17 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Garden Garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Garden Garden Location Forest Forest Fruit, seed Fruit, Fruit Fruit Fruit, seed Fruit, Seed Root Leaf Leaf Seed Fruit, seed Fruit, Part usedPart Branches, fruit, leaf Branches, fruit, leaf Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Arjak’eli (Arjak’eli (Stomi Tush.), Tush.), (Stomi არჯაკელი Tush.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation Tush.), ჟოლი (Zholi შელშავი (Shelshavi Khev.) სტომი - წითელმოჩა (Tsitelimo Khev.) cha

(Marts’q’vi), ოსპი (Marts’q’vi), ლობიო (Lobio) ლობიო (Lobio) ლობიო (Lobio) ლობიო (Lobio) ვაზისძირა (Vazisdzira) ოსპი (Ospi) ძირტკბილა (Dzirt’k’bila) სამყურა (Samq’ura) Georgian name (transliteration) მოცვი (Motsvi) წითელი მოცვი (Ts’iteli motsvi) მუხუდო (Mukhudo) (Barda), ბარდა (Barda), მუხუდო (Mukhudo) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (phkhali)Food food) (human Food Food (human food), medici - (human Food nal (cough) Medicinal (wounds), utensils utensils (wounds), Medicinal (dye) tools and Use-category (use Use-category description) - food, marma (human Food medicinal tea, wine), lade, (decreases blood sugar, dry kidney stones, throat, (dye) tools and tea),utensils - food, tea), me (human Food - in chil dicinal (bedwetting decreases blooddren, sugar, (dye) tools and utensils liver), Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food 213 212 211 210 177 179 141 310 Collection # TUSH 319 320 82 218 L. L. -idaea L. L. sp. Continued

Pisum sativum L. vulgaris Phaseolus L. low L. low sativus Phaseolus variety - L. climb sativus Phaseolus variety ing L. sativus Phaseolus Steven roseus Lathyrus L. Lens cornicularis L. glabra Glycyrrhiza Trifolium Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Vaccinium myrtillusVaccinium vitis Vaccinium Fabaceae Cicer arietinum

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 18 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Garden Garden Garden Location Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Stem Stem Stem Leaf Seed Seed Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Jagrcxila) (Mitisoko) (Marnula) (Ts’ipeli) (Gerda) მითისოქო მარნულა ლარგი (Largi) გერდა ჭრელკაბა (Ch’relk’aba) მურყანისოკო (Murq’anisoko) მუხა (Mukha) წიფელი ჯაგრცხილა ჭეკუნტელაი (Ch’ek’unt’elai) ცერცვი (Tsertsvi) Georgian name (transliteration) (Ulumbo), ულუმბო (Ulumbo), შამბრიკა (Marts’q’vi), შამბრიკა (Shambrika) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food), utensils food), utensils (human Food (insecticide) tools and Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Construction (timber), fuel tools and utensils (firewood), furniture) (barrels, Construction (timber), fuel (firewood) Utensils and tools (tool (tool tools and Utensils handles) Food (sats’ebai) Food Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food 137 136 135 133 125 1 246 115 70 327 326 Collection # TUSH 311 Grossh. (L.) Ser. Lipsky fungus” L. L. Continued sp. 7 sp. 5 sp. 4 sp. 2 sp. 1

Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungi barbata “ Alnus Steven ex Steven iberica Quercus M. Bieb. Fagus orientalis Fagaceae Carpinus caucasica Vicia sativa Vicia Vicia faba Vicia Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Trigonella caerulea Trigonella

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 19 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest, Forest, Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Forest Leaf Leaf Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Part usedPart Leaf Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Archekali (Archekali Khev.) არჩექალი Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Mits’is (Mits’is

(Gabluarai) (Tsiphela) (Naghvela) (Naghvela), (Naghvela), ჯვრისებრი კალმახი ნაღველა ნაღველა jvrisebri) (Naghvela ნაღველა ვითელი (Viteli) ცირცელისოქო (Tsirtselisoko) ციფჰელა თჰელასოქო (Thelasoko) თჰელასოქო (Thelasoko) თჰელასოქო (Thelasoko) თჰელასოქო (Thelasoko) Georgian name (transliteration) მიწის k’almakhi) გაბლუარაი Food (chave) Food Medicinal (gallstones, liver, liver, (gallstones, Medicinal stomach) Medicinal (gallbladder, liver, liver, (gallbladder, Medicinal stomach) Food (pickled) Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food 297 140 139 134 132 131 130 129 128 127 126 Collection # TUSH 138 Pall. Fisch & C.A. Fisch Continued sp. 21 sp. sp. 19 sp. sp. 17 sp. sp. 15 sp. sp. 14 sp. sp. 13 sp. sp. 12 sp. sp. 11 sp. sp. 8

Swertia iberica Mey. Gentiana septemfida Gentiana Gentianaceae L. cruciata Gentiana Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Fungus Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Fungus Grossulariaceae

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 20 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, garden Garden Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Location Leaf Fruit Leaf Leaf Fruiting body Flower, whole leaf, plant, branches Fruit, seed Fruit, Fruit Fruit, seed Fruit, Fruit, leaf Fruit, Fruit Stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Virdutsa (Virdutsa (Khunts’i Tush.) (Khunts’i (Jochola Khev.) (Gulasoko გუდასოკო (Gulasoko Tush.) ხუნწი ვირდუცა Khev.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation (Ts’iteli (Ts’iteli (K’razana) (Aluda) (Tvili) ეშმაკის ბურნუთი burnuti) (Eshmak’is კრაზანა (Ch’areshi) წითელი მოცხარი / ალუდა motskhari) მოცხარი (Motskhari) ალუდა (Motskhari), მოცხარი (Motskhari), შავი მოცხარი (Shavi motskhari) მოცხარი (Motskhari) Georgian name (transliteration) ხურტკმელი (Khurt’k’meli) Food (phkhali)Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food (perfume), food Cultural tea), medicinal ((en - (beer, nerves, gums, panacea, uresis, tools and utensils ulcers), (dye) (phkhali)Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food Food (pickled) Food 163 162 152 161 166 257 256 255 254 253 Collection # TUSH 142 164 (L.) Berl. ex Desf. L. L. Lam. Continued

Indet sp. 45 sp. Indet Indet sp. 33 sp. Indet Indet sp. 25 sp. Indet Hericiaceae (Bull.) erinaceus Hericium Pers. Hypericaceae L. perforatum Hypericum Indeterminatus 6 sp. Indet Ribes vulgare Ribes rubrum Ribes orientale Ribes Ribes nigrum Ribes biebersteinii Ribes DC Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Mill. Grossularia reclinata

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 21 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest, Forest, Garden Forest Forest Location Forest, Forest, garden Leaf Leaf Flower, leaf Flower, Leaf leaf Flower, Leaf Leaf, whole Leaf, whole plant Leaf Fruit, seed Fruit, Leaf, whole Leaf, whole plant Leaf Leaf Part usedPart Leaf Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety

(Zestrula პიტნაი (kakali Svan.) შანტალი Tush.) Pitn’a (shant’ali კაკალი ზესთრულა Khev.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

- დედა (Lapani) (Tavshava) თავშავა რეჰანი (Rehani) პიტნა (Pit’na) (T’q’is ტყის პიტნა (T’q’is p’it’na) ბაღის პიტნა (Baghis pit’na) პიტნა (Pit’na) შავბალახა (Shavbalakha) ჭინჭრის (Ch’inch’ris-deda) ლაფანი დაჯირა (Dajira) Georgian name (transliteration) დაჯირა (Dajira) Food (beer, human food, human (beer, Food tea), medicinal (lungs, spice, (dye) tools and tea), utensils Food (human food) (human Food Food (tea) Food Food (chave, human food, human (chave, Food tea), medicinal (panacea) - food, tea), me (human Food dicinal (panacea) Food (spice) Food Medicinal (heart) Medicinal Food (human food), medici - (human Food small children, for nal (bath loss) hair Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Food (human food), utensils food), utensils (human Food (dye) tools and - (anti-inflamma Medicinal - uten wounds), enuresis, tory, (filter) tools sils and Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (phkhali)Food Medicinal (enuresis) Medicinal 204 203 200 195 196 95 180 174 240 169 275 Collection # TUSH 165 274

L. (L.) L. L. L. L. Spreng. L. Continued

L. vulgare Origanum Ocimum basilicum Nepeta mussinii Mentha longifoliaMentha L. ×piperita Mentha Mentha aquatica Mentha Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib. var. caucasicus var. Gilib. Krestovsk. Lamiaceae Lamium album Pterocarya pterocarpa ex Iljinsk. Kunth (Michx.) Juglandaceae L. regia Juglans Salvia verticillata Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Indet sp. 46 sp. Indet Salvia nemorosa

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 22 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Garden Forest Location Whole Whole Fruiting Fruiting body Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Branches, leaf flower, Leaf plant Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety

- (Khushkhusha) ხუშხუშა ბეგქონდარა (Beg - Tush.) kondara ბეგქონდარა (Bekt ბეგქონდარა (Beg - ბეგქონდარა kondara), (Begkondara) Tush.) kondara ბეგქონდარა (Begkondara) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation ქონდარი (Ts’erets’o) (Dapna) (Urtsi), (Urtsi), კლდის ხავსი / ჯანგარო (K’ldis khavsi ჯანგარო / Jangaro), (Jangaro) წერეწო დაფნა ურცი ქონდარი (Kondari) ქონდარი (Kondari) ქონდარი (Kondari) მინდვრის kondari) (Mindvris Georgian name (transliteration) ქონდარი (Kondari) Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Food (human food) (human Food Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils - (tea), medicinalFood (antibi hypertension) diuretic, otic, Food (spice, tea) (spice, Food Food (human food, spice) (human Food Food (tea) Food (tea), medicinalFood tools and utensils (wounds), (dye) Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food, tea) (human Food 258 193 178 332 333 305 303 304 278 Collection # TUSH 277

Adams. Bieb. L. Continued

Lichenes Rock lichen Lepiotaceae Macrolepiota procera Springer (Scop.) Lauraceae Laurus nobilis Ziziphora pushkinii M. serpyllacea Ziziphora Bieb. transcaucasicus Thymus Ronninger Willd. Willd. caucasicus Thymus ex Benth Thymus colinus K. Koch laxiflora Satureja Liliaceae Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family L. hortensis Satureja

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 23 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest, Forest, garden Forest, Forest, garden Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Forest Stem Bark, Bark, flower, fruit, stem Fruit, leaf Fruit, Fruit, leaf Fruit, Leaf, root, Leaf, root, stem Seed Leaf Stem Bulb Part usedPart flower Bulb, Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety სელის ქუმელი (Selis Khev.) qumeli Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation დათვკიტრა (Datvk’it’ra Khev.)

(Phacha), ცაცხვი (Phacha), (Phacha), ცაცხვი (Phacha), (Phacha) (Tsatskhvi), ცაცხვი (Tsatskhvi), (Tsatskhvi) ცაცხვი (Tsatskhvi) ცაცხვი ბალბა (Balba) ქუმელი (Kumeli) ბალბა (Balba) შხამა (Shkhama) სვინტრაი (Svintrai) ცაცხვი Georgian name (transliteration) ყვითელი ღვინა ghvina) (Q’viteli დათვისკიტრა (Datvisk’it’ra) - Cultural (musical instru - (musical Cultural tools and utensils ments), tool utensils, (household pickling) for vessels handles, Construction (timber), cul - medicinal (smoking), tural (fur tools and utensils (cold), utensils, household niture, rope) Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Food (human food), medici - (human Food nal (trauma) Food (human food, phkhali) (human Food Medicinal (ektoparasites), (ektoparasites), Medicinal veterinary (ektoparasites, wounds) Food (chave) Food Utensils and tools (household (household tools and Utensils utensils) Use-category (use Use-category description) (human Food food),medicinal (hangover, heart) Medicinal (?) Medicinal 307 306 199 18 198 322 222 308 Collection # TUSH 124 186

L. Fisch. Fisch. Stev. L. Mill. L. Rupr. Mill. Continued

Tilia caucasica Tilia Tilia begonifolia Tilia Malva sylvestris Linaceae Linum usitatissimum Malvaceae neglecta Malva Veratrum lobelianum Veratrum Bernh. Marasmiaceae glaberrimum Polygonatum C. Koch. Tilia cordata Tilia Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Fritillaria lutea Lilium szovitsianum & Avé-Lall.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 24 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Forest Garden Forest Location Latex, leaf Latex, Leaf, whole Leaf, whole plant Leaf Whole Whole plant Stem Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Fruit Fruiting Fruiting body Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Margalit’a), (Margalit’a),

(Ts’riala) (Banani) (Ipani) ქრისტესისხლა (Kristesiskhla) (Ts’q’lulis balakhi) (Ts’q’lulis მარგალიტა წყლულის ბალახი იფანი თხაწართხალა (Thkhatz’arthkhala) ბანანი (Kharispashva) ხარისფაშვა (Kharispashva) ხარისფაშვა ლეღვი (Leghvi) Georgian name (transliteration) წრიალა Medicinal (panacea, warts), (panacea, Medicinal (dye) tools and utensils Medicinal (panacea, wounds) (panacea, Medicinal - Construction (timber), uten handles) (tool tools sils and (chachapuri) Food Ornamental (ornamental) Ornamental Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food 77 50 123 76 199 198 197 117 Collection # TUSH 190 - L. (L.) Sw. L. (Bolton) (Bolton) Pers L. Continued

L. Holub. Parmeliaceae Papaveraceae Chelidonium majus Ophioglossaceae Botrychium lunaria Oleaceae L. excelsior Fraxinus Onagraceae Chamenaerion angustifo lium Musaceae Musa × paradisiaca Fr. esculenta Morchella Morchellaceae conica Morchella Moraceae Ficus carica Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Marasmius oreades Fr.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 25 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Bark, branches, fruit, leaf, pollen, oil, root, resin, stem, root Leaf, Whole Whole plant Whole Whole plant Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety

(Tsiplis (Tsiplis სოქო ციფლის soko) (Tsxradzarghva (Tsxradzarghva ცხრაძარღვა Tush.), Khev.) (Tskhradzargva Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation -

(Khaltsutsa) (Magh (K’almakha) (Buk’vani), (Buk’vani), (Irmis ხავსი (Irmis კალმახა მრავალძარღვა (Mravaldzarghva) მაღვალი vali), მაჩალოსოკო (Machalosoko) ბუკვანი ფიჭვი (Phich’vi), ფიჭვის გირჩები girchebi), (Pich’vis ხალცუცა მანჭკვალა (Mantchkvala) ბაღლაწო (Baghlats’o) Georgian name (transliteration) ირმის khavsi) - Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (cough, intestines, intestines, (cough, Medicinal wounds) stomach, food) (human Food Construction (posts, timber), food (masticant), cultural food,fuel sweets), (human (firewood),medicinal (aller di - burns, gies, bronchitis, fungal diseases,uretic, lungs, - uten tuberculosis), sinusitis, bows, (arrows, tools sils and storage grain furniture, boxes, utensils, trunks, household - spin shelves, loom, lanterns, wheels, trunks)ning Food (human food) (human Food Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Use-category (use Use-category description) Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils 221 219 220 215 30 316 Collection # TUSH 317 - (Pau (Vahl) (Vahl) Jacq. ex Jacq. L. Klotzsch ex Klotzsch Continued

sp. Pleurotus ostreatus Kumm P. Fr.) let) Rolland Pinaceae Pinus kochiana K. Koch Plantaginaceae Plantago major Pleurotaceae Pleurotus cornucopiae Physalacriaceae mellea Armillariella Kumm P. Usnea barbata Usnea Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Usnea

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 26 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Garden Garden Forest, garden Forest, garden Garden Garden Forest Forest, Forest, garden Location Garden Forest, Forest, garden Forest Seed Flower, Flower, root Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Leaf Flower, leaf, leaf, Flower, root Part usedPart Root, seed Fruit, leaf, leaf, Fruit, stem root, Leaf

(Uk’bilo puri), იფქლი puri), (Uk’bilo (Ipkli) - ქერშველა (Kersh ორმწკრივი vela), (Ormts’k’rivi) Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety - - (Tsets’ich’ala (Tsets’ich’ala (Tchitchish (Tchitchish ჭიჭიშვილი vili Khev.) ჭიჭიშვილი vili Khev.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation ზინთხ (Zinthkh Svan.) Khev.) ჭიმჭიკი (Ch’imch’ik’I Tush.) ჭიჭიშვილი (Dvalura), (Kershveli) წართხალი (Ts’artkhali) წიწიბურა (Ts’its’ibura) მატიტელა (Matitela) ხორბალი (Khorbali) ჭვავი (Ch’vavi) სიმინდი (Simindi) ფეტვი (Phatvi) ქერშველი ქერი (Keri) Georgian name (transliteration) შვრია (Shvria) ქერი (Keri) მატიტელა (Matitela) დვალურა მატიტელა (Matitela) - Food (chachapuri, human human (chachapuri, Food food, khinkali, phkhali, tools and utensils sats’ebai), (dye) Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (lungs) Medicinal Food (beer, human food) human (beer, Food Food (beer, human food) human (beer, Food food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (beer, human food) human (beer, Food Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food Medicinal (cancer) Medicinal Medicinal (diuretic, kidneys, (diuretic, Medicinal urinary system) diar (cirrhosis, Medicinal lungs) liver, rhea, 223 114 47 312 279 331 207 157 156 Collection # TUSH 40 155 224 225 L.

(L.) Boiss. All. L. Delarbre L. L. Continued L. var. coelestre L. var.

Polygonum alpinum Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn. Polygonaceae Bistorta officinalis Secale cereale aestivumTriticum L. mays Zea Panicum milanjianum Rendle L. ssp. L. ssp. vulgare Hordeum vulgare L. vulgare Hordeum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Poaceae sativa Avena violaceum Hordeum & Huet L. aviculare Polygonum C. carneum Polygonum Koch

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 27 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Forest Root Leaf Leaf, stem Leaf, root, Leaf, root, seed, stem Leaf Leaf, root, seed, stem Leaf, stem Leaf Part usedPart Leaf; whole plant Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Saguga Khev.), Khev.), (Saguga საგუგა ჭირთალი (Ch’irthali ჭირტალი Khev.), Tush.) (Ch’irt’ali Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Kvishis (Kvishis (Q’anis (Q’anis

(K’ilamura), (K’ilamura), (Chaghandri) (Lakht’ara), (Lakht’ara), (Mzhavia) (Mzhauna) (Mzhauna), (Mzhauna), კილამურა ძირტკბილა (Dzirt’k’bila) მჟაუნა ლახტარა ქვიშის მჟავია mzhavia) ღოლო (Gholo) ღოლო (Gholo) მჟაუნა მჟაუნა მწყემსთმჟავიაი mzhaviai), (Mts’q’emst ყანის მჟავიაი mzhaviai) Georgian name (transliteration) ჩაღანდრი მამლაყინწა (Mamlaq’ints’a) Food (human food, sugar), food, sugar), (human Food medicinal (cough) Food (spice) Food Food (human food, phkhali, (human Food pickled) - phkhali, pick (chave, Food - haem led), medicinal (colitis, swellings, intestines, orrhoids, tools and utensils tumors), (dye) food, human (chave, Food medicinalphkhali, pickled), tools and utensils (diarrhea), (dye) Food (chachapuri, human human (chachapuri, Food food, phkhali, pickled) Food (chachapuri, human human (chachapuri, Food food, phkhali, pickled, sats’ebai) Use-category (use Use-category description) Medicinal (fractures) Medicinal (phkhali)Food 228 271 270 28 269 27 266 Collection # TUSH 226 227 L. L. L. L. L. sp. Continued

Polyporaceae Polypodiaceae Polypodium vulgare L. tuberosus Rumex L. scutatus Rumex Rumex alpinus L. crispus Rumex Rumex acetosella Rumex acetosa Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Polygonum hydropiper Polygonum

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 28 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Branches, Branches, whole leaf, plant Branches, Branches, leaf, flower, seed Root Leaf, stem Fruiting Fruiting body Leaf Leaf Leaf Fruiting Fruiting body Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Vashlisula (Vashlisula (Vashlisula (Vashlisula (Vashlisula ვაშლისულა Tush.) ვაშლისულა ვაშლისულა Tush.) Tush.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Phurisula) (Ieli) (Chaga) იელი დეკა (Dek’a) ხარისძირა (Kharisdzira) (Mek’endzala) მეკენძალა ტყის ფურისულა purisula) (T’q’is ფურისულა მელანა (Melana) Georgian name (transliteration) ჩაგა Construction (roof support), support), Construction (roof (toxic) poison Food (beer, dye, human food, human dye, (beer, Food tea), medicinal (cold, sats’ebai, diuretic, system, digestive hangover, loss, hair gallstones, - potency), uten heart, lowers (dye) tools sils and - veteri (sinusitis), Medicinal nary gas) (bad liquid, Food (pickled) Food Food (phkhali)Food Food (chave, human human (chave, Food food, phkhali), medicinal (barrenness) food) (human Food Food (sats’ebai) Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Medicinal (cancer) Medicinal 251 252 146 37 232 231 88 230 Collection # TUSH 216

R. Br. (Bull.) (Bull.) Bunge Losinsk. Rupr. Continued

Rosaceae Sweet Rhododendron luteum Rhododendron Rhododendraceae caucasicum Rhododendron Pall. Helleborus caucasicus Helleborus Ranunculaceae Raf. vulgaris Aruncus Primula macrocalyx Primula woronowii Psathyrellaceae Coprinopsis atramentaria & Redhead,(Bull.) Vilgalys Moncalvo Primulaceae Primula luteola Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Piptoporus betulinus Karst. P.

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 29 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest, Forest, garden Garden Garden Garden Forest Forest Garden Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Location Forest Forest, Forest, garden Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Root, whole Root, whole plant Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit, stem Fruit, Part usedPart Fruit Fruit, leaf Fruit, Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Shavi Khev.) შავი (Shavi Khev.) შავი (Shavi Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation (bali) (Sa - - (Tq’is (Tq’is (Pal ბალი (Alubali) ვაშლი (Khendro) (Vashlana) (K’uneli), შავი (K’uneli), k’uneli) (Shavi (Shotkhvi) (Marts’q’vi) (Marts’q’vi), (Marts’q’vi), (Kapura) (Vashli) motkhis vashli) motkhis სამოთხის მაჟალო (Mazhalo) ვაშლი მარწყვი ხენდრო მარწყვი ტყის მარწყვი marts’q’vi) ქაფურა კუნელი კუნელი კომში (K’omshi) ალუბალი Georgian name (transliteration) ვაშლანა შოთხვი ფალანცარა ბალამწარა antsara), (Balamts’ara), Food (alcohol, human food, human (alcohol, Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (alcohol, human food) human (alcohol, Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Medicinal (cold) Medicinal - food, tea), me (human Food dicinal (heart, hypertension), (dye) tools and utensils food) (human Food Food (alcohol, human food) human (alcohol, Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (human food) (human Food (tea) Food tea), medicinal (diarrhea), (dye) tools and utensils instru - (musical Cultural food) food (human ments), 206 197 196 195 122 121 120 118 98 104 234 Collection # TUSH 96 97 233

(L.) Mill. L. L. Uglizk. (Lam.) L. (L.) L. Mill. var. var. Mill. C. K. Schneid. Continued

Padus racemosaPadus Gilib. Malus pumila paradisiaca Malus orientalis Fragaria × ananassana ex Rozier Duchesne Malus domestica Fragaria virginiana Fragaria vesca Filipendula ulmaria Mill. Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. oblonga Cydonia L. cerasus Prunus Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Cotoneaster multiflorus Bunge curvisepalaCrataegus Lindm. Prunus avium

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 30 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest, Forest, garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Garden Forest, garden Forest, garden Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Fruit, leaf Fruit, Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit, stem Fruit, Fruit Fruit stem Fruit, Leaf Fruit Fruit Fruit Part usedPart ჭანჭური Cch’anch’uri) Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety

(Khvapa Tush.), Tush.), (Khvapa ხვაფა Russ.) Малина (Malina მწყერთიფქლა Khev.), (Mts’q’ertipkla წერტიფხლა Khev.) (T’sert’ipkhla Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Zholis- (Khakhama) (Tsirtseli) (Kvrinchkhi) (Ma’qvali), (Ma’qvali), (Kvinchkhai), (Kvinchkhai), (Kliavi) (Ask’ili) (Ask’ili), შავი (Ask’ili), Ask’ili) (Shavi (Ask’ili) ხახამა ჟოლო (Zholo) ასკილი მაყვალი რუსული მაყვალი maq’vali) (Rusuli ასკილი ასკილი ასკილი მსხალი (Mskhali) კვინჩხაი კვრინჩხი ქლიავი პანტა (P’ant’a) ატამი (Tami) წყავი (Tz’qh’avi) ჟოლის - დედა deda), ცირცელი Georgian name (transliteration) ტყემალი (Tq’emali) - food, tea), me (human Food wounds) dicinal (cold, Food (beer, tea), medicinal (beer, Food (vitamins) food) (human Food Food (beer, human food, tea) human (beer, Food (tea) Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (chave, human food) human (chave, Food food, pickled) (human Food Construction (timber), food food, syrup), human (alcohol, (household tools and utensils utensils) Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Food (chave, human food) human (chave, Food food), medici - (human Food nal (hypertension) Use-category (use Use-category description) food) (human Food 264 29 263 260 261 245 238 239 244 237 236 265 292 Collection # TUSH 235 Boiss. Ledeb. L. L. Fed. C. K. L. L. (L.) Batsch L. L. Continued

sp. Rubus idaeus Rosa canina Rosa pimpinellifolia Rosa Rubus fruticosus Pyrus communis Prunus spinosa Prunus L. × domestica Pyrus caucasica Prunus persica Prunus laurocerasus L. laurocerasus Prunus Rubus saxatilis Sorbus boissieri Schneid. Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Prunus divaricata

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 31 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Location Stem Stem Bark, leaf, leaf, Bark, stem Stem Fruiting Fruiting body Fruit, root, root, Fruit, whole plant Stem Fruit, leaf, leaf, Fruit, stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Makatzi Khev.) (Makatzi (Pokhvi Tush.) ფოხვი (Pokhvi მაკაცი Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Mtis (Mtis (Tsirtseli) (Grak’la) (Endro) (Verkhvi) ბოყვი bok’vi) მთის ნეკერჩხალი (Nek’erchkhali) მდგნალი (Mdgnali) ვერხვი წითლიო (Ts’itlio) ენდრო გრაკლა Georgian name (transliteration) ცირცელი Utensils and tools (plane, (plane, tools and Utensils wheels) spinning Utensils and tools (furniture, (furniture, tools and Utensils handles) tool - foodAnimal (fodder), con walls),- me struction (timber, dicinal (arthritis, gallstones, tools and kidneys), utensils snowshovels, bows, (baskets, utensils) tough handles, tool Construction (timber), cul - instruments), (musical tural (household tools and utensils vessels) utensils, Food (human food) (human Food Utensils and tools (dye) tools and Utensils Utensils and tools (brooms) tools and Utensils Use-category (use Use-category description) Food (alcohol, beer, human human beer, (alcohol, Food food, medicinal marmalade), cramps, (blood pressure, utensils heart, hypertension), utensils, (household tools and handles) tool 3 2 273 229 272 262 295 Collection # TUSH 293 L. L. Kom. L. L. L. Pers. L. Continued

Acer pseudoplatanus Acer Sapindaceae Acer campestre Salix caprea Salicaceae Populus tremula Russulaceae Russula rosea Rubiaceae Rubia tinctorum Spiraea hypericifolia Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Sorbus caucasigena

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 32 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest, garden Garden Forest Garden Garden Forest Forest Garden Forest Forest Location Leaf, stem Leaf Fruit, stem Fruit, Leaf, seed Leaf, Fruit Fruit Leaf Stem Fruit Stem Leaf Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Mts’are (Mts’are (Dzaphana Svan.) (Dzaphana წიწაკა (Tsekva Khev.) წეკვა (Tsekva Khev.) წეკვა (Tsekva მწარე Khev.) ts’its’ak’a ძაფანა Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Badrijani) (Keripkla) (P’amidori) (Ek’alghich’i) (Lentsopa), (Lentsopa), - წითელი (Tzit (Ts’tsak’a) (Ts’ek’o), ჯოკარი (Ts’ek’o), ( Ts’e k’o ) (Burnuti), ბურნუთი (Burnuti), წეკო (Jokari) (Burnuti), ბურნუთი (Burnuti), წეკო პამიდორი წიწაკა zaka tzitheli) ლენცოფა საპინა (Sap’ina) წიწაკა ეკალღიჭი ქერიფქლა ბადრიჯანი Georgian name (transliteration) (Bok’vi), ბოყვი ბოკვი (Bok’vi), (Bok’vi) ონტკოფა (Ont’k’opa) Cultural (smoking, snuff), (smoking, Cultural - medicinal (arthritis, bronchi sinusitis, system, tis, digestive skin problems) Cultural (masticant, smoking, smoking, (masticant, Cultural snuff),medicinal (arthritis, - ton throat, sore bronchitis, wounds) silitis, Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food (hallucinogenic), Cultural medicinal (anti-fungal, toothache) Food (human food) (human Food Food (phkhali)Food - hem (gallbladder, Medicinal kidneys) orrhoides, Food (human food) (human Food Use-category (use Use-category description) Utensils and tools (barrels, (barrels, tools and Utensils utensils, household bowls, vessels) trays, spoons, Food (human food) (human Food 202 201 192 68 160 67 287 323 288 Collection # TUSH 4 214 L. L. L. var. L. var. L. L. Continued

Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana L. alkekengi Physalis Nicotiana rustica Nicotiana Lycopersicum esculentum Lycopersicum Capsicum annuum Bulgarian Sweet L. niger Hyoscyamus Smilacaceae L. excelsa Smilax Solanaceae Capsicum annuum Scrophulariaceae sp. Verbascum L. melogena Solanum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Medw. trautvetteri Acer

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 33 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest, Forest, garden Garden Forest Forest Location Fruiting Fruiting body Fruiting Fruiting body Leaf Leaf, stem Leaf Leaf Stem Flower, Flower, root Leaf, root Leaf, Stem Stem Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Majaghveri (Majaghveri (Majaghveri (Majaghveri Khev.) ზარავანდი - მოგოცხარა ? (Ma Khev.) gozhara - მოგოცხარა ? (Ma Khev.) gozhara ზარავანდი Khev.) Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Zaravandi) (Akakis-khe) მკერდი ხე აკაკის (Khokhbis mk’erdi]) (Khokhbis ხოხბის ღრუბელა (Ghrubela]) წიბა (Ts’iba) მაჯაღვერი (Majaghveri) ზარავანდი ურთხელი (Urtkheli) ჯონჯოლი (Jonjoli) კარტოფილი (K’art’opili) Georgian name (transliteration) ძაღლყურძენა (Dzaghlq’urdzena) Utensils and tools (spindles) tools and Utensils Food (human food) (human Food Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (toothache) Medicinal (toothache) Medicinal (tea) Medicinal - veteri (toothache), Medicinal nary (ektoparasites) Utensils and tools (tool (tool tools and Utensils handles) Food (human food, pickled) (human Food Food (alcohol, chachapuri, chachapuri, (alcohol, Food food, phkhali, human pickled) Use-category (use Use-category description) (toothache) Medicinal 72 309 182 106 107 108 105 302 296 290 Collection # TUSH 289

L. L. Steven Pall. L. L. Willd. (Schumach.) (Schumach.) L. Continued

Ulmaceae Celtis caucasica (Schaeff.) Ricken Tricholoma aurantium Tricholomataceae Lepista sordida Singer Daphne glomerata L. mezereum Daphne Daphne pontica Thymeleaceae Daphne caucasica Taxaceae baccata Taxus Staphyleaceae Staphylea colchica Solanum tuberosum Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Solanum nigrum

© The Author(s) 2016 Published by Polish Botanical Society Acta Soc Bot Pol 86(2):3517 34 of 45 Bussmann et al. / Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi Garden Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest Location Fruit Leaf Leaf Leaf, root Leaf, Leaf, stem Branches Part usedPart Georgian name variety transliteration) (variety (Gulbandi (Gulbandi Tush.) გულბანდი Name other dialect other - (trans Name dialect) other literation

(Vazi), ყურძენი (Vazi), ვაზი (Qhurdzeni) ფითრი (Pitri) პატარძალა (P’at’ardzala) (K’at’abalakha) კატაბალახა ჭინჭარი (Ch’inch’ari) Georgian name (transliteration) თელა (Tela) Food (human food) (human Food Medicinal (heart, Medicinal hypertension) Food (phkhali)Food Food (tea), medicinal (cold, (tea), medicinalFood (cold, heart, nerves,cough, - pleuri tis, pneumonia) Animal foodAnimal (fodder), food chave, chachapuri, (beverage, food, phkhali),- me human hypertension) dicinal (burns, Use-category (use Use-category description) Construction (timber) 330 329 328 321 315 Collection # TUSH 314 L. L. L. Continued

Vitaceae L. vinifera Vitis Viscaceae Viscum album Violaceae arvensis Viola Valerianaceae L. officinalis Valeriana Urticaceae dioica Urtica Tab. 1 / Scientific name Family Huds. glabra Ulmus

Plants Uses

stress= 0 stress= 0

Area Khevsureti Tusheti Tusheti−Telavi

Fig. 2 Proportional Euler diagrams of plants and usage shared among areas within Tusheti–Khevsureti.

� Informants in plant−space � Informants in use−space

19 veterinary

33 61 48 11 26 28 poison 29 53 64 59 22 62 649 46 30 60 3 18 14 15 3710 52 5 medicinal8 9 39 4517 47 11 31 27 685 17 68 43 56 59 20 22 65 23 41 animal food 21 50 23 40 55 50 7 35 66 63 57 6769 44 5758 38 9 8 64 51 35 66 51 52 54 42 32 16 67 10 45 20 69 37 4038 25 324 12 4 25 34 13 29construction food 39 24 36 2 70 246030 7 utensils62 and46 tools 6 15 13 1 49 27 41 16 567065 33 3 18 55 42 2 44 54 14 cultural 2663 12 61 48 47 53 58 34 1 43 19 21 28 fuel ornamental

31 36 b r = 0.376 d r = 0.185

elevation elevation 1500 1500

1750 1750

2000 2000

2250 2250

Fig. 3 Informants from the Tusheti–Khevsureti region ordered by their distance in plants reported (a,b) and in uses reported (c,d).

1.25 construction Dar Oma 1.00 DinSha 0.75 She Beg Bar 0.50 Gog 0.25 Dik Ros 0.00 Tch 1.25 Jar

1.00 She Ara Sha Bar cultural Cha 0.75 Oma Kob Beg 0.50 Ros 0.25 Dik 0.00 1.25 Tch Cha 1.00 Boc Bar Ara Gog Oma food 0.75 Sht Din Kob Ros 0.50 Lal Beg Gir Ata Juh Sha 0.25 Ard Ort Dar Kve She 0.00 Dik Jar 1.25 Beg Jar 1.00 Oma

Bar fuel 0.75 Sha Ros 0.50 0.25 0.00 1.25 1.00 Boc medicinal Jar Ros Cha Oma 0.75 Din Beg Gog Bar 0.50 Gir Ara Kve She 0.25 Sha Dar Tch Ort Ard Dik Lal 0.00 1.25 Ros

1.00 She poison 0.75 0.50

Informant Consensus Factor within a u se -c ategory 0.25

0.00 utensils and tools 1.25 Beg 1.00 Gog Din Ros Jar 0.75 Lal Bar 0.50 Dar Oma 0.25 Tch Dik Sha 0.00 Kve 1.25 Cha 1.00 Din veterinary Gog 0.75 0.50 0.25 Bar 0.00 10 1000 Number of use-reports in a use-category

Fig. 4 Informant consensus plotted over number of use-reports for each use-category among informant communities.

Informant consensus

Number of UR was highest across all communities in the food and medicinal use- categories (Fig. 4, Tab. 2), and IFC generally increased with the number of UR. How- ever, some communities/categories with fewer UR showed a high degree of IC, either within a certain category (e.g., in Omalo community of plants used for construction) or across all categories (e.g., in Dino community). Certain uses, particularly poison and veterinary, were rare and/or geographically limited.

Tab. 2 Mean informant consensus across use-categories among informant communities, with total number of use-reports and taxa.

Community # Use-categories # Reports # Taxa Mean ICF ICF SD

Aragvispiri 3 149 48 0.73 0.07

Ardoti 3 67 60 0.06 0.08

Atabe 1 40 39 0.03 NA

Barisakho 7 1203 216 0.58 0.28

Beghelas Tchala 6 172 76 0.72 0.22

Bochorna 2 311 69 0.79 0.01

Chagsopeli 4 145 64 0.74 0.19

Dartlo 5 195 103 0.57 0.30

Diklo 6 79 73 0.02 0.04

Dino 5 91 41 0.71 0.17

Girevi 2 23 18 0.29 0.15

Gogrulta 5 173 75 0.66 0.09

Jarvoseli 6 168 67 0.80 0.19

Juhta 3 55 53 0.04 NA

Kobulo 3 47 45 0.26 0.34

Kvemo Alvani 6 76 65 0.23 0.16

Laliskuri 4 69 45 0.37 0.06

Omalo 8 717 217 0.74 0.18

Ortskali 2 86 43 0.26 0.37

Roshka 7 325 100 0.69 0.17

Shatili 6 271 108 0.63 0.17

Shenako 6 186 118 0.65 0.37

Shtrolta 1 43 32 0.26 NA

Tchesho 6 60 53 0.03 0.07

Plant relative importance

Although the three different plant species importance ranking metrics produced somewhat different rankings, two tree species, Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch and Betula litwinowii Doluch., stood out as among the highest ranked species by any metric. Along with these two tree species, CI (Tab. 3) prioritized species of diverse life-forms and uses, even giving prominence to non-plant species Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. / Lycoperdon pyriforme Schaeff. and Cantharellus cibarius Fr. In contrast, species with especially high UD tended to be woody species although the top 95th percentile list (Tab. 4) also includes several herbaceous species. Species with high UV (Tab. 5) were mostly managed/domesticated species from home orchards, gardens, or farms.

Our results confirmed our hypotheses that plant use knowledge in general was higher in isolated high elevation communities, and that the use of home gardens was more restricted to lower elevation settings, although less than expected.

Tab. 3 The 95th percentile species ranked by cultural importance.

Scientific name Cultural importance Use-diversity Use-value

Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. / Lycoperdon pyriforme Schaeff. 3.00 1.10 0.09

Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch 2.48 2.57 1.07

Betula litwinowii Doluch. 2.28 2.79 0.96

Nicotiana rustica L. 2.00 1.79 0.49

Acer trautvetteri Medw. 2.00 1.58 0.13

Polygonum carneum C. Koch 2.00 1.33 0.09

Helleborus caucasicus R. Br. 2.00 1.04 0.06

Cannabis sativa L. 2.00 0.69 0.29

Fagus orientalis Lipsky 2.00 0.69 0.14

Viscum album L. 2.00 0.69 0.09

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. 2.00 0.69 0.06

Raphanus sativus L. var. major (black) 2.00 0.69 0.06

Acer campestre L. 2.00 0.69 0.03

Acer pseudoplatanus L. 2.00 0.69 0.03

Aethusa cynapium L. 2.00 0.69 0.03

Angelica tatianae Bordz. 2.00 0.69 0.03

Lapsana grandiflora M. Bieb 2.00 0.69 0.03

Nicotiana tabacum L. 1.90 1.61 0.29

Discussion

Plant species, and uses, found in our study, showed clear relations to the wider Cau- casus – Asia Minor – Balkans cultural complex, showing broad overlap with other studies, forming part of what Biscotti and Pieroni [11] described as “hidden Mediter- ranean diet”. The species number found was, however, far higher than in most published studies from either the region or the wider Mediterranean and Eurasia region, with species counts between 44–330 [12–30]. The highest number in these studies was, however, derived from a combination of food plants all over Italy [18]. The species numbers used in the study region are, however, comparable, because, although the surface area of the study region was bigger than the areas of some of the comparative studies, the number of interviewees in each village was normally low (often only 1–2), since many villages were depopulated. The overall number of interviewees was, however, either similar, or lower in the study region. Just across the Caucasus range, in Dagestan, with a very similar cultural background, the use of wild vegetables was much lower than in the study region (24 species only), while all reported uses coincided [31]. The lower number of participants in Dagestan (20, in only one village) might help to explain the divergence. The research time in Dagestan was, however, much longer. The number of participants in Tusheti, the closest study region in Georgia, was only about twice as high., but all reported uses coincided [31]. The much larger incidence of wild plant use for food in Tusheti might stem from the long isolation and high altitude location of the whole region, where agriculture and home gardening are relatively recent arrivals after the construction of the main access road in the 1970s. However, a very similar structure of plant use could be observed all over Georgia [32,33]. Interestingly, medicinal plant species tended to coincide much more with other studies in the region [14,34–43].

Tab. 4 The 95th percentile species ranked by use-diversity.

Scientific name Cultural importance Use-diversity Use-value

Betula litwinowii Doluch. 2.28 2.79 0.96

Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch 2.48 2.57 1.07

Salix caprea L. 1.40 2.29 0.33

Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. 1.52 2.09 0.69

Sedum caucasicum Boriss. 1.29 1.85 0.26

Nicotiana rustica L. 2.00 1.79 0.49

Berberis vulgaris L. 1.33 1.77 0.31

Viburnum opulus L. 1.88 1.77 0.44

Inula helenium L. 1.83 1.73 0.20

Bunias orientalis L. 1.47 1.70 0.39

Rumex crispus L. 1.78 1.68 0.47

Carum carvi L. 1.32 1.65 0.36

Tussilago farfara L. 1.50 1.62 0.34

Agasyllis latifolia (Bieb.) Boiss. 1.44 1.61 0.93

Cornus mas L. 1.67 1.61 0.07

Nicotiana tabacum L. 1.90 1.61 0.29

Tilia begonifolia Stev. 1.22 1.59 0.16

Taraxacum officinale Wigg. 1.50 1.59 0.30

The use ofRhododendron sp. to clear beer, and as medicinal infusion, is rather unique, given the reports of toxicity of the species which extend from ancient Greek and Chinese sources [44,45] to modern cases of poisoning [46]. In the main center of diversity of the genus, careful use of certain species has been reported for food and medicine [47–50]. The protection of relatively common species like Rhododendron caucasicum, closely linked to its traditional use, has been shown as essential for alpine treelines often formed by Betula litwinowii [51]. The reported food use of use of acorns of Quercus iberica links to regional food use history, as various species of Quercus have been reported as food from Turkey since prehistorian times [52].

Conclusions

For Tusheti–Khevsureti, geographic differences and elevation structure both explain what kinds of ways people use plants and what plants they use. However, there was a degree of variance in the plants and uses informants reported that was not explained by these factors. The genetic erosion of traditional crop varieties was previously of little concern for the mountainous areas of Georgia. These served as a repository of ancient crops until the 1990s. Recently, the most prevalent cause for genetic erosion of traditional crop varieties is the outmigration in mountain regions as reaction to the harsh economic conditions and lack of modern infrastructure [3,53–55]. The shift from traditional cultivars to modern high-yielding crops, which took place in the lowlands much earlier, began in mountain villages towards the end of Soviet occupation. The closure of frontiers, e.g., to Chechnya and Dagestan greatly reduced market access

Tab. 5 The 95th percentile species ranked by use-value.

Scientific name Cultural importance Use-diversity Use-value

Solanum tuberosum L. 1.15 0.58 1.14

Allium victorialis L. 1.78 1.20 1.10

Rubus idaeus L. 1.12 0.52 1.10

Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch 2.48 2.57 1.07

Raphanus sativus L. var. major 1.00 0.00 0.99

Cucumis sativus L. 1.08 0.58 0.97

Allium sativum L. 1.00 0.08 0.97

Betula litwinowii Doluch. 2.28 2.79 0.96

Vaccinium myrtillus L. 1.26 0.85 0.94

Daucus carota L. ssp. sativus 1.00 0.00 0.94

Agasyllis latifolia (Bieb.) Boiss. 1.44 1.61 0.93

Anethum graveolens L. 1.00 0.00 0.90

Urtica dioica L. 1.27 1.37 0.89

Coriandrum sativum L. 1.00 0.00 0.89

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss. 1.00 0.24 0.87

Brassica oleracea L. 1.00 0.00 0.83

Chaerophyllum caucasicum Schischk. 1.26 1.20 0.80

Sorbus caucasigena Kom. 1.28 1.55 0.79

Viburnum lantana L. 1.44 1.23 0.79

Beta vulgaris L. 1.06 0.21 0.79

for local cereals. Comparative changes have been reported from other former Soviet republics [56]. Across Georgia, abandoned terraces indicate where grain was formerly grown. Many old barns still contain clay lined grain storage baskets made from Salix sp., which quite often contain old grains. However, essentially no cereals have been grown in the surveyed high altitude regions of Georgia for decades, according to all participants recalling cereal cultivation at all. Nowadays, villagers buy wheat to distil alcohol or to bake bread, or buy commercial beer making mixtures to brew their own beer [3]. The maintenance of home gardens in Georgia serves as socio-ecological memory, like in many other regions [57,58], and is an irreplaceable tool to maintain Georgian culture. This represents not only a reflectance of growing popularity of gardening and gathering [59,60], but cultural survival. The tremendous variety of useful plants in the study region might well provide a reservoir for food security, similar to the Balkans [61]. However, climate change is affecting both floristic diversity in the wild and in gardens, both in the Caucasus as well as continent wide [62,63]. The rise of tourism in Georgia might help to maintain the very diverse food uses in the region, while medicinal uses are most likely going to be a memory of the past soon.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank and all the people of Khevsureti and Tusheti who kindly agreed to participate in the ethnobiological interviews.

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