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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13179 Igor V. Bondyrev • Zurab V. Davitashvili Vijay P. Singh

The Geography of Georgia

Problems and Perspectives Igor V. Bondyrev Vijay P. Singh Vakhushti Institute of Geography Department of Biological & Agricultural Iv.Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Engineering and Zachry Department Tbilisi, Georgia of Civil Engineering Texas A and M University Zurab V. Davitashvili College Station, USA Department of International Relations Tbilisi State University Tbilisi, Georgia

ISSN 2363-9083 ISSN 2363-9091 (electronic) World Regional Geography Book Series ISBN 978-3-319-05412-4 ISBN 978-3-319-05413-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Dedicated to our families: Bondyrev (Wife: Mikadze Inessa, son: Ivan Bondyrev, cousin: Georgi Marsagishvili, niece: Zareta Elizbarashvili, grandchildren: Elene, George, Elizabeth, Demitri, Constantine, and George (junior)) Davitashvili (Wife: Maria Mirianashvili and son: Vakhtang Davitashvili) Singh (Wife: Anita; daughter: Arti; son: Vinay; daughter-in-law: Sonali; and grandson: Ronin) Preface

There is a saying: “History is geography over time and geography is the history in space.” This is particularly true in relation to Georgia where the history and geography are mingled so closely that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish them from each other. It is noteworthy that this country has three names. The first is the autonym “Sakartvelo,” country of Kartl’s. The second is the name under which the country is known in the West, “Georgia,” and the third “Gurdjistan” (land of the wolves). There is the Russian name, “Georgia.” Kartvel is a community of Caucasian ethnological tribes who lived in the territory between the Big Caucasian ridge and the Anatolian plateau, in its central and western parts. The country’s modern name is Sakartvelo (country of Kartl’s). After the adoption of Christianity in the fourth century, the country was renamed after the Patron St. George; Georgia—country of St. George. The Turks and the Iranians call it “Gurdjistan,” the country of wolves. The fact of the matter is that the Georgians showed such invincibility in battle that they became known as “Grdži” or wolf. Therefore, Georgia is a country with three accepted names. At the end of the twentieth century, in a majority of countries in the world, the successful resolution of socioeconomic, political, demographic, and ecological problems was largely dependent on the protection of population and engineering-economic objects from natural disasters, and ensuring conditions for their sustainable development. These problems are most acute in mountainous regions, like in Georgia, where unplanned development of natural ecosystems results in drastic consequences. It is, therefore, necessary to understand not only the probability of changing conditions (natural as well as political and demographic), but also the probability of the resulting economic losses. This book discusses the political and economic history and geography of Georgia, the problems it has faced, and how it has overcome and is overcoming them. The subject matter of this book is divided into 20 chapters. Beginning with a discussion of Georgia’s location and climate, Chap. 1 provides a brief account of historical development, political systems, economy, population, and culture. The remaining chapters are organized in four sections. Section 1, encompassing five chapters, deals with historical geography. Chap- ter 2 deals with ancient history, including seeds of civilization, environmental peculiarities, cultivation, culture, functionality, basin evolution, interaction of man and nature, landscape evolution, cultural mosaic, habitable places, ecological conditions, hunting and other food sources, and concentration of population. Historical and political geography is dealt with, in Chap. 3. It discusses the history of the territorial transformation of Georgia and geopolitical problems. Ethnic groups and religions are covered in Chap. 4. It deals with the composition of the Georgian population and religions. Demographics constitute the subject matter of Chap. 5. It deals with demographic landscape, territorial disposition of population, dynamism of population, natural growth, population structure by age and sex, migration of population, social structure and employment, employment, geography of unemployment, urban geography, creation of Georgian cities, urbanization, geography of villages, ethnic geography of Georgians, Georgians outside of Georgia, basic ethnic groups, ethno-genesis of Georgians, Georgian lan-

vii viii Preface guages and dialects, and Georgian surnames. Chapter 6 discusses sociocultural geography encompassing the standard of living, education, culture and science, medical geography and healthcare, and traditions. Section 2 deals with geological processes and contains three chapters. Geology is the subject matter of Chap. 7 encompassing geological formations, seismic activity, landforms and relief, scheme of geomorphological zonation, expressiveness in the relief and geological structures, and mineralization. Chapter 8 is on geodynamical processes, including erosion and surface wash-down, mudflow, and landslides. Glacial and periglacial processes are treated in Chap. 9. Included are glaciers in Georgia, geography of glaciers, glacial melting, avalanches, cryogenic processes, classification of periglacial formations, and impact of cryogenic processes. Ecological processes are discussed in Sect. 3, which comprises five chapters. Landscapes constitute the subject matter of Chap. 10, which discusses abrasion of coastline, use of remote sensing, factors affecting landscapes, transformation of landscapes, landscape mosaic, and landscape architecture. Chapter 11 covers deforestation and reforestation. It deals with Geor- gia’s forest cover, lowlands, protected forests, declining forest cover in unprotected areas and the government’s effort to replenish deforested areas with new plantations, biodiversity, and anthropogenic changes. Chapter 12 deals with desertification encompassing deforestation and droughts, desertification, desert landscapes, soils, influence of anthropogenic activity, and characteristics of landscapes. Ecosystems, including vegetation, arid and semiarid ecosystems, and fauna, are discussed in Chap. 13. It also includes a discussion of the impact of urbanization, karst, unique highs, vegetation, arid and semiarid ecosystems, and fauna. Anthropogenic impact on the environment is dealt with in Chap. 14 encompassing hewing of forests and forest restoration, felling of woods and general depletion of the region’s flora, conservation of biodiversity, and biodiversity. Developmental geography is the focus of Sect. 4, spanning six chapters. Economic history is covered in Chap. 15. It discusses nature and society in the ancient era, nature and economy in antiquity, nature and economy in the middle ages, economy in the nineteenth century, economy in the first quarter of the twentieth century, and economy in the socialistic era. Chapter 16 deals with the Georgian economy, including the fuel-energy complex, manufacturing industry, land fund, agriculture, transportation, communication and trade, communication, internal trade, resorts and tourism, and foreign relations. Natural resources are dealt with in Chap. 17. It discusses water resources, agricultural land resources, mineral resources, soil and coal deposits, building materials, and landslides. Chapter 18 deals with sustainable development dis- cussing regions of ecological disaster, pollution of ecosystems, transformation of space and growing of cities, ecological catastrophes and zones of misfortune, sustainable development, and aesthetics. Chapter 19 is on global warming and climate change, including warming trend, climate, climate diversity, formation of climate, factors affecting climate, agroclimatic districts, hydrography, soil and processes of degradation, and erosion. Law and government are discussed in Chap. 20. It includes the central government, regional and local authorities, the electoral system and its organization, activities and responsibilities of government, protection of environment and natural resources, international relations, and freedoms and human rights.

Tbilisi, Georgia Igor V. Bondyrev Tbilisi, Georgia Zurab V. Davitashvili College Station, Texas, U.S.A. Vijay P. Singh Acknowledgments

There are a multitude of geographers, economists, historians, and political scientists who have contributed to the literature on different aspects of development of Georgia. This book draws upon the fruits of their labor. We have tried to make our acknowledgments in each chapter as specific as possible. Any omission on our part has been entirely inadvertent and we offer our apologies in advance. We would be grateful if readers would bring to our attention any discrepancies, errors, or misprints. The authors express their gratitude to all of their colleagues who have made useful sugges- tions and shared their insights when writing this book: Prof. Doc. Ch. Adamia, Prof. Doc. E. Gamkrelidze, Prof. Doc. A. Tavartkiladze, Prof. Doc. E. Tsereteli, Prof. Doc. I. Eliava, Prof. Doc. D. Lordkipanidze, Prof. Doc. A.Vekua, Prof. Doc. L. Machavariani, Prof. Doc. E. Kva- vadze, Doc. Prof. E. Nakaidze, Doc. Prof. V. Zaalishvili, Doc. Prof. R. Gagnidze, Doc. Prof. O. Dudauri, Doc. K. Tsikarishvili, Doc. S. Kuloshvili, Doc. A. Akimidze, Doc. G. Maisuradze, Doc. Doc. S. Gongadze, Doc. E. Salukvadze, Doc. S. Gogmachadze, Eng. Iu. Bakhtadze, Eng. M. Bochoridze, and Eng. G. Sulkhanishvili. They are also grateful to their students for participating in the fields of the Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University: T. Chaladze, Kh. Kvlividze, R. Golidjashvili, Iv. Bondyrev, T. Aleksidze, M. Khechikashvili, N. Bliadze, T. Tigishvili, D.S V anadze, G. Revazishvili, N. Kizikurashvili, A.Koridze, and A.Kikvadze. The second author would particularly like to acknowledge Prof. Dr. Revaz Gachechiladze, Prof. Dr. Alex Rondeli, Prof. Dr. Soso Salukvadze, Prof. Dr. George Gogsadze, Prof. Dr. Nodar Elizbarashvili, Dr. Roman Maisuradze; his teachers Prof. Dr. Vakhtang Jaoshvili, Prof. Dr. Nodar Nachkebia, Prof. Dr. Vaja Gujabidze, and Prof. Dr. Nikoloz Beruchashvili; and his students Sophia Petriashvili, Dmitri Dolaberidze and Nino Gogoladze. Our families have been a continuous source of inspiration. They have been most supportive and allowed us to work during nights, weekends, and holidays, often away from them. They provided encouragement, showed patience, and helped in myriad ways. Most importantly, they were always there whenever we needed them, and we are deeply grateful. Without their support and affection, this book would not have come to fruition.

Tbilisi, Georgia Igor V. Bondyrev Tbilisi, Georgia Zurab V. Davitashvili College Station, Texas, U.S.A. Vijay P. Singh

ix Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Lo cation ...... 1 1.2 Climate ...... 2 1.3 His torical Development of Georgia ...... 2 1.4 Po litical Systems ...... 4 1.5 Economy ...... 4 1.6 Pop ulation and Culture ...... 6

Part I Historical Geography

2 Ancient History ...... 11 2.1 Seed s of Civilization ...... 11 2.2 Environmental Peculiarities ...... 11 2.3 Cu ltivation ...... 12 2.4 Culture ...... 12 2.5 Functionality ...... 13 2.6 Basin Evolution ...... 13 2.7 Int eraction of Man and Nature ...... 14 2.8 La ndscape Evolution ...... 15 2.9 Cultural Mosaic ...... 15 2.10 Habitable Places ...... 15 2.11 Eco logical Conditions ...... 17 2.12 Hu nting ...... 18 2.13 Oth er Food Sources ...... 19 2.14 Concentration of Population ...... 19 References ...... 20

3 Historical and Political Geography ...... 23 3.1 His tory of Territorial Transformation of Georgia ...... 23 3.2 Ge opolitical Problems ...... 26 References ...... 31

4 Ethnic Groups and Religions ...... 33 4.1 Comp osition of Georgian Population ...... 33 4.2 Religions ...... 37 References ...... 38

xi xii Contents

5 Demographics �� 39 5.1 D emographic Landscape �� 39 5.2 Te rritorial Disposition of Population �� 39 5.3 Dy namism of Population �� 40 5.4 Natural Growth �� 41 5.5 Po pulation Structure by Age and Sex �� 42 5.6 Migration of Population �� 43 5.7 Socia l Structure and Employment �� 45 5.8 Employment �� 46 5.9 Geography of Unemployment �� 46 5.10 U rban Geography �� 47 5.11 Where, Why, and When Georgian Cities Were Created �� 47 5.12 U rbanization �� 47 5.13 Ge ography of Villages �� 49 5.14 Et hnic Geography of Georgians �� 50 5.15 Georgians Outside of Georgia �� 51 5.16 Basic Ethnic Groups �� 51 5.17 Ethnogenesis of Georgians �� 52 5.18 Ge orgian Languages and Dialects �� 52 5.19 Georgian Surnames �� 53 References �� 53

6 Sociocultural Geography �� 55 6.1 St andard of Living �� 55 6.2 Ed ucation, Culture, and Science �� 57 6.3 Med ical Geography and Healthcare �� 59 6.4 Traditions �� 61 References �� 64

Part II Geological Processes

7 Geology �� 67 7.1 G eological Formations �� 67 7.2 Seismic Activity �� 67 7.3 La ndforms and Relief �� 69 7.4 Sc heme of Geomorphological Zonation �� 71 7.5 Exp ressiveness in the Relief and Geological Structures �� 72 7.6 Mineralization �� 77 References �� 79

8 Geodynamical Processes �� 81 8.1 Erosion and Surface Wash-Down �� 81 8 . 2 M u d fl o w �� 81 8.3 Landslides �� 83 References �� 85

9 Glacial and Periglacial Processes �� 87 9.1 Glaciers in Georgia �� 87 9.2 Ge ography of Glaciers �� 87 9.3 Gl acial Melting �� 88 9.4 Avalanches �� 89 Contents xiii

9.5 Cryogenic Processes �� 89 9.6 Classification of Periglacial Formations �� 93 9.7 Impact of Cryogenic Processes �� 94 References �� 94

Part III Ecological Processes

10 Landscapes �� 99 10.1 L andscapes �� 99 10.2 Abrasion of Coastline �� 104 10.3 Impact of Urbanization �� 105 1 0 . 4 K a r s t �� 107 10.5 Unique Highs �� 108 10.6 Use of Remote Sensing �� 109 10.7 Factors Affecting Landscapes �� 111 10.8 Transformation of Landscapes �� 114 10.9 Landscape Mosaic �� 114 10.10 Landscape Architecture �� 118 References �� 119

11 Deforestation and Reforestation �� 121 11.1 Forest Cover �� 121 11.2 P rotection �� 122 11.3 Lowlands �� 122 11.4 Bi odiversity �� 123 11.5 Anthropogenic Changes �� 125 11.6 R eforestation �� 127 References �� 129

12 Desertification �� 133 12.1 Deforestation and Droughts �� 133 12.2 Desertification �� 134 12.3 Desert Landscapes �� 135 12.4 Soils �� 136 12.5 Influence of Anthropogenic Activity �� 137 12.6 Characteristics of Landscapes �� 137 References �� 138

13 Ecosystems �� 139 13.1 V egetation �� 139 13.2 Arid and Semiarid Ecosystems �� 139 13.3 Fauna �� 145 13.4 St ate Natural Reserves and Ecology �� 146 References �� 154

14 Anthropogenic Impact on Environment �� 157 14.1 Hewing of Forests and Forest Restoration �� 157 14.2 Fe lling of Woods and General Depletion of Region’s Flora �� 158 14.3 Co nservation of Biodiversity �� 159 14.4 Bi odiversity �� 159 References �� 160 xiv Contents

Part IV Developmental Geography

15 Economic History �� 163 15.1 Nat ure and Society in the Ancient Era �� 163 15.2 Nat ure and Economy in Antiquity �� 164 15.3 Nat ure and Economy in the Middle Ages �� 164 15.4 Ec onomy in the Nineteenth Century �� 164 15.5 Economy in the First Quarter of the Twentieth Century �� 165 15.6 Ec onomy in the Socialistic Era �� 165 References �� 166

16 Economy �� 167 16.1 Fuel-Energy Complex �� 167 16.2 Manufacturing Industry �� 169 16.3 L and Fund �� 172 16.4 Agriculture �� 173 16.5 Tr ansportation, Communication and Trade �� 175 16.6 Communication �� 178 16.7 Internal Trade �� 178 16.8 Resorts and Tourism �� 178 16.9 F oreign Relations �� 179 References �� 181

17 Natural Resources �� 183 17.1 Water Resources �� 183 17.2 Ag ricultural Land Resources �� 189 17.3 Mineral Resources �� 189 17.4 Soil and Coal Deposits �� 194 17.5 Building Materials �� 195 17.6 Mineral Water �� 195 17.7 Landslides �� 197 References �� 199

18 Sustainable Development �� 201 18.1 Regions of Ecological Disaster �� 201 18.2 Po llution of Ecosystems �� 202 18.3 Tr ansformation of Space and Growing of Cities �� 202 18.4 Ec ological Catastrophe and Zone of Misfortune �� 202 18.5 Sustainable Development �� 203 18.6 Aesthetics �� 204 References �� 204

19 Global Warming and Climate Change �� 205 19.1 Warming Trend �� 205 19.2 Climate �� 205 19.3 Climate Diversity �� 205 19.4 Formation of Climate �� 206 19.5 Fa ctors Affecting Climate �� 207 19.6 A groclimatic Districts �� 208 19.7 H ydrography �� 208 19.8 Soil and Processes of Degradation �� 214 19.9 Erosion �� 218 References �� 218 Contents xv

20 Laws and Government �� 219 20.1 Central Government �� 219 20.2 Re gional and Local Authorities �� 220 20.3 Electoral System and its Organization �� 220 20.4 Ac tivities and Responsibilities of Government �� 221 20.5 D efense �� 221 20.6 Protection of Environment and Natural Resources �� 222 20.7 I nternational Relations �� 222 20.8 Freedoms and Human Rights �� 223

Index �� 225 About the Author

Igor Bondyrev (28.09.1948) was born in Tbilisi, Georgia. In 1967, after graduating from high school, he studied at the Moscow school mapping (Russia). From 1967 to 1971 he was a student of the fac- ulty of geography the Tbilisi Pedagogical Institute. 1972–1975–the post-graduate student of the Vakhushti Bagrationi Institute of geography—specialize “physical geography.” In 1976 he defended his thesis “Per glacial landscapes of Georgia,” in 1991—his doctoral thesis “Geomorphology of Mozambique.” After graduation, he worked as a teacher of geography at the University of Georgia. In 1978 he worked in the system of the Department of Geology of Georgia, working his way from Engineering Geologist to the head of the geological party, then became head of the information service of the department. He has conducted research in practically all the regions of Georgia, as well as Azerbaijan, Turkey, South-East Africa, Syria, Russia (Altai, far East, North Caucasus), Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and others.

Zurab Davitashvili (born 1953)—Ph.D. in Geography (1982), Doctor of Political Sciences (2002) is Full Professor of International Relations and Human Geography and Head of Department of Inter- national Relations of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (Georgia). Prof. Dr. Davitashvili is the author of more than 70 scientific articles and five monographs, among them “Nationalism and Globalization”, “Historical and Political Geography of the World” and a textbook for secondary schools, “Geography of Georgia” (with N. Beruchashvili and N. Elizbarashvili).

Professor Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., P.E., P.H., Hon. D.WRE, is a University Distinguished Professor and Caroline and William N. Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering at Texas A&M University. Professor Singh has been recognized for four decades of leadership in research, teaching, and service to the hydrologic and water resources engineering profession. He has published his research in more than 710 refereed journal articles, 300 conference proceedings papers, 80 book chapters, and 70 technical reports. He has authored or co-authored 21 books and has edited another 55 reference books. He has been the recipient of 65 national/international awards from professional organizations. He is a recipient of the Arid Land Hydraulic Engineering Award, Ven Te Chow Award, Torrens Award, Norma Medal, and Lifetime Achievement Award all given by ASCE; and Ray K. Linsley Award and the Founders

xvii xviii About the Author

Award given by the American Institute of Hydrology. He has been awarded two honorary doc- torates, one by University of Waterloo, Canada and the other by the University of Basilicata, Italy. He is a fellow of ASCE, EWRI, AWRA, IE, ISAE, IWRS, IASWC, and IAH; a member of AGU, IAHR, IAHS, and WASER. He is a member/fellow of 10 engineering/science academies. Introduction 1

Abstract Georgia (Sakartvelo), located in the central and western part of the southern Caucasus, has an area of about 69,700 km2 formed by mountain ranges. More than 81.3 % of its territory is located above 400 m, and 55 % above 1000 m. Since its birth, Georgia has gone through a succession of invasions and empires, but the political history of Georgian statehood started in the sixth to fourth centuries BC. The traditional form of government was monarchy. At the end of the twelfth century, during the reign of Queen Tamar, an attempt was made to create a representative body, but it failed and was not repeated. During her reign, Georgia reached its greatest success. The country became a leading political force in the region and its influence extended far beyond the Caucasus. This period of Georgian history is considered the “golden age.” Having experienced a series of changes, the Georgian statehood was restored in 1991. Now the country is a functioning democracy and is on the move to find a place of its own in the community of nations. It is endowed with large rivers, lakes, natural resources, and gorgeous landscapes. Due to its geographical position, Georgia is a historic crossroads where civilizations and cultures intersect, as reflected in the Georgian culture. It is developing its political institutions, economy, infrastructure, and educational institutions. A major problem facing Georgia is its declining population. This chapter provides a snap- shot of Georgia’s history and the changes that have occurred over the centuries.

At the end of the twentieth century, successful resolution 1.1 Location of socioeconomic, political, demographic, and ecological problems in a majority of countries in the world was largely Georgia (Sakartvelo) is located in the central and western part dependent on the protection of population and engineering- of southern Caucasus, between 410071 and 430351 NW and economic objects from natural disasters and ensuring the 400041 and 460441 EL. It has an area of about 69,700 km2, conditions for their sustainable development. These prob- formed by mountain ranges, called Big (the highest point— lems are most acute in mountainous regions where un- Shkhara, 5068 m) and Minor Caucasus (Caracaia, 2850 m), planned development of natural ecosystems results in drastic and also the South Georgian volcanic uplands (northern consequences. It is therefore necessary to understand not fragment of the extensive area of Redneaziatsky Uplands). only the probability of changing conditions (natural as well More than 81.3 % of the territory of Georgia is located above as political and demographic) but also the probability of the 400 m, and 55 % above 1000 m. The space between greater resulting economic losses. This chapter provides a short in- ridges (Cavcasioni) and Minor Caucasus is occupied by introduction of Georgia, its climate, its political and economic termountain valleys and lowlands, such as Colchis, Shida systems, and its historical development. Kartli, Alazani, etc. In the west it is washed by the Black Sea.

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 1 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_1, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 2 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Map of Georgia

The general extent of borders of Georgia is about 1916 km. geopolitical interests of major empires, and has been a stum- The main rivers include the Mtkvari (Kura), Rioni, Inguri, bling block between them. Kodori, Alazani, Iori, and Khrami-Mashavera. Among the The Caucasus, and Georgia in particular, is part of the lakes are Paravani (37 km2), Tabatckuri, Mada-tapa, Palias- region, where the first men were formed. Favorable natural tomi, Keli, Sagamo, and Ritsa. There are numerous places conditions contributed to what was already in the Stone Age where mineral waters are found, such as Borjomi, Zvare, an important human population, as indicated by numerous Likani, Nabeglavi, etc. Figure 1.1 shows a map of Georgia. archaeological sites that date back to the Paleolithic, Meso- lithic, and Neolithic ages. These processes were even more clearly manifested in the Eneolithic age, reaching their zenith 1.2 Climate in the Bronze Age (Trialetian culture and Colchian culture). The territory of Georgia has been one of the centers of A major part of the territory of Georgia has a subtropical metallurgy of bronze and later metallurgy of iron. It was here, climate. In the flat part, the average temperature in January in the Caucasus, including Georgia, where the first steel was fluctuates from + 3 °С (in Colchis) to − 2 °C (in the Kartli smelted. In the second millennium BC the Georgian ethnos Plain), and in July it varies from + 26 to 27 °С. In the moun- was already formed, which was represented by three sub- tains the temperature sharply falls to − 18 °C in January and ethnic groups: Karts or the Iberians (eastern and southern rises to + 12 °С in July. The average precipitation varies from Georgia), Zans or Colchis (western Georgia), and the Svans 300 mm in the east to 2800 mm in the west. The western (northwest Georgia). About this time, in southwestern Geor- part of the country and the high mountains seem to have a gia formed the first political unities of Georgian tribes: Diauhi tendency toward warming, but it is overshadowed by the in- (Daièna), who were in permanent struggle against Assyria and fluence of the Black Sea. In East Georgia there appears to Urartu, as well as Kolha (ancient Colchis) in the western part be a steady increase in temperature, on the average in the of Georgia. These political unities existed for several centu- order of 0.006 °C per year, and some reduction (12–15 %) in ries, and in the seventh century BC, they were destroyed by the quantity of deposits which drop out during the summer the nomads from the North (the Scythians and Cimmerians). period. In the sixth century BC, a new Colchis kingdom (Egrisi) in West Georgia, and in the 4th century BC, Kartli or King- dom of Iberia in East Georgia were established. Both states 1.3 Historical Development of Georgia were economically and culturally quite developed countries and played an important role in the political life of the ancient Georgia, being the intersection of the link between trade world. However, they were then conquered by the Persian and transport arteries, is located at the crossroads of Asia Empire, and in the first century BC, they were conquered and Europe, where the roads cross from the West and East, by the Roman Empire. Colchida was incorporated into the and North and South. At the same time, it lies on the bor- empire, and Iberia became a vassal of Rome. der between two great civilizations—Christianity and Islam. In the third century, Iberia was separated from Rome. In Throughout its history, Georgia has been in the forefront of the Egrisi (Lazika) survived the influence of Rome, and Iberia 1.3 Historical Development of Georgia 3 became a vassal of Iran. In the fourth century AD, Christian- In the sixteenth century, the Principalities of Mingre- ity in Kartli was declared the state religion that tied her with lia, Guria, Abkhazia, and Svaneti were separated from the Byzantium, but dramatically spoiled the relationship with Imereti Kingdom. Thus, in place of a united Georgia, eight Iran. Thus, Georgia became the scene of a confrontation be- political unities arose. During the late sixteenth to the early tween the two largest states of the era—Byzantium and Iran. seventeenth centuries, Georgia became an object of dispute In the sixth century, Iran in Kartli and Byzantium in Lazi- of two empires—Turkey and Iran. According to the Iran- ka abolished the institution of the king and attached them Ottoman Treaty, Georgia was divided. Kartli and Kakheti to their empires. However, in the seventh century AD, the became the protectorates of Iran, and Imereti and the prin- entire territory of Georgia was invaded by new conquer- cipalities of western Georgia of the Ottoman Empire. Espe- ors—Arabs. In the territory of eastern Georgia, the Emirate cially hard was the fate of Samtskhe-Saatabago (Meskheti), of Tbilisi was formed, and western Georgia became a vassal which lost its independence and was annexed by Turkey, as of the Arabs. Eyalet of Akhaltsikhe. At the end of the seventh century, new Georgian king- The seventeenth to eighteenth centuries were one of the doms and principalities were created in the peripheral parts most difficult periods in the history of Georgia. This period of Georgia (where the influence of the Arabs was weak): the was a daily struggle for the Georgian statehood against both Principality of Kakheti and the Kingdom of Hereti in eastern the external and internal enemies, which had catastrophic re- Georgia, which later formed a Kaheti-Hereti Kingdom. The sults for the country. Abkhazian principality united the whole of western Georgia. In the middle of the eighteenth century, King Erekle II In South Georgia the Kartvelian Kingdom (Tao-Klarjeti) was unified the Kartli and Kakheti Kingdoms, suppressed all the formed. As a result of the growth of these countries, the ter- machinations of external enemies, and gained actual inde- ritory of the Tbilisi Emirate began to permanently decrease. pendence from Iran. He chose a political orientation toward At the end of the tenth century, after the unification of Russia and signed the treaty of Georgievsk, according to the Abkhazian and Kartvelian Kingdoms, a strong monarchy which Kartli-Kakheti became a protectorate of Russia. In with a unified literary language, church, and monarch was response to this, in 1795, Iran destroyed Tbilisi and tried to formed. However, Tbilisi and Kakheti-Hereti still remained bring back Georgia under the influence of Iran. outside Georgia. Throughout the eleventh century, Georgia After the death of King Erekle II, in 1801, Russia abol- resisted at first the Byzantine Empire and then the new se- ished the Kartl-Kakheti Kingdom and joined it as Province vere conquerors—Turks-Seljuks. ( gubernia) of Tbilisi. Sometime later Imereti also became At the beginning of the twelfth century, the Georgian king part of the Russian Empire as the Province of Kutaisi. They David the Builder was able to expel the Turks from Georgia, were followed by Guria, Svaneti, Samegrelo, and Abkhazia. to accede Kakheti-Hereti and Tbilisi, and to create a power- After the Russo-Turkish war of 1829, the Russian Empire ful state, which occupied the whole of the Caucasus. Georgia annexed Samtskhe-Javakheti, and in 1878 Adjaria. Most of reached the greatest success during the reign of David the the historical territory of Georgia became part of the Russian Builder’s granddaughter, the Queen Tamar. During this pe- Empire. riod, the country not only did not experience the influence The nineteenth century was a good period for Georgia, from any great power but was itself the leading political because the country was developing peacefully without fear force in the region, and its influence went far beyond the of external enemies. On the other hand, this time was nomi- Caucasus. This period of Georgian history is considered the nated as the heaviest era, because the Georgian statehood “golden age.” had disappeared, and the country was represented by two The thirteenth century was the hardest period for Geor- provinces of the Russian Empire. The Georgian language gia—the time of Mongol invasion. The Mongols annihilated had lost the status of a state language, whereas the Georgian the country, killed inhabitants, and destroyed the cultural Orthodox Church lost its autocephaly and turned into one of and historical monuments. They divided the country into the eparchy of the Russian Church. In the second half of the two kingdoms: West Georgia and East Georgia. As for South nineteenth century, a national liberation movement started, Georgia (Meskheti), they ruled it themselves. whose goal was the restoration of the Georgian statehood. The Mongol invasion continued for nearly a century. In The collapse of the Russian Empire and the Bolshevik the first half of the fourteenth century, King George Brilliant Revolution in Russia helped restoration of Georgian state- freed and again reunited Georgia; however, soon the coun- hood. On May 26, 1918, the Democratic Republic of Geor- try was destroyed eight times by Tamerlane. Economy lay in gia was established. But it lasted for only 3 years. In Febru- ruins, and the country could not stand up. In the sixties of the ary–March 1921, Soviet Russia attacked Georgia and after fifteenth century, unified Georgia no longer existed: It was forcible occupation annexed it. Georgia entered the Soviet divided into the Kingdoms of Kartli, Kakheti, Imereti, and Union as one of the Soviet republics. As a result of sovietiza- the Principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago (Meskheti). tion, Georgia lost 20 % of its territory, which was transferred 4 1 Introduction to neighbors—Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia. In elected, which had to prepare a new constitution of Georgia. addition, political and territorial autonomies of Abkhazia, The president of the parliament, who was the head of state South Ossetia, and Adjaria were created. at the same time, was elected by the whole population of the The Georgian statehood was restored in 1991. However, country. the restoration was followed by civil war, and actions of the In the period of 1992–1995, Georgia was the original Abkhaz and South Ossetian separatists were supported by variant of the parliamentary republic. In August 1995, the Russia. As a result of these armed conflicts the ethnic cleans- parliament adopted a new constitution. The country became ing of Georgians in South Ossetia and Abkhazia occurred. a presidential republic. The post of prime minister was abol- After the Russian-Georgian war in August 2008, Russia ished. The creation of a government and leadership of the recognized the independence of these territories. The inter- ministers was the prerogative of the president. national community and organizations, such as the UN, the In 1995–2003, Georgia was a typical presidential repub- Council of Europe, etc., supported the position of Georgia to lic. In 2003, as a result of the “rose revolution,” the constitu- restore its jurisdiction throughout the national territory and tion was amended once again, which reinstated the post of consider Abkhazia and South Ossetia to be integral parts of prime minister, who became the head of the executive power. the Georgian state. The rights of the president grew even more. He personally appointed the prime minister and ministers, and had the right to dissolve the parliament. The concentration of such big 1.4 Political Systems rights in one man’s hands had a negative impact on the political life of the country. The political history of Georgian statehood started in the Today, Georgia is a mixed parliamentary–presidential re- sixth to fourth century BC. The traditional form of govern- public. The head of state is the president. The main politi- ment was the monarchy. At the end of the twelfth century, cal organ is the parliament, which consists of 150 members during the reign of Queen Tamar (much earlier than in any (75 majoritarians and 75 by party lists). The parliament, on European country), there was an attempt to create a repre- the basis of parliamentary elections, creates the government. sentative body (a legislative institution, like a parliament); The head of government (the prime minister) is the leader however, it failed and was not repeated. of the winning party. Under the constitution, he is the head In 1918, after the declaration of independence, Georgia of executive power and the main political person. For the selected the model of parliamentarian republic. The legisla- appointment and dismissal of ministers the consent of the tive power was in the hands of the parliament, which, ac- parliament is required. cording to the results of election, formed the government. The judiciary is independent of both the president and the The chairman of the government was a major political fig- parliament, and its supreme bodies are the supreme and con- ure. The post of the head of state (the president) was not stitutional courts. adopted. From the point of view of administrative-territorial ar- In 1921–1990, Georgia was a Soviet Socialist Republic as rangement, there are three autonomous units on the territory part of the Soviet Union and was ruled from Moscow. Local of the country—the Abkhazian and Adjarian Autonomous legislative and executive bodies were formal and had been Republics and the South-Ossetian Autonomous Region. completely subordinated to the dictates of the Communist However, today the territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Party. are occupied by Russia and are recognized as “independent In 1990, after the first multiparty elections, ended the era states,” nine administrative regions (historical-geographical of the Communist dictatorship. In April 1991, Georgia de- provinces), and the country’s capital of Tbilisi. The prov- clared independence, but until December 1991, as all other inces and Tbilisi are divided into municipalities (districts), Soviet Republics, it stayed in the composition of the Soviet which are self-governing units. They are managed by the Union. For the first time Georgia had the status of a parlia- local representative body (“Sakrebulo”). The latter elects the mentary republic, where the chairman of the parliament was heads of executive power (“gamgebeli”). the first person in the state. However, later it established the post of the president, with very large rights, who appointed the prime minister and ministers, heads of territorial-admin- 1.5 Economy istrative units (prefects), rectors of higher educational institutions, the chairman of the supreme court, etc. Today the economic situation of Georgia, with its tradition- From December 1991 to January 1992, after a coup al forms, is determined by the geographical location of the d’état, the president was overthrown, and the state council country. Even in ancient times, western Georgia (Colchis) was established. It consisted of representatives of all parties. and eastern Georgia (Iberia) differed by their economic de- Elections were held, and a temporary 3-year parliament was velopment because of the different natural conditions. From 1.5 Economy 5 the point of view of security, western Georgia was in a bet- ever, the entire economy of Georgia was built according to ter position, because it was bordered by the sea on one side the needs of the Soviet Union. As a closed economic system, and by mountain ranges from three other sides, i.e., was ad- it did not take into account the role of competition in the equately protected from external enemies. In addition, the world markets. foundation of the Black Sea Greek city colonies on the east- This problem occurred, when the Soviet Union collapsed ern shores contributed to the economic relations of Colchis and Georgia became an independent state. In Soviet times, with the ancient world. Georgia’s economy was, in a sense, in a privileged position. Iberia, which had no natural geographical boundaries to Because of its geographical situation, Georgia was the only the east (the high ridges, big rivers, deserts, etc.) compared republic of the Soviet Union, where the development of sub- to Colchis, was not in a favorable position. However, be- tropical agriculture (tea, citrus) was possible. In addition, cause of the existence of rich natural resources, it was more other republics could not compete with Georgia in the pro- densely populated, more advanced, and had well-developed duction of viticulture, fruits, tourism, and resort industry. It economy. is through this material status that the standard of living here In the Middle Ages, differences in the economic life be- was higher than in other republics of the USSR. tween western and eastern parts of Georgia became more After independence, it became clear that the advantage sensible. In western Georgia, because of the warm and humid (such as tea, citrus, resorts) which Georgia had enjoyed, as climate, a dense network of rivers and red soils developed. compared with the other republics of the USSR, appeared Agricultural crops, such as corn and beans, in plain areas absolutely uncompetitive in the world market. The situation almost completely replaced wheat and Gomi (green foxtail was even more serious in the industry. Most businesses had millet—Setaria italica.) been entirely dependent on the supply of raw materials from In eastern Georgia the main crop was wheat. In contrast to other Soviet republics that had stopped immediately after western Georgia, most of the land needed watering and deep the collapse of the Soviet Union. Resumption of production ploughing. This led to the fact that only heavy plows were proved impossible, because a delivery of raw materials from used here. Urban life and thus workmanship and trade were other sources was so expensive that they made its products conducted mainly in eastern Georgia. Seaside towns in west- completely unprofitable. But the main thing in the world ern Georgia in the Middle Ages almost lost their economic market was that there was no demand for these products. As functions. When Turks defeated the Byzantine Empire the a result, in the 1990s the Georgian economy got into its deep- role of marine communications fell virtually to zero. est crisis. There was a big difference in the economic situation be- Since 2000, there has been some stabilization of the Geor- tween lowland and mountain regions of the country. In the gian economy and its alignment with the requirements of the mountains of Georgia, especially in the region of the Great world market. Despite some successes, the state of the Geor- Caucasus, the relief did not allow to use the wheel technique gian economy remains dire. Today, according to the GDP everywhere. Consequently, this region stayed on a primitive per capita Georgia is the 108th country in the world. Most level of development, where urban life did not develop. In enterprises have ceased or stopped, and the structure of the contrast, natural conditions of the South Georgian Highland economy has changed considerably. Specifically, the share were more favorable than in the Great Caucasus. That is why of industry in the national income fell sharply. Especially, this region developed much more. the level of machine-building industry has fallen catastrophi- In the beginning of the nineteenth century, Georgia be- cally. Today the main branch of the Georgian economy is came one of the regions of the Russian Empire that had iden- the food industry, specifically the production of wine and tified considerable changes in the economy. Feudal Georgia mineral waters. went into the capitalist phase of development together with Unlike most productions, a relatively successful start to Russia. Development of oil transport through to the Black recover the position of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy as Sea, as well as industry of hard coal, and manganese concen- well as the chemical industry has begun. The crisis in the tration in western Georgia, led to its economic growth. At electricity industry has been overcome. However, the situ- the same time, economic conditions in eastern Georgia did ation is still grave in the wood-manufacturing industry and not significantly change (despite the fact that the main politi- in the production of building materials. The situation is most cal, cultural and industrial center of the Caucasus—Tbilisi is severe in light industry, where now only a few enterprises located in eastern Georgia). are functioning. Fundamental progress in the economy of the country oc- Agriculture has also undergone significant structural curred during the Soviet era. During this time all fields of changes. The share of subtropical agriculture sharply re- industry developed, including machinery, electronics, aero- duced; the tea industry, however, is just starting to climb space and shipbuilding, production of trucks, tractors, etc. on its feet, but it has taken the place of viticulture and fruit Georgia became an economically developed country. How- growing. Production of grain, potatoes, and vegetables (de- 6 1 Introduction mand for which was previously satisfied from other repub- high rate of temporary emigration, when people remained lics) significantly increased. The same happened with cattle- citizens of Georgia, but left the country. In addition, birth breading. rate dramatically decreased and mortality increased. As a Significant changes have also taken place in the transport result, during the period 1996–2006, there was a natural de- infrastructure. After the restoration of independence, the im- cline of population (when the death rate exceeded the birth portance of Georgia as a transit country has become obvi- rate). Since 2007 the situation has improved. Now Georgia ous. First of all, this, concerns the pipelines. The oil pipelines has a natural increase of population and a decline of emigra- Baku–Supsa and Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan, and the Shah Deniz– tion. However, the overall picture is still not entirely satis- Tbilisi–Erzrum gas pipeline allowed Georgia to become an factory. The heavy demographic situation had violated the alternative to Russia as a road linking the Caspian energy normal sex–age structure: The proportion of elderly people resources to European consumers. It dramatically increased has increased. the role of Batumi and Poti ports, which are the nearest sea- Depending on the relief, the population is very unequal- ports for eight countries of the South Caucasus and Central ly distributed. About 88 % of the Georgian population is Asia. At the same time, the role of railways reduced. After concentrated in the intermountain plain at altitudes below the closure of the Abkhazian section of the route, it mainly 1000 m, which is less than 1/3 of the total area of the country. serves local needs; although, the construction of the Baku– On the territory of the South Georgian Highlands, which is Tbilisi–Akhalkalaki–Kars railway will allow the country to almost the same size, only 8 % of the population of Georgia carry out a very important strategic function in foreign trade is concentrated. The Caucasus mountain range (the big Cau- transportation. casian Ridge) which occupies about 40 % of the territory of Changes have occurred in the tourism and resort industry. Georgia is home to only 4 % of the population. Figure 1.2 is In the Soviet times, Georgia was known as the republic of a map of Georgia’s ethnic groups. seaside resorts. Since independence, this profile has changed. Urban residents constitute about 52 % of the total popula- Seaside resorts of Georgia are different from the Mediterra- tion of Georgia. The population of the Georgian capital Tbili- nean ones because of many cloudy days and rains, reducing si has reached 1,125,000, that is 25 % of the total population their competitiveness. But foreign tourists are much more or 50 % of the urban population of the country. Other major interested in the mountains, and specifically in the Caucasus cities are (with more than 50,000 people) Kutaisi, Batumi, Mountains (the big Caucasian Ridge) with its beautiful land- Rustavi, Gori, Zugdidi, and Poti. There are 3700 villages scapes, historic monuments, and exotic traditions. It seems in Georgia (not counting the occupied territories). Among to indicate that the most promising way is now mountain them, approximately 50 % are small villages (less than 200 tourism and mountaineering as well as cognitive tourism. inhabitants). Small villages are mainly located in mountain- The economic relations with foreign countries have also ous regions. More than 83 % of the population is represented fundamentally changed. Until 2006 more than 2/3 of Geor- by ethnic Georgians. Prevailing among ethnic minorities are gian imports were from Russia (as well as exports), and Azerbaijanis (6.5 %) and Armenians (5.7 %), who are mainly Georgia was in total economic dependence on it. As a result concentrated in the south of the country. Representatives of the Russian-Georgian war of 2008 and an embargo on the of other ethnic groups are Ossetians, Abkhazians, Greeks, Georgian products from Russia, economic relations between Kurds, and Jews. Georgia and Russia almost broke down, which was a heavy Georgians are presented in three sub-ethnic groups: Karts, blow to Georgia’s economy. However, the country has been Zans (Megrelians and Lazs), and Svans. Lazs are inhabitants able to develop new markets and acquire new economic of the northeastern part of the Turkish coast of the Black Sea. partners. As a result of these actions, the Georgian economy Megrelians live in the west of western Georgia (province has grown stronger and received new markets. However, the Samegrelo), and the Svans—in Svaneti, on the southwestern capacity of the import is much higher than the capacity of slopes of Kavkasioni (the big Caucasian Ridge). The largest exports. ethnic groups are Karts. The area of their settlements covers the rest of the Georgian territory and is distributed in the territory of neighboring states. Among the settlements are 1.6 Population and Culture various ethnographic groups—in western Georgia: Iimere- tians, Gurians, Rachians, Lechkhumians, and Adjarians; in In 2013, the population of Georgia was 4.483 million (with- the lowland of eastern Georgia: Kartlians and Kakhetians; in out occupied territories—Abkhazia and South Ossetia). the highland of eastern Georgia: Mtiuls, Mokhevians, Psha- This figure is by 1 million lower than it was at the census of vians, Khevsurs, and Tushs; in South Georgia: Meskhs and population in 1989. One of the main reasons is emigration. Javakhs; in neighboring areas of Turkey: Shavshetians, Klar- During the 1990s, nearly 1 million people left the country jetians, and Taoians; in Azerbaijan: Ingiloys; and in Iran: Fe- (mainly representatives of ethnic minorities). There was a reidanian Georgians. 1.6 Population and Culture 7

Fig. 1.2 Georgian ethnic types

All these ethnic groups speak a local dialect of the Geor- thodox churches in the world. In the provinces of Georgia gian language. The sub-ethnic groups (Megrelians, Lazs, and that had been captured by the Turks, to save Christianity the Svans) have their own languages. But for all Georgians the population was compelled to adopt the Catholic faith (part of only literary and official language is Georgian, which has Meskheti) and most were forced to accept Islam (Lazistan, since the fifth century AD a rich literature that uses an origi- Meskheti, Klarjeti, as well as Ingiloys and Fereidanian Geor- nal, independent system of writing. gians). Due to its geographical position, Georgia is a historic The Georgian language (together with Megrelian, Sva- crossroads where civilizations and cultures intersect. This is nian, and Lazian languages) belongs to the Kartvelian fam- reflected in the Georgian culture. ily of languages, which, according to the generally accepted Each of the provinces of Georgia by its natural condi- linguistic classification, is an isolated family and is not re- tions is different from the others. Accordingly, there are dif- lated with other language groups. Previous submission that ferences in the economy, culture, agriculture, architecture, the Kartvelian languages together with North Caucasian lan- clothing, cuisine, etc. The same can be said about folklore, guages form one common family of Caucasian languages is dances, folk poetry, folk dances, polyphonic songs, etc. not shared by most linguists. Modern Georgian literature, songs, music, theatre, and films The majority of Georgians are Orthodox Christians. The deserved and figured prominently in the culture of the Soviet Georgian Orthodox Church has been independent since the period. Today the Georgian culture retains its identity and is fifth century and is one of the 15 existing autocephalous Or- popular throughout the world. Part I Historical Geography Ancient History 2

Abstract Georgia is an ancient country with a rich cultural heritage rooted in the peculiarities of the natural environment of the Caucasus, epitomized by the colorful mosaic of landscapes, diversity of climatic conditions, and provision of food, water and mineral resources. These encouraged the formation of multiple habitable places for ancient man who migrated from East Africa as far back as the end of the Pliocene Era. Through tens of centuries, Georgia has witnessed close interaction between man and nature, culminating in rich culture and conflict. Before man inhabited the natural landscape, vegetation and beasts were regulated by natural processes, but human habitation changed all that and started to significantly impact the natural balance of the ecosystem. The interaction was evolutionary, depending on human exploitation. For example, when man became busy in husbandry, he fundamentally began changing the natural landscape. This chapter provides a glimpse of Georgia’s ancient history and its evolution.

Everywhere, where nature forced people to do a step onward to survive, sooner or later they did it, but where the need did not arise, people went on living the way they did getting the good things of life.A. Anuchin

Georgia is an ancient country with a rich cultural heritage. interconnected in our genetic code, in the depths of our sub- This chapter provides a glimpse of Georgia’s ancient history. conscious, that they emerge as a certain united symbol of the optimum equilibrium condition of vital activity of human communities. 2.1 Seeds of Civilization

Studies in the field of historical ecology of civilization, pa- 2.2 Environmental Peculiarities leogeography, and paleoecology of ancient communities have enabled us once again to understand the plain truth: The peculiarities of the natural environment of the Caucasus, there is no future without the past. It may seem unbeliev- epitomized by the colorful mosaic of landscapes, diversity of able, but probing questions of ancient civilizations so distant climatic conditions, and provision of food, water and mineral from contemporaneity draws us nearer to the understand- resources, all encouraged the formation of multiple habitable ing of major problems of our epoch. It makes it possible to places for ancient man who migrated here from East Africa see not only the mistakes and errors of our ancestors, but as far back as the end of the Pliocene era (Fig. 2.1) (Ab- also the unmeasured effort and resourcefulness exercised by dushelishvili 1964). The discovery in 1991, of the Dmanisi them on the way to civilization—the experience of making (South Georgia) site of Mandible Homo Erectus and its study efficient decisions to overcome enormous difficulties—eco- by scientists from different countries completely refute the logical and moral. It may seem somewhat paradoxical, but belief that “…paleoanthropology of the Caucasus does not aesthetics, perception of beauty, and ecology are so closely go beyond Eneolithic” (Lordkipanidze 2001; Lordkipanidze

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 11 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_2, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 12 2 Ancient History

Fig. 2.1 Penetration of ancient man in the territory of South Cau- casus. (Lordkipanidze et al. 2007)

and Tvalchrelidze 2002), and made it possible to confirm tions took place. Based on the united roots and the most antiq- with confidence that man began to master this region a mini- uities of the socium, it may be concluded that the Caucasian mum of 1.8–1.6 million years ago. civilization has not only cultural, social, ecological, and geographical generality but also genetic generality. To describe natural conditions and their origin and shaping, it is necessary 2.3 Cultivation to clarify the relationship of ancient man and the Caucasian region as far back as the epoch of the Upper Pliocene era and The antiquity of cultivation by men of the mountains and the Upper Pleistocene era as inclusive. plains of the Caucasus and existence of conditions for The Pleistocene period was accompanied by three glacial speedy evolution of population; energy instability of the epochs (Mindel, Rissian, and Wurm) replacing one another earth’s crust, volcanism, sharp fluctuation of hypsometric during 1 million years and terminating in the early Holocene (landscape) levels, and realignment of not only the structure period (18,000–12,000 years ago). Practically all mountain- of landscapes but also the balance of energy and information ous regions of the Caucasus experienced, to some extent, the within them (Bondyrev 1990), as well as location in the cen- influence of glaciation that caused the absence of constant ter of multiple ways of migration and stands of ancient man, habitable places in the Paleolithic period, with the exception created the background against which the peculiar Caucasian of temporary camp sites of hunters (Kudaro, Tsona, Satani- civilization was subsequently formed. dar, Arzni, Dzhurchula, etc.). Due to their geographical position and relief peculiarities, only the regions of the Western Caucasus (Colchida, the Black Sea coastal zone) presented ex- 2.4 Culture tensive refugium, preserving the hearth of Pliocene flora and fauna. No wonder the main masses of paleolithological habit- The cultural dimension of the Caucasian civilization was able places were concentrated, as seen in Fig. 2.2, reproduc- noted by Chubinashvili (Bondyrev 2006) and Manuchaev ing the spatial arrangement of archaeological objects against (Chubinishvili 1971). They spoke about the imposition and the paleogeographical background of the Pliocene-Pleistocene interpenetration of primordial Caucasian cultures of antiqui- epoch. It should be noted that open type sites gravitated around ty—Kura-Araks and Maikop. However, the folk and tribes of the rear part or lip of the river terrace and on the capes at the the Caucasus were united by the spatial, cultural, and spiritual confluence of rivers (Inasaridze 1991). A more detailed analy- generality. A study of 44 local populations and 19 ethnosis of sis (Nesmejanov 1998) has shown that Mousterian dwellings native populations of the Caucasus by Inasaridze (Manuchaev were concentrated in the rocky sancta mainly with southern 1975) concluded low interpopulation variety and the presence exposure, and in areas of regional (Colchida, Talish) or local of a large number of general genes exceeding the indices of (separate deep river valleys) refugiums. The locations of the other regions of the world, with the exception of Western Eu- majority of such sites allow us to use natural resources of dif- rope where active, frequent, and multiple merging of popula- ferent landscape areas and nearby zones of mineral resources. 2.6 Basin Evolution 13

Caucasian anticlinal dome a disintegration of the united Pon- tian basin began followed by separate stages of the evolution of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The maximum regression of the Black Sea occurred 1.7 million years ago, when the level was lowered by 90– 110 m below the modern level. Under the conditions of the rapid rise of the level at the beginning of the Flandrian transgression (0.9 cm/year) the coastline intensively retreated inland. A short regression was followed by the advance of the sea—Surozhian transgression (23,000–22,000 years ago). During the New Euxine epoch the sea level lowered in separate periods to 65 m below the modern level. However, the relief of eastern (Caucasian) coasts of the Black Sea (steep declivities, extremely narrow shelf band) caused an insignificant change in the western Caucasus landscapes, with the exception of the narrow seaboard and the lowermost regions of the Colchida lowland. On the other hand, the Akchaghylian Sea basin (Paleo- Caspian) enlarged almost ten times at the end of the Plio- cene era, and approached the eastern vicinity of the city of Tbilisi at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene period. Fig. 2.2 Track record of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in Plio- That caused the disappearance of a majority of overland cene-Pleistocene landscapes in the lowlands of the eastern part of South Cau- casus and peri-Caucasus (Terski trough) (see Fig. 2.3). This process was aggravated by the general cold snap of the cli- 2.5 Functionality mate during glacial periods. There exists an opinion that the sharpest increase in the sea basin level occurred as a result Besides their archaeological age, sites are distinguished by of glaciation in the mountains of the Caucasus and on the their functionality (constant stands, hunter camps, work- Russian plain. shops, objects of cult, etc.). At the same time, it becomes The rhythms of fluctuations of the Black and Caspian obvious that at one time these sites used to be the local Seas did not coincide in time because of the greater role of dwellings of ancient man, i.e., certain recesses of former tectonic factors in shaping the basins and coasts of the Black ecosystems. Independent of their time position, we distin- Sea, (Bondyrev 2000), but the sea basins defined the nature guish constant, casual, and ephemeral. From a spatial view- of the changing natural environment of the Caucasus. Never- point, dwelling recesses can be single (point), linear (timed ending anticlinal domes played a significant role. These pro- to single-line forms of relief-river valleys, lake coasts, etc.), cesses were accompanied by volcanic activity timed to the mosaic (chaotically scattered), grouped (close location), Trans-Caucasian transverse uplift connected with a negative and concentric (thick concentration of dwelling groups). gravitational anomaly. Two main phases of volcanism have In the territory of Georgia, more than 280 sites have been been noted, complying with epochs of interglacial (Mindel- found which date Acheulian 430,000–130,000 years ago Rissian and Riss-Wurmian) periods. In their range we pos- and Mousterian 120,000–40,000 years ago, and over 150 sibly judge per general lava volume of the Middle and Upper sites dated by Upper Paleolithic (40,000–12,000 years ago) Pleistocene eras. Thus, this value formed 35,000 km3 on (Kalandadze and Tushabramishvili 1989). These sites can the Armenian upland, 15,000 km3 in Javakheti, and slight- be possibly joined into three large concentrics—three main ly more than 2000 km3 on the central Caucasus (Bondyrev hearths of human dwellings: Javakheti, Central-Georgian, 2000). The growth of mountainous erections themselves var- and Abkhazian, which are described below. ied from 500 m for 1 million years on the Greater Caucasus to 200 m on the Minor Caucasus that caused intensive denudation and sedimentation with an intensity of 0.8–2.8 cm/ 2.6 Basin Evolution year (Bondyrev 2000). From the above discussion it becomes clear that many The Caucasus, being an enormous isthmus between the ba- hundreds and even thousands of first dwellers of the Cauca- sins of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, sensitively re- sus had to (under the influence of water intrusion, advance sponded to the rhythmic fluctuations of these basins. At the of glaciers, and volcanic eruptions) abandon their habitable end of Pontian (early Pliocene) era, as the result of a general places and escape from elemental processes. A majority died 14 2 Ancient History

Fig. 2.3 Features of Paleolandscapes in the Caucasus (Pliocene-Pleis- tions and changes): A upper Pliocene, B Mindel-Rissian interglacial, C tocene) and habitable places of ancient man in the Caucasus and nature area of modern and ancient glaciation and site of Paleolithic of Paleolandscapes surrounding them (Maruashvili 1964, with addi-

on the way and traces of their dwellings were destroyed by Once in a while, partial conservation of relic groups of water flow or overheated lava. Cave sites, presenting natu- past years—refugiums—in the small insulated territories ral sancta from the influence of natural cataclysms and time, have been observed. This is explained not only by the abil- were saved mostly in the South Caucasus. Only a small ity of organisms to adapt, but also the presence of a definite share was saved—a tiny cut of that enormous picture of the “internal inertia of landscape” (Maruashvili 1964) as an eco- primitive world, which will never be completely known (see system which is expressed in its longing for the conservation Fig. 2.3). of structure in spite of a significant but not very long-lasting changing environment. As a result of a sharp cold snap at the end of the Pliocene 2.7 Interaction of Man and Nature period, a lowering of landscape belts was noted around the world. Analysis of samples of early and middle Pleistocene We attempt to single out certain general regularities in the vegetation from the vicinity of Zangezur pointing to moder- interrelation of man of the Pleistocene epoch with the nature ate chilly and humid climatic conditions of this period indi- surrounding him. The clearest indicators of the condition of cated the lowering of landscape belts by 250–300 m (Bon- external environment are the vulnerable landscapes of the dyrev and Maisuradze 1980). Even sharper lowering of the highland. Their existence in the Caucasus has been noted Silvan belt was noted in Wurm, when, as a result of several since the Neogene period (Bondyrev 2000). Significant stages of the cold snap (Maruashvili 1956), the border of the changes in the climatic conditions (as well as the processes woods in Azerbaijan was lowered by 1000–1500 m (Tagieva of tectonics and denudation) caused the basic realignment 1998; Bondyrev and Tskhovrebashvili-Kvirkvelia 2001). Be- of landscape structures in the highland. As a result, many tween 3.3 and 0.8 million years ago in the territory of Western representatives of former fauna-floristic groups disappeared. Trans-Caucasus, 12 stages of development of vegetation were This, in turn, caused a series of migrations of man to the singled out. Consequently, the Kulnitski epoch stands out be- piedmont area and plains. 2.10 Habitable Places 15 cause of the extreme instability of paleogeographic conditions, promoted the activation of mutation processes within the whereas Gurie with its favorable climatic parameters stipu- population and led to speedy evolution of their organizing- lated premises for the fundamental realignment of landscapes structured mechanisms. and fallout of the main body of neogene vegetation (Tagieva 1998; Bondyrev and Tskhovrebashvili-Kvirkvelia 2001). Thick mixed woods up to mineral waters covered the 2.9 Cultural Mosaic plains of North Caucasus in the Middle Pleistocene period. A sharp cold snap and activation of the process of glaciation If the belief about the role of energy information (Fox 1990; in the upper belt of mountains that took place at the end of Karagodin 1991) and geomagnetic (Bondyrev et al. 1999) the Middle Pleistocene period, caused a general lowering of fields in the development and evolution of organisms had landscape areas in the whole territory of the Caucasus, with already been formed clearly enough, information on the in- the exception of Colchida and Talish. This was followed by fluence of gravitational fields on the operation of main sys- the penetration of many typical representatives of north and tems providing the viability of organisms has appeared only minor Asian types. At the same time, the idea about the sus- recently (Bondyrev 1991). It has been clarified that an in- tainability of refugiums as presented is somehow simplified. crease in the level of intensity of gravitational field stipulates the inclusion of the control system of electrical conductivity of leather cover. Here, a reduction in the level of defensive 2.8 Landscape Evolution characteristics of leather of this defensive filter is noted, as protection from the off-balance influence of the elec- On the basis of computer analysis of palynological material, tromagnetic field of the environment. As a result, we have selected in different landscape areas of Abkhazia and paleocli- disregulated the system of control and adaptation of organ- matic modeling of natural situations, Kvavadze et al. (1992) isms. Under a prolonged rise of the gravitational level there found the following: At the end of the glacial epoch, re- occurs an increase in the aggressiveness of individuals, and peated (but not long) alternation of warm and cool phases as a result there arise conflicts and imbalances of structured took place. As a result, climatic fluctuations had the most relationships within populations as well as the ecosystem as contrasting nature in the highlands. As to the plains and foot- a whole. hills, thick leafy and mixed woods grew during this time. Studies (Abdushelishvili 1964; Beruchashvili et al. 2005) Changes in the correlation of aspectual composition point have shown that one of the reasons for the acceleration of to some fluctuation of climate. This is confirmed by the data evolution of cultural generalities of antiquity, expressed in from eastern Colchida. On the basis of a complex examina- drastic complication of hierarchy of regulating systems within tion of the Tsutskhvati cave complex (vicinity of Kutaisi), sociums, is their spatial timeliness to powerful energy centers. it is stated that broad-leaved woods of Colchida type grew Such centers (see Fig. 2.4) are the nodes of conjugation of during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene period (with the areas of active tectonic fractures (particularly on the borders exception of the period 37,000–210,000 years ago, i.e., Min- of lithospheric slabs), deeply embedded ring structures, gravi- del-Riss interglacial). During the interglacial period, woods tational and magnetic anomalies, and hearths of volcanism. were temporarily changed by forest-steppes. About 40,000 All these factors are distinctive for the Caucasus, defining the years ago there appeared landscapes close to the modern regular nature of speedy shaping of subcivilized formations ones (Bondyrev et al. 2000). A discovery of remnants of Pa- in a given region. Three groups of main hearths of Paleolithic laeolithic culture near the town of Sukhumi, on the 5th ter- habitable places and particularities of their spatial borders in- race of the Black Sea (early Mousterian), and the nature of dicate that they were timed to the energetically least stable vegetation testifies to it (Fig. 2.4). The age of the terraces is areas on the peripheries of arched uplifts (Bondyrev et al. dated 370,000–210,000 years (Maruashvili et al. 1978). 1999) (see Fig. 2.5), avoiding the imposition on local ring In the Lesser Caucasus in the early Pleistocene era there structures and located at a certain distance (1–3 km) from the prevailed landscapes of broad-leafed woods and steppes, contact line of regional tectonic blocks and large fractures of which, as a result of the Middle Pleistocene era, aridization, the earth’s crust. and cold snap of climate, changed to dry steppes. After the regression of Middle Khvalyn, a certain warmth and increase in moisture was noted that brought about the growth 2.10 Habitable Places of arborescent woods in phitocenosises forming dry forest savanna on plains, woods, and forest steppes in the moun- Under the conditions of stable energy, ecosystems of sur- tain regions and foothills. At this time, the instability of all face biocoenosis must also possess a sustainable internal ecosystems in the Caucasus was aggravated by multiple structure and therefore maintain a decelerated nature of manifestations of tectonic movements and volcanism that development inside the processes of evolution defined by 16 2 Ancient History

Fig. 2.4 Hearths of generation of ancient civilizations and biota defin- morphostructurs; D nuclears; E belts of earthquakes; F large tectogenic ing them (Bondyrev 2003; Bondyrev et al. 1999): A origin areas of ring structures-depressions; G astroblemes, H borders to lithospheric the ancient (primary) civilizations: I Central, II East and South-East, plates and their number (see more low); I global breaks; K mantle III Andes-Peru, IV Atlantic (hypothetical). B the ring structures es- plumes (hot points); plates to lithosphere: 1 Coco, 2 Caribbean, 3 Fillip- tablished on the basis of the complicity to analysis of space pictures, ing, 4 mar Okhotsk, 5 Amur, 6 Chinese, 7 Iran-Afghan, 8 Balkan—Asia the account magnetic anomaly and geology-geochemical data; C ring Minor, 9 Arabian

Fig. 2.5 Dependence of development of ancient man' hearths on energy hearths in the territory of Georgia. (Bondyrev 2003; Bondyrev et al. 1999) 2.11 Ecological Conditions 17 homeostatic equilibrium in the “environment-population- Here we should once again refer to the problem which organism system.” Consequently, a change in energy param- became imminent long ago: What do we deal with within the eters (both endo-, and exogenic nature) could cause breach- Caucasus—with a certain manifestation of ecological crises ing of homeostаs, causing speedy evolution or degradation in the Paleolithic epoch or with regularities of development of local ecosystems and their communities. of ecosystems? To answer this question is not simple. The Analyzing the paleoecological peculiarities of a number Paleolithic period is the epoch of intensive cognition of the of sites of ancient man in the Caucasus, most interest arises characteristics and peculiarities of construction of those eco- in the Dmanisi site in Southern Georgia. In 1989, in the ter- systems by man whose component he had always been. All rain of Mashaveri lava flow, situated at the confluence of his actions and decisions were associated with the natural the Moshevani and Mashavera Rivers, to the north-west of environment of his dwelling. The principal component of the foots of Loqie massif (in the territory of medieval com- his existence was the search for food resources that he was plex of Dmanisi), a unique Dmanisi site was found—a habitable to extract from those landscapes. These were, first of able place and remnants of ancient man in Europe—Dma- all, hunting products, gathering of wood offerings, and fish- nisi Homo ergaster, whose age was dated as 1.8–2.0 million ing. The so-called “kitchen refuse” reflected not only the years ago. This discovery has brought global popularity to spectral composition of fauna of these territories but gave the region and drawn the attention of scientists from the the list of types actively used by man. This is a rather broad whole world (Fox 1990). group—large herbivores, rodents, number of predators and However, detailed studies were seldom conducted outside birds, some types of lizards, and fish. However, this list does the limits of the site area and its nearest vicinities. This pro- not correspond to real spectra of faunistic complex of for- moted concentration of work in the most prospective areas. mer ecosystems, but only gives an idea about those types, At the same time it was impossible to restore the natural en- which ancient man actively used in everyday life. It is more vironment of the concrete site without a detailed study of complicated to determine the aspectual composition of wood the whole region—the Moshevani River basin, which was offerings. The fact itself of the given process was defined, conducted in 2000–2002. The basin was framed by three basically, by discoveries of digging sticks amongst the arti- complex morphostructures: by horst anticlinal crystalline facts (in later epoch grain grind-stones), but the discovery of massif of Loqie, mostly constructed of Palaeozoic and Juras- the vegetable remnants was extremely rare. sic rocks; by monocline of Somkhiti ridge formed as a result of tectonic movements and volcanism and alkaline effusion and volcanogenic rocks of the Middle Eocene era; and by 2.11 Ecological Conditions younger generations of lava and Dmanisi lava plato of the quaternary period. The role of Paleolithic man in changing the ecological con- Unlike the regions of the South Georgian uplands, where ditions of separate types of fauna is ambiguous and has not central type volcanism was vividly manifested, within the been completely considered yet. The extinction of the cave given region it bore a secondary nature; the primary role was hyena and red wolf in the Caucasus cannot be connected to played by the outpouring of lava along tectonic faults. All this intensive hunting or with the breaking of trophic relation- left its imprint on the development of the morphology of the ships. In the opinion of Barishnikov (Bondyrev and Maisu- region and caused a high activity of processes of river erosion radze 1980) this process was connected to the breaking of and denudation, and led to thick erosional dissection of mor- the quantitative composition of the population of large herbi- phostructures and the shaping of three main levels of pene- vores and its sharp degradation all over Southern Europe and pletation (in accordance with different phases of volcanic and the Caucasus. Probably, this was connected with the sharp tectonic activity) (Beruchashvili et al. 2005). According to cold snap at the beginning of Wurm. data (Lordkipanidze and Tvalchrelidze 2002), the landscapes Relations between man and the natural environment are in the vicinity of Dmanisi Lower Pleistocene camp-site were long and multiple processes, when a man rising on a pedestal presented by dry savanna and silvan arrays on the slopes situ- begins not only to use but actively change the natural envi- ated not far from mountains, but the site itself was located by ronment. Primitive man broke the natural balance of biomass a small pool (Maisuradze 1990). In the vicinity of habitable of fauna of the Caucasus of that epoch. Just then, for the first places, typical representatives of savanna were found, such time man’s activity brought about a sharp breaking of ho- as elephants, rhinoceroses, horses, and gigantic ostriches. As meostas of primitive ecosystems. Thus, during the analysis far as one can see, there was gathered biota (variety of re- of only the kitchen refuse of Akhshtiri cave 1230 bones of lief and landscapes, proximity of energy nodes, presence of cave bears were found, whose native land is the Caucasus, opened pools, and rich sources of food), which promoted a as well as brown bear aurochs, goat, roe deer, and wild boar more active evolution of the given population. (Bondyrev 2008). In Tsutskhvati cave, ensembles of bones 18 2 Ancient History of more than 3000 specimens of cave bear, rhinoceros, wild a high intensity of hunting for this giant in all parts of the horse, wild boar, red deer, elk, Transcaucasian goat, aurochs, region. chamois, and badger were found (Tatashidze et al. 2009). All Thus, 2979 bones of 32 people were found at Kudaro this brought about the general crisis of natural ecosystems of stand, Central Georgia (see Fig. 2.6), 3500 pieces of 49 the whole Caucasus (including south). Earlier, this popula- people in Akhtishirsk cave, 12,300 bones in Akhiz, about tion of plants and beasts was regulated by the course of natu- 4000 in Tskhrajvari, up to 9000 in Pskhu, and about the ral processes themselves, but man became actively involved same amount in Tsutskhvati cave (Burchak-Abramovich and in this process, breaking the natural balance of those ecosys- Tcereteli 1977). The most approximate calculations show tems, of which he himself was an integral part. A bit later, at that on the whole, bones of about 900 people were found. the beginning of the Bronze epoch, man became busy with This amount represented quite a significant part of the popu- husbandry, and this time began fundamentally changing nat- lation, and hunting itself could have brought about an appre- ural landscapes. ciable reduction in the quantity of this type. Here we should take into account that cave bears, unlike brown ones, were almost completely vegetarian. As a result of a sharp cold snap 2.12 Hunting at the beginning of Wurm and significant (by 500–900 m) lowering of landscape belts, this population lost their main, Hunting was the most advantageous handicraft industry; be- distinctive, feeding sources. The inability to adapt under the sides collecting meat, fat, skins, tendons, and bones, a hunter changed conditions of the natural environment and pressure could get a safe home. Cave bears for their stand, chose dry on the part of man, brought about the disappearance of this karstic or lava caves away from high waters and protected type everywhere, except southwest Abkhazia and south of from winds. Acquisition of such an “apartment” must have the Krasnodar region. Here, the cave bear was preserved up been considered good luck for the whole family (tribe). The to the Holocene era. The discovery of cave bear bones in area of spreading of cave bears is the area of the Caucasus Vorontsov cave dated them as 12,000–9000 years ago (Bur- from Azikh in the east up to Krasnodar in the northwest. In chak-Abramovich and Tcereteli 1977). the area of steppes it penetrated up to Ilski stand in the north. Besides, the image of the cave bear as a creature vested Data on the quantitative analysis of bones of cave bears with enormous power, spares of food rich in calories, and found during excavation of stands of ancient man indicate owner of a shelter deeply penetrated into the consciousness

Fig. 2.6 Schematic of transverse profile of Jojora River gorge and caves of Kudaro. (Kolbutov 1960) 2.14 Concentration of Population 19 of ancient inhabitants of the Caucasus. This brought about skills and experience accumulated during many generations. the formation of the first known cult in the Caucasus—a cult Probably 20,000–15,000 years ago, man began to change the of the bear at the end of early Paleolithic. Apart from the landscape surrounding him by using natural elements for his plane remainders of bones (“kitchen refuse”) a great variety own practical goals. Table 2.1 shows the role which Caucasus of ritual burying of bear skulls—Azikh, Erevan Tsutskhvati, played in the general-planetary process of domestication of Sakajia, Kudaro, Kvachara, and many others was noted. major types of beasts and cultivation of plants. Elephants belong to the number of hunted beasts of the Paleolithic-Mesolithic period, as well as fossilized horses and donkeys, aurochs, bison, wild oxen and ram, red deer, 2.14 Concentration of Population Caucasian goat, wild boar, hare, marmot, hamster, beaver, wild hen, duck, partridge, and dove. Moreover, as a result In the territory of the Caucasus, husbandry started first of of the excess hunting, the hamster and beaver disappeared all on the volcanic uplands and in intermontane troughs of in the Caucasus at the end of the Pleistocene. It is notable the South, as well as at the foothills of the North Caucasus. that in different regions of the Caucasus, different groups The vicinity of snow peaks and abundance of rivers did not of beasts were main objects of hunting defined by the di- necessitate the creation of such grandiose irrigation sys- versity of natural landscapes. Only the horse was an excep- tems as in Egypt, India, Mesopotamia, or Ancient China. tion, which was broadly spread on the plains and foothills However, attempts to erect local irrigation systems began of the South and North Caucasus. Thus, the main objects of as far back as the Mesolithic era, which made it possible hunting were the Caucasian and Capra goat, horse and wild to collect two harvests yearly even then (Arukhlo, East- hen in Central Georgia; horse and wild ram in Javakheti; ern Georgia) (Gabunia et al. 2000). Frequent temperature and camel, fossilized ass, horse, and pika on the plains of and moisture fluctuations, and activity of glaciers were ac- eastern part of the South Caucasus. companied by the displacing of landscape belts per vertical About 50,000–35,000 years ago, as a result of com- line and compelled primitive tillers to move over to new re- parative impoverishment of food resources (objects of gions, more suitable for life. This process did not promote hunting and gathering), caused by a variety of natural and the concentration of population in some centers and join- anthropogenic factors, there arose the necessity of search- ing the tribes of the Upper Paleolithic-Mesolithic period in ing for new ways to gain food. Simultaneously, with hunt- association. At the same time, A.J. Toynbee noted the fol- ing and gathering, man gradually began to form a tendency lowing: “…Man reaches civilization not in consequence of to make live reserves of food by domesticating beasts and biological development or suitable conditions of existence, cultivating plants. The more complex the organization of but in response to existence in particularly complicated any ecosystem, the more unstable it becomes. However, situations encouraging him on unprecedented hitherto ef- inside similar ecosystems, separate populations stand out, forts” (Toynbee 1948). possessing increased reserves of toughness and elastic- We reckon that tribes leading to the settled way of life ity (adaptable-organising abilities); moreover, the larger were distinguished by a higher level of ecological thinking is this reserve, the higher is the hierarchical complexity than that of nomadic tribes or migrating groups who did not of these populations and shorter their trophic relationship have an organic relationship with the ecosystems surround- lines. The Homo community pertains to the number of ing them. Such “transit” groups always inflicted damage such populations. to nature, since they were not connected with its genetic information, being strangers in the natural unity of these ecosystems. In a number of cases, strangers settled in new 2.13 Other Food Sources regions and with the passage of a certain period of time, they either integrated into the given ecosystem (in case of Longing towards the shortening of trophic ways compelled their aggressive politics) or were rejected by it, whereas ancient man to search for new and shorter ways of providing nature itself and its structure in those places turned out to himself with food resources and making food reserves for a be violated. All allochthonous populations are parasitic disadvantageous period. One such way was the domestication until they develop deep roots in the landscape abided by and cultivation of plants. The Caucasian region is one of the them (Djanelidze 1984). A community of people becomes world’s centers of these processes, which means that it is one a component part of the ecosystem only when it begins to of the world’s centers of ecological revolutions, occurring perceive this ecosystem as its Native Land! Thereby the from the end of the Middle Pleistocene up to the Holocene. given symbol of patriotism simultaneously becomes the However, domestication and cultivation are complex pro- symbol of ecological compatibility and unity with the natu- cesses, requiring not only hard work and time, but practical ral environment. 20 2 Ancient History

Table 2.1 Initial stages (tentatively) of cultivation of plants and domestication (per 1991 year data). (Bondyrev 2003, 2008) Cultivation period Plants Beasts Country or region (thousand years ago) Domestic Wild ancestor 25–20 Dog Wolf Around the world (including the Caucasus) 18–12 Flax North Africa 16–10 Pea, barley South Caucasus, Iran, Africa 14–10 Millet East and Central Africa, China, Mesopota- mia, Caucasus 10–9 Beans Cow Aurochs goat India, Frontal Asia, North and East Africa, Caucasus Pig Pig peccary North Africa, Caucasus 9 Olive tree Cat Wild Libyan cat North Africa, Mediterranean

9–8 Nanny goat Beozarus and spiralhorned goats Frontal Asia and Caucasus 9–8 Peanuts Brasilia 9–6 Sunflower North America 8.1 Yams and sorghum East Africa 8 Goose Wild goose Around the world 8–7 Elephant Elephant Southeast North-East Africa, India 8–7 Wild guinea Guinea fowl Africa 8–7 North reindeer Wild reindeer North Europe, Siberia 8–7 Dove Rock pigeon Everywhere in Eurasia (including Caucasus) 8–6 Date palm North Africa 8.0 Hen bankoog cock South-East Asia, Africa 7–6 Watermelon South Africa 7–6 Trapanн Horse Egypt, Frontal Asia 7–6 Wheat, cherry Mediterranean, Frontal Asia 7–5 Bombyx Butterfly Bambaks mary China 7–5 Bee Melliferous bee Egypt, Caucasus 6 Apple tree Buffalo Wild buffalo South Caucasus, South East Asia, Middle and Frontal Asia 6–5 Grapes South Caucasus, Middle and Frontal Asia 5–2 Plum Caucasus

References Bondyrev IV, Maisuradze GM (1980) The essay of study and peculiarities of spatial distribution of the frozen-glacial relief forms, beyond the Caucasus border. Quaternary system of Georgia, (XI Intern. Abdushelishvili M (1964) Anthropology of ancient and modern popu- Congr. Quater. Moscow, 1982), Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1982, pp 74–88 lation of Georgia. TSU, Tbilisi, p 232 (in Russian) (in Russian) Beruchashvili NL, Davitashvili ZV, Elizbarashvili NK (2005) Geogra- Bondyrev IV, Tskhovrebashvili-Kvirkvelia NK (2001) Geographical phy of the Georgia, book. 2 (social-economic geography, regions). factor in determining ecological compatibility of autochthon and Sacartvelos matcne, Tbilisi, p 144 (in Georgian) allochthon population. Bull Georgian Acad Sci 163(3):488–491 Bondyrev IV (1990) The spatial differentiation of the Earth-crust ener- Bondyrev IV, Khachapuridze GG, Bochoridze MC (1999) The spatial getic parameters and geography of ancient civilization. Bull Geor- differentiation of the Earth-crust energetic parameters and geography gian Acad Sci 159(3):445–448 of ancient civilization. Bull Georgian Acad Sci 159(3):445–448 Bondyrev IV (1991) Space researches and problem of ring structures. Bondyrev IV, Seperteladze ZK, Aleksidze TD (2000) Biodiversity Tekhinform, Tbilisi, p 78 (in Russian) of landscapes and their recreational capacity on Georgian part of Bondyrev IV (2000) Geomorphology of the Georgia: new concepts and Euroasian transport corridor. II Int. sci.-practic conf. Georgia/Cauca- challenges. Polygraph, Tbilisi, p 72 (in Russian) sus—crossroad on the great silk road, Tbilisi, pp 64–65. Bondyrev IV (2003a). Historical ecology of the civilization. Vol I, Burchak-Abramovich NI, Tcereteli DV (1977) Fossil bears the Cauca- Paleoecology of the original homeland of man. Polygraph, Tbilisi, sus. Quaternary geology. Yerevan: Acad. Sci. Armenia, pp 129–138 p 246 Chubinishvili TN (1971) The ancient history of the South Caucasus. Bondyrev IV (2003b) On geomorphology and paleogeography of the Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 2000, p 218 (in Russian) Moshevani (Pinezauri) basin. In: “Dmanisi”, vol IV. Metsniereba, Djanelidze CP (1984) The reconstruction of natural settings of an epoch Tbilisi, pp 166–187 of existence to ancient agricultural civilisations in East Georgia. In: Bondyrev IV (2008) Caucasian civilization and problem of its studying The man and environment. Metcniereba, Tbilisi, pp 148–154 from standpoints of history ecology of civilizations. Part 1—paleo- Fox P (1990) Energy and life evolution on the Earth, p 392 ecology of the pre-civilised period, in Coll. Papers to Vakhushti Gabunia LA, Vekua AK, Lordkipanidze DO et al. (2000) The earliest Bagrationi Institute of geography, New Series No. 2 (81), pp 187–199 Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Georgia: taxonomy, geological and age. Science 288:1019–1025 References 21

Inasaridze ZP (1991) Factors of genetic differentiation of the popula- Maisuradze GM (1990) Anthropogene of the Caucasus. Metcniereba, tion of the Caucasus. Dissertation PhD, Ðoscow State University, Tbilisi, p 87 (in Russian) p 22 (in Russian) Manuchaev RM (1975) Caucasus at the beginning of a bronze age. Kalandadze AN, Tushabramishvili DM (1989) The Paleolithic epoch Publ. Acad. Sci. Azerbaijan, Baku, p 268 in Georgia. In: Sketches of history of Georgia, T.1. Metcniereba, Maruashvili LI (1956) Expediency of revision of existing representa- Tbilisi, pp 35–55 (in Georgian) tions about Paleogeographical conditions of glacial time on Cau- Karagodin VN (1991) Information and life phenomenon. Puschino, casus. Publishing House to Georgian Academy of Science, Tbilisi, p 212 (in Russian) p 132 (in Russian) Kolbutov AD (1960) Basic stages of development of a valley of the Maruashvili LI (1964) Paleogeographical’s maps. Atlas of the Georgia modern river Big Liakhvi in the light of new data about geologic- Republic, Tbilisi-Moscow geomorphologic’s conditions of burial of Paleolith South Ossetia. In: Maruashvili LI, Vekua AK, Gergedava BA et al (1978) Analysis of The Paleolith and Neolith of the USSR, vol 4. Nauka, Moscow (in caves of Colchis: TcutcKhvati pluristratal karst cave system. Metc- Russian) niereba, Tbilisi, p 294 (in Russian) Kvavadze EV, Bukreeva GP, Rukhadze LP (1992) Computer technology Nesmejanov SA (1998) Geomorphologic characteristic of the Trans- of reconstruction to Paleogeographical conditions in mountains (on an caucasia Paleolithic. In: The main outputs in analysis of a quaternary example Holocene Abkhazia). Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p 136 (in Russian) and the basic directions of researches of the XXI-st century. Saint Lordkipanidze DO (2001) Evolution of the environment of Southern Peterburgs, pp 53–54 Caucasus and the basic stages of moving early hominid’s (Homini- Tagieva VN (1998) Development of vegetation of Azerbaijan during an dae). Abstract of Dissertation Doc. Sci. degree, Tbilisi State Univer- epoch of last—Glaciations. In: The main outputs in analysis of a qua- sity, p 120 (in Russian) ternary and the basic directions of researches of the XXI-st century. Lordkipanidze DO, Tvalchrelidze MG (2002) Paleoecological context Sent Petersburg, p 254 of the lower Pleistocene site Dmanisi (Georgia, Southern Caucasus). Tatashidze Z, Tsikarishvili K, Djishkariani V (2009) The Cadastre of In: Geomorphology of the Caucasus: new concepts and challenges. the Karst caves of Georgia. Vakhushti Bagrationi Institute of Geog- Hydromet, Tbilisi, pp 119–124 raphy, Tbilisi, p 666 (in Georgian) Lordkipanidze DO, Vekua AK, Rightmire PG, Margvelashvili A (2007) Toynbee AJ (1948) Civilizations on trial. Oxford University Press, Hominid fossils from Dmanisi and their place among the early homi- New York, p 420 nids. Bull Georgian Acad Sci 175(1):104–111 Historical and Political Geography 3

Abstract Georgians are an indigenous, autochthonic population of the Caucasus. In the second millennium B.C. the Georgian tribe settlement covered the present territory of Georgia and spread far beyond its current southern and southwestern borders. Georgia’s geographical location is most favorable in that it is the only country among the eight South Caucasian and Central Asian countries to have direct entrance into the World Ocean; it is the shortest way connecting Europe with the Central Asian countries by sea; it is the most suitable transit country for transportation of Caspian basin oil and natural gas to Europe; it is the intersection where “North–South” (Russia–Georgia–Armenia–Iran–Arabian countries) and “West–East” (Europe–Georgia–Azerbaijan–Central Asia–China) vectors cross; and it has a common border with all the republics of North Caucasus, making it the central junction country of the Caucasus. The favorable geographical location is conducive to Georgia becoming an economic and transportation hub but also invites conflict with other countries. That may explain why Georgia has undergone many changes with respect to its size and territory. This chapter reflects on the history of the evolution of Georgia as a nation.

Georgia has undergone many changes with respect to its size Diaokh (later Tao) in the basin of the Chorokhi River and and territory. This chapter reflects on the history of evolution Kolkha (ancient kingdom of Colchis) beside the Black Sea. of Georgia as a nation. They existed for several centuries before being invaded from the north and overthrown by the nomadic tribes of Scythians and Cimerians. The new Kingdom of Colchis or Egrisi was 3.1 History of Territorial Transformation of formed in the sixth century B.C. It united almost all of what Georgia is now West Georgia and reached the outfall of the Chorokhi River to the south. 3.1.1 Territory of Georgia Before the Fifth In the fourth century B.C. in East Georgia, the kingdom Century A.D. of Iberia or Kartli was founded, which included the major part of the basins of the Mtkvari and Chorokhi Rivers, the The Georgians are the indigenous, autochthonic population Black Sea in the west, and bordered the upper part of the of the Caucasus. In the second millennium B.C. the area of Arax River and Sevan Lake in the south. Kartli and Egrisi the Georgian tribe settlement was rather wide (Fig. 3.1). were placed under the command of the Roman Empire at It completely covered the present territory of Georgia and the end of B.C. epoch. Kartli became a Roman domain at spread far beyond its current southern and southwestern first; after the weakening of Rome and the strengthening of borders. Supposedly, some tribes of North Caucasian ori- Persia, it came under Persian influence, but fought against gin also resided in Georgia’s territory (in eastern, northern, it constantly. Egrisi entered the Roman Empire, but soon and northwestern provinces in particular), which assimilated Rome had to recognize the local self-government. Four prin- with the Georgian tribes later on. cipalities were formed on the territory of Egrisi: Lazis, Aph- The first political unions of the Georgian tribes were cre- shilians, Abazgs, and Sanigs. The Lazi Principality became ated at the end of the second millennium B.C. They were especially strong and brought the other three under its com-

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 23 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_3, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 24 3 Historical and Political Geography

At the convergence of the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Abkhazian and Georgian kingdoms were united. At the beginning of the twelfth century, Davit Agmashenebeli (David the Builder)—the king of Abkhazians and Geor- gians—took possession of the Kakheti-Hereti (Kingdom of Rans and Kakhs), Lore-Tashiri, and finally Tbilisi. The united Georgian kingdom covered the entire territory populated by Georgians. The term “Sakartvelo” (Georgia) appeared in that period as well. At the end of the twelfth century, the state of Sakartvelo included not only the original Georgian territory, but also northern Armenia and a significant part of present Turkey and Azerbaijan. North Caucasus, eastern re- Fig. 3.1 Ancient settlement of Georgian tribes gions of Azerbaijan, and southern Armenia were domains of Georgia. Consequently, in that period almost the entire Cau- casus submitted to the King of Georgia (Studies in History mand; in fact, the United Kingdom of Lazika was created. of Georgia 1979, vol 3). The Lazika kingdom was considered first to be Roman, and later Byzantium’s domain; in actuality, it had an independent policy (Studies in History of Georgia 1970a, vol 1). 3.1.3 Territory in the Thirteenth to Eighteenth Centuries

3.1.2 Territory in the Sixth to Twelfth Centuries The Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century put the country in a critical situation. The Mongols divided Georgia into In the sixth century, Persia abolished the kingdom in Kar- two kingdoms (West Georgia or Likhtimereti and East Geor- tli, and Byzantium in Lazika, and appointed their governors gia or Likhtamereti) and introduced two government kings. there. However, their governance did not last long. In the Moreover, South Georgia–Meskheti (Samtskhe-Saatabago) seventh century, a new vindictive enemy of Georgia, Ara- separated from Georgia and directly submitted to the Mon- bian conquerors, appeared. The major part of the country (as gols. In the sixteenth century, Georgia was united again and the Tbilisi Emirate) entered the Arabian Caliphates, and the restored to its previous fame, but eight invasions by Tamer- rest became an Arabian domain. From the end of the eighth lane ruined the country. That was followed by the aggres- century, in the peripheral parts of the country where the Ara- sion of the Islamic countries–Iran and the Ottoman Empire, bian influence was weaker, new independent Georgian states attacks of North Caucasian tribes, and internal unrest. As a were formed. result of this, the united Georgian kingdom disintegrated into At the end of the eighth century in the upper part of the separate kingdoms and principalities: three kingdoms (Kar- basin of Aragvi, Iori, and Alazani Rivers there formed the tli, Kakheti, and Imereti) and one principality (Samtskhe- Kakhetian Principality (Episcopacy), and the Hereti king- Saatabago) were formed on Georgia’s territory. In the six- dom to its east (in the basin of middle and lower parts of teenth century, the Guria, Samegrelo, Abkhazia, and Svaneti the Alazani River). In West Georgia, the Abazgs Principal- principalities were detached from Imereti. ity (Abkhazian’s Saeristavo) forced under its command In the seventeenth century, Iran and Turkey divided Geor- Apshileti, Jiketi (Sanigs Principality), and Egrisi as well. gia between themselves. Kartli and Kakheti became Iran’s In this way the Abkhazian Kingdom (Egris-Abkhazeti) was domain, West Georgia and Samtskhe-Satabgo became the formed, which included the whole of West Georgia with domain of Turkey. Samtskhe-Saatabgo found itself in an Kutaisi as its capital. At the beginning of the ninth cen- extremely difficult situation. It completely lost its indepen- tury, the Tao-Klarjeti Principality was created in Southwest dence and became part of Turkey as Akhaltsikhe Pasha’s Georgia, which was named Kartvel’s kingdom later on. The possession. As a result, a majority of the local population Tbilisi Emirate (which was in fact independent from the was converted into Muslims and Turks by force. Kakheti lost Bagdad Caliphates) covered the territory of a major part its eastern part (Saingilo), which was followed by a mas- of middle (Shida) and lower (Kvemo) Kartli. The southern sive settlement of Dagestanians tribes and conversion of the part of Kvemo Kartli represented part of the Lore-Tashir aboriginal population into Muslims. Didoeti and Tsakhuri Armenian–Georgian state (Studies in History of Georgia (highland regions of present Dagestan) were detached from 1973, vol 2). Kakheti. Kartli lost Dvaleti. The Ossetian regular settlement began in the highlands of Shida (middle) Kartli, and in Kvemo Kartli a Turkish tribe—Borchalu—took up resi- 3.1 History of Territorial Transformation of Georgia 25

Fig. 3.2 Georgia’s territory according to each century A.D

dence. Turkey deprived Guria of the southern seaside (Ko- Democratic Republic of Georgia was 93,000 km2 by the buleti). The Samegrelo principality continuously reducing, beginning of 1921. In the February of 1921, as a result of and the Abkhazian principality was extending on its lost ter- occupation, forced sovietization, and annexation performed ritories. The border between Samegrelo and Abkhazia from by Bolshevik Russia, Georgia lost a considerable part of its the Kodori River was moved to the Galidzga River at first, territory. Russia gave to Turkey all the Georgian provinces and then to the Enguri River. absorbed in 1878, except Adjaria. Saingilo was assigned to In the second part of the eighteenth century, Kartli and Azerbaijan, and Lore to Armenia. Georgia’s territory was re- Kakheti were united, became independent from Iran, and duced to 69,700 km2. Three more new political units were even managed to force Ganja, Yerevan and Nakhichevan formed on this territory—Union Republic of Abkhazia (Au- Khan’s possessions under its influence (Fig. 3.2). In the tonomous Republic since 1931), Autonomous Republic of same period the extension of Russian Empire to the south Adjaria, and Autonomous District of South Ossetia. In 1944, caused the danger of Caucasus annexing. By the agreement an area of 6000 km2 in North Caucasia was joined to Geor- drawn up in 1783, the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom admitted the gia—the basin of upper part of the Kuban River (Klukhori protectorate of Russia (Studies in History of Georgia 1973). district) and the highland region of Chechnya-Ingushetia (Akhalkhevi district). Russia took these territories back in 1957. In 1991, by the time of the disintegration of the Soviet 3.1.4 Territory in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Union and restoration of Georgia’s independence, Georgia Centuries was recognized within the borders which it had in the years of Soviet government (69,700 km2). In the August of 2008, In 1801, Russia abolished the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom and after the Russian–Georgian war, Russia occupied the territo- absorbed it under the status of an ordinary province. At the ries of Abkhazia and former South Ossetia and “recognized” beginning of the same century, other Georgian kingdoms their “independence” (Fig. 3.3). Only Nicaragua and Ven- and principalities admitted Russia’s protectorate, which was followed by their complete abolition and entering the Russian Empire (Imereti in 1810; Guria in 1828; Same- grelo and Svaneti in 1857; Abkhazia in 1864). More to the point, Russia, through the war, annexed Georgia’s lost territories—Char-Belakani or Saingilo (1830), Samtskhe-Ja- vkheti (1829), Adjaria-Kobuleti, Shavsheti, Klarjeti, Chrdili, Erusheti, Kola-Artaani, and a part of Tao (1878). In this way, by the end of the nineteenth century, the historical territory of Georgia (except Lazeti and southern part of Tao) became part of the Russian Empire entirely, as two governments (Tbilisi and Kutaisi) and the northern part of Kars district (Studies in History of Georgia 1970b, vol 5). In 1918, after the overturning of the Russian Empire, Georgia restored its political independence. The area of the Fig. 3.3 Attempt of restoration of Georgia’s historical borders 26 3 Historical and Political Geography ezuela followed the lead of Russia. The international com- interests, and does its best not to allow the alternative oil and munity considers these territories integral parts of Georgia gas pipeline construction. This may explain Russia’s adverse and demands that Russian armed forces leave them. attitude toward the Baku–Supsa and Baku–Tbilisi-Jeihan oil pip–line and Shahdeniz—Tbilisi–Erzerum gas pipeline construction. Russia especially fights against the “Nabuco” 3.2 Geopolitical Problems project, the completion of which will give Europe the alternative way to get Central Asian natural gas through Georgia, Georgia’s geographical location conditions its geopolitical passing around Russia. importance for the following reasons: Georgia’s favorable transit location also has certain dan- 1. Georgia is the only country among the eight South Cauca- gers. The country has been used for narcotic transit from Af- sian and Central Asian countries with direct entrance into ghanistan to Europe more than once, and may continue in the the World Ocean. future. There have also been cases of illegal weapon transits. 2. The shortest route connecting Europe with the Central Illegal migration into Georgia for purposes of moving to Eu- Asian countries by sea goes through Georgia. ropean countries is not rare. All this creates serious problems 3. Georgia represents the most suitable transit country for for Georgia and overcoming them requires great effort and transportation of the Caspian basin oil and natural gas to expenditure. Despite these problems, being a favorable eco- Europe. nomic–geographical and transportation–geographical loca- 4. Georgia is the intersection where the “North–South” tion (transit function in particular) is one of the important (Russia–Georgia–Armenia–Iran–Arabian countries) advantages Georgia has and maximum use of this advantage and “West–East” (Europe–Georgia–Azerbaijan–Central is the most important task of the country. Asia–China) vectors cross. 5. Georgia has a common border with all the republics of North Caucasus, which naturally makes it the central 3.2.2 Strategic Importance junction country of the Caucasus. The aforementioned properties considerably shaped Geor- Due to its geographical location, Georgia was always the gia’s history as well as the whole range of current political central junction country of Caucasus and maintains this problems and conflict situations. function till today. For all the great powers with geopolitical interests in Caucasus and fighting to spread their influence, Georgia was the key to Caucasus and losing Georgia meant 3.2.1 Georgia as Transit Country losing Caucasus; that was why they considered maintaining Georgia their major task. The strategic importance of Geor- Georgia’s geographical location is quite favorable for be- gia is especially meaningful today and is the reason for the coming an economic and transportation hub. Consequently, complicated situation formed in this region. transit function is one of the most important functions of The most important political goal of Georgia is integration Georgia. However, there are numerous hindrances in the way into the European–Atlantic space. In case Georgia becomes a of its successful execution, as one of the hindrances is the member of NATO, the North Atlantic Alliance will be estab- conflict of interest with other countries (first of all, Russia). lished in the Caucasus, in particular in the country through For the closest neighboring countries—Armenia and which seven countries of the post-Soviet space relate to the Azerbaijan—Georgia is the country through which it is pos- West by the shortest way. Georgia’s entrance into NATO will sible to establish the most convenient and profitable eco- inevitably establish closer relations between Azerbaijan and nomical relations with the countries of the West (and for NATO and finally bring about a union with the organiza- Armenia with Russia as well). Accordingly, the major part of tion. In such conditions, Armenia will be separated by NATO foreign cargo turnover of these countries is realized through member countries from its major ally—Russia—which in the Georgia. After the conflict of Karabakh, Armenia’s foreign future will necessarily cause a change in its political orien- economical relations are actually possible only through tation and get it closer to the European–Atlantic structures. Georgia. In addition, a large part of Azerbaijan’s oil and In this way, the whole of the South Caucasus will find itself natural gas goes to European markets through Georgia. The under NATO influence. This will be a heavy blow for Russia, role of Georgia in the export–import transit of Central Asian which will face the danger of losing North Caucasus. Losing countries is comparatively small. Caucasus will be the powerful stimulus for the Central Asian The full use of Georgia’s transit function is extremely countries to escape the sphere of Russian influence. difficult due to adverse policies of Russia. Russia consid- Because of this reasoning, Georgia’s western orientation ers the transportation of Azerbaijan and Central Asian power is categorically unacceptable to Russia, as in this case it loses resources passing around Russia to be offensive to its own control not only over Georgia but almost all the post-Soviet 3.2 Geopolitical Problems 27 space; its territorial integrity is endangered and it gives up ally, often emphasizes that Georgia and Abkhazia are two the position of not only the commonwealth, but the regional different countries, as Georgia (meant Kartli-Kakheti) en- leader as well. That is exactly why Russia expends all its ef- tered Russia’s protectorate in 1783 and Abkhazia in 1810. forts to prevent Georgia from getting closer to the European– In a similar way, it might be successfully proved that West Atlantic structures and creates problems that will maximally Georgia is not Georgia at all, and Kutaisi and Batumi are not estrange it to the West. Supporting separatists and stirring Georgian towns, as they did not enter Russia in 1783. up ethnical conflicts is the most “effective” measure in this Russia set the goal to disintegrate Georgia into parts and respect. first of all separate Abkhazia from it along with so-called South Ossetia, after it became clear that Georgia was firmly determined to follow the way of integration with European– 3.2.3 Territorial Integrity Atlantic structures and it was impossible to manage and keep it under Russian influence. That is why Russia decided to Keeping and protecting its territorial integrity is one of the play its Abkhazian and Ossetian “last trump cards.” most essential, vitally important questions for every country. This is especially a burning question for Georgia, as the main current political problem for Georgia is the restoration of its 3.2.4 Problem of Abkhazia territorial integrity and extension of its jurisdiction within the borders, recognized by the international community. Due Abkhazians by their language belong to the north Cauca- to its hard historical fate, the united kingdom of Georgia dis- sian language family, and in this aspect their next–of-kin are integrated into separate kingdoms and principalities in the Adygeis, Kabardinians, and Circassians. However, by their second half of the fifteenth century. The Kartli, Kakheti, material lifestyle and spiritual culture, Abkhazians represent and Imeret kingdoms and Samctskhe-Saatabago (Meskheti) part of the Georgian culture and there is just a little differ- principality was formed. In the sixteenth century, Guria, ence between them and the neighboring Georgian subethnic Samegrelo, Abkhazia, and Svaneti detached from Imereti groups, Megrelians and Svans. There is unanimity among and formed as separate principalities. In this way, eight polit- scientists about the previous motherland of Abkhazians. ical units, independent of each other, instead of united Geor- Some investigators suppose them the autochthonic, aborigi- gia were formed. In the first half of the seventeenth century, nal population of Abkhazia, others think that they migrated Persia and Turkey divided Georgia’s territory between them: to this territory in the late Middle Ages from North Cauca- Kartli and Kakheti became Persian domains, and Imereti and sus. One question is indisputable with impartial scientists; five Georgian principalities, those of Turkey. In the second despite the differences with respect to the language, politi- half of the eighteenth century, Kartli and Kakheti united cally, economically, and culturally, Abkhazians were consid- as one kingdom, but the other Georgian principalities and ered an integral part of Georgia. Moreover, it was the Abkha- Imereti kingdom did not join it. zia principality (which covered approximately the territory In 1783, the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom entered Russia’s of present Gudauta region) from which Georgia’s unifica- protectorate, and in 1801 the Russian Empire abolished this tion started in the ninth century. The Abkhazia kingdom was kingdom and merged it with itself directly. This was fol- formed, which included the whole of West Georgia, with the lowed by entering the Imereti kingdom and the principalities capital city Kutaisi; “Abkhazian” meant a resident of West of Guria, Samegrelo, Svaneti, and Abkhazia into the Rus- Georgia, or West Georgian (supposedly in that period 90 % sian Empire. As a result of the Russian–Turkish war, Russia of West Georgia’s residents were ethnic Georgians, pro- annexed part of Meskheti–Samtskhe and Javakheti and, in vided that Abkhazians themselves still then were ethnically 1878, Adjaria as well. Therefore, Georgian kingdoms and not Georgians of North Caucasian origin). At the end of the principalities entered the Russian Empire separately at dif- tenth century, after unification of West and East Georgia the ferent times. This fact is distortedly interpreted by the Rus- united kingdom was formed, which was named the Abkha- sian imperialistic ideologists and directly aimed against the zians and Georgians kingdom first, and from the beginning interests of the Georgian nation and Georgian state. of the twelfth century, after joining Kakheti-Hereti, the term The explanation is that the name of Georgia (in Russian– “Georgia” was introduced. Gruzia) only referred to the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom in Rus- From the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the sia and only residents of these two provinces were consid- kingdom of Georgia disintegrated and Abkhazia was formed ered Georgians. They did not consider other kingdoms and as a separate principality, Abkhazia’s estrangement from principalities as part of Georgia and their population was Georgia began. This was contributed by the weakening of registered as separate nations (Imeretians, Gurians, Megre- Christianity, establishment of Ottoman’s protectorate, the lians, and Svans). This manipulation is frequently applied to introduction of Islam, and immigration of North Cauca- Abkhazia. Russian scientists and media, and Putin person- sians from the Georgian linguistic–cultural environment. 28 3 Historical and Political Geography

However, the official language of the Abkhazia principality crease in the Georgian population six times, while that of remained Georgian and Abkhazian aristocracy was part of Abkhazians only increased thrice. Migration of the Geor- Georgian noble society. After the establishment of Russia’s gian population from other regions of Georgia actually took protectorate, the Abkhazia principality existed for over half place. That was caused by the need for workers for the de- a century and was officially abolished in 1864. The Sukhumi velopment of subtropical production. By the decision of the district (Okrug) was formed, which entered Kutaisi region USSR central government, about 50,000 people moved to (Gubernia). During the Caucasian war, which the North Abkhazia from the neighboring Georgian provinces (but not Caucasian people fought against Russia for half a century, 150,000 as Abkhazians intend to prove). It is noteworthy that Abkhazians fought for North Caucasians, which is why they according to the population census in 1989 (45.5 %) the por- were considered unreliable for the Empire. Abkhazians were tion of ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia was less than in 1886 deported (in 1864, 1866, and 1877–1878) to Turkey three (51.3 %). The decrease of the Abkhazians’ share in the same times, which reduced the Abkhazians’ number in Abkhazia period (from 41 to 17.5 %) is explained mainly by moving by half, and some regions became entirely uninhabited. other ethnic groups to the region. Suffice it to say that in the The Russian Empire’s attitude toward Abkhazians aforementioned period the Russian population increased 72 changed since the beginning of the twentieth century. By times, Armenians 75 times, and made 15 % each (Zhorzholi- that period, because of the strengthening of the Georgians’ ani 2000, pp 78–84). national movement for liberty (the goal of which was to re- The second serious claim against Georgia is the replace- store the Georgian state) Russia had to take measures to pre- ment of Abkhazian schools by Georgian ones. Actually such vent Georgia’s independence and create inner problems for incidents did not take place. Abkhazian schools were named it. The policy to dispose of Abkhazians against Georgians as such when the education was given in the Abkhazian lan- served exactly that purpose. Russia was making every ef- guage only in the elementary grades; after the fourth grade, fort to convince Abkhazians that they had nothing to do with the Abkhazian language was taught only as a subject, but all Georgians, Abkhazia and Georgia were two quite different other subjects were taught in Russian. From 1938, Russian countries, historical monuments in Abkhazia were not Geor- as an educational language in upper grades was replaced by gian, but Abkhazian monuments of culture, etc. In addition, Georgian, and in lower ones it remained Abkhazian. Conse- young Abkhazian people received education in Russian and quently, there were no changes made to Abkhazian language actually did not speak Georgian at all (except for aristocra- education and Abkhazian schools were not replaced by cy). Consequently, the newly formed Abkhazian intelligen- Georgian ones either. From 1953, the upper grade language tsia was disposed toward Russia and against Georgia. became Russian again, and the teaching of the Georgian lan- Despite the aforementioned situation, a majority of Ab- guage was completely removed in the Abkhazian schools. khazian people supported the union with the Georgians. In Therefore, Abkhazian young people were released from the 1918, when Georgia reinstated its independence, Abkhazia study of the Georgian language, which caused the estrange- entered Georgia with the status of autonomy, guaranteed by ment of a whole range of generations from the Georgian lan- the 1921 constitution of the Georgian Democratic Republic. guage and culture. Abkhazians were in fact brought up in After Georgia’s occupation, forced sovietization, and annex- Russian and disposed antagonistically toward Georgians and ation by Russia in 1921, Russia formed the “independent” Georgia. All of this was sufficient ground for stirring up the Soviet Socialistic Republic of Abkhazia; however, it turned ethnic conflict (Fig. 3.4). out that the decision was so illogical and absurd, that in 8 Despite that, Abkhazians were one of the most privileged months Russia had to give Abkhazia back to Georgia, but ethnic groups in the Soviet Union and actually ethnocracy under the status of “Republic under agreement.” This strange took place there (suffice it to mention that it was the only attitude (which was only one such type in the Soviet Union) autonomous republic where the local language had state lasted for 10 years and changed in 1931, when Abkhazia be- status, and Abkhazians, who made up 17 % of the popula- came Georgia’s autonomous republic. Abkhazian separatists tion occupied almost all of the major positions), the Russian use these facts as “evidence” against Georgia, which twice propaganda and Abkhazian press showed them as oppressed “demoted” Abkhazia’s status (first from the “independent” ethnos endangered by Georgians; that was why, when Geor- republic to the union republic, and then to autonomous regia’s national movement for liberty strengthened and disinte- public); however, they forgot the fact the all those decisions gration of the Soviet Union became real, Abkhazians took an were made by Moscow and the Georgian government was extremely hostile position in the question of Georgia’s for- absolutely deprived of all rights in making political deci- mation as an independent country and supported the mainte- sions. nance of the Soviet Union. In case it became impossible and Among the events that took place in the years of Soviet Georgia became an independent country, Abkhazia would power, Abkhazians especially condemn the so-called “de- have joined Russia. mographic expansion” which was characterized by the in- 3.2 Geopolitical Problems 29

Fig. 3.4 War in Abkhazia. 1992–1993. (Bondyrev et al. 2007)

In 1992, when Georgia became independent, Abkha- 3.2.5 South Ossetia (Tskhinvali Region) zians used the tense situation in the country and performed a Problem whole range of provocative actions. In particular, they used to stop and rob trains, illegally fire at Georgians, and appoint Unlike Abkhazians, the problem of the Ossetian historical Abkhazians instead. The Abkhazian parliament stopped the homeland is less controversial. The fact that the ethnic gen- legal force of the Georgian constitution on Abkhazia’s terri- esis of the Ossetian people took place in North Caucasus tory. In such circumstances, the Georgian government dis- and the first Ossetian settlements on the south side of the posed the internal military units on the territory of Abkhazia Caucasian range, on Georgia’s territory, appeared only from with the purpose of reestablishing order there. Russia was the beginning of the seventeenth century was not debatable expecting exactly that. The military conflict started, where even for Ossetian scientists. From the beginning, the Osse- the greenhorn, inexperienced, and weak Georgian army and tian settlement took place in the highland regions of Georgia volunteers fought on one side and Russian professional sol- (upper parts of the Liakhvi and Ksani Rivers) and occupied diers on the other (most of them had the experience of the the former settlements of the Georgians who had moved to Afghanistan war) with Kazak and North Caucasian warriors the plains. In the nineteenth century, the Ossetian migration (among them Chechen fighter groups under the command of to Georgia became more intensive and the area of their set- Shamil Basaev, which turned their weapons against Russia tlement widened as well. Ossetian villages appeared in the 2 years later). They made up almost 80 % of the so-called plain areas of Kartli and Kakheti too. The population of Os- “Abkhazian army.” In the September of 1993, breach- setians in Georgia increased up to 150,000 for half a century. ing the agreement on ceasefire drawn up in July, Russians, At the end of the nineteenth century, the term “South Os- North Caucasians, and Abkhazians started a mass attack on setia” first appeared, meaning the northern mountainous re- Sukhumi. After 10 days of heavy battle, Sukhumi fell, and gion of Shida Kartli, densely inhabited by the Ossetians (the the massive extermination of the Georgian population began. present Java district and highland part of Akhalgori district). Almost all the Georgian population had to leave Abkhazia. The Ossetians, who migrated to Georgia, had the status Unprecedented ethnic cleansing was executed. Georgia of “tenants” and certain limitations were imposed on them. managed to keep only the upper part of Kodori gorge with However, this status was removed from the beginning of the several thousands of residents. However, in 2008, after the twentieth century and they became the usual migrant peas- Russian–Georgian war Russia occupied this territory too. By ants and were even given some privileges. It was a purpose- admitting Abkhazia’s independence (which actually meant ful step by the Russian Empire, as Ossetians were considered occupation of this region by Russia), Russia created one reliable for the Empire and they would be rather effective more explosive hot point and made the restoration of Geor- against Georgia’s national movement. gia’s territorial integrity an international problem. 30 3 Historical and Political Geography

When Georgia restored its independence in 1918, Osse- generations that spoke Georgian well, for the younger gener- tians turned out to be the most active enemies of the Geor- ations, the Georgian language and culture became estranged gian state. Encouraged by the Russian Bolsheviks, they ar- and was replaced by Russian. ranged two riots, but were cruelly defeated both times and All these events created fertile grounds for Ossetian sepa- over 20,000 Ossetians escaped and took shelter in North ratism with the goal to separate South Ossetia from Georgia Caucasus. and unite it with North Ossetia in the Russian Federation. As a result of Georgia’s occupation in 1921, sovietiza- At the end of the 1980s, when Georgia’s national movement tion, and factual annexation by Russia, the policy of Geor- for liberty strengthened and Georgia’s independence became gia’s punishment and the Ossetians’ encouragement was real, Ossetian separatism gave a powerful explosion. The conducted. In 1922, a South Ossetia autonomic province was first step was the change of the autonomous province status established. By that step not only was a quite new political and declaration of an autonomous republic. The Georgian unit formed on Georgia’s territory, but also the term “South government (still Communistic) annulled that decision by Ossetia” entered the legal force, emphasizing the existence South Ossetia. This caused a conflict, which was more and of two “would be” Ossetias. The autonomic province in real more stirred up. In October 1990, South Ossetia declared its Ossetia’s territory was created only 2 years later in the Rus- separation from Georgia. In October, after parliament elec- sian Federation. tions, the communists’ power ended and radical nationalists South Ossetia was an artificial formation in that the defi- came to power under the leader Zviad Gamsakhurdia. The nition of its borders was almost impossible. Districts com- new government made a radical step against Ossetian sep- pactly inhabited by the Ossetians (Java, Znauri, and part of aratism, which turned into a military conflict. After Zviad Akhalgori) were few and covered extremely hard to access Gamsakhurdia was replaced by Eduard Shevardnadze, an highland territory, so it was necessary to include into the au- agreement on the cessation of fire was reached. The region tonomic province the neighboring plain regions where Os- was occupied by a Russian peacemaking army which en- setian villages were scattered among Georgian ones. In that tirely kept Ossetian separatists’ interests. Even though the way over 100 Georgian villages appeared in South Ossetia. situation turned into a frozen conflict, however, the close More to the point, there was not a single town on the territory everyday relations between the Ossetian and Georgian popu- inhabited by the Ossetians, but the province needed a capi- lations did not stop. (Even more, the number of combined tal. The nearest town to that territory was the town Tskhin- Georgian–Ossetian families in the region was very large). vali which, according to the population census in 1897, had Since 2004, Mikheil Saakashvili’s government began not a single Ossetian resident; the whole population of the making active steps to settle the conflict and reintegrate town was made up of Georgians, Armenians, and Jews. The South Ossetia. These steps bewildered the separatist leaders autonomous province border was established in such a way and Russian government. Putin’s government set a goal to that Tskhinvali appeared within it. To the south, Tskhinvali not allow the establishment of Georgian jurisdiction in South directly joins Georgian villages, which administratively be- Ossetia by all means and finally sever this region from Geor- long to Gori district and do not belong to the autonomous gia. To reach this goal, it was necessary to rekindle a large province; to the north, Tskhinvali is surrounded by nine scale conflict. Russia, through Ossetian separatists, started Georgian villages, which form a continuous 20 km zone of armed provocations against Georgian villages hoping, in this settlement at the riverside of Liakhvi. In that way, the town way, to end Georgia’s patience and force it to give an answer, located entirely in the Georgian environment with no actual which finally happened. In the August of 2008, Georgia gave Ossetian inhabitants became the center of South Ossetia. an answer by bombing Georgian villages and opened fire at During the years of Soviet power, the situation radically Tskhinvali. Russia reached its goal and was drawn into war changed. Tskhinvali turned into an Ossetian town. According against Georgia (Fig. 3.5). As a result of the war, Russia car- to the population census in 1989, Ossetians made up 70 % of ried out the occupation of all of South Ossetia, ethnic comb- the town with 41,000 residents. Tskhinvali became the cen- ing-out and ruined Georgian villages in the Liakhvi gorge. ter of Ossetian culture. There was a pedagogical institute, an After that, Russia “admitted” South Ossetia’s “indepen- Ossetian theatre in Tskhinvali, and Ossetian newspapers and dence” and disposed a military base on its territory. In this magazines were issued. Ninety-eight Ossetian schools func- way, the middle of Georgia, surrounded from three sides by tioned in total in the province, while in actual historical Os- Georgian provinces, and from the fourth side, separated from setia (North Ossetia) there was not a single Ossetian school. Russia by the Caucasian range, was occupied and severed All research on Ossetian language, literature, and Ossetian from the rest of Georgia. The Russian army was disposed at history was conducted only in Tskhinvali. At that time, the a distance of 40 km from Tbilisi. This situation is extremely purpose of policy was to estrange Ossetians from Georgian dangerous and a real source of international conflict. culture. Since 1953, education in the Georgian language was terminated in Ossetian schools. As a result, unlike the older References 31

Fig. 3.5 Georgian–Russian war in August 2008

References

Bondyrev IV, Tavartkiladze AM, Tcereteli ED et al (2007) Geography of catastrophes and risk in areas of humid subtropics the Caucasus- Pontides region. Poligraf, Tbilisi, p 270 Studies in History of Georgia (1970a) Sabchota Sakartvelo, Tbilisi, vol 1, p 816 (in Georgian) Studies in History of Georgia (1970b) Sabchota Sakartvelo, Tbilisi, vol 5, p 868 (in Georgian) Studies in History of Georgia (1973) Sabchota Sakartvelo 1973, Tbilisi, vol 2, p 672 (in Georgian) Zhorzholiani G (2000) Historical and political roots of the conflict in Abkhazia (Georgia), Tbilisi, p 286 (in Russian) Ethnic Groups and Religions 4

Abstract Over the centuries Georgia has had many ethnic groups who have and continue to have different faiths and beliefs. From ancient times to the Middle Ages, different ethnicities were represented but their percentages were not high. They were mainly Abkhazians, Georgian Jews, and Armenians and Muslims. Till the end of the sixteenth century, the ethnically non-Georgian population did not exceed 10–12 %. In the nineteenth century, the territory called Kvemo (Lower) Kartli, was settled by Germans. Javakheti was settled by Armenians from Turkey and Trialeti was settled by Greeks. The migration of Ossetians from North Caucasus took on a mass character. Many settlements were developed. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the non-Georgian population reached 30 %. During the first years of the Soviet Union, the migration process from Russia and Ukraine was extremely intensive. This changed the ethnic structure. The non-Georgian population had reached 40 % by 1939. From the 1950s the process changed backward and the non-Georgian population emigrated from Georgia. As a result, the percentage of the Georgian population increased and reached 29.9 % by 1989. According to the 2002 census, the non-Georgian population (except Abkhazia and Tskhinvali region) was 710,000 (4.3 %). The majority of Georgians are Christian-Orthodox. In mountainous regions, Christianity is mixed with ancient pagan religious rituals. In the provinces of Georgia, part of the Georgian population adopted the Catholic faith. That is why a number of Mesketians are Catholics. Another part of the Geor- gian population is Muslim. This chapter briefly discusses different ethnic groups and their religions.

Over the centuries Georgia has had many ethnic groups who B.C.), and Armenians and Muslims living in Georgian towns. have and continue to have different faiths and beliefs. This It is feasible that till the end of the sixteenth century, the chapter briefly discusses different ethnic groups and their re- ethnically non-Georgian population did not exceed 10–12 %. ligions. The situation started to change from the seventeenth century, when the settlement of different ethnic groups (Ossetians, ancestors of Azeris, and Armenians) began. This process 4.1 Composition of Georgian Population increased the percentage of the non-Georgian population to 20 % by the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth cen- From ancient times to the Middle Ages there were represen- tury, Russia was interested to settle different ethnic groups, tatives of different ethnicities in Georgia, but their percent- following the principle of “divide and rule!” The territory ages were not high. Mainly, there were Abkhazians, Geor- called Kvemo (Lower) Kartli, was settled by Germans. Ja- gian Jews (whose ancestors came to Georgia in sixth century vakheti was settled by Armenians from Turkey and Trialeti

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 33 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_4, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 34 4 Ethnic Groups and Religions

Fig. 4.1 Dynamics of percentage of ethnic minorities: 1 Abkhazians, 2 Ossetians, 3 Armenians, 4 Russians, 5 Azerbaijanians, 6 Greeks, 7 Jews, and 8 others was settled by Greeks. The migration of Ossetians from non-Georgian population (except in Abkhazia and Tskhin- North Caucasus took on a mass character. Many settlements vali region) was 710,000 (4.3 %). were developed. At the beginning of the twentieth century, According to the statistics of the twentieth century, if the the non-Georgian population reached 30 % (Fig. 4.1). number of Russians and Ukrainians intensively increased for During the first years of the Soviet Union, the migration 20–30 years, in 50–80 years, the tendency changed and the process from Russia and Ukraine was extremely intensive. number decreased. In both cases the defining factor was mi- This changed the ethnic structure. The non-Georgian popu- gration. In 70–80 years, the number of Jews on the Georgian lation had reached 40 % by 1939. From the 1950s the pro- territory decreased by emigration to Israel. Hence, migration cess changed backward and the non-Georgian population also started reducing the number of Armenians. The number emigrated from Georgia. As a result, the percentage of the of Ossetians, Greeks, and Abkhazians was slowly decreas- Georgian population increased and reached 29.9 % by 1989 ing. The same cannot be said about the Azeris and Kurds; (Jaoshvili 1996, p. 290). According to the 2002 census, the because of the high birth rate, their number doubled between 1959 and 1989.

Fig. 4.2 The ethnic structure of the population 4.1 Composition of Georgian Population 35

During 1989–2002, every ethnic group began decreasing. 4.1.2 Ossetians Comparatively, this level was low among Azeris (7.5 %) and very high among Armenians (48 %) and Russians (80 %). Since the olden days, the Ossetians have had intercommu- The number of Greeks decreased to a sixth of the original nion with Georgians. The first Ossetian settlements in Geor- population (from 100,000 to 15,000) as did the Jews (from gia were created in the late sixteenth century. At the end of 24,000 to 3700). The Kurd population was halved. In Geor- the eighteenth century, Ossetian villages were located at the gia (without Abkhazia and South Ossetia) the number of Os- sources of the Liakhvi, Qsani, and Terek rivers. In the begin- setians decreased to a third of the original (35,000) and there ning of the nineteenth century, the total number of Ossetians were less than 35,000 Abkhazians (Beruchashvili et al. 2012, in Georgia was 30,000. p. 150). In the nineteenth century, the Ossetian migration from the North Caucasus became intensive. Simultaneously, the Ossetian settlements enlarged and the population gradually 4.1.1 Abkhazians settled in the plains. At the end of the nineteenth century, the number of Ossetians reached 81,000 and their villages were Apart from Georgians, Abkhazians are the only people who created not only in the mountains of Kartli, but also in other do not have a homeland other than Georgia. Historically, regions of Kartli and Kakheti. This process lasted throughout Abkhazia has always been a part of Georgia and in spite of the first part of the twentieth century. In 1939, the number linguistic differences, Abkhazian people have been part of of Ossetians was 148,000. Less than half of that population the Georgian nation from cultural, economic, and political lived in the autonomous region of South Ossetia (which was points of view. After the seventeenth century, when the Turks set up in 1922). In the center of the region, in Tskhinvali, became established in Abkhazia, Christianity weakened, the where at the end of nineteenth century there existed no Os- migration of North Caucasians increased, and an estrange- setian population, Ossetians became a majority in 1939. ment began between Abkhazians and Georgians (Fig. 4.2). According to a population census in 1989, 164,000 Os- This estrangement was encouraged by the politicians of Rus- setians lived in Georgia. Of that, 65, were based in the sia and later by the politicians of the Soviet Union. South Ossetian Autonomous Region and almost 100,000 in In the middle of the nineteenth century, the number of other regions of Georgia. The Ossetians were 66.2 % of the Abkhazians was estimated to be about 60,000 people. In total population in the autonomous region; 74 % in Tskhin- between the 60th and 70th year of the nineteenth century, vali city; 91 %in the district of Java; 52 % in the Tskhinvali the government of Russia exiled half of the Abkhazians to district; 63 % in the Znauri district, and 44 % in Akhalgori Turkey. By 1886, the number of Abkhazians did not exceed (Population Census of Georgian SSR 1989 (1990), p. 350). 38,000. They lived compactly in only two districts—Gud- Turning to other regions, most Ossetians lived in Gori, Bor- autha and Ochamchire (in this period only three Abkha- jomi, Kaspi, and Qareli (from 10 to 15 %). They could also zians lived in Sokhumi). In 1939, the number of Abkhazians be found in the capital—Tbilisi, in the East Caucasus and reached 57,000 and the following years marked a sharp in some areas of Kakheti (Kazbegi, Dusheti, and Akhmeta). increase in the population. In 1989, the number of Abkha- The situation dramatically changed during the conflict zians in Georgia stood at 96,000. Of those, 93,200 lived in in the region of Tskhinvali in 1990–1992. The majority of Abkhazia. Their distribution was unequal; Abkhazians were the Georgian population living in South Ossetia abandoned mainly grouped in the regions of Gudautha and Ochamchire. Tskhinvali city and some villages. While the Russian-Geor- The population of Abkhazians stood at 12.5 % (14,900) in gian conflict was taking place in 2008, the ethnic cleansing Sokhumi and at 42.3 % (7900) in Tkvarcheli. In total, the was fulfilled; the Georgian population did not remain on Os- population of Abkhazia consisted of just 17.8 % Abkhazians; setian territory. A number of the Ossetians moved from the 65 % of them lived in the countryside (Population Census of Kartli and Kakheti regions and resettled in South Ossetia. Georgian SSR 1989 (1990), p. 344). The situation changed perceptibly after the Abkhazian war in 1992–1993; a lot of Georgians left Abkhazia. Many 4.1.3 Armenians representatives of other nations (including some Abkha- zians) were forced to leave the country. Exact details about Since the olden days, the Armenians have lived in the cit- the number of Abkhazians in Abkhazia are not available. Ap- ies of Georgia. The Georgian kings themselves contributed proximately, the total population of Abkhazia in 2002 was to the Armenian settlements in Georgia by developing trade 240,000, of which Abkhazians were 70,000. and workmanship. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, 47,000 Armenians lived in Georgia, making up 6 % of the total population of the country. In that figure, the Georgian population which had the Armenian-Gregorian faith is also 36 4 Ethnic Groups and Religions included. In this period all Armenians who lived in Geor- who were sent to Georgia for work, mostly to Tbilisi, decid- gia spoke Georgian and had close communication with the ed to stay as residents. In the 1840s–1850s, the Russian pop- Georgians. ulation increased due to sectarian compulsions (Dukhobors After the war between Russian and Turkey in 1828–1829, in Javakheti, Molokans in Kartli and Starovers and Skopts the Russians relocated more than 35,000 Armenians from in Guria and Samegrelo). In Georgia, the population of Rus- Turkey to Georgia. The intensive migration of the Arme- sians was 26,000 in 1865; 101,000 in 1897; and 110,000 in nian population lasted the whole century. Their population 1926. In 1939, their population exceeded 354,000. Over 13 reached 197,000 in 1897, 307,000 in 1926, and 448,000 in years, their population tripled. 1959. This shows that over a 150 year period, their number After World War II, the population of Russians decreased increased ten times. In Abkhazia, Armenian settlements were due to emigration. Their number stood at 407,000 in 1959, created for those Armenians migrating from Turkey. Their and at 341,000 in 1989. The emigration process has be- population in Tbilisi stood at well over 100,000. come more intensive in recent years, and in 2002 Russians The population of Armenians was 427,000 in 1989. Geor- in Georgia had not exceeded 67,000 (excluding Abkhazia). gia’s Armenian population is mostly gathered in Tbilisi, The Russian population in Georgia from 1989 to 2002 has Akhalkalaki, Ninotsminda, Akhalcikhe, Batumi, and also in decreased to a fifth of the original. More than 90 % of the Abkhazia. Russians in Georgia live in cities (Tbilisi, Rustavi, Sokhumi, The Armenian population diminished by half due to the and Batumi). At the same time they do not represent a major- emigration in the 1990s and stood at 248,000 in 2002. They ity of their population in any region. They are relatively high made up 5.7 % of the total population of Georgia. During in number in Abkhazian districts (Gagra, Gudauta, Sokhumi, these periods the Armenian population of Abkhazia was dis- and Gulripshi). regarded.

4.1.6 Other Nationalities 4.1.4 Azerbaijanians Among the other nationalities living in Georgia, Greeks The ancestors of the majority of Azerbaijanians who lived were the most numerous. According to the population census in Georgia were nomadic tribes: the Borchalu were settled in 1989, the population of Greeks was 100,000. Until recent- by Iranian Shah Abas I in Kartli. The others, the tribes of ly, the number of Greeks showed a permanent growth; the Muganlo, are descendants of later immigrants to Georgia. In intensive migration of Greeks to Greece began only after the the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there was no signifi- beginning of the 1990s. As a result, their number decreased cant migration of Azerbaijanians to Georgia, but due to the to 15,000 in 2002. The Greeks in Georgia are divided into fact that the Azerbaijanians have a very high birth rate, the two groups: the Anatolian Greeks, whose native language is portion of Azerbaijanians continually increased. According Turkish (Urums), and the Greek-speaking Greeks (Romeis). to population statistics of 1959–1989, over 30 years, their The Urums live mostly in Trialeti (Tsalka and Tetritskaro re- population doubled from 153,000 to 307,000. In 1989–2002, gions) and the Romes in Adjara, Abkhazia, Borjomi region, the number of Azerbaijanians fell to 284,000. The population and partly in Trialeti. of Azerbaijanians now is more than that of Armenians and The Jews living in Georgia can be divided into two Russians and it was the highest among the ethnic minori- groups. The first group consists of Georgian Jews who have ties who lived in Georgia. Nearly 75 % of the Azerbaijanian lived in Georgia for 26 centuries. Their native language is population of Georgia lives in villages, and the majority of Georgian and they have Georgian surnames (some scientists the population is in Marneuli, Bolnisi, Dmanisi, and Garda- think a number of Georgian Jews are originally Georgians bani districts. and had ancestors who converted to Judaism). The second group consists of European Jews who have been living in Georgia since the nineteenth century. In 1989, the total popu- 4.1.5 Russians lation of Jews in Georgia stood at 24,000 (14,000 Georgian Jews, 10,000 European Jews). This population is 2.5 times The first settlements of Russians were created at the begin- smaller than that in 1970. The emigration to Israel became ning of the nineteenth century. In the beginning, these were more intensive in the 1990s and by 2002 the total number of military settlements, next to which lived military retirees. In Jews was no more than 3700. Jews mostly live in the cities. this way Russian colonies were created in Dedoplistskaro, There were very famous Georgian Jew districts in Tbilisi, Manglisi, and Tetritskaro. Later, a large number of people Kutaisi, Akhaltsikhe, Gori, Oni, Tskhinvali, Surami, and Ku- 4.2 Religions 37

Fig. 4.3 Main religions

lashi. Most of these districts now have practically no Jewish territory of Georgia. The majority of Georgians are Chris- population. tian-Orthodox. At the same time, in the mountainous regions Kurds living in Georgia belong to the Yezidi sect. They (Pshav-Khevsureti and Tusheti) Christianity is mixed with came here after World War I. Due to the high natural growth, ancient pagan religious rituals. In the provinces of Georgia, the number of Kurds has increased six times since then and, which for many years have been occupied by Turkey, part according to population census, the number of Kurds was of the Georgian population—in order to preserve Christi- 33,000 in 1989. Their population decreased to 20,800 in anity—adopted the Catholic faith as the Turks did not per- 2002, however, of that Yezidi were 18,300. The majority of secute this direction of Christianity. That is why a number them live in Tbilisi, and the rest in Rustavi and Telavi. The of Mesketians are Catholics. Another part of the Georgian Assirians (Aisors) are also living in Tbilisi. Their number population was forcibly compelled to accept Islam, so a vol- stands at no more than 4000. ume of the population is Muslim (Adjarans and some Ingilo Among the other ethnic minorities the Kists living in are Sunni Muslims; the Fereidanians are Shi’ah Muslims). Pankisi valley (Akhmeta district of Kakheti region) should Recently, various sects of Protestantism have spread among be noted as their ancestors arrived there from Chechnya’s Georgians (Baptist, Adventism, 50 tenths, and Jehovah’s mountainous regions in the middle of the nineteenth century Witnesses) and also some eastern religions such as Krish- (in 2002 their total number was 7000); the Dagestanians na’s, Buddhism, and Baha’ism (Fig. 4.3). were living in four villages of the Kvareli district (Kakheti According to the population census of 2002, 94 % of region), and were also the descendants of Poles who moved Georgians are Christian-Orthodox, 3.8 % Muslim, and 0.3 % to Georgia in the nineteenth century, and Gypsies. During Catholic. There is no information available about other faiths World War II, Germans (12,000) and Meskhetian Turks and beliefs. Twenty-eight thousand persons do not recog- (the Muslim population of Meskheti region—approximate- nize any religion or are nonbelievers. From the other ethnic ly 70,000) were exiled from Georgia. A small number of groups living in Georgia, Russians also recognize Christi- Meskhetian Turks have since returned to Georgia. anity (the majority of them are orthodox and a number of them, sectarian—Dukhobors, Molokans, and Old Believers (Starovers). Armenians are Monophysites (the Gregorian 4.2 Religions Church), though a small number are Catholic; Greeks are orthodox; Aisors are Nestorian and Catholic; the Poles are The Georgians are among the most ancient Christian peo- Catholics; the Germans—Protestants (Lutherans); Azerbai- ple. Georgia recognized Christianity as a state religion at janians are followers of Shi’ah Islam (a small number follow the beginning of the fourth century. The Georgian Orthodox Sunni Islam); the Kists and Daghestanians are Sunni Mus- Church is one of the 15 autonomous orthodox churches in lims; the Kurds follow the Yezidi religion, and the Jews are the world. It is divided into 37 eparchies and covers the full 38 4 Ethnic Groups and Religions

Fig. 4.4 Eparchies of the Georgian orthodox church: 1 Mtskheta- tumi and Kobuleti, 18 Skhalta, 19 Akhaltsikhe and Tao-Klarjeti, 20 Tbilisi; 2 Tskhum-Abkhazeti, 3 Mestia-Upper Svaneti, 4 Tsageri and Kumurdo and Akhalkalaki, 21 Borjomi and Bakuriani, 22 Manglisi and Lentekhi, 5 Nikortsminda, 6 Zugdidi and Tsaishi, 7 Senaki and Chk- Tsalka, 23 Dmanisi and Lore-Tashiri, 24 Bolnisi, 25 Rustavi and Mar- horutsku, 8 Chkondidi, 9 Poti and Khobi, 10 Samtredia and Khoni, neuli, 26 Ruisi-Urbnisi, 27 Gori and Samtavisi, 28 Nikozi and Tskhin- 11 Kutaisi and Gaenati, 12 Tkibuli and Terjola, 13 Thiatura and Sa- vali, 29 Tsilkani and Dusheti, 30 Stepantsminda and Khevi, 31 Tianeti chkhere, 14 Margveti, 15 Vani and Bagdadi, 16 Shemokmedi,17 Ba- and Pshav-Khevsureti, 32 Alaverdi, 33 Sagarejo and Ninotsminda, 34 Gurjaani and Velistsikhe, 35 Nekresi and Hereti, 36 Bodbe

Judaists. Formally, Ossetians were orthodox. Part of the Ab- khazians is orthodox, another part Muslim. In fact, religion References is represented very poorly among these people; they mostly respect pagan cults (Fig. 4.4). Jaoshvili V (1996) Population of Georgia. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p 430 (in Georgian) Beruchashvili N, Davitashvili Z, Elizbarashvili N (2012) Geography of Georgia. Klio, Tbilisi, p 264 (in Georgian) Population Census of Georgia in 1989 (1990) Vol. 1. Geostat, Tbilisi, p 416 (Georgian) Population Census of Georgia in 2002 (2003) Geostat, Tbilisi, p 358 (in Georgian) Demographics 5

Abstract Georgia’s population monotonically increased from 1770 to 1990, and then it started to decline. Now the population has stabilized. In 1801 the population of Georgia was 785,000, and it increased up to 1,943,000 in 1897. In 1926 it reached 2,677,000, and in 1959 it was 4,044,000. Between 1960 and 1980, more people emigrated than immigrated. In 1989, the population was 5,443,000, and in 2002 it was 4,601,500. Nearly 89.1% of the Georgian population resided at 0–800 m elevation above sea level. Between 800 and 1200 m, it was 5.8%, 4.2% between 1200 and 1800 m, and it was only 0.9% between 1800 and 2400 m. In 2002, the birthrate in Georgia was very low—10.7/1000 of the population, a significant change from the 14.9/1000 in 1992. The rate of increase was no more than 5.3 in 1992 and reduced to 2.1 in 1994; the index of natural increase stood at zero in 1997. In 2010, the natural increase rate was 3.3. The proportion of ethnic Georgians began to decline. During the 1920–1950s, the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants was 240,000, when in the 1960–1989 the emigrants predominated over immigrants with 278,000. Most of emigrants were not ethnic Georgians. With independence in 1991, there came a great outflow of Georgian emigrants from the country. The emigration grew steadily during the first year of independence, rising from 300,000 to a peak of 1 million after 1991. A quarter of them were Georgians. This chapter reflects on the demographic landscape of Georgia through time.

Georgia’s population monotonically increased from 1770 to only 4 %. Therefore, the reduction of the population of Geor- 1990 and then it stated to decline. Now the population has gia was caused by the expansion of other ethnic groups (Pop- stabilized. This chapter reflects on the demographic land- ulation Census of Georgia in 2002 2003, pp. 7–8). scape of Georgia through time.

5.2 Territorial Disposition of Population 5.1 Demographic Landscape Georgia has a complicated relief, varying climate, and an According to the population census in 1989, the Georgian unequal distribution of natural resources—all factors that population stood at 5443 thousand. According to 2002 data, determine the rate of manufacturing and simultaneously the 4601.5 thousand were registered (without Abkhazia and disposition of population. This theory can be proved by the Tskhinvali Region—4335 thousand). As one can see, over 13 population difference in Georgia’s three main physical–geo- years the population of Georgians reduced by a fifth. In the graphical regions—the mountainous Caucasus, low-lying 1990s, due to political events and socioeconomic consider- Georgia, and the southern mountainous region; though these ations, a number of Georgians left the country. It also became regions do not differ in area. The mountainous Caucasus is apparent that the birthrate was reducing and the death rate underdeveloped and so holds only 4 % of Georgia’s popula- increasing. These factors caused dramatic demographical tion. The southern mountainous region has better living con- problems. The number of ethnic Georgians in 1989 stood at ditions, including fertile soil and a steady unbroken relief, 3787 thousand (70.1 % of the total Georgian population). In which explains its higher population (8 % of population of 2002, the number of Georgians was 3661 thousand (83.8 % Georgia) (Fig. 5.2). of the total population) (Fig. 5.1). This was a reduction of

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 39 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_5, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 40 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.1 Dynamics of the population of Georgia between 1779 and 2006 (thousand persons)

A different situation is clear in low-lying Georgia where There are no constant settlements above this level. The den- in all areas, except Kolkheti Lowland, Likchi Range, and sity of the Georgian population consists of 63 men (accord- Iori Plateau, the living conditions are good. Nearly 88 % of ing to 1989 data, 77.8 men), though different provinces show the total population of Georgia is concentrated in this area. variations in their density rate. The index is 140 in Adjara, Almost all important Georgian cities are gathered, and 90 % and 6 in Svaneti. However, if we take into consideration all of manufactured products are made in this area. It is also inhabited and industrial territories, the result will show an remarkable that in mountainous Georgia the population per- increase in density (Fig. 5.3). In Georgia as a whole, it is 220 centage has increased; in 1926 79 % of Georgia’s population (Beruchashvili et al. 2009, pp. 132–134). lived here, while 12 % lived in the southern area and 9 % in the Caucasus (Jaoshvili 1996, p. 349). We have almost the same picture of disposition in the 5.3 Dynamism of Population above-sea-level data. Nearly 89.1 % of the Georgian population resided at 0–800 m elevation above sea level. Between The Georgian population stood at 785 thousand in 1801 and 800 and 1200 m, it was 5.8 %; 4.2 % between 1200 and it increased up to 1943 thousand in 1897. Throughout the 1800 m; and it was only 0.9 % between 1800 and 2400 m. nineteenth century, the number of people increased both nat-

Fig. 5.2 The main axis of the disposition of the population 5.4 Natural Growth 41

Fig. 5.3 Density of population

urally and mechanically. This tendency continued during the lations) (Table 5.1). In other Georgian provinces, there was first half of the twentieth century (Fig. 5.4). almost no increase in population; in Racha-Lechkhumi the The population of Georgia reached 2677 thousand in population dramatically decreased due to intensive emigra- 1926 and 4044 thousand in 1959. Between 1960 and 1980, tion (Beruchashvili et al. 2012, p. 128). the mechanical movement became negative and more people emigrated than immigrated. Despite that, statistically the natural increase became higher than the mechanical decrease 5.4 Natural Growth in the number of people. In 1989, the Republic of Georgia had 5443 thousand inhabitants. During the twentieth century, the birthrate in Georgia gradu- Between 1990 and 1996, natural growth decreased, de- ally decreased. It was a natural result of the development of spite the birthrate being higher than the death rate (Fig. 5.5). the manufacturing industry, the increasing of urban popula- After 1997 until 2004, both natural and mechanical growths tion, the employment of women in the economy, etc. Since were negative. In 2006, the country consisted of 4401.5 thou- 1991 there has been a very serious demographic situation in sand people (without Abkhazia and Tskhinvali regions)—1 Georgia. A complicated political and economic situation has million, 42 thousand people fewer than in 1989 (according had an influence upon demographic indicators of the coun- to the population census) (Fig. 5.6). try. High outward migration from Georgia has been moti- In some Georgian provinces, the population dynamics is vated by the lack of economic opportunities at home. very different; the increase is most noticeable in Tbilisi, also In 2002, the birthrate in Georgia was very low—10.7/1000 in Adjara, Kvemo Kartli, and Javakheti (due to high birth- of the population, a significant change from the 14.9/1000 rate, which is characteristic of Moslem and Armenian popu- of 1992. The natural increase rate was no more than 5.3 in

Fig. 5.4 Dynamism of the population of Georgia, 1960–2008 42 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.5 Natural increase of population 1981–1985

Fig. 5.6 Natural increase of population 2001–2005

1992; this reduced to 2.1 in 1994. The index of natural increase stood at zero in 1997. In 2010, the natural increase 5.5 Population Structure by Age and Sex rate was 3.3 (data from the Department of Statistics: http:// www.geostat.ge). Demographically, the population of Georgia is growing old The demographic situation varies considerably through- in view of the fact that the number of youth is steadily de- out the Georgian provinces. The population growth rate in creasing. For example, in 1926 the number of people who Adjara, Kvemo Kartli, and Javakheti is high, where the ma- were more than 35 years old, was no more than 28.5 %, while jority of the population is Muslim and Armenian. Contrary this index now stands at 50 %. Among Georgian newborns, to this, in the mountain regions of Georgia—Tusheti, Racha- male is predominant over female. But from the age of 20 Lechkhumi, Svaneti, Pshavi, and Khevsurethi, the birthrate the number of females is greater than males, because the fe- is very low. Young people have tended to leave these regions, male life expectancy is higher than the male life expectancy, and that is why the death rate is higher than the birthrate. Me- and the male death rate is higher than the female death rate. chanical decrease is also influencing the deserting of some Population by age and sex is clearly represented by a pyra- provinces of Georgia. mid structure. The Georgian population by age and sex pyramid differs from normal (Fig. 5.7). In Racha-Lechkhumi, the pyramid structure is disfigured, while in Kvemo Kartli it has a normal structure. 5.6 Migration of Population 43

Table 5.1 Dynamics of population province-wise. (Beruchashvili et al. 2012, p. 128) Regions/years 1800 1832 1865 1897 1926 1959 1989 2002 2011 Tbilisi 15 26 65 160 294 703 1263 1081 1162 Kartli 303 334 442 525 514 792 1138 876 906 Kakheti 291 395 442 407 406 East Kavkasioni 64 64 59 53 47 Imereti 160 139 261 82 495 652 772 700 704 Racha 37 50 70 101 75 46 25 23 Lechkhumi 106 117 17 15 Samegrelo 196 286 270 358 411 452 462 Svaneti 12 12 19 31 26 23 23 Guria 31 34 59 92 113 146 159 143 140 Abkhazia 78 82 79 105 210 404 535 270 – Achara 40 46 48 78 132 245 392 376 491 Samtskhe 38 65 87 142 102 81 88 113 114 Javakheti 71 95 108 95 98 Total 785 892 1289 1942 2678 4044 5443 4601 4469

5.6 Migration of Population rising from 300,000 to a peak of 1 million after 1991. A quarter of them were Georgians. In the nineteenth century, Georgia was a country of immi- Historically, internal migration has been conditioned gration. During the Soviet period (1921–1956), this process by security concerns. Traditionally, during wars and politi- became more intensive. The proportion of ethnic Georgians cal struggles, the population moved to the mountains, and began to decline. From 1957 the trend changed. During the in periods of peace people returned to the plains. Since the 1920–1950s, the difference between the number of immi- nineteenth century, especially during the Agrarian reforms of grants and emigrants was 240,000; whereas in the 1960– the 1960s, there has been a remarkably intensive movement 1989, the emigrants predominated over immigrants with from countryside to town. Between 1801 and 1921, about 278,000. Most of emigrants were not ethnic Georgians. As a 170,000 internal emigrants migrated from the countryside to result the share of ethnic Georgians increased by a full 10 % towns. Less intensive was the migration from village to vil- and became 70 % of the population. lage: Population from mountainous regions (Tusheti, Pshav- During the Soviet period, Georgia had a negative index of Khevsureti, Mtianeti, Zemo Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi) was external migration (Fig. 5.8). In 1989, the number of Geor- moved to villages in Kartli and Kakheti (Fig. 5.9). gian emigrants in other Soviet republics was 194,000, a sig- During the Soviet period this fact became more evident. In nificant change from 91,000 in 1959. The greatest number that time, the process of urbanization was intensive. Between of Georgian emigrants lives in big cities within the Russian 1921 and 1956, the number of emigrants who migrated from Federation. With independence in 1991, there came a great villages to towns was about 320,000–330,000; between 1957 outflow of Georgian emigrants from the country. The emi- and 1990, this figure was 520,000. The village-to-village gration grew steadily during the first year of independence, migration was organized, and population from mountains was moved to the lower lying Black Sea Coast subtropical

Fig. 5.7 Pyramid of sex and age in Georgia ( 4.2.8), age structure of Racha-Lechkhumi ( 4.2.10), and Kvemo Kartli ( 4.2.11) 44 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.8 Dynamics of external migration in Georgia

industrial regions Samtskhe and Kvemo-Kartli. During the almost empty. This came about due to the unnatural rise in 70-year period, 1 million inhabitants left the countryside and city inhabitants. This is an important issue for Tbilisi where migrated to towns (Jaoshvili 1996, pp. 230–231). a quarter of Georgia’s population currently resides. This The “town-to-town” internal migration was marked by very negative process prevents the normal development of the movement from small towns to big cities, but “coun- the country. try-to-country” migration has always been insignificant in In recent years, the greatest problem for Georgia has Georgia (Fig. 5.10). Such internal migration created serious been refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPS) problems; the number of inhabitants of Georgian villages (Fig. 5.11). In the time of the Abkhazian and South Osse- has decreased significantly—some villages are inhabited tian conflicts, when the Russian government and separatists only by the elderly, and others (those in the mountains) are carried out ethnic cleansing and almost all the Georgian in-

Fig. 5.9 Main migration flows 5.7 Social Structure and Employment 45

Fig. 5.10 Natural and mechanical movement of the population of Georgia

habitants (and not only Georgians) were driven out of their a new social stratum—the collective farmers. The number own territories, the number of refugees and IDPS reached of people not in the collective farms was very low. Aside 500,000. Nearly 200,000 inhabitants dispersed to vari- from workers and collective workers, everybody, regard- ous countries (on the whole to Russia and to the Ukraine). less of whether he was a scientist or creative intellectual, Nowadays, the number of IDPs stands at over 300,000. a doctor, lawyer, driver or seller, artisan or office-cleaner, Those 270,000 persons who were forced from Abkhazia everybody was involved in one social group—employees. are mostly settled in Tbilisi and in the region of Samegrelo. In that way, in Soviet Georgia, as all over the Soviet Union, Those 13,000 persons who were forced from Tskhinvali in there were three social groups: workers, collective workers, 1990–1992 were added to the 20,000 who, during the Rus- and employees. sian—Georgian war in 2008, were lodged in refugee camps According to the census of 1989, 55 % of Georgia’s in- in the region of Shida Kartli. habitants were workers, 30.7 % employees, and 13.2 % collective workers (including all family members). Only 30,000 inhabitants (0.6 %) were bearers of the category of free pro- 5.7 Social Structure and Employment fession. After the transition from the Soviet system to market economy, there began a fundamental change in the Georgian Before the beginning of the twentieth century, more than economic structure and a hard crisis which significantly 80 % of Georgia’s population was peasants. Georgia stood changed the social status in Georgia’s population. Most of at the first place in the world by the number of nobilities the collective farms were abolished along with the Soviet (approximately 6.5 %). There were a very few proletarians economy. Correspondingly, the social status of collective and bourgeois in the country. After the establishment of the workers disappeared, and instead was created a status of Soviet power, the social structure of Georgia’s inhabitants farmers and peasants. After bringing a stop to industrial pro- completely changed. The classes of nobility and bourgeoi- duction, the number of workers was considerably reduced. In sie were eradicated (most of them were destroyed and ex- exchange, there was growth in the number of employees in iled by communists). In the 1930s, communists carried out the private trade and services in Georgia. After this, the cat- the collectivization under compulsion. Peasants were com- egory of “businessmen” was also created. Thereafter, most pulsorily united on collective farms. After this, they set up of Georgia’s inhabitants lived without continual income and 46 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.11 Refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs)

made up a huge army of unemployed persons. According pursuits. In recent years, the number engaged in industry, to the figures of 2006, only half of the whole population of construction, transport, and communication has significantly Georgia consisted of economically active inhabitants. The decreased. Contrastingly, the number employed in trade and number of unemployed persons stood at 280,000, which agriculture has grown. Nowadays most of the able-bodied was 14 % of the economically active population (Fig. 5.12) population is employed in agriculture (55 %), 11 % in trade, (Georgia in Figures 2008, p. 68). and 5 % in the state government (Georgia in Figures 2008, p. 69). In addition, there is a significant and increasing number employed in the intellectual sphere (education, culture, 5.8 Employment science, and social care of public health).

Conforming to scientific and technical development in Geor- gia, as in most countries around the world, the number of 5.9 Geography of Unemployment those physically employed is reducing and the number engaged in intellectual pursuits rising. According to the fig- Nowadays, the greatest social problem for Georgia is unem- ures of 1989, 36.5 % of Georgia’s employed population was ployment. Unemployment in Georgia is a habitual fact. The engaged in intellectual pursuits and the others in physical reason for this problem is neither surplus of workforce (as it

Fig. 5.12 Economically active population 5.12 Urbanization 47 exists in developed countries), nor more commodity produc- Tkubuli, and Tkvarcheli are centers of the mining industry. tion than demand (as it exists in undeveloped countries). The Khashuri and Samtredia are transport knots; Poti has indus- main reason is that the level of production has been thrown trial and port functions; Gagra, Kobuleti, Borjomi, and Ts- down under the deficit of plural raw material. Nowadays, kaltubo are health-resort cities. The main function of some with post-Soviet countries being independent, the economic towns is the cultivation of agricultural products, while others relationship between them is abolished. Georgia is unable to have only administrative function. Sometimes big cities have import the plural raw material at prices which can be paid by several functions and are called multifunctional cities. Usu- the country, and even if Georgia imports the derivative pro- ally, around these multifunctional cities appear new groups duces, it will be uncompetitive on the world market. For that of smaller cities (satellite cities) that are closely connected reason, industrial factories were closed, leaving thousands of with large metropolises. Tbilisi, Kutaisi, and Batumi were people without jobs. formed as urban agglomerations. The exact number of unemployed is not clear and is almost impossible to ascertain as a significant number of workers and servants are on leave without pay due to the 5.11 Where, Why, and When Georgian Cities closure of industrial factories and are considered as “tempo- Were Created rarily unemployed.” This “temporary unemployment” lasts for many years, and the population is constrained in its abil- Georgia is the ancient hearth of civil culture. Even in the sev- ity to change or to find alternative employment. enth to fourth centuries BC there were important civil settlements, from the ancient cities of Kolkheti and Iberia (Tsikhe- goji, Kutaisi, Vani, Mtskheta, and Uplistsikhe) to the Greek 5.10 Urban Geography trade colonies on the Black Sea coast (Pitiunti, Dioskuria, Gue- nos, Pasis, and Apsarunt). In the ancient and middle centuries, A town in Georgia is considered as a settlement with more the appearance of new cities was conditioned by two main than 5000 inhabitants, where half of the population is in- factors: Some cities were created as military strategic points volved in nonagricultural activities. A settlement with a (Tbilisi, Gori, Telavi, Sighagi, Akhaltsikhe), and after that nonagricultural profile, having a population less than 5000 they took on other functions; others because of advantageous in Georgia is called daba. By way of exception, in Geor- transport and geographical location were developed from the gia, there are towns with a population of less than 5000, for outset as centers of trade and workmanship (Fig. 5.14). example, Ambrolauri, Oni, Tsageri, Vani, Tsalka, and Dma- The period of capitalism is marked in Georgia by the ap- nisi, and dabas inhabited by more than 5000 people (such as pearance of new cities and a period of development. At that Chakvi, Khelvachauri, and Kazreti). time the importance of industrial and transport functions was At present there are 98 urban settlements in Georgia, and increasing. Populated areas that had profitable economical 54 of them are towns and 44 dabas. The majority of them or geographical locations, mainly railway lines and ports, are situated in low-lying regions. Georgian urban settlements were rapidly developing and transforming into industrial are quite different according to population. The population and transport centers. The appearance of some cities, such in Tbilisi is over 1.1 million (25 % of the total population of as Chiatura, Tkibuli, Tkvarcheli, and Madneuli, is connected Georgia). This index is unnaturally high. We should estimate with the processing of natural resources. In other cases it is negatively the fact that the capital of Georgia outnumbers connected with touristic conditions, for example, Borjomi, the second-largest Georgian city Kutaisi six times. In normal Tskaltubo, and Gagra. At that time, many Georgian villages conditions, this difference should not be more than 2–2.5. were transformed at first into dabas and later into towns. Aside from Kutaisi, there are two other big cities, Rustavi and Batumi, where the population stands at about 100,000 people. There are more than 50,000 inhabitants in Zugdidi, 5.12 Urbanization Gori, and Poti. In Samtredia, Zestaponi, Marneuli, Telavi, Senaki, and Khashuri, there are about 20,000–50,000 peo- Only in the 1970s did the urban population in Georgia ex- ple. After 1989, a population reduction took place in almost ceed the rural population. Nowadays, the level of urbaniza- every urban settlement, though this is mainly connected with tion is approximately 52 %. More than 45 % of the urban cities in Abkhazia; the population in Sukhumi was about population is represented in Tbilisi. The private regions dif- 120,000, but now stands at less than 40,000. fer from each other according to the level of urbanization. There are also functional differences between Georgian Relatively urbanized regions are: Imereti, Adjara, Samegre- cities (Fig. 5.13). Some Georgian cities have an explicit in- lo, and Qvemo Kartli. Less urbanized territories in Georgia dustrial function; for example, Rustavi, Zestafoni, and Kaspi include the regions of Kakheti, Guria, Racha-Lechkhumi, are specialized in the manufacturing industry, and Chiatura, and Svaneti (Fig. 5.15). 48 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.13 Functional types of cities

Fig. 5.14 Genetic types of cities 5.13 Geography of Villages 49

Fig. 5.15 Level of urbanization by regions: 1 80–90 %, 2 40–50 %, 3 30–40 %, 4 20–30 %, 5 10–20 %

5.13 Geography of Villages

Traditionally the main dwelling place of Georgian people was the countryside. Nowadays it is rare to find a Georgian who is not somehow connected to a village. Until the middle of the twentieth century, most of the Georgian population lived in villages. However, today’s statistics show that the city population exceeds that of the countryside. Despite this, villages still remain a driving force of the country’s economy and the hearth of Georgian folk culture and traditions. In 1989, the population of Georgia lived permanently in Fig. 5.16 Population dynamics of urban ( 1) and rural ( 2) population 4314 villages. This index of villages is lower than the perma- 1900–2002 nently inhabited villages of the 1930s and the 1940s; in the late 1940s, more than 400 villages (mainly in mountainous areas) became depopulated. According to the General Cen- The villages of Georgia are distinguished by their func- sus of 2002, there were about 3668 fixed villages (including tional diversity. In villages of Kakheti, Upper Imereti, and 162 without residents), though in noting this we should take Lower Racha, they mostly follow viticulture. In Inner Kartli, into account the 494 Abkhazian and 358 Southern Ossetian Samtskhe, Lower Imereti, and Lechxumi, gardening is domi- villages where the general census was not conducted (Beru- nant. In Guria-Samegrelo, Abkhazia, and coastline Adjara, chashvili et al. 2012, p. 141). subtropical culture is the leading specialization. In Outer Georgian villages differ from each other by the intensity Kakheti, Javakheti, Upper Adjara, and in some mountainous of population (Fig. 5.16). The number of villages (less than villages, there is field-crop cultivation and cattle-breading. 200 inhabitants) equals 40 % of the total number of villages. In the villages around Tbilisi and Kutaisi, suburb-type agri- The number of medium-size villages (200–1000 inhabitants) culture is most widespread. In high-mountain villages, they is almost the same, and the rest are big villages (more than mainly follow sheep breading. 1000 inhabitants). As for the rural population resettlement, According to physical–geographical location there are there also have been different cases: In small villages, there types of plain, foot-hill, and mountain villages in Georgia. live 5.3 % of Georgia’s rural population; in medium-size In each of them there are several types of settlements. In 35.7 %; and in big villages 59 %. There is a big difference in the plains, there are villages with quartile planning or vil- different regions of Georgia in terms of population. In villages without a systematic net of streets; in foothill villages, lages of Kakheti, the average number of people is 1151, in household-type and chaotically dispersed settlements are Imereti 690, in Racha-Lechkhumi 165, and in the provinces more widespread. The mountain villages are located across of eastern Caucasus 103. The average number of people for the river banks on the plateaus and downhill of mountains. Georgia’s villages is 569. It is obvious that small villages According to administration, Georgian villages are united and the vast majority of medium-size villages are most likely in Sakrebulos (communities). Some big villages create a expected to disappear in the future (Fig. 5.17). separate Sakrebulo. In general, a Sakrebulo consists of sev- 50 5 Demographics

intensified even more, and in 1939 the percentage of ethnic Georgians in the Georgian population was not more than 60 %. Only from the beginning of the 1950s, the percentage of ethnic Georgians started to increase (which was caused by the emigration of non-Georgians), and in 1989 this figure was 70.1 %. According to the evaluation of population, the percentage of ethnic Georgians equals 83.8 %. This figure is higher in Georgian villages (85 %) than in cities (80 %). Of every 100 Georgians, 53 live in towns, while 47 live in villages. About 100 years ago, of every 100 Georgians, only 13 lived in towns (Beruchashvili et al. 2012, p. 144). Fig. 5.17 Dynamics of ethnic Georgians The percentage of ethnic Georgians differs in different regions (Fig. 5.18). In West Georgia provinces, this indicator is very high; in Imereti, Guria, and Samegrelio it equals eral villages. There are 896 Sakrebulos in Georgia (not in- 96–98 %; in Racha-Lechkhumi and Svaneti 99 %. This fig- cluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia). Mostly the Sakrebulos ure in Adjara is 93 % and in Abkhazia it was 45.7 % before of Kakheti and Lower Kartli are represented by one village, 1992. In Shida (inner) Kartli, the percentage of ethnic Geor- while in the Sakrebulos of Svaneti and mountain regions of gians is 90 % (except South Ossetia), in Kakheti 83 %, in eastern Georgia, there are 15–20 villages. mountains region of East Georgia 96 %, 73 % in Samtskhe, 44 % in Kvemo (lower) Kartli and it is only 3 % in Javakheti (Beruchashvili et al. 2012, pp. 144–145). 5.14 Ethnic Geography of Georgians There is even more difference in the percentage of Geor- gians according to administrative regions. According to the The percentage of ethnic Georgians in the Georgian popula- 2002 census, in 59 administrative districts under Georgian tion was different in different periods. In the Middle Ages, jurisdiction, the Georgians represented a majority in 53 the Georgians represented more than 90 % of the total popu- districts. In the districts of Akhalkalaki and Nonitsminda, lation. In the late Middle Ages, when the ancestors of Os- also in Tsalka (after Greek emigration), the majority of the setians, Armenians, Azeris, and some other peoples settled population is represented by Armenians, while in Marneuli, on the territory of the country, the percentage of Georgians Bolnisi, and Dmanisi districts, by Azeris. The non-Georgian decreased, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century, population resides in six cities. Out of 3668 villages, the ma- it was not higher than 80 %. While being part of the Rus- jority of Georgians is represented in 3050 (Population Cen- sian Empire, when different ethnic groups were settled in sus of Georgia in 2002 2003). Georgia on purpose, this figure decreased to 70 %. In the beginning of the Soviet time, the process mentioned above

Fig. 5.18 Percentage of ethnic Georgians 5.16 Basic Ethnic Groups 51

5.15 Georgians Outside of Georgia vide a description of population ethnicity. It is excessive imagination that the number of Georgians living in Turkey Traditionally, Georgians rarely left their homeland on their is several millions. On the other hand, the data shown by own will. That’s why the number of Georgians outside Geor- Turkey are definitely lower. According to them, the num- gia has never been high. Kidnapped and captured Georgians ber of people who speak the Georgian and Lazic languages were soon assimilated in local population. They used to lose is not more than 150,000. It is felt that the percentage of Georgian ethnic characteristics already from the second Georgians living in Turkey equals 500,000 (we mean those generation. The exceptions are descendants of those Geor- people, who have kept their ethnicity and do not consider gians, who were forcefully resettled in Iran by Shah Abas themselves Turkish). The total number of Georgians in Iran I in the beginning of the seventeenth century (Pereidanian is approximately 20,000–25,000. The number of Georgians Georgians). They saved the Georgian language and national living in Europe and the USA did not succeed 5000–6000 self-consciousness due to their dense settlement. The major- till the 1990s. Since 1991 conditions have changed. Suppos- ity of Georgians appeared in Turkey, when Turkey captured edly, only in the 1990s 350,000–400,000 Georgians left the southern Georgia. The same can be said about the Ingilos, country. Their majority is considered to be outside the coun- living in Azerbaijan. Thus, those Georgians densely living try temporarily, but a definite part became citizens of other in Turkey and Azerbaijan actually live on their historical states and left Georgia forever (Beruchashvili et al. 2008, motherland. pp. 145–146). The first Georgian settlement appeared in Moscow in the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries. Starting from the nineteenth century, Georgian colonies were created in separate 5.16 Basic Ethnic Groups regions of Russia (mainly in the center and in the northern Caucasus). During the Soviet time, a definite number of By race, Georgians come from the southern branch of Georgians used to live in all allied republics. As for Eu- the European race and their appearance is like that of the rope and Northern America, in these countries, the number south European and Near East peoples, with the difference of Georgians was always small. The first wave of Georgian that Georgians, especially in the west and partially in the emigration to Europe started in 1921, when the collapsed high-mountainous province, are characterized by pale skin, government of the Georgian Democratic Republic and some blond hair, and blue eyes. The inhabitants of Georgia’s part of Georgian society settled in Paris. After the Second eastern plain, however, are characterized by black hair and World War, the second generation of Georgian emigrants dark eyes. was represented in Europe. Third, a large emigration wave Georgian people consist of three ethnic subgroups—the started in the 1990s; in contrast to the first two waves, here Karts, Megrelians, and Svans. A fourth group—the Laz the vast majority emigrated temporarily. people—lives in Turkey. Megrelians and Svans are not di- There are some difficulties with concretely defining the vided into small ethnographic groups, although sometimes number of Georgians living abroad. In 1989, there were Samurzakanians are mentioned together with Megrelians. 194,000 Georgians who lived in other Soviet republics. Karts, however, are divided into ethnographic groups: In For comparison, in 1959 this number was close to almost the west such groups are Imeretians, Gurians, Adjarians, 100,000 (at that time only 92,000 Georgians lived outside Ratchvelians, and Lechkhumians; in the south of Georgia, of Georgia in other parts of the Soviet Union). In total, more Meskhetians and Javakhians; and in East Georgia Kartlians, than 95 % percent of Georgians living in the Soviet Union Kakhetians, Mtiulians, Mokhevians, Pshavis, Khevsuris, lived in their own republic. This was the highest figure and Tushetians. Outside Georgia, Georgian ethnographic among Soviet people (for example, only 66 % of Armenians groups are the Ingilos (in Azerbaijan), Georgians from Tao, lived in Armenia out of the total number of Armenians living Klarjeti, and Shavsheti (in Turkey), and Fereidanians Geor- in the Soviet Union. Among allied republics, the majority of gians (in Iran). Georgians, 130,000 lived in Russia, 23,000 in Ukraine, and Some ethnographic groups might be divided into smaller 14,000 in Azerbaijan (of them 12,000 in Saingilo region). units—ethnographic subgroups: Kizikians among Kakhe- But with this last figure we mean only Christian Ingilos. tians, Gudamakharians among Mtiulians, Kobuletians among Muslim Ingilos, whose number is definitely higher, are con- Ajarians, etc. Ingilos are divided into Christians and Mus- sidered to be Azeris by their nationality. In other republics, lims; Meskhians into Orthodox and Catholics (Fig. 5.19). the number of Georgians was lower: from 9000 (Kazakh- Tsova-Tushians (Batsbians) should be noted separately as stan) to 600 (Estonia). they have a different language. However, their religion, cul- It is impossible to define the number of Georgians liv- ture, customs, and surnames are the same as those of Geor- ing in Turkey and Iran because these countries do not pro- gians. They are the indivisible part of the Georgian nation. 52 5 Demographics

Fig. 5.19 Historical and geographical provinces

5.17 Ethnogenesis of Georgians Mountains) and the territory between the Ponto Mountains and the Black Sea. The rest of the Proto-Georgians, whose Georgian ethnogenesis is a process with a long and complex living areas existed around the gathering of the Mtkvari and history. A number of scholars think that Georgians are an Chorokhi Rivers, gave birth to the third and largest Georgian isolated nationality with no “close relatives.” Others believe ethnic subgroup—the Karts. Because of the spread to compa- Georgians, with other Caucasian nationalities—Abkhazians, rably larger areas, differences in the spoken language dialects Adigheans, Circassians, Kabardians, Chechnyans, Ingushi- and customs deepened among the divided groups of Karts. ans, and Daghestanians—create an Iberian–Caucasian unity. In that way were formed: the Meskhetians (who then divided Some scientists think that Georgians, with North Caucasians into the Javakhians, Ajarians, Shavshians, Klarjians, Taokh- and Basques, come from the Japhetic peoples who created ians) on the one side and the Iberians (who went on to form the first civilization of the world: Sumerians, Hittites, Khu- the Kartlians, Kakhetians, Heretians, Mtiulians, Mokhevians, rits, Urartians, Pelasgians (the oldest population of Greece), Pshavelians, Khevsurians, and Tushians) on the other side. Etruscans (the ancient Italian population), and Iberians liv- In the first millennium AD, the Karts began migrating ing on the Iberian Peninsula. to western Georgia, which resulted in the spreading of their There is no common opinion about the first homeland of language and culture. With the confluence of the Karts and Georgians. Some scientists think that the first homeland of Zans, ethnographic subgroups such as the Imeretians and Georgians was Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, from where the Gurians were formed; with the confluence of the Karts Georgians ancestors immigrated to the Caucasus about and the Svans, the Rachvelians and the Lechkhumians were 4000–5000 years ago. Most modern historians do not share formed. Some non-Georgian tribes took part in the forma- this opinion and say that Georgians are indigenous inhabit- tion of some Georgian ethnographic subgroups (Caucasian ants of the Caucasus. Albanians and North Caucasians). It is a fact that for at least 4000 years, Georgians were inhabitants of modern Georgia. Before the second millennium BC, they spoke one language (which conditionally is 5.18 Georgian Languages and Dialects called Proto-Kartvelian). From the twentieth century BC, the spoken language of Proto-Georgians living in the western, Into the overall structure of the Georgian (Kartvelian) lan- isolated part of the Caucasian Mountains moved gradually guages enter Georgian proper, Megrelian, Svani, and Lazuri. away from a general language and assumed the basis for Lazuri is a current dialect of Megrelian and is widespread the Svan subethnos and language. The area inhabited by the in Turkey. In Georgia, only one village, Sarpi, uses this lan- Svans was significantly larger in the past than now and con- guage. Georgian is the state language of Georgia. It is the tained the regions of Abkhazia and Racha-Lechkhumi. unique official literary language for all Georgians, and in it From about the eighth century BC, the Zan (Megrelian– the richest and most ancient works of literature have been Lazian) ethnic subgroup and language formed separately. The created. The Georgian alphabet is one among fourteen alpha- living area of the Zans consisted of almost the whole of western bets used in the world. Megrelian and Svani are not used in Georgia (excluding the mountainous region of the Caucasian written form, but are purely spoken languages. References 53

The Kartvelian languages are divided into colloquial dia- usually end in “uri” and “dze,” but there are exceptions. The lects. Megrelian has a Senaki, Samurzakano, and Zugdidi Georgian surnames are widely distributed among the non- dialect, and Svan language has Balzemo, Balskvemo, Lash- Georgian population in Georgia. Jews, Kists, a part of Ab- khuri, and Lentekhuri dialects. There are 17 dialects within khazians, and Ossetians carry Georgian surnames. Among the proper Georgian language. In western Georgia there is the most widespread Georgian surnames are Beridze, Kap- Imeruli, Lechkhumi, Rachuli, Guruli, and Adjaruli, among anadze, Gelashvili, Maisuradze, Giorgadze, Kvaratskhelia, them a separate Imerekhuli or Klarjuli dialect (in Turkey). Lomidze, Tsiklauri, Shengelia, and Khutsishvili. In southern Georgia, there is a distribution of Meskhuri and Javakhuri. Tushuri, Khevsuruli, Pshauri, Mokheuri, and Mtiulir-Gudamakruli are East Georgian mountain dialects. References Eastern Georgian plain dialects are Kartluri, Kakhuri, Ingil- ouri (in Azerbaijan), and Pereidnuli (in Iran). The dialects Beruchashvili NL, Davitashvili ZV, Elizbarashvili NK (2008) Geogra- have different forms of intonation. For example, in Kakhuri phy of the Georgia (physic and social-economic geography). Sacart- velos matcne, Tbilisi, p 284 (in Georgian) dialect there are Gare-Kakhuri, Shida-Kakhuri, and Kizikuri Beruchashvili NL, Davitashvili ZV, Elizbarashvili NK (2012) Geog- intonations. raphy of the Georgia. “Klio” and “Meridian”, Tbilisi, p 264 (in There is one ethnic group of Georgians, the Tsova-Tush- Georgian) ians, who live in Akhmeta district (village of Zemo Alvani). Georgia in figures (2008) Geostat, Tbilisi (in Georgian) Jaoshvili V (1978) Urbanization of Georgia. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p 268 They have their own language which does not belong to the (in Russian) Kartvelian languages, but is related to the Chechen-Ingushi- Jaoshvili V (1996) Population of Georgia. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p 432 an group of North Caucasian languages. At present, only el- (in Georgian) derly people speak this language. Another group of Georgian Population census of Georgian SSR 1989 (1990) Geostat, vol 1. Tbilisi, p 416 (in Georgian) people, the Uddians or Udi, living in Kvareli district, village Population census of Georgia in 2002 (2003) Geostat, Tbilisi, p 358 of Zinobiani, also have their own language. (in Georgian)

5.19 Georgian Surnames

The Georgian surnames have an extremely old history. They clearly demonstrate a subethic origin. In the provinces of western Georgia, surnames tend to end in “dze”; Megrelian surnames end in “ia,” “ua,” and “ava”; Svanian surnames end in “ani.” The same surname ending prevails in Lechkhumi. In Kartli-Kakheti and Meskheti-Javakheti, the most common surname ending is “shvili.” There are a few surnames ending in “dze.” In eastern Georgian mountainous areas, surnames Sociocultural Geography 6

Abstract The current situation in Georgia is reflected in the structure of the consumer’s basket. Now- adays the majority of income of an average Georgian family (about 70 %) is spent on food and the share of expenditure on other issues is relatively small. This structure of a consumer basket is typical of a developing country. In many ways, Georgia is a developed country but in other ways it is still a developing country. According to the 2002 census, of every 1000 persons aged 15 and above, 817 had secondary education and 224 had higher education. Now there are 2541 state and private schools in Georgia with an enrollment of more than 636,000 students. About 40–50 years ago, the number of schools and schoolchildren started to decrease and it keeps going even today. Higher education in Georgia has a long history. Tbilisi State University, opened in 1918, is the first University in Caucasus. All other higher educational institutions were created in Georgia. Nowadays, 52 higher education institutions function in Georgia. In 1990, 155 scientific institutions existed in Georgia, more than 40 of which were scientific institutions of the Academy of Science of Georgia. In 1990, 184 newspapers were published with a circulation of 6 million copies and 35 magazines with a circulation of 1.2 million copies. Theatrical art is popular and more than 40 theaters function in the country. This chapter discusses the sociocultural aspects of Georgian society that provide contrasting views of Georgia.

In many ways, Georgia can be characterized as a developed less than 20 % of the total income on food, while much more country and in other ways it is still a developing country. is spent on vacation, traveling, education, and culture. This chapter discusses the sociocultural aspects of the Geor- The current situation in Georgia is well reflected in the gian society that provide contrasting views of Georgia. structure of the consumer basket. Nowadays, a majority of the income of an average Georgian family (about 70 %) is spent on food and the share of expenditure on other issues is 6.1 Standard of Living very small. This is the typical structure of consumer basket characteristics of developing countries. 6.1.1 Consumer Basket and Living Wages Living wage is defined by the development level of the country, stability of the national currency, and the inflation One of the good determinants of the standard of living is a rate. Living wage is the minimum amount of money neces- structure of the consumer basket, in other words, determina- sary for a normal living during a month period. Currently, the tion of how and on what the income is spent. The higher living wage in Georgia is 141 GEL. A family of two needs the standard of living and income, the higher is the share of 280 GEL for a normal living. This index varies from region expenditure on cultural, educational, vocational, and leisure to region (Georgia in Figures 2008, p. 67). issues. For example, the average family in the USA spends

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 55 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 56 6 Sociocultural Geography

6.1.2 Salaries and Pensions ers from western Georgia which improved their living standards and made them even better than that of eastern Georgia Recently several steps have been taken, aiming at improve- according to certain indices. ment in the salary situation. Thus, the average monthly sal- The Soviet rule further contributed to various changes ary of public officers was doubled in the period of 2000– taking place in the living standards of the population of Geor- 2007. Salaries of persons employed in the private sector are gia. The Black Sea coast of Georgia was practically the only three times as much as those of persons working in the public place where tea, citrus, and other sub-tropical crops could be sector. The average salary of private entrepreneurs reached grown. These products were rare in most of the Soviet Union 900 GEL in Tbilisi. In 2008 the pension was increased to and thus they cost a lot. All this resulted in high income of the 70 GEL which is much less than the living wage. There is local population of Georgia in this part of the country accom- no regional difference in salaries and pensions. Thus, this panying relatively high standards of living. This was comple- particular index cannot be used to study the geography of mented by additional income from the seaside resort industry standard of living in Georgia. which made the western Georgian population and especially the residents of the sub-tropical zone more privileged. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, this privileged part 6.1.3 Other Indices of Standard of Living of Georgia was lost, as the Georgian sub-tropical industry was not competitive enough to compete with sub-tropical Like in other countries, certain regions in Georgia are differ- products of other countries. The Black Sea recreational re- ent in respect of their income and standard of living. Such a sources and especially the quality of service were also lower situation is conditioned not only by convenient natural con- than that of the Mediterranean or other famous resort coun- ditions and resources, but also by historical, political, and tries. Thus this sector in Georgia is now developing slowly. many other factors. Till the second half of the nineteenth The worsening of the standard of living was drastic in Guria century, the main source of income of the people of Georgia and Samegrelo in comparison with Kartli and Kakheti. was the agricultural sector. Thus, those regions with conve- There are also criteria of the standard of living such as the nient rural conditions were stronger and progressive. In this number of cars, telephones, and TVs per 1000 persons. The respect, eastern Georgia and especially the Kakheti region number of private cars shows that this index is high in those was in a better condition than the western part. Marshlands parts of the country where income is relatively high. In prov- in the Kolkheti lowland and the scarcity of soil hindered the inces, the number of cars is small which is due to harsh natu- development of living conditions of the local population. ral conditions, lack of roads as well as the low income of the The mountainous region of Georgia was in a worse situa- local population. This is true with respect to the number of tion. Tusheti was an exception which had grazing lands, thus telephones per certain number of people as well. This num- contributing to sheep breeding. ber is high in cities and in relatively rich and well-equipped The introduction of capitalism promoted the development villages. The number of cars and telephones per 1000 per- of trade, industry, and transportation, which, in turn, created sons in Georgia is lower than that in developed countries but new sources of income. New sectors mostly employed work- much higher than that in the CIS states (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1 Number of private cars per 1000 persons 6.2 Education, Culture, and Science 57

6.2 Education, Culture, and Science schools in Georgia, there are also Russian, Armenian, Azer- baijani, Abkhaz, and Ossetian schools. 6.2.1 Secondary Education

With respect to the average level of education, Georgia is 6.2.2 Higher Education one of the leading places in the world. Nonliteracy among adults has been totally eradicated. Recently serious changes Higher education in Georgia has a long history. In the ancient have taken place in the educational sphere in Georgia. On the period, Georgia had the Pazisi (Poti) Academy. Later, in the one hand, several private universities, colleges, and lyceums Middle Ages, the famous Gelati and Ikalto Academies used and gymnasiums have been opened; on the other hand, due to operate. After the Mongolian invasion, the educational to poor economic conditions, school age children of a cer- centers were destroyed. The situation did not improve after tain percentage do not go to school. According to the 2002 Georgia became part of the Russian Empire (if not counting census, of every 1000 persons aged 15 and above, 817 had the establishment of females’ high educational courses in the secondary education and 224 had higher education (Popula- beginning of the twentieth century and opening of a conser- tion Census of Georgia in 2002 2003, p. 86). vatoire in 1917 where education was carried out in Russian). Now there are 2541 state and private schools in Geor- Tbilisi State University, opened in 1918, is the first Uni- gia with more than 636,000 students enrolled. About 40–50 versity in Caucasus. All the other higher educational institu- years ago, the number of schools and schoolchildren started tions were created in Georgia. Nowadays, 52 higher educa- to decrease and it keeps going even today. The reduction in tion institutions function in Georgia. They were accredited by schools is preconditioned by the fact that some high moun- the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia (Fig. 6.3). tainous villages were deserted and thus schools were closed A majority of state higher education institutions (19) are al- down. In addition, the number of elementary schools also located in Tbilisi. Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State Univer- decreased as they were united with higher level schools. Re- sity, Technical University of Georgia, Agrarian University, cent conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia also contrib- Medical University, Medical Academy, Ilia Chavchavadze uted to the reduction in the number of schools in Georgia, as State University, State Academy of Arts, Institute of Theatre tens of Georgian schools in those areas stopped functioning. and Cinema, Conservatoire, Military, and Theologian Acad- In the 1960s and the 1980s, there was a decrease in the vol- emies and many others are located in Tbilisi. Overall there ume of the school age population that had contributed to the are 37 accredited higher education institutions in Tbilisi. overall reduction in the number of school children. This pro- Next comes Kutaisi with four higher education institutions, cess was complemented by abandoning the school trend in then Batumi, Gori, and Zugdidi with two higher education the 1990s. Apart from ordinary secondary schools there are institutions each, and then Telavi, Rustavi, Akhaltsikhe, about 90 specialized educational institutions. Six languages Sighnaghi, and Akhalkalaki with one higher education insti- of instruction are used in secondary schools (Fig. 6.2). Apart tution each. According to the number of students and higher from Georgian schools which represent more than 80 % of

Fig. 6.2 Secondary schools 58 6 Sociocultural Geography

Fig. 6.3 Accredited higher education institutions: number on the map marks the quantity of institutions

education, per 1000 persons in Georgia is still in a leading unequal distribution of scientific institutions hinders the de- place in the world. velopment of other regions in the country.

6.2.3 Scientific Institutions 6.2.4 Cultural Institutions

In 1990, 155 scientific institutions existed in Georgia, more According to the number of cultural institutions (theaters, than 40 of which were scientific institutions of the Acade- cinemas, clubs, museums, libraries, etc.), Georgia is one of my of Science of Georgia. The number of scientific work- the leading places among the former Soviet republics and ac- ers reached 30,000. In recent years, the number of scientific cording to the employees in the field of culture it is in first workers and institutions has decreased, because several in- place. There were more than 4000 libraries in Georgia with stitutions have been unified or abolished. Some scientific more than 45 million books. The number of clubs in Georgia workers were made to leave scientific work and start a new reached 2875 (Beruchashvili et al. 2009, p. 214). More than business. Unlike many other sectors, the scientific field is half of the Georgian villages had their own clubs and librar- characterized by the high geographic concentration. Almost ies. Due to recent events in Georgia, a majority of clubs and the whole scientific potential of Georgia is concentrated in libraries were abolished and the rest did not function properly. Tbilisi. More than 90 % of scientific institutions are located Theatrical art is popular in Georgia. More than 40 the- in Tbilisi, two scientific institutions are in Adjara and one aters function in the country, out of which 20 are located in in Mtskheta-Mtianeti and one in Guria (Fig. 6.4). Such an Tbilisi. Tbilisi is one of the leading cities among the world’s

Fig. 6.4 Scientific-research institutions: number on the map marks quantity of institutions 6.3 Medical Geography and Healthcare 59

Fig. 6.5 Theaters and Museums: 1 theatres and 2 museums

capitals according to the proportion of theaters per volume 6.3 Medical Geography and Healthcare of the population. There are five theaters in Imereti, two each in Adjara, Abkhazia, and Tskhinvali (Sokhumi and Tskhin- 6.3.1 Natural and Social Conditions from vali Georgian theaters have currently moved to Tbilisi). Two a Healthcare Perspective theaters operate in each of the following regions of Geor- gia: Kvemo Kartli, Kakheti, Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti, and From a medical–geographic perspective for living purposes, Samtskhe-Javakheti. Guria and Shida Kartli have one theater natural conditions in Georgia are extremely beneficial. Mild, each. There are no state theaters in Mtskheta-Mtianeti and healthy climate, mixture of sea and mountain air, richness Racha-Lechkhumi-Kvemo Svaneti. More than 100 museums of coniferous and broadleaf forests, natural spring waters, function in Georgia out of which about 20 are in Tbilisi, 21 and multiple resorts create very good conditions for health. in Imereti and 22 in Kakheti. The rest of the regions have a Owing to these factors, Georgia has been one of the leading scarcity of museums (Fig. 6.5). places according to the living expectancy and has been considered as the land of longevity. Unfortunately, the situation has been worsening drastically in recent years due to harsh 6.2.5 Press and Television socioeconomic conditions. Tough economic conditions and worsening of the sani- One of the determinants of the cultural level of the popu- tary-hygiene situation in the country were exacerbated by lation is how intensively the local population uses various imports of low quality food, stress, an unhealthy way of liv- sources of media: press, radio, and TV. Special attention is ing, increase in alcohol and drug consumers, massive smok- paid to the number of newspapers and magazines and their ing, rare cases of leading a healthy life with exercise, and circulation. In 1990, 184 newspapers were published with absence of normal vacation/leisure conditions. These factors a circulation of 6 million copies and 35 magazines with a drastically increased the death rate and decreased the birth circulation of 1.2 million copies (Georgia in Figures 2008, rate. p. 72). According to this index, Georgia was one of the lead- The above discussed situation in a country with natural ing countries in the world. Recently, many important chang- climate conditions like Georgia is abnormal. The improve- es have taken place in the field of media. The introduction ment in the conditions will only be possible when the popu- of the free media contributed to the establishment of many lation itself realizes the danger and shifts to a healthy style new newspapers and magazines but their majority did not of living. manage to overcome the high competitiveness and financial challenges. The district level newspapers are no longer issued and due to financial challenges the population does not 6.3.2 Illnesses manage to order news periodicals. As a result, the circulation of Georgian newspapers and magazines reduced drastically. Spreading of illnesses in Georgia is characterized by a certain In 2005, only about 90 newspapers with 400,000 copies and regularity. Traditionally, in the Kolkheti lowland of Georgia, 30 magazines were published. due to marshlands, the population often suffered from ma- 60 6 Sociocultural Geography laria. In the plateau of both east and west Georgia, residents 6.3.3 Healthcare Institutions suffered from various contagious illnesses. During the Soviet period, malaria and some other illnesses were totally eradi- In recent years, the number of doctors decreased by 10,000. cated. Owing to the healthy air in the Georgian mountainous Nowadays for every 10,000 persons there are 48 doctors regions, the population there did not suffer from malaria or (Fig. 6.6). The number of middle level medical personnel any other contagious illness; in general, illnesses there, were also decreased to a third of the original number (from 68,000 rare in comparison to the plateau population. But the lack of to 23,000). The number of hospitals reduced from 422 to enough iodine in the drinking water in mountains (especially 248 and the number of beds in them decreased from 60,000 in Svaneti) caused the frequency of such illnesses as goitre. to 18,000 (Georgia in Figures. 2008, p. 84). These reveal Even though this problem was not so severe in the Soviet the unpleasant conditions in the modern healthcare system period thanks to various steps made during that time, nowa- in Georgia. In 2007, a new healthcare program was set up days this challenge has been faced more and more frequently aiming at the building of 100 new hospitals, broadening the in Georgia, which can be explained by geographical factors. usage of health insurance, and raising the qualifications of The increase in the city population in Georgia changed doctors which should contribute to the overall improvement the style of living. The living style in the city includes stress, of the healthcare system in Georgia. pressure, and less exercise, complemented with a dirty environment, noise, and many other problems that are not characteristic of rural areas. As a result, heart and vascular sys- 6.3.4 Games and Sports tem diseases and psychological problems are more frequent among the city population of Georgia than among the rural Nowadays, considering the current situation in Georgia, it is population. Those regions with a bigger city population and impossible to properly analyze the geography of sports and big industrial institutions have more illnesses. identify any kind of regularity. The sports situation in Geor- Recent processes taking place in Georgia have had their gia can only roughly be studied; the main source of informa- own impact on the geography of diseases and their features. tion is the participation of the country in various champion- A big part of the population of Georgia suffers from the lack ships and the origin of teams and their members. of good food, heating, and resting opportunities. The intro- Popularity of different types of sports is strongly linked duction of the paid medical service made medical care for to the geography, and the regions of Georgia differ from one such people inaccessible. Due to these reasons not only the another in this respect. It is natural that mountaineering is death rate increased but also such illnesses which had been popular for mountainous regions and thus Svans are the ma- considered forgotten started to manifest more and more fre- jority among alpinists. Wrestling was traditionally popular in quently. Of note is an increase in cases of tuberculosis that Kartli and Kakheti while West Georgia had several popular is mostly caused by insufficient nourishment and bad living sports and games. It is not accidental that many football and conditions. Nowadays 2/5 of illnesses occurring are of the basketball players come from West Georgia. respiratory tract, 10 % come from the cardio-vascular and di- gestive systems and 8 % from the nervous system and other sense organs.

Fig. 6.6 Number of people per doctor: 1 100–200, 2 200–400, 3 400–500, 4 500–1000, 5 1000–2000, and 6 no data 6.4 Traditions 61

6.4 Traditions one floor buildings were covered by a step like dome with a hole in it used for smoke and light. In the hall under the 6.4.1 Architecture dome there was a hearth with an ever-burning fire in it. On both sides of the hearth there were dome pillars and mother- Georgian architecture is characterized by richness and pillars. Apart from halls in the eastern part of Georgia there uniqueness. Each part of Georgia has its own architectural were other types of buildings like mud-huts, especially in style, and buildings differ from region to region. This dif- the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. A mud-hut is a house in the ference has been decreasing due to the wider spread of the depth of the soil with stone walls and floors and a ceiling European style, but still one can see the difference between with a hole for smoke and light. Such houses were not no- east and west Georgia, as well as between mountainous and ticeable and thus were a good defense tool. Houses of this plateau regions of Georgia and there is a high possibility that type were warm in winter and cool in summer. this trend will persist in the future. In the western part of Georgia, due to high humidity and The eastern part of Georgia is densely populated, due to marshlands one or two floor wooden houses were built and the scarcity of soil, small courtyards, and croplands that are the names of such houses were Oda or Jargvali. They used to far from houses (Fig. 6.7). In the western part of Georgia, the stand on pillars and were covered by two or four legged lath situation is the opposite with huge courtyards where house- roofs. In Samegrelo and Abkhazia wattle houses with straw hold buildings and houses are grouped together. Houses in roofs, named Patskha, were popular. various ethnographic provinces are different. In Svaneti and From the second half of the nineteenth century, a new ar- other eastern Caucasus parts of Georgia (Tusheti, Pshav- chitectural style was introduced. Two floor houses with sev- Khevsureti), houses are mostly built from stones and shale. eral rooms, windows, wooden floors, and indoor fireplac- The tower architecture in Svaneti and Tusheti-Khevsureti es were built. In the western part of Georgia, houses were is also different. In the same region, 2–4 floor houses (with mostly built from wood, while in the eastern part of Georgia, each floor having its own purpose) as well as one floor lime stones and bricks were used for the same purpose. Houses and stone houses with flat ground ceiling (mostly in Pshavi- were mostly tiled but in Guria and Samegrelo shingles were Khevsureti) can also be found. Shale houses are mostly of mainly used for roofing. A wooden balcony also became an dry layers without special strengthening. important part of the house. Houses in the plateau and premountain zones of eastern From the second half of the twentieth century, the tradi- Georgia were characterized by huge halls. Stone and brick tional architecture was replaced by the European style. Now-

Fig. 6.7 Monuments of Georgian architecture 62 6 Sociocultural Geography adays, the main building materials are bricks, cement blocks, special dark colored shawl, Baghdadi, was worn. In winter, a iron-concrete, and tin. The difference between various parts velvet open coat, Katibi, was worn above the dress (in west- of Georgia decreased to a minimum which is not always ern Georgia this coat was not used). good. It is not expedient to build iron-concrete houses in the The above described attires were presented in their own west part of Georgia which has high humidity. unique form in each region of Georgia, thus it was not difficult to see the difference between Chokhas or women’s dresses in Kakheti, Imereti or Samegrelo. In certain parts of 6.4.2 Popular Handicraft Georgia, an absolutely unique attire was worn. Thus, in Gu- rian, instead of a long Chokha, a short waist-length coat was The Georgian handicraft is an important part of Georgian worn with pants and a wide belt above the coat. Residents of culture. There are many famous handicraftsman in Georgia Khevsureti used to wear special short Talaveri with a bib em- whose works are pieces of art and are in high demand. Vari- broidered with colorful needles and beads (mostly ornaments ous parts of Georgia were famous for different handicrafts. of crosses). A unique attire of mountainous people was long Racha was famous for its woodworking craftsmen. Houses embroidered socks, Chiti and Pachichi, while city population built by them and balconies carved by them can be found in mostly wore a short coat, Kulaja. Nowadays, folk attire is various cities and villages of Georgia. In addition, residents used only in folk assemblages and is kept in museums as the of Racha were famous as good cooks and bakers. whole population of Georgia wears European clothes. Tusheti was famous for its felt cloaks, carpets, and socks, and Pshav-Khevsureti was well known for its silver jewel- lery and silvered arms. Ceramics were well developed in 6.4.4 Cuisine and Table Traditions various parts of Georgia among which include Zemo Imereti (earthenware) and Kakheti (building pitchers and Georgian The traditional Georgian cuisine is one of the richest in the bakery). Other sectors of handicrafts, well developed in world. Unlike traditional Georgian attire, Georgian cuisine Georgia, are forging, stone carving, folk instruments mak- was not only preserved but also widespread outside Georgia. ing, etc. Unfortunately many sectors of traditional handicraft In the past, there was a huge difference in local cuisines of are lost as only one or two craftsmen are left in the villages. various regions of Georgia, but nowadays this difference is Thus, it is a responsibility of the new generation to save and almost fully eliminated as one can easily find any type of revive this traditional treasure. Georgian dishes in all parts of the country. In the plateau of eastern Georgia, mainly wheat bread was baked (Shoti and Lavashi), while in the mountains, barley 6.4.3 Clothes Khmiads were baked. In the western part of Georgia, corn was more popular and was widely used instead of wheat, Georgian national clothes are unique and rich. On one hand thus the main food in western Georgia (Imereti and Guria) they have a lot in common with Caucasian attire but on the was Mchadi or Ghomi in Samegrelo and Abkhazia. In west- other hand they are characterized by numerous original fea- ern Georgia, Sulguni and Imeruli cheese is eaten, while in tures. Male clothes consisted mainly of Chokha-Akhalukhi. eastern Georgia, Guda cheese is more famous. Chokha was sewn from wool and had wide sleeves and hems. In western Georgia, various plants are widely eaten with Akhalukhi was a collarless silk shirt above which a thin sil- spices and nut sauce (Pkhaleuli). In eastern Georgia, meat ver belt was worn. Pants were worn inside long boots. Peas- plays a greater role instead. Both in east and west Georgia ants used to wear bast shoes. A silvered belt and sword had beans, Khachapuri, fish, marinades, and various sauces are to be worn with Chokha-Akhalukhi. In winter, a felt cloak popular. The main beverage almost everywhere in Georgia is was also worn. In plateaus of eastern Georgia, small cloak wine, apart from high mountainous regions where vine grow- hats were worn (Kakhetian or Tushian hats). In mountainous ing is impossible and thus wine is replaced by vodka and beer. regions, sheepskin Papakhs were worn. In Imereti, a special The Georgian table follows very strict rules. Tamada and type of hat, Papanaki, was preferred, while in Svaneti and toasts are important parts of all supras. Georgian holiday par- Racha-Lechkhumi, Svani hats were worn. In Guria, Adjara, ties do not exist without traditional songs, dances, and jokes. and Samegrelo a special type of hood, called bashlyk was The ordinance of toasts mainly depends on the Tamada, even used. though certain fixed ordinances exist in each region and Traditional female attire was a silk dress fitted at the waist vary from province to province. In Guria the first toast is with long and wide hems, an embroidered bib and a belt of for peace, while in Kakheti the family ceiling is blessed. In the same color with two laces. A special head cover called eastern Georgia the last toast is for all saints (Kvelatsminda), Chikhtikkopi was an important part of the female attire with while in Tusheti and Pshavi-Khevsureti, special attention is a long and wide Lechaki (or shawl) on it. On the very top, a paid to the toast of ancestors and those who passed away. 6.4 Traditions 63

6.4.5 Rituals the Georgian song is at the level of classical music and there is no analogy to four or five voice songs from Guria, Kartli, Georgians have many old habits, rules, traditions, and ritu- and Kakheti. The geography of songs is also diverse. All the als. Many of them are very difficult and diverse. Some parts of Georgia and even some of its cities (Tbilisi, Kutaisi) traditions are mostly observed in the case of funerals and have their own folklore. Songs from Kartli and Kakheti com- weddings. Such rituals are similar everywhere even though pletely differ from songs in Guria and Samagrelo and the some unique features characterize each and every region of same can be said about Imereti, Racha, and Svaneti. Among Georgia. In high mountainous regions many old and beauti- folk songs we can identify such themes as struggle, labor, ful traditions are still kept. church, rules and traditions, and Supra (table) songs. It needs Especially interesting are Georgian folk shows and reli- to be emphasized that the Kakhetian song “Chakrulo” was gious holidays. In Kartli and Kakheti the old ritual of Beri- among those seven melodies which were sent to Cosmos by kaoba is still alive. Ritual meaning is granted to traditional American scientists as a sign of the earth to possible existing sports competitions, Lelo, Kabakhi, Doghi, and Isindi. Links civilizations. with paganism can be found in certain religious rituals like Georgian dance is also rich and diverse and has been ac- sacrificing the cattle for slaughter, Chona, and Chiakokona. knowledged as an outstanding event. Such a refined and deep All the villages in Georgia have their own holidays. Dur- dance is very unique for folklore. The Georgian folk dances, ing such public-religious holidays apart from liturgy, various like poetry and songs, differ from region to region which is sports competitions, dancing, singing, and other shows take a reflection of the rich local culture of the various parts of place. All this has a pure public holiday spirit. Such religious the country. Georgian dances like “Kartuli,” “Gandagana,” holidays include Lasharoba, Lomisoba, Atengenoba (east- “Khorumi,” and others are characterized by elements of clas- ern mountainous part of Georgia), Mtskhetoba, Alaverdoba, sical ballet. Teletoba, etc. During the Soviet period, the Soviet government tried to replace aforementioned holidays as improper for Soviet 6.4.7 Toponims and communist ideology with new Soviet holidays. Thus such artificial holidays like Labor Day, Day of Fighting or It is impossible to study all the toponims and their origin. the Day of Friendship were created but did not manage to The meaning of many geographic names is explained in dif- become popular among the local population as they were ferent ways and there is no common opinion about them. unacceptable and nonorganic to people. Only some of the But it is still possible to identify certain regularities and thus Soviet holidays, related to the history of Georgia or some fa- reveal the history. It is natural that a majority of toponims mous Georgians, were celebrated, which include Tbilisoba, in Georgia are of Georgian origin. In Abkhazia along with Shotaoba, and Vazhaoba. old Georgian, Megrelian, and Svani toponims (e.g., Tskhu- mi, Ochamchire, Kelasuri, Bichvinta), Abkhazian toponims are also widespread. In Kvemo Kartli and Javakheti, where 6.4.6 Folklore Azeri, Armenian, Greek and Russian settled in the last centuries, many Georgian toponims were replaced by Turkish, The Georgian folklore has a special place in the cultural trea- Armenian, and Russian. In this way, toponims like Soghan- sure of the world. Georgian folk poetry, music, and dance is ab- lughi, Karajalari, Kizilkilisa, Khojabegi, Gorlovka, Tambov- solutely unique. According to its complexity, richness, diversi- ka, and others, were created. After resettling Ossetians to the ty, and refinement, Georgian folklore is equalled with classical Shida Kartli mountainous regions in the seventeenth century, masterpieces of art and is unique among world folklore. Ossetian names appeared. In addition, toponims can also be Georgian folk poetry is also outstanding with its deep found in the part of Georgia which is situated in the north philosophical meaning, rhythm, rhyme, and melodiousness. of the main Caucasian ridge (Tusheti, Pirikita Khevsureti, Masterpieces of folk poetry like “Youth and A Tiger,” “Tran- Khevi) Vainakh (Chechnian-Ingushetian). sient World,” and “Youth from Tavparavani” are the epitome Georgian toponims are also very diverse. Major suffixes of poetry. Each part of Georgia has its unique poetic style by which geographical names end are “isi” (Tbilisi, Kutaisi, reflecting the history, culture, living style, and thoughts of Manglisi, Kornisi, and Shindisi), “eti” (Teleti, Koreti, Bev- the local population. Pshav-Khevsureti folk poetry is out- reti, Ozurgeti, Kobuleti), “avi” (Telavi, Manavi, Zanavi), standing; here Kaphia and poems were part of daily life. The “ani” (Gurjaani, Tibaani, Mirzaani), etc. Among prefixes the richest mythology, legends, and transmissions are a matter of most famous ones are: “sa” (Samtredia, Sagarejo, Sakire, Sa- national pride in Georgia. kobiano, Samshvilde), in Samegrelo-the prefix, “le” has the The polyphonic Georgian song is very rare in world folk- same function as the prefix, “sa” (Lesichine, Ledzadzame, lore and represents a unique exception. From this perspective, Lekhaindravo, Lepochkhue). Prefix “na” is also widespread 64 6 Sociocultural Geography

(referring to the function existing in the past): Nakalakevi, Leningori, Shaumiani, Kirovi, Kalinino, etc. In the begin- Natsikhari, Nadarbazevi, Natsiskhvilari, Navenaxevi. ning of the 1990s those settlements regained their previous In Georgian geographic names we often find adjectives, names. kvemo (meaning lower), zemo (meaning upper), gaghma (meaning far), tsina (meaning front), ukana (meaning behind), but determinants like north, south, east, west are very References rare. An extremely widespread adjective is akhali (meaning new). In Georgia there are 24 Akhalsopeli, 8 Akhaldaba, 5 Beruchashvili N, Davitashvili Z, Elizbarashvili N (2009) Geography of Akhalubani, 12 Akhalsheni, 4 Akhaltsikhe, and 2 Akhalka- Georgia. Saqartvelos matsne, Tbilisi, p. 284 (In Georgian) Beruchashvili N, Davitashvili Z, Elizbarashvili N (2012) Geography of laki. During the Soviet period many settlements were re- Georgia. “Klio”-“Meridian”, Tbilisi, p. 264 (In Georgia) named after famous Communist party leaders. This led to Georgia in Figures (2008) Geostst, Tbilisi, p. 154 (in Georgian) the creation of new toponims in Georgia like Orjonikidze, Population census of Georgia in 2002 (2003) Geostat, Tbilisi, p. 358 Makharadze, Tsulukidze, Tskhakaia, Gegechkori, Staliniri, (in Georgian) Part II Geological Processes Geology 7

Abstract The geology of Georgia is complicated, but very interesting. The mountain region of the Caucasus is marked by relief mobility and is widely affected not only by unidirectional regional and local block tectonic movements but also by the seismic oscillation of the earth’s crust and magmatic processes. Earthquakes have long been noted on the territory of the Caucasian region which is one of the most dangerous seismic regions in world. The territory of Georgia, on the whole, is situated in a magnitude 7 zone, and its mountainous regions are situated in a magnitude 8–9 zone. At present we are facing a period of sharp seismic activity that threatens the country with new cataclysms. More than 25 % of housing resources of large cities in Georgia, where more than 80 % of population is concentrated, are under emergency conditions. As a result of strong earthquakes, block landslides, grandiose mudflows (including glacial), and glacier drifts, lakes are occasionally formed in mountainous rivers. Some of these lakes have existed for a long time, but the life span of a majority of them varies from several days to several months. This chapter provides a short description of Georgia’s geological features.

The geology of Georgia is complicated, but very interesting. The main distinction in these geological formations is in Its mountain ranges are picturesque, and its terrain is seismi- their elements of symmetry. In fact, they possess many more cally prone. This chapter provides a short description of its common genetic sources than previously thought and make us geological features. not contrast them with each other but consider them as a definite symbiosis phenomenon, whereas the same morphostructures bearing traces of the geoecological situation in Georgia 7.1 Geological Formations are subject to both general planetary regularities and regional peculiarities of the natural environment of the South Caucasus. The mountain region of the Caucasus is marked by relief The characteristics of geographical location, relief, climate, mobility and is widely affected not only by unidirectional and intensive economic activity is the 1990s. As a result of regional and local block tectonic movements (formed mainly military conflicts and civil war which led to a complete ruin of by active interaction of Arabia–Asia Minor and Skiff conti- economics and brought numerous misfortunes to the Georgian nental platforms) but also by the seismic oscillation of the people, leading to hundreds of thousands of refugees and in- earth’s crust and magmatic processes (Fig. 7.1). Besides, the ternally displaced people, the anthropogenic impact upon the mountain geoecosystems of the Caucasus have undergone ecosystems of all regions of the country increased extensively. hard pressing of exogenous geodynamics, intensified by anthropogenic factors. Introduction of modern computer tech- niques and aerospace surveys in the study of geomorphologi- 7.2 Seismic Activity cal processes have enabled the consideration of a new series of traditional settings and the evaluation of the mechanisms Earthquakes are one of the most terrible and disastrous phe- in the development of modern mountain forms in Georgia nomena of nature. They have long been noted on the terri- and singling out their nonlinear morphostructures. tory of the Caucasian region, which according to its seismic

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 67 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_7, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 68 7 Geology

Fig. 7.1 Geological map: 1 Quaternary deposits (alluvium, sand, clay), 2 Neogene (clay, sandstones, and conglomerates), 3 Paleogene (clay, limestone, and sandstones), 4 Crayon (limestones), 5 Jurassic (clay slates and volcanic breeds), 6 Ancient (Palaeozoic) crystal files, 7 Neo- gene–Quaternary andesitic-basalt covers

3 Fig. 7.2 Seismicity of the Georgia. Great Caucasus system: I1 Main subarea, II 4 Azamburi-Iagludja subarea, II5 Alazani overlay zone; 1 2 watershed area, I2 Kazbegi-Lagodekhi zone, I3 Mestia-Tianeti I zone, I4 Lesser Caucasus: III1 Achara-Trialeti zone, III 1 Central subarea, III 1 2 2 Chkhalta-Layla zone, I5 Gagra-Djava zone; Transcaucasian intermoun- North submergence subarea, III 2 South submergence subarea, III Dja- I 2 3 4 tain region: II1 Kolkheti immersed area, II 1 West Abkhazia area, II 1 vakheti zone, III Bolnisi zone, III Loki-Karabah zone; Eastern Black 1 1 Samurzakano-Odishi subarea, II2 Zone of the central uplift, II 2 Dzirula Sea region: IV Gagra-Poti maritime coastal area. (Source: Institute of 2 subarea with the crystalline basement, II 2 Okriba-Khereti subarea, II3 Geophysics of Georgia; Gamkrelidze 1991; Gongadze2006) I 2 Kartli immersed area, II 4 South Kakheti zone, II 4 Mirzaani-Shiraki

characteristics is one of the most dangerous seismic regions Analysis of existing seismic data shows that the average of our planet. The territory of Georgia, on the whole, is situ- recurrence interval of strong earthquakes in the region is as ated in a magnitude 7 zone, and its mountainous regions are follows: 9-magnitude earthquakes 60–100 years; 8-magni- situated in a magnitude 8–9 zone. Herewith, the area of dis- tude 40–50 years; 7-magnitude 30 years; 6-magnitude 10–15 charge is timed to neotectonic upstanding blocks (Fig. 7.2). years; 5-magnitude 4 years, and 2-magnitude 2 years. As The energy from stress release comes to about 80 bars a result of strong earthquakes, block landslides, grandiose (8106 dines/cm2). The earthquake in Gori in February 1920 mudflows (including glacial), and glacier drifts, lakes are ruined 70 % of all buildings and the village of Khidistavi. As occasionally formed in mountainous rivers. Some of these a result, nearly 200 people perished. In April 1940, the settle- lakes have already existed for a long time (Ritsa, Amtkeli, ments of Zemo and Kvemo Boshuri situated in the M. Li- Kvedrula), but the life span of a majority of them varies from akhvi River valley were ruined by the Tabatskuri earthquake. several days to several months (Bondyrev 1987, 2000). 7.3 Landforms and Relief 69

Scientific studies conducted on the magma formations on An outburst of glacial lakes in the valleys of the Dev- Elbrus volcano (Caucasus, Russia) registered the heating of doraki, Amali, and Gveleti glaciers (the Tergi River basin) magma pockets of the volcano which gave rise to the prob- triggered disastrous floods in 1776, 1786, 1808, 1817, 1832, ability of a new eruption of Elbrus. It may begin by erup- 1844, 1854, and 1902. Similar situations occurred at the tions of acid lava and most probably will have disastrous breakout of retaining lakes in the headwaters of the Rioni consequences. The activity of the volcano will possibly be River in 1953, 1970, and 1989, as well as in Gordjomi accompanied by the formation of catastrophic lahars and (1954, 1992), Atsgara (1963), Skhaltba (1978), Patsa (1991), floods, because favorable conditions exist within this vol- Khakhieti (1991), and Jruchula (1991). canic edifice for their origin. These conditions call for ur- At present, we are facing a period of sharp seismic activ- gently creating a special international center, which will ity that threatens the country with new cataclysms. It may monitor the above specified processes. A similar situation be noted that more than 25 % of housing resources of large has been also recorded on Kazbegi Massif. A magma pocket cities in Georgia, where more than 80 % of population is con- was discovered here as well, situated not very deep within centrated, are under emergency conditions. Hence we may an abyssal magma hearth that gives good reason to consider conclude that Georgia, as well as other countries of the Cau- Kazbegi volcano to be potentially active. The possibility of casus, is absolutely unprepared for disastrous earthquakes, its reawakening is not excluded at present. New information consequences of which could be tragic for larger cities. on the presence of intensive heat anomalies on the cone of Kazbegi was received from satellite system “NOAA” and radiometer ASTER (device “TERRA”) survey data. From 7.3 Landforms and Relief 1 August 2002 to 25 August 2003 the temperature of these anomalies rose by 2–2.9 °С. That was probably caused by the The modern state of geomorphologic science in Georgia has fusion of magma pockets near the surface. Their evolution, been assessed and key problems to be investigated have been in combination with processes of modern geodynamics, can identified. While considering global mechanisms of the for- cause volcanic activity in the Kazbegi as well as Keli volca- mation of relief in the Caucasus, it is appropriate to treat the nic centers, and even beyond their limits. coarse structural landforms as separate blocks of lithosphere Events of the last few years have shown a sharp activation partially cropping out. They are distinguished for their size, of the whole exogenic complex of geodynamic processes and geological characteristics, and morphogenic peculiarities phenomena in the Caucasus: disastrous floods (2000–2002, (Fig. 7.3). 2005), and an intensive (over 115 %) manifestation of slope The variety of blocks of lithosphere-platforms, micro- processes (sowed, landslides, collapses, and avalanches). All platforms, nuclear, tectonic blocks, and dome-like structures this has brought about not only stupendous economic dam- cause the diversity of landforms (Fig. 7.4). When three-di- age of billions of dollars but also multiple human victims. mensional groups of relief are determined, a precise defi- The events connected with the Karmadon tragedy caused the nition of the notion is introduced within the framework of convergence of the glacier Kolka and the formation of stone- spatially systematic concrete locations: geotectures, mor- glacial mud-streams, which called the attention of the whole phostructures, and morphosculptural complexes. Under such planet to this region. an approach, planetary forms of the relief, formed by litho- The earthquake in the Racha-Imereti region on 29 April spheric platforms and oceanic troughs (the zones of plates 1991 covered the territory at the joint of the east block of sliding apart), the roots of which reach the lower margin of the Okriba-Khreiti tectonic zone and the Gagra-Javakheti lithosphere, occurred under the influence of cosmic-plane- east segment. The epicenter was a tectonic block of about tary processes, composing the “geotecture.” 7800 km2 area situated on the south slope of the Racha ridge. Morphostructures represent landforms of a wide range of On the whole, more than 700 populated areas happened to be dimensionality (1–1500 km). They have been formed by one in the earthquake zone. More than 1000 inhabitants of this re- or several genetically homogeneous blocks of lithosphere gion perished, and about 100,000 inhabitants were deprived within the sedimentary cover or upper structural stages under of their dwellings. A powerful stone avalanche formed as a the influence of endogen and hexogen processes. The role of result of the earthquake completely destroyed the village of the former is preferential and they are composed of concrete Khakhieti (Sachkhere region). The general material damage lithological complexes of rocks forming their structural- was estimated at 10 billion dollars. About 80 % of the blocks morphological composition. Morphostructural complexes of houses and buildings situated near the epicenters of the are the combination of landforms formed within one tectonic earthquakes which rocked Georgia in 1991–1992 were dam- block under the influence of different hexogen processes and aged and rendered unfit for reconstruction. Nearly 20,000 envelop the entire thickness of the Quaternary depositions or new landslides and collapses occurred simultaneously. the crust of weathering, as shown in Table 7.1. 70 7 Geology

Fig. 7.3 Contact to Quaternary lava stream (the top horizon) and spreading breeds (sandstones)

Fig. 7.4 Schematic profile crustal Asia Minor–Caucasian crustal block. (Bondyrev 2000)

Table 7.1 Spatial parameters of individual types of structural landforms in specific parts of the geotectonic areas. (Bondyrev 1999) Orogen Plain and platform areas Types of relief Transitional zones Separate system of the mountain ranges and intermountain depressions Size (km) Occurrence depth (km) Size (km) Occurrence depth (km) Occurrence depth (km) Geotectures 1000–3500 300–700 1000–2000 150–300 The thickness of the earth’s crust Morphostructures 15–1000 1–100 1–1000 0.5–10 Sedimentary cover or upper structural tiers Morphоsculptural 1–100 0.1–1.0 0.1–10 0.01–0.1 The power column Quaternary complex sediments or weathering crust

Formation of the structural skeleton of geomorphology 3. Landforms formed during these processes, reflecting con- as a unity and dissimilarity of the categories of the process, crete material content (morphostructures–bedrocks, basic form, and content (of depositions) are to be investigated. At morphosculptural complexes–loose rocks), represent one the same time not only are the landforms to be studied but of the modes of existence and expression of the content. also the spatially–temporal aspects of the interdependent The main difference between linear and nonlinear morpho- complex of processes, depositions, and forms: structures is the difference in the elements of symmetry. How- 1. Geodynamic processes, putting into motion material ever, they have more general genetic sources. This makes us objects of lithosphere representing natural alteration of not contrast them but consider them as a phenomenon of forms and phenomena, have a power potential. symbiosis. All varieties of landforms, the genesis of which 2. Depositions of loose bedrocks occur correlative to the represents processes connected with the modular, nuclear, processes which represent both regulated and nonstruc- arched, and volcanic processes, and other ring, oval, conver- tural masses shifting to the sites of more or less long or gence, and vertical structures caused by the specific forms final content of this material. They reflect the synthesiz- of differentiation of substance and energy in lithosphere, are ing aspects of the development of material systems. considered as nonlinear morphostructures. Some of the nonlinear morphostructures of Georgia have been described. 7.4 Scheme of Geomorphological Zonation 71

Fig. 7.5 Scheme of geomorphological zonation of Georgia. (Bondyrev 1991, 2000; Khudyakov et al. 1991)

The scheme of spatial systematization of basic landforms A2 Epigeosynclinal Mountain Structures of the of Georgia reflects a principally new integrally multifaceted Eastern Part of the Great Caucasus (Eastern approach to the evaluation of the modern structural-genetic Caucasus) plan of the relief of the country (Fig. 7.5): 3 geomorphologi- I. Lateral Anticlinal-Horst Ridge in the Zone of Pre- cal zones, 4 subzones, 11 areas, 59 regions, 74 subregions, Jurassic Foundation Plunge Setting and 8 large sections have been singled out. 1. Horst-anticlynal massif of Khokhi; and 2. Volcanic massif of Kazbegi 7.4 Scheme of Geomorphological Zonation II. Tergi-Arguni Interridge Isoclinal Depression 7.4.1 A. Block Folding Underthrust Mountain 1. Kazbegi-Khevi intermontane basin, 2. Arkhoti-Guroi anti- Uplift of the Great Caucasus clinal depression, 7. Graben-synclinal Tusheti basin.

A1. Epigeosynclinal Mountain Structure of the III. Isocline Ridge of the Eastern Part of the Main Western Part of the Great Caucasus (Western Watershed of the Great Caucasus Caucasus) 1. Thrust block of Dvaleti ridge; 2. Keli volcanic highland; 3. Trust-erosional block of Mtiuleti-Khevsureti highland; 4. I. Horst Anticlinal Ridge of Main Divide with Outcrop Thrust ridge of the Kavkasioni in Kakheti territory; 5. Complex of Crystalline Foundation block of Tskhinvali-Dusheti Molos range; and 6. Djava-Ma- gran-Dvaleti intermontane synclinal horizontal step-like basin. 1. Sofia block, 2. Abkhazia-Svaneti block, 7. Svaneti block, 4. Ratcha block. 7.4.2 B. Volcanic and Arched Clumpy Frontal II. Ridges, Massifs, and Intermontane Depressions of the Asian Highland Southern Slope 1. Stretch of echelon-like horst intermontane valleys of B1. Anticlinal-Thrust Lazistan Mountain Structures the Bzibi (1а), Chkhalta (1b), Sakena (1c) and Rioni (1d) River upper courses; 2. Synclinal-horst Chkhalta ridge; 3. I.1. Chorokhi Ridge Kodori-Lechkhumi semiinversional complex horst ridge; 4. Shoda-Keda synclinal-horst ridge; 5. Anticlinal-block Svaneti ridge; 6. Ratcha-Lechkhumi synclinal basin; 7. B2. Arched-Clumpy Highland of the Southern Psou-Tskhenistskali chain of karst ridges and massifs; Kavkasioni 8. Arched-underthrust semiinversional Ratcha ridge; 9. I. Arched-Clumpy Uplift of Volcanic Highland of South Clumpy karst massif of Askhi; and 10. Twofold cuesta of Georgia Khvamli massif. 1. Erusheti volcanic highland; 2. Upper Mtkvari tectonic- erosional canyon like valley; 3. Khozapini lava plateau; 4. Arched volcanogenic massif of Nialiskuri; 5. Synclinal- 72 7 Geology

Fig. 7.6 Ring structures of Georgia. I–XV regional range structures: І Chiatura-Dzirula, ІІ South Georgian ( ІІа Djavakhei), ІІІ Central Iori, IV Erusheti, V Khulo, VI Odishi, VII Okumi, VIII Abkhazian, IX Kakhetian (Lagodekhi), X Didoy, XI Akhmeta, XII Colhich, XIII Kazbegi, XIV Kutaisi (Tckaltubo), and XV In- guri. Insert: А Aapsta area, B Chordi- Kvajsa area. On insert B ( I Ertco’, II Dagverula); Plots: C Lukhumistckali, D Djavakheti, E Lagodekhi ( 1 large tectonic linear (faults); 2 regional, and 3 local ring structures)

block depression of Tabatskuri Lake; 6. Volcanic plateau of folding synclinal block upland; 3. Odishi block synclinal tilt- Akhalkalaki; 7. Volcanogenic structural plateau of upper Ja- ed plateau; 4. Okribi anticlinal upland; and 5. Guria-Imereti vakheti; 8. Chain of Abul-Samsarski volcanoes massifs; 9. underthrust hilly range uplands. Lava ridge of Javakheti; 10. Thrust complex block plateau of Tetritskaro; 11. Tsalka tectonic volcanic plateau-basin; II. Uplands of Arched-Horst Medial Massif 12. Lava plateau-streams/Tsalka-Chochiani (12a), Gomareti 1. Upper-Imereti arched-horst plateau-like massif. (12b), Dmanisi (12c), and Mashavera (12d). III. Kartli-Kakheti Intermontane Depression II. Arched, Horst Block Peneplanated Massif of Conjugated with the South Caspian Basin Artvin-Bolnisi Lump 1. Complex blocks anticlinal intradepressional uplift of 1. Anticlinal-horst-arched Loki massif; 2. Graben-synclinal Gombori ridge; 2. Intermontane cynclinal-depression of valley of the river Khrami; 3. Horst domed Khrami massif; 4. Tirifon-Mukhrani plain; 3. North Kartli plains and foothills Paleolacustrine Iragin basin; 5. Complex-block valley of the of transitive zone; 4. Tbilisi-Akstafa alluvial plain; 5. Block- river Mashavera; 6. Tsopi-Sadakhlo peneplain; 7. Papayaki synclinal tectonically uplifted fine range Iori highland; 6. partially peneplanated laccolithic massif; and 8. Synclinal- Synclinal depression of Alazani valley; and 7. Tectogene- block Somkhiti ridge. subpond Tianeti-Sioni basin. It is possible to demarcate sufficiently accurately more III. Folded Ridges of the Minor Caucasus than 15 regional and over 160 local site ring structures in 1. Adjara-Imereti (Meskheti) block anticlinal ridge; 2. Gra- the territories of Georgia, as shown in Fig. 7.6. Analysis of ben-synclinal intermontane basin of Adjaristskali; 7. Arched, the spatial placing of ring structures has allowed the alloca- volcanogenic-erosional Shavsheti ridge; 4. Volcanogenic tion of some of the basic knots of their center of concentra- block Arsiani ridge; 5. Akhaltsikhe intermontane tectonic tion: Abkhazian, Racha-Lechkhumi, Djedjora, Kakheti (with basin; and 6. Trialeti horst anticlinal ridge. Northeast and Iori sites), South Georgian, and Adjaria.

7.4.3 C. Transcaucasian Lump, Fold Nappe 7.5 Expressiveness in the Relief Regional Intermontane Trough and Geological Structures

I. Kolkhida-Black Sea Through Conjugated with In Fig. 7.6, there are inserts reflecting the features of local Transarrogenic Black Sea Depression ring structures of separate sites of territory of the country. So, on insert A, the fragment of the Abkhazian ring structure and 1. Graben-cynclinal paleo-rift trough of gently inclined a number of smaller structure-satellites is represented, and Kolkhida Lowland; 2. Abkhazeti-Samegrelo intermittent their communication with core existence (barite-polimetals) and vein bodies is shown. 7.5 Expressiveness in the Relief and Geological Structures 73

Various types of ring structures are differently expressed graphical network. Some local ring structures combining in a relief, geological structure or geophysical field (Fig. 7.6). so-called reef genetics by chalkstones (for example, Kvajsa- The problem of genesis of ring structures remains debatable Hoh) appear to have a biological origin. till now (Bondyrev 1991, 2000). Some of the above 12 re- Ring structures of the valley to Lukhumistckali River (see gional ring structures are sufficiently accurately expressed Fig. 7.7 and a cutting B on Fig. 7.8) are interesting. The origin a relief in the form of separate morphostructures with inal landform of the valley coincides with a general plan and a diameter of 20–80 km. These formations are Chiatura- hydrography of the Racha-Lechhumiy region. The strongly Dzirula ring structure (horst-anticlinoria plateau-massif; see pronounced antecedent valley of Lukhumistckali River cuts Fig. 7.6), South Georgian (dome raising)—ІІ, Central Iori not only soils of a youngish Luhumi up-throw-shift but also (the plateau formed for peneplanation anticline)—ІІІ, Erush- the strata Sakauro-Luhumi’ of an anticline combined Ju- eti (volcanic uplands)—IV, Odishy (plateau-synclinori- rassic sandstone and clay shale. Here, long submeridional um)—VІ, Okumsi (massif-synclinorium)—VІІ, Abkhazian tectonic disturbances are not revealed; apparently, there is (thrust-fault massif)—V ІІІ, Akhmeta (folded massif)—ХІ. base to consider that the formation of a landform of this terri- From the regional ring structures dated for negative forms tory is connected with the large local Kvatsihe-Zophito ring of a terrestrial surface, it is necessary to note Didoys (X) and structure (Fig. 7.9), responsible both for the formation of a Khulo (V) hollows, Colchis (depression lowland)—ХII. It line of a river valley and the presence of a sharp bench in is not possible to find the corresponding reflexion in a relief a landform, steeply breaking to the west, forming original and a geological structure for such ring structures as Kakheti cuestas in the form of a watershed of the Luhumistskali and (ІХ), Kutaisi (ХІV), and Inguri (ХV). Sakaura Rivers. Another not less indicative site is the pool of the Djedjora Besides the Kvatsihe-Zophito ring structure of the size of River. Here, of special interest are the Ertsos and Dagverula 8.5 × 10 km, some finer structures are revealed (Bondyrev ring structures (site). In the central part of these structures, 1991; Khudyakov et al. 1991). The diameter of these struc- smaller ring structures are dated for knots of crossing of re- tures fluctuates from 2 to 4.2 km. Detailed analysis of these gional breaks diagonal and sublatitude strike, complicated sites shows that in the center or within a contour of these ring by a network of fault zones and zones to fracturization. structures of stock forms are fixed or accurately expressed The Ertsos ring structure, 8.7 km in diameter, represents as the Didmosahvevi ring structure, combining marbleizing a graben-siclinal depression which has been cut to pieces by chalkstones or sharp ledges of a landform formed by diabase breaks to the degree of “the broken plate,” combined with bodies of Lower Jurassic age. It allows the assumption that Upper Jurassic dolomite limestone and clay sandstones in the intrusive bodies can lay at the heart of the genesis of the central part, Eocene breccias, and conglomerates. The these ring structures, not uncovered by erosion. It is neces- southwest part of the ring structure is occupied by a boggy sary to note that the contour of the Kvatsihe-Zophito ring Ertsos hollow. Apparently, the formation of the Ertsos ring structure expressed by satellite images represents a zone of structure is connected somehow with the block—the uplift- the width of 0.5–1.2 km along which hydrothermal ore de- ments—which took place at a neotectonic stage of develop- posits with a step of 2–5 km from an axial part of this zone ment of a relief in the Caucasus and have caused the presence displayed in Fig. 7.9 in the form of the external contour of of a rather stable block of the Paleo-Ertsos hollow clamped the Kvatsihe-Zophito ring structure takes place. from the northwest and southeast by more mobile and raised In other regions, except for southern Georgia, the Keli blocks. Exits testify to the Middle Jurassic granites, deduced plateau, and the Iagludja ring structure (ridges, formed by the on a surface and opened with erosion on continuation of Ert- uncovered core of brachyanticline), ring structures (Debeda, sos syncline to the north from Mont Val-Hoh. Tshaltubo, Hadzhali-Egrissky, and many others) almost do A different picture is observed by the analysis of the not give in to genetic identification. Within Lagodekhi (see Dagverula ring structure. The structure of the size of Fig. 7.8 and site D in Fig. 7.9), covering the east segment 6.5 × 8.4 km, shares a zone of regional thrust on whose sur- to Kaheti Cavkasioni (from the main divide to a valley of face there are sea depositions of the Sarmatian on two almost Alazani River), more than 15 ring structures with a diameter equal parts. It is remarkable that within the given ring struc- of 1–12 km are revealed: Avanishevi, Shorohevi, Bajsubani, ture an axis of folds is shaded, allowing us to assume the and Mazymchaj, etc. (Bondyrev 2003; Gamkrelidze1991). youngish post-Neogene age of the given structure. The small Some of these structures represent difficult formations. So local ring structure, which has been to the south of Dagver- the Avanishevi ring structure is introduced by the enclosed ula, has accurately expressed the lithologic character and is forms with a diameter of 4 and 12.2 km. The Lagodekhi and combined with freshwater clays and conglomerates, and is Bajsubani ring structures are similar to the original spirals not lying down on the Upper Sarmatian sea depositions. In a similar to so-called eddy structures. All these structures are landform, the Dagverula ring structure is expressed poorly, practically expressed neither in a landform nor in a geologi- though it is traced well enough on the features of a hydro- cal structure. The exception is the Mshvidobiansi ring struc- 74 7 Geology

Fig. 7.7 Structural-geomorphological map to Luhumisckali River Nonlinear morphostructures: local—I Nisutistcveri anticline overthrust basin: 1 regional faults; 2 line faults and fractures; 3 regional ring massif, acquainted with slight lifting with active times of upheaval and structures; 4 local and plots ring structures; 5 anticline axis; 6 sinklinal preventive development processes; II Didmosakhvevi’ swell massif on axis; 7 reversed fault—shear-fault ( а) ; deep fault ( б) insert commit stock-hair arch plot, the folded for limestone marblezation; III Kadjiani on geophysical data; 8 stock; 9 the foot detached arrays; 10 border of ovate-block elevated stretch to watershed Rios Kadjiani and Bezimian- structural blocks; 11 mark high levels; 12 pediplens; 13 flat intermoun- naia com with numerous output debase and diabase-porphyrites with tain valley; 14–15 crests to watershed: sharp serrated ( 14), rounded out dikes; IV Latashuri raised oval block to watershed of river Latashu- smooth ( 15); 16 the drift past offsets in relief: erosion ( а) and denuda- ristckali and Kadjiani, with aligned surfaces and output dikes and con- tion ( б); 17 cirque ( а), kar ( б); 18 landslides actives; 19 landslides ductor vein; V Salamgruniani slipstream oval array, timed to hinge of stabilized; 20 talus cones (alluvial fan deposits); 21 cuestas; 22 actual fold in line of contact Budzgory and Saglola subformation (Gesk for- glaciers; 23 bog depressions; 24 glacial and fluvioglacial deposits; 25 mation) lower Crayons; and VI ring piece of flat surface to watershed final moraines; 26 ore dyke; 27 ore deposits and occurrence; 28–31 Kvaishkhe-Kvatcikhe on zone to pinching Notcaruli suite; regional—А river valleys: 28 V-shaped symmetric, 29 V-shaped asymmetric, 30 U- the Budzgori ovate-raised block Mount Soda, scarped to valley R. Lu- shaped, 31 trough valley; 32 waterfalls; 33 individual peaks; 34 lat- kumistckali a East whitch one plot Zopkhito (River Rioni basin) eral moraine in escarp; 35 outputs on mineral waters; and 36 slumps. 7.5 Expressiveness in the Relief and Geological Structures 75

Fig. 7.8 Northeast (Lagodekhi) of Kakheti site ring structures.I–XV ring structures: I Avaniskhevi, II Shorokhevi, III Vantliasheni, IV Cha- lasalador, V High Kabali, VI Kabali, VII Baitubani, VIII Shromiskhevi, IX Giandjala, X Lagodekhi, Хa waterfalls, XI Mazimchai, XII Mshvido- biani, XIII High Bolkvi, XIV Apeni, and XV Vardisubani

Fig. 7.9 Geological map and ring structure, Western Dzhavakheti and breccias; 15 rannepliocenovye andesitic and andesitic-dacites; 16 Highlands: 1 ring structures;2 colluviual deposits (stone sea and chin- Lower Miocene breccias and tuffs; 17 Upper Eocene clay, sand, and giles/stone drift); 3–6 deposits: 3 alluvial fan deposits, 4 deluvium, 5 marls; 18 Middle Eocene trachyte-andesitic porphyries, lava, and auto- diluvium-alluvial fan deposits, 6 flood (breech gravel and clay); 7 lacus- genic colors and tuff-sandstones; 19 borders between stratigraphy and trine clay; 8 black resin-stone glassy texture andesitic and andesitic-da- litology complexes; 20 fault line; 21 discordant lithology-stratigraphic cites; 9 Pleistocene lake-alluvial; 10 gray porphyries olivine dolerites; border; 22 direction of the lava sheets; 23–24 centers of volcanoes: 23 11 Pleistocene-Pliocene lacustre clay; 12 Upper Pleistocene andesitic; Mio-Pliocene, 24 Quaternary;, 25 zone modified rocks; and 26 small 13 lower Pliocene tuffs; 14 lower Pliocene dolerites, andesitic-basalts, lake on the surface of the lava flows 76 7 Geology

Fig. 7.10 Diagram of deep structure of Djavaheti ring structure mediate hearths, 12 magmatic column—axis of Djavakheti ring struc- (Bondyrev 2000, 2003; Khudyakov et al. 1991): 1 “Basalts” and 2 ture, 13 supply igneous channels: 14 chimney dyke complex on Sam- “granites” layers, 3 volcanogenic-sedimentary complex to Jurassic– sari caldera, 15 getting through an earth crust strata symbolizing-heat Cretaceous, 4 Palaeogenic deposits, 5–7 vulkanites: 5 Lower Mio- flows in zones of deep faults,16 geophysical sections and their depth: cene—Upper Pliocene, 6 Middle Pliocene, 7 Upper Pleistocene, 8 17 areas of mechanical and heat, which form the structural frame, 18 Lower Pleistocene—Holocene ash cones and monogenic volcanoes, 9 stratigraphic boundaries according to geophysics, 19 outside Djavakhe- magmatic hearth—the initiator of Djavakheti ring structure, 10 mag- ti ( а) of a low order ( б) ring structures, and 20 concentric ( а) and other matic hearths—the initiators of the low-order ring structures, 11 inter- ( б) faults and other fissures ture on a contour by which the Upper Jurassic soils exit (clay shaped extrusions, stratovolcanos, and subvolcanic forms. and sandstones) uncovered by a river wash and are observed The second are formed as a result of the collapse of the fun- to be unique in the given area. The genesis of these forms damental cone as a result of lowering of the magmatic center still remains obscure. leading to land subsidence, foundering or caldera formation. The genesis of ring structures of the South Georgian vol- Thus, as geophysical criteria for revealing magmatogenic canic highland is much more accurately expressed. Practi- ring structures serve: the presence of isometric landlocked cally all of them are of volcanogenic origin and represent local anomalies Δg and ΔT, the presence of ring and radial cones, calderas, and the centers of eruption of long walls that gradient zones Δg, correlation failure ΔT, character changes are well visible on the geological map of the western part of in gravimagmatic fields, specifying the presence of bow- the Djavakheti Highland (Fig. 7.10). shaped subintrusive bodies, dykes, and intrusive sheets. According to Hudjakov (Bondyrev 1990), the largest of On the perimeter of ring structures, the geophysical in- them—the Djavakheti ring structure (see Fig. 7.1)—is a ring vestigations of territory of southern Georgia by Gamkrelidze volcano-tectonic depression. However, from the scheme of- (1991) have allowed the establishment of a change in the fered by the author as to the depth of this structure (Fig. 7.9), seismic wave field, that the Abul-Samsari volcanic structure such a conclusion does not emerge. Moreover, from the of ring type is accurately expressed not only in a landform drawing it is visible that the structure has a strongly pro- and a geological structure but also underlined by the char- nounced roof character, and the hollow of Paravani Lake in acteristics of a gravitational field. The large anomaly bug its central part was formed as a result of afflux fallen asleep reflecting a general view of morphostructure of the Abul- lavas by streams of river valleys and reorganizations of a hy- Samsari ridge (a volcanic mountain chain—ridges) has a re- drological network of the region, instead of surface lowering turn sign. Local minima of this anomaly correspond to the on the lines of faults that prove to be true field investigations. sites of concentration of volcanic cones (small and local ring Gamkrelidze (1991) adheres to another opinion, that structures). The ridge foot is characterized by the presence of magmatic central ring structures are fixed as a result of the a zone of high gradient of the gravitational field that, appar- exogenic and endogenic geodynamic processes realized in ently, is caused by the existence of deep faults complicated tension and compression of the earth crust. He allocates two by secondary near-surface zones of fracturing. types of magmatogenic ring structures: not turned and turned Ring structures of southern Georgia are not only of vol- classes. The first, introduced by a slag cone, are dome- canic origin but are also large enough (12 × 20 km); and the 7.6 Mineralization 77

Fig. 7.11 Loki party ring and linear structure: 1 boundary of the Loksky crystal massif; 2 the dome part of the Loksky massif which lies above 1500 m; 3 mountain constructions volcanogenic Somkhiti ridge, rising above 1500 m; 4 feet of separate volcanic cones; 5 the levelled surfaces; 6 the ring structures, representing reflected magmatic chambers in a surface of volcanic devices; 7 stock intrusions; 8 reflected in a surface mantle diapir; 9 lines of fissures ( I–VII) ; 10 geopathogenic zones; 11 geochemical anomalies; 12 sites with the raised level of ionization; 13 pulling down direction; 14 water sampling point; 15 settlements; and 16 frontier

Kazbegi oval structure is sufficiently correlated with a foot the deposition of the Upper Jurassic bottoms, representing of the Kazbegi massif where the central object is the vol- reflected batholitic. Soils composing these structures, appar- canic cone Mkinvartcveri (Kazbegi mountain) combined ently, were saturated with hydrothermal solutions from this Quaternary effusion, lying down on sandstones and Upper center (Fig. 7.6, a cutting A, I). Jurassic shale (Fig. 7.11). The Chaukhi ring structure head From local structures of southern Georgia, the Poladauri to the east expresses the diabasic pale intrusion, deduced on oval structure of the size of 6.5 × 4 km located at the merging a surface as a result of tectonic motion of blocks and gen- of the Poladauri and Mashavera Rivers is most representa- eral Cavcasioni (the Big Caucasian ridge) rise. The Himsa- tive. The ring structure is formed in volcanic soil by faults Kelasuri local ring structure, which is in the upper courses of and fractures on the contour of an ancient (presumably cre- the East Gumista and Kelasuri rivers, is accurately fixed in taceous) volcano (Fig. 7.6, site Е in Fig. 7.11). The tectonic landforms in the form of the Himsa massif, with numerous area had been rather quiet throughout the neotectonic stage, modern glaciers, and represents a Jurassic pale volcano from the block. It had caused long peneplenization, levelled land a geological point of view. forms, and completely destroyed the volcanic cone. Thus, ancient structures were preserved sufficiently well under a layer of Neogene-Quarternary alluvial-proluvial-deluvial 7.6 Mineralization depositions. In the central part paleovolcano, the strongest changes in the structure and integrity of soils that has led Communication of some types with ring structures of Geor- them to dissociation and pulling down, formation of the gia is remarkable. Within the Kvaisa ore field, mineraliza- original trough form on which there was a subsidence and tion is dated for crossing sites, sublatitude faults, and zones a material offset and the complicated secondary tectonic of tectonic disturbances with local ring structures (Bondyrev fractures of diagonal prodeleting occurred. In the center and 1986). Communication to barite and polymetallic displays of on a circle of the ring structure the deposits genetically con- the Abkhazia ore area with the ring structure with the same nected with the given structure had copper (Tsitelsopeli) and name (Bondyrev 1986, 1987) is sufficiently accurately ex- copper-barite-polimetal (Kvemo-Bolnisi) (Table 7.2). pressed. In Fig. 7.6 (see cutting—A), the scheme on which As a whole, in the entire territory of Georgia, a certain confinements timed to vein cooper-pyirrhotin mineralization law is marked in the spatial communication of ring struc- to the peripheral part of the epidemics and ring structures of tures, morphostructures, features of tectonic structures, and the given area is well visible, is the result. mineralization (Table 7.3). Consolidation of a large number Other business on a site of the Aapsta ring structure which of local and local ring structures in the form of separate accu- is also on an external contour of the regional ring structure is mulations or groups on small sites of a circle of the regional Abkhazian. Sampling, done on an external ring of the Aap- ring structures, accompanying subaltitude, and submeridian sta ring structure has shown the high maintenance of barite, faults, represents important ore controller signs. Only local or zinc, lead, and gold. Aapsta, the ring structure itself, limits local ring structures, which are on a line of long-living faults, 78 7 Geology

Table 7.2 The relationship of identified ring structures (RS) of Georgia with the geology, tectonics, ore occurrence, and their manifestation in the relief (number in the table matches the number on the scheme) No RS name Diameter Geological structure Tectonic structure Expressiveness in Ore district, site, and (km) landforms the basic ore-bearing formations I Chiatura- 60–80 Palaeozoic granites, Georgian massif Upper Imereti swell- Central Imereti ore district Dzirula (30–40) Cretaceous limestone and horst massif and Dzirula (manganese, pegmatitees marls, Neogenic sand- denudation highland and редкометальная) stones and conglomerates II South 80–95 Andesite-dacitt lava Upwarping South Georgian volcanic Bolnisi ore district (cop- Georgian Neogene-Quaternary, highland and basic part to per, pyrite-complex ore), fewer—sandstone forest Trialeti ridge Ardjevani ore district (native gold, barite-complex ore) III Central Iori 40 Conglomerates and sand- Integument anticline West block of the Iori Barren ore stone Neogene, sediment tableland to Maikop series 1V Erusheti 35–40 Neogene-Quaternary Upwarping Erusheti highlands Barren ore effusive V Khulo 40–42 Andesites, conglomerates, Aspindza anticline Khulo hollow Adjara ore district tuff-sandstones, Eocene (copper-complex ore) VI Odishi 30 Limestone, marls Upwarping Odishi block-synclinal Barren ore and conglomerates, inclinad plateau Cretaceous-Paleogene VII Okumi 30–45 Limestone, marls, and The zone of folds and Chalkstones massifs of Tkvarcheli ore district clayey sandstones to thrust-fault to north limbs central part to Abkhazia- (mineral coals) Cretaceous-Paleogene of Samurzakan anticline Samegrelos ridges upland VIII Abkhazian 45–55 Limestones and Gagra zone to thrust-fault Bzibi massif Abkhazian ore district porphyritic to (mercury, barite-lead-zinc Jurassic–Cretaceous and rare metals) IХ Lagodekhi 30 Jurassic clay shale, marl- Lagodekhi block eugeo- Not expressed on relief Kakheti ore district stone, and sandstones syncline to South slope to (copper—pyrrhotite and Great Caucasus pyrite-complex ore) Х Didoy 20 Jurassic clay shales Thrust-fault zone of Didoy hollow Tushiti-Didoy ore site eastern immersing to main (copper-pyrrhotite) watershed of anticlinoria the main Caucasian ridge ХI Akhmeta 25 Limestone, marls Contact to zone of Alazani Not expressed on relief Kakheti ore district and sandstones of the depression and zone of (copper-pyrrhotite, pyrite- Jurassic–Cretaceous carbonates flysh complex ore) ХII Colchis 20–30 Quarternary depositions Rioni graben Chaladidi plot of the Prichernomorsky ore dis- Colchis lowlands trict (magnetite sands)

Table 7.3 Tendencies of change in the landscape of eastern Georgia. (Bondyrev 1986) Epoch Phase Absolute age (th.a.d.) Character of the landscapes Lower Holocene 2.5–1 Primary development of grassy formations Middle Holocene III 4–3 Expansion of an area of low moor oak forests II 6–5 The maximum distribution of low moor and bottomland forests I 8–7 Wide circulation of bottomland forests Early Holocene II 9–8 Lowland forests I 10–9 Wide circulation of lowland forests (Pterocarya pterocarpa Mecx., Juglans regia) Ancient Holocene 18–10 Cold forest-steppe Lower Pleistocene 50–19 Water vegetation, fewer Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia phyllostachys

are ore-bearing. Revealing of sites of crossing separate mor- Along with ore-bearing, sterile locations on mineraliza- phostructures, subaltitude faults, and local ring structures in tion ring structures are also marked (Table 7.3). Searches of places with the most difficult configuration of boundaries of correlation communications of ring structures with miner- structural blocks is one of the perspective search criteria. alization in Georgia demand further study. At a given stage References 79

Fig. 7.12 The nature of exposure to port River Moshevani (a) to sandwiches; 5 lacustrine clay (Ql1) to facieses dam lakes; 6 lacustrine 1.2 km lower Guguti and its profile (b): 1 Horizon to modern (1?) sediments—clay with rare inclusions of stone material (Ql2) to facies and buried (12) chernozem; 2 horizon to buried altered soils (Pleisto- flowing lakes; 7 thin lamination clay (Ql); 8 sandy-clay deposits with cene); 3 messier to angular stone material (Qd); 4 horizon to proluvun slight inclusion of stone material (Q?); 9 fluvioglacial sediment (Qffg); sediments (Qp) presented by mild roundness of pebbles and with sand 10 sandy sediments (Qal); and 11 debris sediments. (Bondyrev 2003b)

it is possible to draw only preliminary conclusions which, Bondyrev IV (1987) The basic problems of studying and development nevertheless, testify to high perspectives of these studies. of high-mountainous areas of Georgia. “Tekhinform, Tbilisi, p 68 (in Apparently, a material in Holocene and some periods Russian) Bondyrev IV (1990) The spatial differentiation of the earth-crust ener- of the gang of landscape complexes caused by various dis- getic parameters and geography of ancient civilization. Bull Geor- plays of climatic fluctuations are marked from the results gian Acad Sci 159(â„7): 445–448 in Table 7.3. In a Holocene, fluctuations of a climate in the Bondyrev IV (1991) Space researches and problem of ring structures. form of a frequent gang of phases of warming and a cold Tekhinform, Tbilisi, p 78 (in Russian) Bondyrev IV (2000) Geomorphology of the Georgia: new concepts and snap are fixed in all territories of the region. Depending on a challenges. Polygraph, Tbilisi, p 82 (in Russian) geographical location of concrete sites, the quantity of such Bondyrev IV (2003a) Rings structures of Georgia. “Geotectonic,” Mos- phases fluctuates from 5 to 6 in the south and the southeast— cow, No. 2, pp 98–108 and (Ring Structures in Georgia http://run- to more than 12 in the west (Abkhazia) (Bondyrev 1986). ners.ritsumei.ac.jp/cgi-bin/swets/contents-query?mode=0&key=&is sn=00168521&tr=Geotectonics&vol=00037 &issue=00002&part=) As a result of the Holocene humidity increases, similar Bondyrev IV (2003b) On geomorphology and paleogeography of the processes of filling of the lake bowls are observed, and in Moshevani (Pinezauri) basin. In: “Dmanisi”, vol IV, Metsniereba, other regions—southern Georgia, the Keli volcanic plateau, Tbilisi, pp 166–187 lakes of the Small Caucasus, etc. Simultaneously occurs Bondyrev IV (2012a) On features of a thematic Atlas “Geomorphol- ogy of the South Caucasus”. Mat. Intern. Sci. Conference “National flooding of coastal plains and river mouths, and also, chang- atlases and the formation of a global information space”, (Kiev, es of soil types that lead to the general reorganization of the 12–15.09.2012), pp 28–30 (in Russian) visual environment. This is clearly visible from the section Bondyrev IV (2012b) Snow-glacial processes (mudflows of the shown in Fig. 7.12. Meskheti range (SW Georgia) and their reflection in the modern relief. Mat. Intern. Sci. Conference “Mudflows: catastrophes, risk, prediction, protection”, devoted on 100 years anniversary S.M. Fleischman, Moscow State University, Geography facultative of the References (17–19 Oct 2012), pp 48–59 (in Russisan) Bondyrev IV, Gogmachadze SA (2011) Geomorphology and geophysics of the Upper Svaneti (Georgia). V Caucasian Intern. School-sem- Administrative-territorial Units of Georgia (1989) Tbilisi, 1989, p 56 inar “Seismic Danger. Seismic-risk management in the Caucasus”, (in Georgian) Vladicavcaz, pp 85–98 Bondyrev IV (1986a) Experience in the application of structure- Bondyrev IV, Koroshinadze MS (1986) Structural-geomorphological geomorfologičes one method of the prospecting of mineral deposits analysis and aerospace methods in search of useful minerals in Geor- in Abkhazian ore region. In: IV Bondyrev (ed) “Current issues of gia, Tbilisi: “Overview” (Georgian institute of science and technical earth sciences. Tbilisi State University Press, Tbilisi, pp 44–45 information), Series “Geology”, No 6, p 60 Bondyrev IV (1986b) Potential application of morphological analysis Bondyrev IV, Vatcadze DV (1985) Environmental of the upstream in search of exploration (by the example of Kvaisа ore field). Infor- basin r.Luhumisckali. Abst. of all-Union Sci. Conference “Protection mation bull., Ser.“Geology.”, No. 3, Tbilisi, Institute of the scientific from pollution by sewage water inland seas,” Georgian Politecnical and technical information, p 6 University, Tbilisi, pp 10–11 80 7 Geology

Gamkrelidze NP (1991) Geology a structure, magmatism and metal- cal and mireralogičeskih Sciences. Nodia Institute of Geophysics, logeny of the South-East Georgia on geophysical data. Publishing Tbilisi, 125 с (in Russian) house. Ð¢bilisi State University, Tbilisi, p 340 (in Russian) Khudyakov GI, Ezhov BV, Tabidze DD, Tigishvili LA (1991) Morpho- Gongadze SA (2006) Anomalous gravitational field of Georgia and structures of the Dzavakheti highland (Southern Georgia). Geomor- some of the geological and geophysical interpretation. The disserta- phology, No 1, pp 96–102 (in Russian) tion on competition of a scientific degree of the candidate of geologi- Geodynamical Processes 8

Abstract Georgia’s landscape is geologically quite active. At present about 4.5 million ha of the country is under the threat of elemental natural processes. It is subject to serious erosion. Mudslides and landslides are commonly observed. Owing to the destructive exogenic processes, about 5 % of the arable land is withdrawn yearly from agricultural turnover, and 50 % is damaged through erosion. Under the influence of intense anthropogenic factors, about 100–130 t/ha of soil layer from farmlands of eastern Georgia is washed down every year, while in western Georgia it is 150–160 t/ha. During heavy rains these values increase two to four times. In semiarid regions of eastern Georgia, gully erosion widely affects the underlying surface and gives rise to badlands. On the whole, the territory in Georgia affected by natural hazards is constantly increasing. Disasters affected 1 million ha in 1976, 3 million ha in 1981, and 8.7 million ha in 1996. Large mudflow hearths are registered in areas where more than 60 % of the population is concentrated. This chapter reflects on these geodynamical processes.

Georgia’s landscape is geologically quite active. It is subject 3 million ha in 1981, and 8.7 million ha in 1996 (Bondyrev to serious erosion. Mudslides and landslides are commonly et al. 2004, 2007; Bondyrev and Singh 2004). observed. This chapter reflects on these geodynamical processes. 8.2 Mudflow

8.1 Erosion and Surface Wash-Down Large mudflow hearths are registered in the Inguri, Tskhe- nistskali, Rioni, Alazani, Didi Liakhvi, Aragvi, and Tergi At present about 4.5 million ha of the territory of Georgia is river basins, where more than 60 % of the population of the under the threat of elemental natural processes. As a result of country is concentrated (Fig. 8.1). For the past 220 years, the destructive activity of exogenic processes, about 5 % of about 37 mudflow occurrences of disastrous nature have the arable land is withdrawn yearly from agricultural turn- been registered in Georgia (Fig. 8.1). A single evacuation of over, and 50 % is damaged through erosion. Under the influ- mudflow material quite often exceeds 1 million m3. Thus, ence of intense anthropogenic factors, about 100–130 t/ha of the volume of mudflow on the Duruji River on 18 September soil layer from farmlands of eastern Georgia is washed down 1961 was 1.2 million m3, whereas the disastrous mudflow every year, while in western Georgia it is 150–160 t/ha. Dur- on the Terek River in August 1967 evacuated some mil- ing heavy rains these indices increase two to four times. In lion m3 of mudflow material (Tatashidze et al. 2000, 2006). semiarid regions of eastern Georgia, gully erosion widely af- The most dangerous is the Duruji mudflow, which threatens fects the underlying surface and gives rise to badlands in the to destroy the town of Kvareli. For the last 100 years, this Iori highland and Gombori range. On the whole, the territory small borough has been subjected to destruction 15 times, in Georgia affected by natural hazards is constantly increas- and its present-day existence hangs by a thread, because of ing. As a result, the disasters affected 1 million ha in 1976, the lack of required means and facilities for the reconstruc-

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 81 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_8, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 82 8 Geodynamical Processes

Fig. 8.1 Dynamics of manifestation of mudflows and landslides

tion of buildings destroyed by mudflow. An example of such Mud stream phenomena are practically developed in all a catastrophe, the grandiose disastrous mudflow (Fig. 8.2) landscape geomorphologic areas, from the low mountain re- in the Cardamom River valley in the North Caucasus, which lief up to the alpine area. Considering that nearly 60 % of killed 113 people, should be noted. the population lives in the valleys of small rivers, we may Based on the amount of mud stream basins, frequency of conclude that more than 1000 inhabited points are located in different mud stream flows and their power, volume of mud the sphere of influence of these processes. Statistical analy- stream deposits and complex conditions of their shaping, sis shows that one of the major slope-forming factors is in- as well as the damage inflicted on dwellings and economic tensive precipitation and consequent flooding (Fig. 8.4). The objects, the territory of the region can be regarded as the amounts of such mud streams in different climatic areas vary most mud stream prone and complex regions of the world from 65 to 85 % among the total number of all mud streams. (Fig. 8.3). Mud streams connected with spring snow thawing do not exceed 3 %, glacial mud streams form 12–13 % of the total number of mud streams, and those occurring as a result of

jams after mud stream shift from 10 to 30 %. The principal present-day exodynamic processes, as a result of which reserves of loose material are formed, are: weathering, collapsed-talus phenomena, landsliding, snow avalanches, washing out of indigenous and water-accumulative deposits, and gully erosion. Consequences of mud streams are defined by their density, which varies from 1100 to 2500 kg/m3. Depending on the composition and density of mud stream mass, three types of mud streams are distinguished: stone aqueous, muddy, and muddy stone. Here, an important parameter of mud stream is its nature and velocity of its motion. Very often a mud stream moves not unceas- ingly, but by separate ramparts. An average velocity of mud Fig. 8.2 Mleta mudflow beside bridge through Aragvi River

Fig. 8.3 Trans-Caucasian highway Tbilisi-Vladikavkaz damaged through boulder avalanche ( right). The results of glacial mudflows in Svaneti (western Georgia) ( left) 8.3 Landslides 83

Fig. 8.4 Dynamics of mean and maximum water discharge during disastrous floods in Georgia. ( Red—the maximum expense of water, blue—average)

stream is 10–15 km/h, but at the breakout of obstacles it goes landslides are distinguished by the maximum depth up to 20–35 km/h, and herewith sharply increases in volume. of bedding, large area of the envelopment of declivity, Mudflows actually are developed everywhere and most more or less monotonous structure, and mechanism actively manifested in the Great Caucasus area, composed of displacement. (The general scheme of counter on of molassa strata and Jurassic shales, on the northern slopes erosion activities of Georgia from 1991 to 2000 years, of Atchara-Trialeti folded system and northern slope of Tbilisi 1988, p. 726; Tcereteli 1985; Changashvili Gombori range. Based on the quantity of mudflow basins, 1970; Bondyrev et al. 2007.) frequencies of mudflows of various intensities and their en- b. Landslides timed to cover coherent-loose depos- ergy, volume of evacuated mudflow deposits and complex its of the active area of the weathering crust. Such conditions of mudflow generating processes, and the extent landslides, by the nature of formation, inundation of of damage brought about to the economy of Georgia, the ter- declivity, mechanism and velocity of displacement, ritory of Georgia can be considered as one of the most high- depth of penetration/capture, and mode of repeatabil- risk zones on the Earth. Out of 5000 mudflow basins regis- ity, are characterized by their heterogeneity. tered in the Caucasus, more than half of landslide processes, 2. Per signs of landslide processes, creating an initial base 2700 are recorded in different mountainous and piedmont for forcing landslide-prone declivity from its equiponder- regions of Georgia. ous condition, some landslide groups stand out: (a) coastal, (b) tectoseismogenic, (c) consistent (hydrogenic), (d) karst-suffosive, (e) cryogenic, (f) technogene–anthropic, 8.3 Landslides and (g) poligenic (i.e., landslides when it is difficult to define the leading factor of their formation). Out of 5000 landslide basins registered in the Caucasus, 3. Morphogenic nature of declivities that mainly defines more than half, 2700 are in Georgia. In the territory of Geor- the peculiarities necessary for classification of landslide- gia, the regional categorization of landslides and collapses gravitational phenomena. Accordingly, the declivities are is done on the basis of major characteristics. All the features singled out: tectogenic, erosive, abrasive, volcanogenic, used for their classification are taken from the real situations, glacial, nival cryogenic, terraced, denudation, accumu- existing on the territory of Georgia. Landslides are subdi- lative, and technogenic (cut, embankkment) of complex vided as follows: genesis. 1. Geological conditions of their formation, defining partic- 4. Nature of declivity—earlier deformed or undeformed ularities of deforming horizons and the depth of capture surfaces, constantly repeated. In this connection, the fol- of declivity, structure of landslide body, mechanism of lowing landslides are singled out: (a) first order and (b) displacement, and nature of repeatability of the process. second order. Per this sign, we select two classes: 5. Depending on the depth of penetration into the decliv- a. Landslides occurring as liquefied and tectonically ity and power of deforming horizon, there stand out the smashed rocks of fundamental base. Usually such following landslides: (a) surface (depth of deformation 84 8 Geodynamical Processes

is limited by the rock horizons of 1–3 m); (b) shallow— On the territory of the region where landslide collapses depth of deformation is limited by the area of seasonal occur, they, most of all, threaten population and engineering- moisture fluctuation and temperature (basically 3–5 m); economic structures of Georgia and northeastern Turkey. (c) average—depth of capture up to 10 m; (g) deep—up They are distinguished not only by the enormity of develop- to 10–20 m; and (d) ultra deep—over 20 m. ment but also by the variety of their genesis, mechanism of 6. Per volume of sliding masses, landslides are subdi- displacement, and track record. These processes are broadly vided into: (a) small (volume of deformed mass up to developed on the territory of the Black Sea coast of Kras- 10,000 m3), (b) average—10–100,000 m3, (c) big—0.1– nodar region (Russian Federation). Thus, in the territory of 1 million m3, (d) large—several million m3, and (e) gran- Sochi seaside area where different ages and generations of diose—groups of tens and hundreds million m3. block landslides stand out, it is stated that their activity in- 7. Per conditions of inundation of landslide-prone slopes, creases from the ancient stage relief to more young ones. influencing the origin and development of landslide pro- Here 400 landslide bodies were fixed, 70 % of which repre- cesses, six types of inundation sources have been singled sent block landslides and 30 % are of plastic type. Nearly all out: (a) on account of atmospheric precipitation, (b) at the plastic landslides have anthropic (technogenic) genesis. cost of subsoil water, (c) on account of common impact On 69,700 km2 of the territory of Georgia, 55,000 land- of atmospheric precipitation and subsoil water, and (d) on slide-collapse areas are mapped, the total area of which ex- account of subsoil water of deep level, they are mainly ceeds 1.5 million ha that forms 20 % of the whole territory characteristic of tectonically disturbed/violated and karst of the country (Fig. 8.5). Real threat exists for 2000 inhab- areas (for instance, the south wing of Ratcha-Lechkhumi ited settlements. On the routes of export oil pipelines in the syncline, the Bzibi River valley, and clay shales of Lias western direction and Trans-Caucasian gas main, more than of south declivity of the Greater Caucasus); (e) on ac- 70 landslide bodies were fixed, but some areas of Baku— count of infiltration of water reservoirs, irrigation systems Tbilisi–Ceyhan and Shakh-Deniz–Erzurum route under de- (Sioni, Gachayani, and Samgori landslides), and techno- sign are in high-risk landslide-prone areas. More than 25 % genic water; and (f) combined inundation of slopes. of car roads of the country are in the area of influence of 8. The degree of activity of landslides is divided into: (a) these processes. Today, a real danger of landslide activity ex- highly active—being in unceasing dynamics from the ists in the area of Zhinvali water reservoir, which is one of moment of origin and before terminating a full landslide the main water supply sources for the city of Tbilisi. cycle; (b) active, seasonally moving over to the dynamic Even in conditions of background activity of landslides, condition as a result of fallout of anomalous amount of the damage to the economy of Georgia is defined by hun- atmospheric precipitation; (c) potential or temporarily dreds of millions of US Dollars. From this, direct damage, stabilized, in the given moment resting in peace, which is particularly inflicted on agriculture, forms US$ 45–50 mil- highly unstable and their activation any time is possible lion. During 1967–1968 on the territory of western Georgia, as a result of repetition of one of the landslide forming more than 5000 landslides were activated and formed for the factors; and (d) stable, homeostasis balance that is not first time, 10,000 dwellings were ruined and destroyed, and disturbed under the modern base situation and without 30,000-ha land was removed from agriculture. changing the conditions of landslide cycle. During 1983–1985, 534 new urbanized territories were 9. In the mechanism of landslide process, not only the deter- formed and 1262 landslides activated; 2038 dwellings were ministic causal dependencies of landslide manifestation destroyed, and 10,000 ha of arable lands was withdrawn but also the stochastic components participate. In nature from agriculture. In the period of sharp activity of elemental we come across different types of landslide gravitational processes, about 8000 new landslides were formed in 1987– phenomena, having similar mechanisms of displacement. 1989, which ruined and destroyed about 20,000 dwellings Moreover, in spite of that, each type of landslide has its and economic structures, and over 9000 families were evac- own mechanism of development, change of its mecha- uated and moved to new places. In the mountainous Adjaria nism may occur as a result of the change of roles of sepa- as a result of landslides and collapses, 20 million m3 volume rate process forming factors. of mass buried Tsablana village and 50 people perished. The Negative consequences of landslide and collapse phenomena total damage from this disaster exceeded US$ 1 billion. At are particularly felt sharply in the whole territory of the Cau- present about 8.5 million ha of territory in Georgia is under casian-Pontides region. Here the mechanism of their forma- the threat of the influence of elemental natural processes. In- tion and the extent of manifestation are greatly distinguished tensive flooding is provoked due to sudden warming after from landslides, developed in platform conditions. This dif- snowy winters and melting or rush of ponds and lakes into ference, first of all, is caused by the significant difference the nival-glacial zone. in the nature of morphostructure and sharply denominated energy of relief. References 85

Fig. 8.5 Map of zonation of the Georgian territory per development of landslide processes

References

Bondyrev IV, Singh VP (2004) Natural potential of mountain territories—philosophic-methodological analysis. Natural potential of the mountainous territories: condition, problems, prospects. Tbilisi State University, Georgia, pp. 18–35 Bondyrev IV, Tatashidze ZK, Singh VP, Tsereteli ED, Yilmaz A (2004) Impediments to the sustainable development of the Caucasus-Pon- tides region, in “New Global Development.” J Int Comp Soc Welf, Twentieth Anniversary Special, XX(â1):33–48 Bondyrev IV, Tavartkiladze AM, Tcereteli ED, Masmmadov RM et al (2007) Geography of catastrophes and risk in area of humid subtropics’ the Caucasia-Pontides region. Poligraf, Tbilisi, p. 378 Bondyrev IV, Tavartkiladze AM, Tcereteli ED, Budagov DA et al (2009) Anthropologic transformation of the South Caucasus natural ambience. Poligraf, Tbilisi, p. 482 Glacial and Periglacial Processes 9

Abstract Considering its size, Georgia has a large number of glaciers. In the mountains of Georgia, there are about 786 registered glaciers, with a total area of about 550 km. About 82.5 % are in the upper courses of the Kodori, Inguri, Rioni, and Tereck rivers. For the past 150 years, significant glacier retreat (0.8–1.7 km) and shrinking of their area by 16 % has been observed. Since the middle of the 1940s, the glaciological situation has been characterized by a sharp reduction in the glacial area, but with the simultaneous increase in their number as glaciers disintegrated into separate smaller ones, although at the same time separate movements have also taken place. Avalanches are common in Georgia. Nearly 340 inhabited places are under the threat of avalanche attacks. About 31 % of the territory of Georgia is subject to avalanches (18 % in eastern and 13 % in western Georgia). This chapter discusses glacial processes and their impacts.

Considering its size, Georgia has a large number of glaciers. the territory is subject to avalanches in the Terek, Argun, and As a result, avalanches are common. This chapter discusses Assa river basins; about 50 % in the Bzibi, Kodori, Chkhalta, glacial processes. and Inguri river basins; and up to 25 % in the Khobi, Alazani, and Iori river basins. The present day glaciation within the Caucasian region 9.1 Glaciers in Georgia occupies 1436.12 km2 and the area is home to 2090 glaciers (per 1993 data). Glaciation is mainly timed to crests of ridges In the mountains of Georgia, there are about 786 registered and adjoining them are areas of main spurs of the Greater glaciers, with a total area of about 550 km2. About 82.5 % are and Minor Caucasus. The total area of glaciers of the Greater in the upper courses of the Kodori, Inguri, Rioni, and Ter- Caucasus is 1367.94 km2 and 99.8 % of all glaciers of the eck rivers. For the past 150 years, significant glacier retreat Caucasus are situated here (Fig. 9.1). (0.8–1.7 km) and shrinking of their area by 16 % has been observed. Since the middle of the 1940s, the glaciological situation has been characterized by a sharp reduction in the 9.2 Geography of Glaciers glacial area, but with the simultaneous increase in their number the united glaciers disintegrated into separate smaller The main glaciation localization of the Terek River basin is ones, although at the same time, separate movements have the Kazbegi-Jimarai massif (Khokhi ridge). Powerful hang- also taken place. ing-valley glaciers, Devdoraki, Ortsveri (Gergeti), and Sua- At some transshipping sections of the highways of Geor- tisi begin on the walls of this massif. Of all the registered gla- gia, the material damage due to elemental destructive pro- ciers in Georgia, 12.6 % are in the Terek River basin with a cesses, such as snow avalanches and collapses, account for 12.1 % area. Per area, hanging-valley type glaciers (48.2 %) 50 % of the total freight turnover of motor transport. About occupy the first place. Hanging (17.9 %) and corrie (17.1 %) 31 % of the territory of Georgia is subject to avalanches (18 % glaciers occupy identical areas. The most active glaciers of in eastern and 13 % in western Georgia). More than 70 % of the Caucasus for the past 100 years have been Devdoraki,

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 87 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_9, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 88 9 Glacial and Periglacial Processes

Fig. 9.1 Dynamics of the area of Georgian glaciers 1890–1970. (Data from 1890)

system of the Caucasus. However, the size of this geoecosystem is so enormous that it may be reasonable to consider only one of its most representative cells—the Kazbegi-Jima- rai block. This choice is also determined by a well-known Karmadoni event of September 2002. The area of glaciation on Kazbegi massif is 23.2 km2, the average thickness of ice is 49.7 m, and ice volume is 15,063 km3(Panov 1993). Cal- culation of data on the Kazbegi-Jimarai massif shows that as we approached the year 2000, a reduction of factor value of the glacier’s mass pressure on the rock mass of the Earth’s crust was observed (Fig. 9.3). It was calculated that from 1881 to 2000 this value ( k) was reduced from 79.0 to 49.4. Taking into consideration the value of this coefficient, the value of the glacier’s mass pressure on the rock mass of the Fig. 9.2 Glaciers in valley Truso. (Basin to Terek River) Earth’s crust to the depth of 100 km was calculated. Estima- tion of the problem was carried out by the method of end Abano, and Kolka. Devdoraki and Kolka retreated by 16 m elements in the plan of its linear formation. Provisionally, the during 1881–1970, but Abano approached 79 m during maximum average density of rocks was accepted as 0.3 t/m3. 1882–1970. Analysis of the Kazbegi-Jimarai massif data Here, the module of deformation E = 2 h 106 t/m2, and the showed that as we approached the year 2000, a reduction in Poisson factor u = 0.2. As a first approximation, using com- the factor value of the masses of glacier pressure on the strata puter processing of the data (support program ANSYS) on of the Earth’s crust was observed (Fig. 9.2). It has been cal- the material, a factor of glacial load on the basement rock culated that during the period of 1881–2000, in connection surface had the following distribution per vertical: In 1875, with the melting of glaciers, this value ( k) reduced from 79.0 the pressure on the basement rock was 65 t/m2 at a depth of to 49.4. With the provision for the given factor, the pressure 5 km, 56.9 t/m2 at a depth of 10 km, 43.59 t/m2 at a depth of glacier masses upon the Earth’s crust was estimated down of 25 km, 32.39 t/m2 at a depth of 50 km, and 26.29 t/m2 to 100 km depth, with the use of the method of end elements or 2.62 kg/cm2 at a depth of 100 km. In 2000, these values in the plan of its lineal setup. reached 46.39 t/m2 at a depth of 5 km, 39.59 t/m2 at a depth of 10 km, 32.9 t/m2 at a depth of 25 km, 22.89 t/m2 at a depth of 50 km, and 17.49 t/m2 or 1.74 kg/cm2 at a depth of 9.3 Glacial Melting 100 km. All this points to a significant reduction of pressure upon the Earth’s crust in the given region, and consequently Our aim is not to seek the reason for the active melting of to a definite breach of isostasy that must bring about a return glaciers of the Greater Caucasus whether it is global warm- reaction, directed at the recovery of balance that in its turn is ing or a consequence of human activity, but only to try to connected with moving material and energy in this lithody- define their possible consequences on the whole geodynamic namic system. Experience shows that removing the pressure 9.5 Cryogenic Processes 89

Fig. 9.3 Dependence of loading on Earth’s crust taking into account the weight of glaciers of the Kazbegi-Djimara file from the Earth’s crust by means of artificial extraction of the lives of 26 people. On the whole, 105 people perished a significant volume of resources (oil and mining, thermal in western Georgia during avalanches. Only in the region of water, bauxite, or kimberlitic mass) brings about a drastic Mestia, about 210 houses were completely ruined and more change in the seismicity mode within 5–25 years. A classic than 860 houses were damaged. As a result, from avalanche- example is the region of Gazli (Uzbekistan). Therefore, re- prone regions, about 8500 people were resettled, but the total moval of the geodynamic load (in the form of glacier mass- damage caused was about US$ 300 million. es) can cause an upheaval of endogenic activity (Table 9.1). On 4 March 2007, a powerful 5 m wide and 200 m long avalanche occurred in the region of Red Glade (western Cau- casus, Krasnodar region RF) from the top of Salimovsky cir- 9.4 Avalanches cus, burying 4 people, including a child. In February 2007, the Trans-Caucasian highway was completely closed be- Avalanche-prone periods within the territory under investi- cause of the convergence of tens of avalanches. In one day gation occur mostly during heavy snowfall (50 %) and dur- there were approximately 35 avalanches with a general vol- ing the melting of snow (29 %). A small percentage of ava- ume of 25,000 m3 of snow. In December 2003, heavy snow- lanches accounts for a period of sharp cold snap (8 %), rains fall in the Pontides Mountains almost blocked 70 villages. (4 %), and winds. In Georgia, 338 inhabited spots are under One person lost his life. threat of avalanche attacks. As a result of avalanches, people About 31 % of the territory of Georgia is subject to have lost their lives in 69 of these settlements. They caused avalanche processes (18 % in eastern and 13 % in western destruction in 81 settlements and heavy damages in 58 settle- Georgia). About 70 % of the territory in the Tergi, Argun, ments. The disastrous avalanches spread up to a height of and Assa river basins is affected by them; about 50 % in the 1500–2000 m above the mean sea level in the Colchida and Bzibi, Kodori, Chkhalta, and Inguri river basins; and up to Adjara-Trialeti mountains, up to a height of 2000–2500 m in 25 % in the Khobi, Alazani, and Iori river basins. In January the central part of the Greater Caucasus and on its southern 1987, due to unprecedented snowfall and avalanches, 100 spurs, but up to a height of 2500–2900 m in Eastern Cauca- people lost their lives. sus. In January 1987, unprecedented snowfall triggered these avalanches, which had not been observed at any station for a long period of time. Snowfall lasted for 46 days, falling 9.5 Cryogenic Processes 16 m thick at a number of places. The accumulated snow in mountains exceeded the usual rate three to four times, and on Cryogenic or periglacial phenomena are widespread in the the Gagra and Bzibi ranges it exceeded seven to eight times. high mountains of the Caucasian region. The major cryogen- If in previous years there were 30–40 fixed avalanches, ic forms of mountainous landscapes are depicted in Fig. 9.4. during 9–31 January 330 avalanches were registered. Many The modern area where cryogenic processes are spread on villages in Svaneti were ruined (western Georgia): Chuberi, the southern slope of the Central Caucasus (Georgia) is Ushguli, Mulakhi, Cola, and Khaishi. One of such ava- 3300 km2 and 9400 km2 within the Republic of North Os- lanches covered the village of Zhamushi and carried away setia—Alanya, but 4600 km2 in Kabardino-Balkaria (Bon- 90 9 Glacial and Periglacial Processes

Table 9.1 Cryogenic or periglacial phenomena Formations I. Formations confined to the rocky soils Factors influenc- Stone seas and covers Stone flows and Developed ridges Cave Nivation Migratory ing the formation slide-rocks of mountain ranges formations snowfields Climate Modern 1. Blown snowfields 2. Cones of the snow avalanches Aeolian processes 1. Stone 1. Mudflow 1. Peaks 1. Nivation 1. Nivation mounds hotbeds and mines niches the hotbeds of supply of rock flows Nivation 2. Stone 2. Cracks barrows 3. Stone covers 3. Furrows “Chingils” 4. Gendarme 2. Corridors 9. Couloirs 3. Nivation cars Frost weathering, 4. Stone 2. Loose destruction and deposits material of desquama-ting fissures and cracks 9. Stone seas 3. Stone rivers 4. Cones of 6. Cracks 2. Ice build-ups slide-rocks on the walls and the floor of caves 9. Kurums Freezing and Relic crystalliza-tion Climate 3. “Eternal snows” Buried snow- Thermokarst Glacio-fluvial Covers of the firn and ice surface masses moraines Climate 1. Funnels Snow bridges 2. Slumps Stone tables Freezing and Buried ice crust crystallization Nivation Buried 1. Surface Snowy snowfields moraines shafts— Pseudomo- raines Frost weathering Furrows 2. Rocky glaciers Solifluction Fluvial and fluvioglacial flows Frost weathering Fossil glaciers III. Formations confined to fine fragmental and gravel soils Polyconal- “Stone Bridge” structural and banded ground Climate Solifluction 9. Snowfields- migrants Nivation Micro-polygons 9.5 Cryogenic Processes 91

Table 9.1 (continued) Formations I. Formations confined to the rocky soils Factors influenc- Stone seas and covers Stone flows and Developed ridges Cave Nivation Migratory ing the formation slide-rocks of mountain ranges formations snowfields Frost sorting 1. Fragmental edg- 1.Stone soils in the ing polygons “bridges” “freeze-thaw, convection” Drying 2.Singenetic 2. Culled zones polygons Frost weathering 3. Nets 3.Not culled zones 4. Stone circles in 4 Stony “slate” the high mountain marshes Micro-polygons Relic Masses of fine fragmental and gravel material

Fig. 9.5 a Polygonal forms of south-east slope of Narvan-Khokh massif in plateau Keli. b and plain super face Shavdjina, Kazbegi massif

dyrev and Maisuradze 1978). These processes are also widespread on the territory of the Pontides mountains and Iranian upland covering 14,200 km2 (Fig. 9.5) Fig. 9.4 The most typical forms of nival-cryogenic relief wide-spread The factors defining the genesis and morphology of the in the Caucasian region: 1–6 horn peaks ( 1 tooth, 2 peak, 3 pyramid, forms of periglacial relief changes depend on the height of 4 cone, 5 dome, 6 needle), 7 guards, 8 nunatak, 9 lava funnel, 10 lava the area (Table 9.1). Three hypsometric levels are singled cone, 11 snowbank, 12 fissure, 13 crevasse, 14 chimney, 15 bench, 16 slab, 17 cork, 18 shelf, 19 balcony, 20 buried glaciers, 21 corrie, 22 out: blockseas, 23 ice table, 24 rock stream, 25 cones and boulder-trains, 26 1. The upper belt, which occupies the whole area of the nival polygonal ground, 27 solifluction terraces, 28 solifluctive rampart, 29 zone, is limited from underneath by the snowline lying at thufurs, 30 “bald” thufurs, 31 nival recesses 92 9 Glacial and Periglacial Processes

Fig. 9.6 Periglacial phenomena in the eastern part of Southern Geor- 11 lateral benches of lava streams with vector of lava flows, 12 snow gia (Djavakheti): 1 hummochy-soliflucation formations, 2 rock streams banks—“pereletoks”, 13 buried—snow-firn masses, 14 snow hollows and talus, 3 block seas and mantles, 4 “Bouldering” and rib boned and nival recesses, 15 thermokarst, 17 glacial (relict), 18 caves , 19 ground, 5 peat-swampy, 6 peat-swampy on block seas and alluvial de- frosty wedges, 20 stone walls (anthropogenic) constructed of block seas posits, 7 at the foot of large volcanic edifices and talus, 8 cone and and mantle material, 21 main camp, 22 field itineraries boulder-trains, 9 corries and corrie like formations, 10 trough valleys,

a height of 3000–3200 m above the mean sea level. Here, of glaciation processes. The value of seasonal freezing of frost weathering and gravitational talus processes largely soil ground is an important feature for the determination of take place which play the leading role in the formation of main relief-forming processes in high mountains. Informa- present day relief forms. tion on these parameters helps decide engineering—geologi- 2. The middle belt is situated below the snow line and prac- cal, building, agro-biological, and other problems. tically coincides with the alpine and sub-alpine landscape Bondyrev (1979) theoretically determined the values of zones. The lower border is represented by the upper limit seasonal freezing depth for different points in periglacial of distribution of forest vegetation and ranges within areas in Georgia, having minimum information on those 1750–2300 m above the mean sea level, depending great- areas. For this purpose, Budnikov’s formula (1967) was ly on the existing specific conditions. Here, slope (soli- used, with some amendments to the high-mountainous relief fluction, rock-streams, stone and snow avalanches, talus characteristics, the height of snow cover, and influence of trains, and mudflows) and plane (polygonal-structural wind (Bondyrev 1979; Bondyrev and Sulkhanishvili 1989; ground, (Fig. 9.6) boulder pavement, thufurs) processes Bondyrev and Maisuradze 1982). Comparison with the re- of periglacial morphogenesis prevail. cords of meteorological yearbooks of the Hydro-Meteoro- 3. Relict cryogenic formations (fluvioglacial deposits and logical Institute of Georgia on the depth of seasonal freezing cryoturbation) are spread in the lower belt down to 1400– showed little discrepancies (not more than 3–6 cm). The re- 1600 m above the mean sea level. cords gained are well-founded only for sub-horizontal sur- Various formations of polygonal ground are distinguished faces deprived of mantle and vegetative cover, with similar among them (Fig. 9.5). Krasnoslobodtsev (1971) singles mechanical composition and equal humidity value. Calcula- out 208 alpine glaciers of different morphogenesis on the tions were carried using the formula: side and north spurs of the Lesser Caucasian range within  5 ()nL1 +  a height of 2800–3000 m above the sea level. These forma- hknp =−5  Tn  tions are encountered very rarely on the south slopes—there  tH×V )  are only 21 of them. Widespread morainic mantles and sheets and gravitation- where Tn is the Budnikov formula, k is the lithological al talus processes define the existence of numerous “fossil” coefficient, provisionally equal to unity, Т is the mean air glaciers (dead ice), on their part testifying to the regression temperature during winter, t is the mean ground surface tem- 9.6 Classification of Periglacial Formations 93

Table 9.2 The value of maximum seasonal freezing of the ground in a number of settlements in a periglacial zone in Georgia (Bondyrev 1979).

Settlement Н (Height Mean winter N l YXX1 X2 above s.l.) temperature Т t Tskhinvali 862 − 0.7 − 4.1 79 12 12 37 21 20м Tsalka 1458 − 3.3 − 5.0 85 24 26 83 73 69п Gagra ridge 1644 − 1.4 − 3.0 79 9 20 52 39 – Omalo 1880 − 7.9 − 9.7 90 13 5 133 132 – Lagodekhi 1997 − 6.5 − 9.3 89 50 30 118 115 – Goderdzi pass 2026 − 7.3 − 9.0 90 124 40 130 55 50п Rodionovka 2100 − 10.2 − 10.2 90 9 40 131 130 130м Gudauri 2194 − 6.9 − 9.6 90 29 10 124 122 – Ermani 2240 − 7.5 − 11.3 90 29 26 130 130 – Jvari pass 2389 − 9.2 − 12.6 90 38 28 146 146 – Mamison pass 2854 − 11.4 – 90 5 34 160 160 – Kazbegi 3653 − 14.6 – 90 7 40 190 190 –

X records gained per Budnikov formula, X1 our estimated data, X2 data of field observations and meteorological stations

perature during winter, n is the length of the period with tem- and gypsum rocks (upstream of the Kharashat River) or perature below zero, n1 is the same with temperature above granitoides (Kachkari massif), occupying steep slopes of wa- zero during winter, H is the area altitude above mean sea tersheds within the range of 2300–3000 m above mean sea level, V is the winter wind mean velocity, (m/sec), and L is level. Rock streams are merged at the foot with trail waste, the thickness of snow cover/average for winter (Bondyrev forming impenetrable heaps. More gentle slopes as well as 1979). Table 9.2 illustrates the value of seasonal freezing of alpine meadow areas on flat tops are covered by extensive soil ground in a number of settlements in a periglacial zone and powerful (0.5–1 m) stone placers (block seas). Narrow in Georgia. river valleys do not promote the development of cryogenic slope processes there. Amongst the processes of periglacial morphogenesis, 9.6 Classification of Periglacial Formations the leading role belongs to nivation, broad development of which is caused by high humidity. On average, precipitation We propose a new approach for classification of periglacial of about 1000–1200 mm/year falls in the alpine zone of the formations, based on “cryogenic formations”, as the total Pontides and Arsian Mountains. cryogenic relief forms are joined by genetic (single mecha- Numerous snowbanks—pereletoks/intergelisols—are nisms of formation) as well as regional features (character- noted in low relief forms (crevasses, fissures, and small istics of underlying surface and characteristics of soils) The troughs) on the slopes of the Kachkari massif, Maisis, Onut- given formations are characterized by the following regulari- daga, Kartsen-daga, Alti-Parmaka, Kvakhidi, and Triali ties of their spatial distribution (Fig. 9.6): peaks of the Pontides mountains as well as on the massifs of 1. Formations related to rocky ground occupy the belt Khirkhata, Arsian, and Shavshet (Arsian range). As a result of tops, ridges of watersheds, and steep slopes of high of nivation, blocks of shearing are formed similar to those mountains. described in mountainous Abkhazia (Bondyrev 1987). In 2. Formations related to fine-ground and pebbles are mainly some places, small fields of thufurs, stone circles and soli- placed on gentle slopes and at the foot of mountain ridges fluctive terraces are seen on the Arsiani range. and massifs within 2700–1900 m above mean sea level. Through constant observations in the Mleta polygon, (the 3. Formations related to fine detrital and rock debris are Aragvi River basin) the velocity of displacement of slope observed on the high mountain plateaus in the zone of deposits is measured in a wide range (15–150 mm/year) Neocene-Quaternary volcanism. depending on the steepness of the slope and turfy sheet. At 4. Formations related to loamy and turf/soddy/surfaces some places, solifluctive mudflows are of catastrophic na- cover quite a large area, mostly alpine and sub-alpine ture, denuding basic rocks. These processes often disturb the meadows and alluvial soils of high mountain zones. (See integrity of vegetative cover, creating numerous horizontal the scheme of classification of periglacial formations of micro bends on the slopes and furrow landscapes by cryo- the Caucasus). genic “scars” (Bondyrev 1978; Bondyrev and Maisuradze Cryogenic formations of the Pontides Mountains are pre- 1978; Iveronova 1969). sented by stone mentales and streams, formed of limestone 94 9 Glacial and Periglacial Processes

Fig. 9.7 Panorama of the East Caucasus. (a kind of image from the south)

Table 9.3 Experimental evaluation of the rate of frosty weathering of mountain rocks. (Bondyrev 1979) Number of Mean amplitude Area of fro- Initial Weight Number of Weight of Velocity of disin- Velocity of version of temperature zen surface weight of of frozen “freezing- disinte- tegration of frozen disintegra- fluctuation during (sm2) sample (г) sample thawing” grated surface a day/gr/ tion/mm/ the experiment cycle particles. m2.a day/ year/ 1—over-mois- 28.2 °С 22.56 31.70 31.74 80 0.73 4.0514 0.288 tured 2—dry 31.34 41.10 41.47 80 0.07 0.2819 0.040 3—over-mois- 34.23 41.94 42.03 70 0.53 2.2079 0.672 tured 4—dry 37.84 29.19 29.45 70 0.10 0.3790 0.047

9.7 Impact of Cryogenic Processes conducted for 31 days. About 315 regimes of “freezing- thawing” changed one after another. As a result, it became For estimation of the impact and activity of cryogenic pro- possible to determine the conclusions of such issues as esti- cesses upon the natural environment, the intensity of their mation of the rate of disintegration of mountain rocks under displacement on the slope should be estimated first. As per frosty weathering. The estimated data is given in Table 9.3, Ivernova’s data (Iveronova 1969), the intensity of displace- estimating the rate of frosty weathering of separate units de- ment of boulder-train forms 0.029–0.190 mm/year, solifluc- pending on the lithology of mountain rocks and the extent tion—0.0001–0.170, and debris—0.003–0.45 mm/year. of their moistening. On the basis that the processes of frosty The processes of solifluction and frosty swelling of soils weathering within the region under study develop in almost inflict significant damage, breaking highways and destroy- similar conditions, it becomes possible to use the estimated ing power transmitting lines. The processes of formation of data of the experiment for estimation of similar parameters thick clay and loamy series in high mountain regions gave in the natural high mountains, with allowance for microcli- rise, long ago, to the interest in their genesis and possibility matic peculiarities and some amendments. of use in the national economy (Fig. 9.7). Therefore, Bon- dyrev (1979) conducted a number of experiments studying the rate of frosty weathering in different types of rocks. A References core sample No. 1 was taken from the well on the Tbilisi site, representing the carbonate fine-grained rock of the Eocene Bondyrev IV (1978) On the tufur’s of the Caucasus. Cryogenic phe- age (marl), taken at 2574–2580 m depth. The other sample nomena’s of the highlands. Nauka (Science), Novosibirsk, pp 36–42 Bondyrev IV (1979) Calculation of seasonal frozen soil-ground in was a monolith of andezite-dacitic lava (SiO2–50 %) from Georgia. Abstracts of the resulting scientific session of the Vakhushti the top of Emlikli massif (2750–2800 m above the mean sea Bagrationi institute of geography. Academy of Science of Georgia, level, Southern Georgia) (Table 9.3). Tbilisi, pp 23–24 Conditions especially similar to those of natural condi- Bondyrev IV (1987) The main problems of the study and development of the mountain regions of Georgia. Overview of the State Commit- tions on high mountains were created. Experiments were tee on Science and Technology, Tbilisi, p 68 References 95

Bondyrev IV, Maisuradze GM (1978) Some features of dynamics of Bondyrev IV, Sulkhanishvili GS (1989) Experimental study of mechan- morphogenesis and spatial placement of frozen ground in the Cau- ics of frost weathering of mountain rocks. Bull. Tbilisi Polytechnic casus. Cryogenic phenomena’s of the highlands. Nauka (Science), University, Sufl. Hydrogeology and Engineering Geol. No. 12 (354), Novosibirsk, pp 43–59 pp 19–25 (in Russian) Bondyrev IV, Maisuradze GM (1982) The essay of study and peculiari- Iveronova MI (1969) Experience on contemporary of the quantitative ties of spatial distribution of the frozen-glacial relief forms, beyond analysis the denudation processes. Proceedings of the Academy of the Caucasus border. Quaternary System of Georgia, (XI Intern. Sciences URSS, Ser. “Geography,” No. 2, pp 34–39 Congr. Quater. Moscow, 1982), Tbilisi, Metsniereba, pp 74–88 (in Krasnoslobodtcev IS (1971) The stone glacier’s the Great Caucasus Russian) “Messenger of the Moscow State University”, No. 1, pp 95–96 (in Russian) Part III Ecological Processes Landscapes 10

Abstract Georgia has unique landforms, the likes of which are rare in the world. The first is hewn in the rocky ground, the David Garedji monastery complex. Another, just as unique, is in Eastern Gumista, called “Apies Road,” which was created by a skylight surface gangue body (massive limestone). This “road” is 0.7 km long, meanders through the rock and rises to a height of 1500 m. The term “landscape architecture” has become a peculiar fetish, certain opening, these days. However, there is a saying “new is long forgotten old.” Georgia, a small country located on a relatively small area, sandwiched between the North and South ranges of the major and minor Caucasus, has a mosaic of landscapes that can serve as a natural museum. The variety of climatic and landscape conditions have led to the patchwork of Georgian folk architecture, so it can be considered the birthplace of landscape design. Karst processes occupy about 18.5 % of the country. There are more than 480 karst caves and cavities, with a total length of 239.2 km (2009), and about a thousand wells that divide the total length of 60.8 km. In 2005, karst processes and tectonic movement were kick- started, and a small 40 m well with a strange name, “Illusion,” merged with the Tovliani cave to form the deepest cave system in the world. Ecological processes are controlled by landscape features. This chapter discusses the landscape characteristics affecting Georgia’s ecosystems.

Ecological processes are controlled by landscape features. land, Seaside Adjaria, Kazbegi, and Lagodehi areas), smaller Georgia has a complex landscape. This chapter discusses sites of pools of the Alazani, Algeti, and Mashavera rivers the landscape characteristics affecting Georgia’s ecosys- (separately), and the vicinity of Paravani Lake have been in- tems. vestigated. They have allowed us to shed light on the dynamics of degradation of natural landscapes in various climatic and relief conditions. 10.1 Landscapes

Special attention is paid to the examination of specific areas 10.1.1 Colchis Area to identify trends in their development, and rate of transformation of basic landscape complexes (Fig. 10.1). The Colchis site covers the entire territory of the Colchis Below are some specific examples. To obtain correct re- lowlands in the range of height from 0 to 220 m above sults in a difficult region such as the territory of Georgia, sea-level, located in a damp subtropical climate zone large geographical and administrative units (Colchis low- (1600–2200 mm/year) (Table 10.1). Analysis of informa-

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 99 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_10, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 100 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.1 Landscapes of Georgia. 1 Colchis low woods, 2 Kakheti low woods, 3 Iberia (Kartli) low woods, 4 semideserts Eldari, 5 Colchis mountain woods, 6 Caucasioni (Big Caucasian ridge) dark coniferous woods middle mountains woods, 7 low-mountain woods of the South Cauca- sian uplands, 8 middle mountains woods of the South Caucasian uplands, 9 mountain steppes to Djavaheti, 10 nival landscapes, 11 glacial landscapes

Table 10.1 Characteristics of a parity of various types of landscapes of the Colchis lowland, established on the basis of field investigators and analysis of spatial information. (Bondyrev et al. 1985) No Types of the landscapes Area (km2) 1 Alluvial plains with a wavy surface, com agricultural cultures (corn) 4036.3 2 Boggy lowlands and the supercooled river valleys with marshy alder thickets and stains of sphagnum and cane bog 1794.5 3 Boggy lagoons and coastal lowlands 350.0 4 Partially developed marshy peat bogs 92.5 5 Hilly heights and low-mountain combined limestone’s (karts), with fragments of ancient accumulative valleys, 342.2 partially—terraces, with the remaining sites of oak woods with an evergreen underbrush 6 Hilly tectonic–accumulative plains with small fragments of the remaining deciduous woods and developed pastoral 378.6 economy 7 Strongly changed landscapes with the agricultural cultures, developed on alluvium–proluvium carrying out cones 193.0 8 Hilly foothills with wide development terra russa with plantings of tea and subtropical cultures 1128.5 9 The hilly foothills combined with limestone, with insignificant development yellow soil and agricultural landscapes 360.7 10 The karstic files of foothills which are exposed to intensive erosion–denudation and karstic processes, with a classical 23.1 karst relief and insignificant development of wood vegetation (an oak, a hornbeam, it is rare—a chestnut) 11 Low separately standing karst files with Carpinus oak woods 138.9 12 Low tecto–petromorfic heights with fragments of deciduous woods and small sites of the agricultural earths 120.2 13 Small separately standing heights with plantings of tea and citrus 194.2 14 Flood–plain to river valleys and fluvial terraces developed in the quaternary period and modern sand-shingle bed 175.7 sediments with bush and grassy vegetation 15 Flat sites with agricultural grounds (fields and arable lands) 129.5 16 Plantations of tea and citrus, are more rare—tung ( Aleurites fordii Hemsl.) 12,610.3 17 Small cities and settlements of city type 938.8 18 Landscapes of big cities 370.0 Total 12,004.0

tion received as a result of research has shown that more 10.1.2 Seaside Adjara Area than 9500 km2 or more than 79 % of the territory of Col- chis has undergone anthropogenic changes (Figs. 10.2 and One more quality research site—the external (seaside) part 10.3). Colchis Pitsunda and Mussera (1900 ha), the Colchis of Adjaria—has been chosen, and the following picture is (2000 ha) reserves, and Tikeri are located in the territory; it revealed (see Figs. 10.4 and 10.5). is possible to state that in Colchis they almost do not remain The total area of identified landscapes consists of natural landscapes (only about 10 % of the area, including 75.74 km2 of natural landscapes, 245.4 km2 of natural and security territories). man-made landscapes, and 228.93 km2 of anthropogenic landscapes. The medium rate degradation landscapes of the region reach 0.18 km2/year. 10.1 Landscapes 101

Fig. 10.2 Landscapes of the Colchis area. 1 Landscapes of alluvial plains with a wavy surface occupied by crops, 2 marshes and wetlands with marshland, a grove of Alnus sp. and areas of dwarf shrubs-reedy marshes, 3 coastal wetlands, 4 peat bogs, 5 landscapes of hills and plains with fragments of ancient aссumulation plains, localized reserves of karstic limestone, located in the preserved fragments of oak forests, 6 landscapes of the hilly tectogenic plains with fragments of deciduous forests, 7 the landscapes of the на крутых выносов al-p deposit’s of the fragments oak forest and evergreen undergrowth, 8 hilla of the reddish-black subtropical soils, 9 hills in limestone of the slight development of the yellow earths, 10 the karstic massif’s subjected to erosion–denudation processes and little development of forest vegetation (oak, hornbeam light forest, rarely-chestnut), 11 low karst areas the hornbeam–oak forests, 12 landscapes of the tectogenic–karstic massif’s of low hills with deciduous forests, 13 Karst terrain covered with beech-forests, 14 landscapes of middle mountains of the beech–dark coniferous forest, 15 landscapes of small hills with tea plantations and Fig. 10.4 Modern landscapes of the Seaside Adjaria (from Kh. Kvliv- Laure, 16 River valleys and floodplains, developed in the late quater- idze). 1 Pebble beaches and sand-dune ridges of the coast, with sandy nary period and modern sand–gravel deposits with shrub vegetation. beaches and psamofit vegetation, resorts and recreational resources: i. Anthropogenic landscapes: 17 fields and arable land, 18 plantation of sandy beaches, ii. shingle beaches at the mouths of rivers; 2 swamped tea, 19 settlements (towns and small cities), 20 big cities. The nature of lowlands and river with low watersheds, oozing wetland soils, with changes of underwater landscapes of rivers: 21 the weighted material 1-year-old cultures and rainforests of Colchis type: i. peat-sedge bogs, removal rivers and his scolding habitats in offshore, 22 further dissipa- ii. swamped lowland, iii. swamped floodplains; 3 Dune valley accumu- tion material in water area. (Bondyrev et al. 1985) lative hills (50–150 m) with traces of Colchis vegetation experiencing intense anthropogenic transformation: i. the slant plain and hill country with cultural vegetation, ii. erosion downward between the hills, the 10.1.3 Kazbegi Area modern river valleys with wood and shrubby vegetation; 4 it is hilly- ridge slopes on volcanogenic sedimentary breeds with red soil, average power, and cultural landscapes: i. are terrace slopes with tea and citrus To assess the situation in the Kazbegi area, based on field plantations, ii. slopes and watersheds with separate fragments of wood research and analysis of Aero, a special information original vegetation (a beech, a hornbeam, seldom alder) and cultural vegetation; map of the current state of landscapes in the area was cre- 5 covered hummocky ridges with a height (300–600 m) with small deciduous forest on red, yellow and podzolic soils: i. Hilly terraces with ated. Here, the following landscape units have been allocated the remnants of Colchis vegetation are experiencing active anthropo- (Figs. 10.6 and 10.7): genic degradation, ii. Hilly ridges with plantings Tung and a citrus; 6 Following the stages of anthropogenic loading, separate Antropogenic (modified) landscapes: i. residential (selitibe) type, ii. in- landscape complexes have shown that within a given area, dustrial territory, iii. Recreational facilities, iv. swaths of territory held by State objects

Fig. 10.3 Kvariati, Adjara: a autumn, b winter 102 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.5 Batumi at night

Fig. 10.6 Kazbegi at night

the area of the anthropogenically transformed landscapes has moderately warm climate with hot summer and moderately increased for the last 110 years by 4 %, i.e., rate of this pro- cold winter. The quantity of precipitation does not exceed cess has been about 0.004 km2/year (Fig. 10.8). 400 mm/year. In the Algeti area, located southwest of Tbilisi, the relatively high rate of degradation of natural landscapes is about 50 km2/year (Fig. 10.9). 10.1.4 Algeti Area Figure 10.9 displays the natural diversity of landscapes within the transport corridor of the Great Silk Road. In the The Algeti site is located at the confluence of the Algeti and territory of Georgia, along the road, there are 23 different Asuretis–tckali rivers in a transitive zone from spurs of the types of landscapes. If one considers individual participa- Trialeti ridge to Marneuli plain and is characterized by a tion, then the highest diversity occurring in the region of 10.1 Landscapes 103

Fig. 10.7 Landscapes of the Kazbegi region. 1 Complex of secondary with a low-power layer of a peat bog and the impoverished sedge for- woods to middle mountains (beech, pine) developed on the clarified mations, 7 a complex of glacial languages, lateral moraines and out- brown wood soils, 2 a complex bush and grassy inundated formations wash lakes dated for slopes of volcanic files with the Alpine vegetation of intermountain hollows on alluvial and alluvium-marshy soils wood and lichens on mountain-meadow and stony soils, 8 a watershed area soils, 3 complex of secondary woods middle-mountain (a beech, a pine) complex of high mountainous ridges and files with the jagged rocky developed on the clarified brown, 4 a complex rocky phitocenoces river tops and poor subalpine vegetation on break-stone soils, 9 a complex to canyons and deep gorges, 5 a complex of a subalpine light forest and nival-glacial, firn pools and eternal snow crest-line zones, 10 a complex birch elfin woodland, with rare bush, an underbrush, and tall grass for- presented by separate fragments of the Alpine meadows on mountain- mation developed on mountain-wood and mountain-meadow soils, 6 meadow and bog—rock-debris soils, 11 a complex of subalpine high- a complex of high-mountainous bogs on lavas, a plateau, and streams, mountainous formations on mountain-meadow soils, 12 selitebe landscapes. (Bondyrev 2000)

Fig. 10.8 Valley of Algeti River 104 10 Landscapes

The Mashavera River basin is situated in the area of transition from the southeast slope of the Minor Caucasus to the lowlands of Kvemo Kartli, at a height of 490–700 to 3000 m above sea level. The area where the Khrami and Mashavera rivers converge revealed intensive degradation of natural landscapes where an area of 8.4 km2 was shortened to 4.68 km2 during a period of 20 years, i.e., the rate of transformation of natural ecosystems formed was Fig. 10.9 Diagram of the comparative landscape diversity on the dif- 0.186 km2/year. ferent segments of route “Silk Road” in the territory of Georgia. 1 Beyuk-Kiasiki—Tbilisi (9.6 %), 2 Tbilisi—Gori (10.7 %), 3 Gori— Khashuri, 4 Khashuri—Zestaphoni, 5 Zestaphoni—Samtredia, 6 Sam- tredia—Poti, 8 Natanebi—Batumi, 10 Poti—Natanebi 10.2 Abrasion of Coastline

The intensification of abrasion of the coastline in Georgia Shida Kartli is 11 types/100 km, the section from the border is cyclical. The overall length of the coastline destroyed is of Azerbaijan to Tbilisi 9 types/100 km, the region of Upper 229 km, and its area is 1400 ha. However, intense anthropo- Imereti on the plot Surami-Zestaphonit 8.3 types/100 km, as genic pressure overshadows the natural abrasion processes well as by Adjara-Guria section 8.6–8.2 types/100 km. and eschews the possibility to define quantitative indices of An analysis of information received as a result of studies different periods. shows that more than 9500 km2 or more than 79 % of the ter- The evolution of sandy-pebble coasts of the Caucasus ritory of Colchis has undergone transformation. If one takes region, beginning from 5000 B.C. occurred under the con- into account that Pitsunda-Miussera (1900 ha) and Kolkheti ditions of abundant alluvium carried to the beach by large (2000 ha), and Tikerski reserve are in the territory of Col- mountain rivers, including Bzibi, Humista, Kodori, Enguri, chis, then one can say that in Colchis, natural landscapes and Chorokhi (Fig. 10.10). This process vastly exceeded the (only about 10 % of the area, including protected areas) are possibility of shore displacement further. That is why, about almost extinct. 2000 years ago, on account of accumulation of the excess The Khrami-Mashavera station is located at an altitude alluvium, large accumulative formations were created in the of 490–700 m in the zone of transition from southeast of shape of capes intruding into the sea—Pitsunda, Sukhumi, the spurs of the Lesser Caucasus to the lowlands as well Kodori, Anaklia, and Burun-tabie. The scouring and destruc- as Kvemo Kartli, and is characterized by a dry subtropical tion of the coasts of Georgia for the last 100–200 years is di- climate with moderately cold winter and hot summer. The rectly connected with increased technogenic influence upon annual precipitation is 450–500 mm/year. Here, an intense the coast-forming processes. As a result of the scouring of the degradation of natural landscapes has taken place for 8.4– large river banks (Psou, Bzibi, Kodori, Rioni Enguri, Supsa, 4.68 km2 over 20 years, and the rate of integrated ecosystems Natanebi, Adjaristskali, and Chorokhi) hundreds of hectares has been 0.186 km2/year. of fertile lands are annually lost, often leading to coastal A simpler way to analyze landscape structure is to reveal land sliding. Coasts are being scoured at a rate of 1.5–2.5 to the nature of changing concrete landscape’ areas over a cer- 3.0–4.5 m/year, and the total length of scoured coasts of the tain time. Analysis by remote sensing, carried out in differ- Black Sea basin of the region is more than 250 km. ent years at the same territory, can be used for this purpose. At the beginning of the 1980s, the scouring was compara- Experience of similar studies has allowed us (Badridze et al. tively stable, until there was a 7–8 km long seaside at the 2000; Beruchashvili 2000) to establish the following strat- mouth of the Supsa River (10 km southward of Poti town and egy. Grigoleti settlement). For the last 25 years, the sea line ad- In the first stage, deciphering of the landscape material vanced toward land at a rate of 30–40 m on average, accom- was carried out throughout the survey. In aerial- and space panied by damaging or full destruction of buildings along photographs, all varieties of landscapes stood out, with the the coast. degrees of their transformation under anthropogenic impacts. The solid runoff of the Chorokhi River is distributed in Within each area, three gradations of landscape complexes three directions (Figs. 10.11 and 10.12): (1) Area in Gonio stood out conditionally: (1) natural, (2) natural–anthropo- (left bank of the Chorokhi), where a full profile 100 m wide genic, and (3) anthropogenic. Comparison of areas of each beach is formed; (2) submarine canyons of the Chorokhi of these complexes depicted in the photos taken in different River and littoral Burun-Tabe submarine canyon where 90 % years allows us to estimate the rate of transformation of the of solid material is evacuated by the river; and (3) Batumi– landscapes and the level of their ecological tension. Makhinjauri coastal zone (Kiknadze et al. 1990). 10.3 Impact of Urbanization 105

Fig. 10.10 Suburb of Batumi. The storm destroyed part of the coast

Fig. 10.12 Mouth of Chorokhi River near the Batumi airport

10.3 Impact of Urbanization

The town of Kobuleti, an important resort–recreational center, is situated 30 km north of Batumi. It is stretched like a narrow band between the sea and a large marshy massif (ancient lagoon). About 20 years ago, reconstruction work for the stabilization of the seashore was initiated. In 2007, measures were taken for artificial evacuation of 200,000 m3 beach material in Kobuleti (Kiknadze1993, 1994). The town of Poti and its vicinity are characterized by a complex ecological situation. Situated in the Rioni River Fig. 10.11 Nature of beach sediments in some sections of the Georgian Black Sea coast delta, this territory is specifically sensitive to the breaking of the established balance between natural–anthropogenic systems. Intensive development of the city has resulted in 106 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.13 Changing of a seaside band in the Poti region as a result of coast reconstruction. (Kiknadze et al. 1999)

the development of multiple disastrous situations. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, exceedingly active scouring of the seashore began. Practically a whole district of the town was washed away and the depth of scouring was more than 800 m. Simultaneously, an activation of processes in the Rioni submarine canyon situated in the close proximity of the coast began. For protection of the town of Poti from frequent floods, the main runoff at the mouth of the Rioni River was di- verted from the south creek into the north creek (Fig. 10.13). As a result, the balance of river accumulation was disturbed and the seashore between the new mouth of the Rioni River and the seaport intensively increased. At present, at the north creek, a new fast growing delta is being formed (10–25 m/ year). Here, the alluvial accumulation has reached the Kulevi River mouth situated 5 km northward, creating problems for the operation of the port because of water silting. As far back as 1914–1916, in the vicinity of Gagra, at the mouth of the Zhoekvara River, scouring took place. A small breakwater, built as far back as the end of the twentieth century, blocked the way to flows along the shore. To the south of the breakwater, this resulted in the retreating of the coastline at a rate of 3–4 m a year. At the beginning of the 1940s, for “protection of coast” from scouring the main part of the bund was destroyed and some other kinds of bunds were built toward the south. This effort did not yield any fruitful result. The subsequent construction of a wave-resisting wall in the town of Gagra changed the situation. Different hydrotechni- Fig. 10.14 Losses in submarine canyon alongshore transport on Geor- cal structures were not able to protect the coast from power- gian Black Sea сoast. (Kiknadze 1993) ful storms, and the wave-resisting wall only aggravated the situation (Fig. 10.14). As a result, all these structures were deformed and part of them completely ruined. The famous had been reduced to 5 m by 1981. The situation changed only Gagra Park was badly damaged too and the width of beach after 1982 when “Gruzmorberegozashchita” restored tens of 10.4 Karst 107

Fig. 10.15 Kars cave, Imereti region, East Georgia. (Photo by K.Tsikarishvili)

hectares of coast northward and southward in the town of Gagra (Kiknadze 1993, 1995; Kiknadze et al. 1990, 1997). Problems at the Pitsunda resort complex appeared practically immediately after the construction of seven high blocks of buildings in the 1960s. Regrettably, no account was taken Fig. 10.16 Entrance to the Tovliani-Mezhennogo cave. (Kiknadze of the specialists’ opinions on the inadmissibility of the loca- et al. 1999) tion of high buildings close to the coastline (slightly more than 100 m). Storms in the 1960s inflicted a significant damage to the blocks of buildings and the whole economy. Almost the entire beach cover was washed away. After the catastrophe, a decision was made to remove the remainder, and the artificial pouring out of beach material began. The specified measures and the natural drift flow replenished by material of the Bzibi River and moving along the shore resulted in the recovery of the destroyed beach beside the resort. Such has been the situation till now.

10.4 Karst

Karst processes developed mainly in the limestone areas of western Georgia, occupying a total of about 18.5 % of the whole area of the country. In Georgia, there are more than 480 karst caves and cavities, with a total length of 239.2 km (2009), and about 1000 wells that divide the total length of 60.8 km. (Tatashidze et al. 2009). Special mention should be made of such areas as karts arrays in Arabica, Rikhva, Kvira, Gaucha, Askhi, Hvamli, and Kudaro. In Georgia, the karts caves in Voronya (− 2191 m) and Tovliani-Mezhennogo (1753 m) are the deepest in the world (Fig. 10.15). In 2005, karst processes and tectonic movement got kick-started, and a small 40 m well with a strange name, “Illusion,” merged with the Tovliani cave and formed the deepest cave system in the world (Figs. 10.16 and 10.17). Fig. 10.17 Cave Tovliani. (Kiknadze et al. 1999) 108 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.20 Algeti crous (IV s.). (Bondyrev and Lominadze 2003)

Fig. 10.18 Church David Garedgi (East Georgia)

Fig. 10.21 Central part of one of the crosses. (Bondyrev and Lomi- nadze 2003)

Among the discoveries in recent years, “Algeti’s crosses” started in the fourth century A.D. The Tsalka plateau Fig. 10.19 Apius Road. West Georgia, Abkhazia. (Bondyrev and Bon- (southern Georgia) is found on the ledge and abruptly dyrev1989) breaks into the Algeti River valley (Figs. 10.18 and 10.19). Here the remainder of the ancient temple was completely destroyed. Only three large pedestals for stone crosses and 10.5 Unique Highs crosses lying beside them were saved, more or less. Histori- cal sources testify that simultaneous with the announcement Georgia has unique landforms, the likes of which are rare of Christianity as the official religion in Georgia (the first in the world. The first is hewn from the rocky ground, the quarter of the fourth century), a great many crosses, as sym- David Garedji Monastery complex (Fig. 10.13). Another, bols of faith, were erected. Originally, wooden crosses were just as unique, described by Tatashidze et al. (2009) is in replaced by stone ones. Similar crosses saved up till now the Gulripsh district of Abkhazia, in Eastern Gumista, the dated back to the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. The crosses so-called “Apies Road”, which was not created by humans, mentioned above have an identical form and a height of but a skylight surface gangue body (massive limestone) 85–120 cm. The size of the base of the cross, which used (Fig. 10.18). This “road” (which is used in that capacity by to be installed on the special pedestal (Fig. 10.19), varies local shepherds and hunters) is 0.7 km, and meanders among from 70 to 78 сm. In the center of two crosses is a globe- the rock to rise to a height of 1500 m. The width exits to the shaped protrusion which is embellished on the third cross surface of the body range from 1.2 to 1.8 m. The azimuth of by double circular grooves (Figs. 10.20 and 10.21). Similar falling blocks of this way is about 320° and the angle is 15°. images in the pre-Christian epoch presented themselves as a 10.6 Use of Remote Sensing 109

Fig. 10.22 Landscapes of the Mashavera River basin

symbol of the sun, which was worshipped. Heavy and rough has been determined on 12 master areas. The rate is deter- archaic forms of crosses, the symbolic form, allow us to mined as 0.6 m2/year. Using modern GIS-technologies, areas date this monument to the early feudal epoch (fourth to fifth of all chosen landscape units were measured. centuries A. D.). The Kaheti site is dated for a zone of contact between east low-mountains, part of the Tsiv-Gombori ridge, the Ala- zani river plain in the north-east, and a southwest part of Iori 10.6 Use of Remote Sensing plateau. It is located at a height of 750–1000 m above sea level and characterized by a soft climate with warm winter The aim here is to using remote sensing for spatial–temporal and hot summer. Annual precipitation fluctuates from 650 to analysis of the dynamics of natural–territorial and anthropo- 820 mm/year. Today, natural landscapes occupy only 15 % of genic complexes of the Mashavera River basin (Fig. 10.22). the given site, and the rate of anthropogenic degradation of The following concrete problems have been identified: landscapes has been 0.8 km2/year. 1. Analysis of different scale air-views in different years for The Paravani site covers the area of a high-mountainous the evaluation of natural–territorial complexes both in volcanic plateau located between the Abul-Samsari volcanic temporal and spatial borders. plateau and the Djavakheti ridge, with a height of 1650– 2. Analysis of the most up-to-date cosmic surveys of the ter- 3000 m. It is characterized by a continental climate with ritory under investigation to specify the general picture of hot summer and cold winter (Figs. 10.23 and 10.24). The landscape location and their present day borders. amount of precipitation does not exceed 800 mm/year. 3. Field check within master areas and route intersections of On the basis of landscape analyses of spatial images, the most complex objects to check the results of decipher- SPOT (NiMa/C/CNES/ SPOT Image 1992–1994) con- ing and adjustment of borders of separate landscape units. crete landscape units have been allocated in this territory 4. On the basis of analysis of collected materials, creating (Table 10.3). Investigations have shown that despite difficult the landscape map of the territory under investigation and climatic conditions and a high-mountainous relief, the area inputting it into computer using GIS technologies. of natural–territorial complexes, tested for anthropogenic The rate of anthropogenic transformation varies from transformation, is about 610 km2, i.e., about 21 % of the en- 0.01 km2/year to making a final variant of the landscape tire territory of the Paravani site. map of territory under investigation, and revision of quanti- As a reference range, the Lagodekhi site, on the border tative values of the rate of anthropogenic transformation of of the Lagodekhi administrative area, has been chosen. Its concrete landscapes. Using aerial photography with cosmic territory is located between the easternmost fragment of the information and fieldwork, the nature of spatial differentia- southern slope of the Big Caucasus (within Georgia) and the tion of landscapes of the Mashavera River basin has been northeastern site of the Alazani valley, in the height range determined and mapped with a 1:50,000 scale (Table 10.2). from 200 to 2700 m above sea level where the site climate is Parameters of development separate landscapes and the ten- transitive from moderate continental to moderate damp sub- dency of their change under the influence of human activity tropical. The precipitation is 760–1100 mm/year. 110 10 Landscapes

Table 10.2 Levels of anthropo- Level of genic tension on master areas of Peri Rate of anthro- the Mashavera River. (Bondyrev Name of od transformation of Location and Khechikashvili 2006) (Per area (year landscapes (km2/ pogenic 1948–2004 data) ) year) tension Area Number Vicinity of Gulabia and Dava- 0.01- 12 Javakheti 11 0,01 kran mountains 0.10

0.10- 9KaradagiVicinity of Karadag mountain 80,11 I 0.12

Vicinity of Pantiani and Oroz- 0.10- 10 Pantiani 80,12 mani settlements 0.12

Balakhaur Vicinity of Balakhauri settle- 0.12- 3 20 0,13 i ment 0.13

Territory situated between Zemo Karabulak 0.12- 11 –and Kvemo Karabulakhi 22 0,13 hi 0.13 settlements II 0.14- 4RatevaniVicinity of Ratevani settlement 50,16 0.17

Area of confluence Khrami and 0.17- 1Khidiskuri 20 0,17-0,19 Mashavera rivers 0.19

0.20- 8Irganchay Vicinity of Irganchai sttlement8 0,21 0.22 III Area of confluence Sakire and 0.20- 7Sakire 80,23 Gora rivers 0.22

0.23- 2NakhiduriVicinity of Nakhiduri settlement 20 0,27 0.25 I Patara Area of confluence Mashavera 0.26- V 5 12 0,41 -0,62 and Pinezauri rivers 0.35 Dmanisi 10-31 0.35- 6Kazreti Vicinity of Madneuli combine250,5 –0,94 V 0.60

10.6.1 Natural landscapes 4. Foothills and low mountains with an oak forest on brown wood soils Figures 10.25, 10.26, 10.27 reveal the following: 5. Poorly dismembered sites of foothills with dense thick- 1. Subalpine meadows among rocky ledges and disorders ets Pterocarya pterocarps on alluvial soils of the crests of high-mountainous ridges on mountain– 6. Partially boggy flat surfaces with alder and black–alder meadow, rock debris and peat–marshy soils. groves on marshy and bog–alluvial soils 2. Watershed area to sites; high and middle mountain ridg- 7. Inundated (tugai) woods es with beechen woods on the impoverished mountain– 8. Sites of a fluvial plain with typical swamp meadow bog– wood soils mezofil vegetation on ooze–clay and sandy–argillaceous 3. Slopes of the bottom belt of high mountains and the top soils part of middle mountains with Fagus orientalis–Carpi- 9. Boggy sites flood–plain with biocenoces to Bolboschoe- nus wood on typical mountain–wood and brown wood nus maritimes (l) Palla on marshy soils soils 10. Small falls in valleys of the rivers presented by typical bogs on bog–peaty soils 10.7 Factors Affecting Landscapes 111

Fig. 10.23 Protected area of the National Park Vashlovani, Kakheti, West Georgia

10.6.2 Natural-Anthropogenic Landscapes

1. Separately standing heights with a partially cut down hardwood forest ( Fagus orientalis–Carpinus) on brown wood soils 2. Cones of carrying out of the earth flows densely dismembered by wandering channels; river channel, with almost completely cut down woods, secondary bush–grassy vegetation on typical alluvial soils

10.6.3 Anthropogenic Landscapes

1. Flat plains with tobacco plantations 2. Flat plains with orchards and watermelons 3. Seletib landscapes (settlements and agricultural constructions) 4. Plains (on cones of carrying out of earth flows) with vineyards on powerful alluvial soils

10.7 Factors Affecting Landscapes

It is possible to determine the rate of the systems established by specific governmental landscapes in the territory of Geor- gia, and identify risk. This can help develop mitigation measures. Currently, what is available is a very aero-satellite settlement—their current issue for the territory, especially areas of gardens as well as areas of urbanized districts (residential Fig. 10.24 Landscapes on Paravani lake area (spatial image) and landscapes, first and foremost, Lagodekhi), based on analy- photo of lake 112 10 Landscapes

Table 10.3 Types of landscapes of the Paravani site and the area of their distribution. (Beruchashvili2000) No Character of the landscapes Area (thou- % sand km2) I. Natural–territorial complex 1 High-mountainous, partially boggy meadows, with marshy, torfjano-cespitose and mountain-meadow soils 0.14 4.8 (places—fragments of mountain chernozems 2 Stony scatterings and stone streams—kurumy on rather abrupt western slope of the Dzhavahetsky ridge with 0.37 12.9 steppe and mountain–meadow vegetation (dominates Festuca ovina) on mountain–meadow and chernozem soils 3 Hilly surfaces young лавовых streams deeply dismembered by linear erosion. With grassy and undershrub veg- 0.35 12.4 etation, on deljum–coluvium and primitive soils 4 Separate volcanic cones of the Abul–Samsari mountain chain combined with andesitic–dacites and andesitic– 0.12 4.2 basalts with rare grassy, snow–patch and wide development nival processes 5 A Neogen lava surface stream with shrub and bush vegetation on low-power mountain chernozems 0.26 9.1 6 The gentle eastern slopes on the Abul–Samrar ridge, according to the type of fragments of lava and mountain– 0.11 3.8 meadow biocenoses and soils 7 Fragments on stone seas and chingiles 0.07 2.5 8 Boggy flat east slopes and foothills of the Abul–Samsari mountain chain combined andezit lavas with bush and 0.13 4.6 grassy vegetation on mountain–meadow and peaty and chernozem soils 9 Feet of volcanic cones with grassy and lichen vegetation (on rehumidified areas—mosses) 0.23 8.7 10 Separate volcanic files with mountain–meadow vegetation on primitive and mountain–meadow soils 0.22 10.7 11 Volcanic files with nival landscapes and subalpine vegetation on primitive and mountain–meadow soils 0.19 6.5 12 Small falls–depressions on a surface to lava streams occupied with the modern lakes, characterized by the 0.03 1.0 extremely stable level of the waters, completely grown with seaweed and grassy vegetation with oozy and peat–marsh soils II. Natural–anthropogenic landscapes 13 Flat surfaces Quaternary lava streams, with developed on them it is not enough mean chernozem occupied under 0.14 4.8 agricultural grounds 14 Flat surfaces of ancient cones of carrying out with the powerful chernozems occupied under agricultural grounds 0.16 5.6 15 High-mountainous paleolackes hollows with the peat–marshy soils rich with organic chemistry, occupied under 0.12 4.3 potato plantings 16 Hills surfaces on lava streams with the humidified chernozems occupied under agricultural grounds 0.08 2.7 17 The flat boggy bottoms of river valleys with marsh vegetation, the oozy and peaty soils, occupied under pastures 0.11 3.3 III. Acval and subacval landscapes 18 Underwater landscapes of high-mountainous lakes (a—Paravani, b—Sagamo) with grass moor ( Carex, Arundo 0.04 1.1 danax L., Typha) vegetation and ground biocenoces Total 2.86 100

sis of the topographic map of 1982 and cosmic (Google) and aerial photo images from 2006 and their computer processing in the GIS format. The concentration of small areas, diverse forms of relief, and climate (or microclimatic versions) play a defining role in the variety of landscapes. This communication consists of certain unavailable correlation dependences on certain parameters of a relief, and in conditionality of a variety of landscape structures of a relief. The structure is understood as a lithologic–tectonic skeleton of a relief and character of its genesis. Thus they are more diverse in the structural relation of a relief form, the relation is more on it than in various forms on the origin and relief types, the above level of a variety of landscapes of region (Table 10.4). Analysis of data of the newest space images with high Fig. 10.25 Paravani lake (South Georgia) resolution (Google 2006) by computer decoding, and calculation of the areas in GIS-SYSTEM “MapInfo 7.0” has 10.7 Factors Affecting Landscapes 113

Fig. 10.26 Lagodekhi region landscapes map of 1966 and 2006

Fig. 10.27 Lagodekhi region and Kakhetis Cavkasionis range

Table 10.4 Dynamics of the Areas of separate landscapes (km2) Lagodekhi region’s separate landscapes during the last 40 years Cоотношение площадей 0,5% № 1966 2006 2,2% 17,6% 0,9% 1 94,9 94,91 20,2% 8,1% 2,3 287,6 300 12,1%

4 16,53 11,08 0,2% 0,3% 5 3,44 3,028 0,3% 1,6% 6 6,67 5,831 0,9% 9,8% 20,3% 0,0% 7 61,86 66,41 2,3% 2,3% 0,4% 8 1,53 1,223 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 2,28 2,29 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 0,33 0,33 114 10 Landscapes

Table 10.5 Area, types, and bio-diversity of landscapes of different physical-geographical regions of Georgia. (Chaladze and Bondyrev 2007) Name of physical-geographical region Area Landscape types Diversity of landscapes 2 km2 % types % (type/ths.km ) Eastern Cavcasioni 10,664 15.3 13 13.5 1.2 West Cavcasioni 12,288 110.7 19 19.9 1.6 Colchis 12,004 110.3 13 13.5 1.1 Shida Kartli 3052 4.4 11 11.5 3.6 Kvemo Kartli 3946 5.6 12 12.5 3.0 Shida Kakheti 3251 4.7 9 9.4 2.8 Trialeti 6732 9.7 13 13.5 1.9 South-Georgian upland 5808 8.4 12 12.5 2.1 Gombori ridge 1442 2.1 5 5.2 3.5 Iori upland 4580 6.5 11 11.5 2.4 Zemo Imereti 2828 4.1 9 9.4 3.2 Mountain Adjara-Gurija 2905 4.2 10 10.4 3.4 South-Georgian Upland 5808 8.4 12 12.5 2.1 allowed us to establish that 263.6 km2 territory or 29.3 % of 10.9 Landscape Mosaic area is located on mudflow carrying out cones, with a period of recurrence of 10–18 years, and about half are completely In West Georgia, there is a very peculiar landscape of the occupied by settlements. It demands an extremely cautious valley of the River Enguri (Fig. 10.28). approach and accounts for the risk factor in further planning The territory of East Georgia has a very complicated land- and development of the given territory. scape mosaic (Fig. 10.29) and has changed, to a great extent, as a consequence of man’s economic activities. One can mark the southeast part of the Dedoplistskaro Region (the 10.8 Transformation of Landscapes region in the extreme eastern part of Georgia. contiguous with Azerbaijan) as the territory on which different physical It is important to note that: and geographical regions cross each other (the Iori Table- 1. Most intensively, there is a transformation of landscapes land, Gombori Mountain range, a part of Alazani Valley). As of flat and flat surfaces of a relief. In this category, the a result, here, the many-colored and wide-range landscape zone is transformed from 60 to 80 % of landscapes. mosaic is superposed: from arid subtropical and plain dry 2. With the modern rate of anthropogenic influence on flat subtropical tablelands to temperate humid foothill subtropics sites, natural landscapes will be completely replaced by (Table 10.5). natural–anthropogenic landscapes and reversed by the The characteristics of the landscapes are also defined by people in about 15–20 years. the orographic barrier in the northern part of the region: the 3. It is necessary to give special attention to the develop- low ridge of Kashebi–Zilcha (Black Mountain) which sepa- ment of mudflow carrying out cones, since the probability rates the dry steppes of the Iori Tableland from the humid of a repeated catastrophic mudflow is rather high subtropics of the River Alazani valley (Figs. 10.30 and The process of anthropogenic transformation of natural eco- 10.31). It can be considered as a climatic barrier as well, with systems is proceeding rather intensively, such that the area of which the distributions of temperature and precipitation are the transformed landscapes is 198 km2 or more than 22 % of connected. The northern ridges of the Kashi–Zilcha humid the entire territory of a site (Table 10.5). Thus it is necessary subtropical landscape of Alazani valley is replaced by the to note that within the given territory, the oldest in the coun- dry subtropical formations of steppe- and semi-desert type try is located in the Lagodekhi reserve (140 km2) (Chaladze (Table 10.6). and Bondyrev 2007). The route of the Transcaucasian Railway started opera- Despite an arrangement in the various climatic zones, tions at the beginning of the nineteenth century. This route practically all the sites have undergone anthropogenic trans- is one of the “Great Silk Roads.” It should be noted that in formation, of which 20–79 % of landscapes have undergone the adjoining 10 km stretch, the natural–territorial complex changes, except for high mountains in which anthropogenic has superseded man-made landscapes. There are hundreds transformation does not exceed 3–5 %. Most intensively, of thousands of hectares of farmland with residential plots there is a transformation of flat landscapes and slightly in- (of these, only around 60,000 ha is within the limits of the clined plain relief surfaces. In this zone, 60–80 % of land- Colkheti lowland). The urban green zones can be added to scapes are also transformed. this: Gardabani—3316–3212 ha, Mtskheta—16,835 ha, 10.9 Landscape Mosaic 115

Fig. 10.28 Map of the landscapes of village Djvari (region Samegrelo, salty islands in the river, 5 big stony–clay flood–plain island of the West Georgia). Natural landscapes: 1 middle mountainous landscapes shrubby and grassy vegetation. Natural and man-made landscapes: 6 of the hornbeam–chestnut–oak forests and brown soils on slightly dis- IV River Inguri fluvial terrace arbor flood–plain of alluvium and chest- sected hills, 2 rocky ledges in middle mountain area of active develop- nut soils and agricultural cultures, 7 III fluvial terrace arbor flood–plain ment of the colluvium, diluvium, and proluvium (alluvial fan deposits) of alluvium and chestnut soils and plantings of corn, 8 II fluvial terrace processes, 3 rolling foothills, folded limestone with sparse forest on arbor flood–plain of alluvium soils and agricultural farm land, 9 I fluvi- calcareous forest soils, 4 almost devoid of vegetation, rocky, clay, and al terrace arbor flood–plain of alluvium soils and agricultural farm land

Fig. 10.29 Map of the landscapes of the Dedoplistckaro region. (Bondyrev et al. 2011) 116 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.31 River Alazani valley

Fig. 10.30 Dedoplistskaro’s lake For example, slope processes walls of masonry–stone capital with conveying capacity grooves, designed to protect the Caspi—27,945 ha, Gori—16,873 ha, Khashuri-Zestafo- canvas from the devastating effect of dangerous geodynamic ni—3212–9707 ha, Tbilisi—4425 ha, Kobuleti—1075 ha, processes (e.g., mudflows, avalanches, debris, etc.), can be etc. observed near the lower station of the “ZAHES” machine The Transcaucasian Railway can be seen as an example building (Zemo-Avchala hydroelectric power station) near of physical sustainability of landscapes with fortification. Avchala’s bridge over the River Kura. Moreover, the railway

Table 10.6 Areas of landscapes № Landscapes km2 Natural–Anthropogenic Landscapes 1 Depressions and eminences with badland relief. Southern wood–bearded grass steppes and halophilic vegetation on 15.08 chestnut-colored and salty soils 2 Semi-desert lowland with halophilic vegetation on fulvous, grey, and salty soils 103.80 3 Lowland (with hills and ridges) oak–hornbeam woods on brown soils 12.14 4 Mountain oak and oak–hornbeam forests on the forest brown and fulvous soils 35.95 5 Ravine–beam ridges with arid sparse forests on brown forest soils 68.63 6 Tugai forests 5.91 7 Low ridge eminences with Eldari pines on brown soils 12.03 8 Dry ravines and beams formed by temporary currents 13.95 9 Protected/conserved territories with steppes, tugai forests, and salt–marshes 24.74 10 Lakes 0.47 11 Solonetzes and salt–marshes 0.52 12 River floodlands 110.59 Natural–Anthropogenic Landscapes 13 Plains with feather-grass—bearded grass steppes on black and chestnut-colored soils 431.80 14 Low ridges with thorny shrub steppes on chestnut-colored soils 504.80 15 Low ridges and hills with bearded grass—feather-grass/stipa steppes and thorny shrub bushes on chestnut-colored and 2010.30 light brown soils 16 Hilly ridges with hornbeam–thorny shrub vegetation on brown soils 26.18 17 Low-ridge eminences with arid sparse forests on brown forest soils 412.40 18 Cut down tugai forests on alluvial soils 14.00 Anthropogenic Landscapes 19 Plains with agricultural lands (plantations of wheat, barley, sunflower, and potatoes) 498.60 20 Plains with agricultural lands (vegetable—watermelon cultures, potatoes, vineyards) in place of thorny shrub steppes on 34.29 black earth and salty soils here and there 21 Vineyards 53.67 22 Orchards 34.29 23 Built-up landscapes (inhabited localities) 32.49 24 Water storage pools 0.79 Total 2531.50 10.9 Landscape Mosaic 117 bridge over the River Kura (built in 1934) is a masterpiece of engineering, because in contrast to the thousands of similar constructions, it is not perpendicular to the coast, and is at an angle of almost 40°. However, it is very natural to repeat the flowing curves of crossing chickens and spurs of the Sagu- rami Ridge, even when it is hard to imagine this territory in a landscape design. In recent years, the ambiguous geographical term “science enters landscape architecture,” is used by experts, practitio- ners, and academics. Therefore, we will try to give a short definition of the term. The words “landscape architecture” and “landscaping” are often used interchangeably. However, there is a difference between the two concepts. Landscape architecture is a harmonious arrangement of natural space. Fig. 10.32 A small artificial lake on the River Psyrtskha railway sta- The design also involves a more fundamental change, not tion platform of New Athon (front-office) just when the terrain is organized and converted into a new, meaningful environment. As a result, changes in the landscape create an artificial environment for human life, while engineering, and creative insight. The Psyrtsha-Manikvara actively used in its creation and are natural; natural resources River, which is closed in the narrowest place of the concrete are the topography, water resources, and flora (http://www. dam is the beautiful Melen’koe Lake which blends so organ- landimprovement.ru/articles/landscape-architecture). ically into the natural landscape, that it is difficult to imagine With regard to landscape architecture, this (commercial- new Athos without it (Fig. 10.32). Only some 100 sq m of ly) is still only at the stage of experimentation. Therefore, the space was used to create an artificial landscape, reminiscent new building of the Parliament of Georgia in Kutaisi, repre- of the best examples of landscape architecture in cities in senting the structure of glass and concrete, does not fit into Japan like Kobè, Tokyo, Yamagata, etc. this concept. The fact of the matter is that a warm subtropical Currently, as is understood, the need is to explore land- climate is moderated and the region demands an enormous scape complexes before the question of their salvation. A amount of air conditioning in summer and electric heating newly formed scientific and practical direction of landscape in winter. That is, costs are so great and comfort so little that planning is aimed precisely at addressing this aspect. all understand the unsuitability of such a landscape design. However, there are a number of difficulties related to the At the same time, Georgia has long been able to design fact that the problem is complex, and can and should be dealt rationally and avail of the benefits that it has, given the with by the team of specialists (landshaftologists, geologists, country’s rich nature. Here is how to understand the task of geomorphologists, hydrologists, climatologists, architects, landscape architecture in the words of Shota Bostanašvili, builders, and planners), and not a representative of one, even a professor at Tbilisi Technical University,“…the main ob- in the most perspective direction. jective was to achieve harmony with the landscape. Need to 1. Today, attempts are made to regulate the human impact find plastic, which contrasted with the existing buildings and on the landscape by landscape planning based on the prin- at the same time entered into resonance with geographical ciple of allocation of fundamental properties and potential environment” (Bezirganova 2004). functions of specific landscapes (see Fig. 10.–). Research All designs created here for galleries, subways, and bridg- conducted in the southern Caucasus allows us to draw the es serve not only for the normal operation of Zemo Avchala following conclusions: in spite of the location in different HES, but also for raising the real stability of the landscape climatic zones, nearly all stations have undergone anthro- to the degradation influence of the external ambience, as pogenic transformation, which was from 20 to 79 % of the well as decorating the landscape. The composition quality of landscape with the exception of Highlands, within which these engineering buildings and their adequacy in landscape the anthropogenic transformation was not more than architecture deserve the highest estimation. 3–5 %; the most intensive conversion of flat landscapes The Hen River, going by the “moon” landscape Kvernaki and inclined plain surfaces. In this zone, 60 to 80 % of the ridge with her whimsical and unrealistic forms, crosses from landscape was transformed. St. Mskheta route and passes through the narrow Armazsi 2. While maintaining the current pace of human influence, Gorge, wholly covered by the thick wood forest. Perhaps the in 15–20 years, the plain areas of natural landscapes will most unusual line route is the route considered as a short be completely replaced by natural and man-made land- cut between the two tunnels at the Church of New Athon scapes and entirely changed by man. (Abkhazia, West Georgia). Here the engineer thought as if Artificial eco-efficiency of architectural and landscape plan- repeating the plan of the creator, the wonder, the miracle of ning of territories is impossible without the mandatory use 118 10 Landscapes

Fig. 10.33 Landscape-ecological evaluation of the functionality of the territory Chvedieti, Dusheti region, Georgia. The purpose of: I Site fit under construction, II country-for small public buildings, III for industrial facilities, IV for recreation, V woodlands. Type of plot: а but-steep slopes and cliffs, b rocks, c waterfalls, d lakes and swamps, e unsuitable territory. Slope surface: areas with surface slopes with steep angles (over 200) slopes (in% of the total land area)

of the aesthetic properties of landscapes, their emotional, and moral evaluation. Only in this case, the structure of not only the landscape, but also its components will serve as a basis for identifying key nodes of a system that can not only accommodate architectural and engineering objects, but become stronger, more beautiful, and most importantly, retain its primary feature, that is, the quality of reproduction of biota (Fig. 10.33).

10.10 Landscape Architecture

Landscape architecture is one of the constituent parts of building architecture. Per its structure, it is versatile and is Fig. 10.34 Svaniti’s tower in the collection of the museum of the based on precise engineering calculations made by modern Georgian architecture technologies. On the other hand, it is based on forecast esti- mations concluded from the changes of the natural environment. Landscape architectural design should have a detailed object but study it from an aesthetic point of view (beauty analysis of the geosystem. Thereupon, landscape architecture of nature) and take it into account in designing projects (see creates its own objects. The landscape architectural analysis Figs. 10.34, 10.35, 10.36). of natural and socio-economic complexes and objects situ- The term “landscape architecture” has become a pecu- ated along the Trans-Caucasus railway corridor in the Geor- liar fetish. However, there is a saying “new is long forgotten gian territory is made to ensure sustainable development and old”. Georgia, a small country located on a relatively small ecological equilibrium of the given territory. Landscape ar- area, sandwiched between the North and South ranges of the chitectural analysis differs from an ordinary landscape study. major and minor Caucasus has a mosaic of landscapes that Experts of this branch deem landscape not only as a material can serve as a natural museum. And indeed it does. References 119

In the mountainous areas of Svanetia, Khevsureti, and Ossetia, where in winter the snow cover reaches a height of 3–4 m, every house had a number of tower–decks, 7–10 m in height, which enabled residents to see the snow outside, and served as a fortress (see photo).In the coastal areas with a humid subtropical climate (Tbilisi, Guria) houses were built only from a special kind of wood—rotting–chestnut (see photo). The variety of climatic and landscape conditions led to a patchwork of Georgian folk architecture, so that it can be considered the birthplace of landscape design.

References

Abramia G (2009) Problems of desertification in Georgia (general Fig. 10.35 Haus-Festung (Tuscheti) review accompanied with case studies). Mat. Intern. Sci. Conf. “Crit- ical ecoregions: Modern condition. Problems and Ways of their decision”. I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State Univ, Tbilisi, pp 113–116 Badridze I, Eliava I, Kadjaia G, Cholokava A (2000) Present condition of species diversity of fauna in Georgia. Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 33–42 Beruchashvili NL (2000) Georgia’s biodiversity against a Global Background. Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 7–20 Beruchashvili NL, Shotadze M et al (2002) The basic trends of the development environment of the Caucasus over the past 30 years. Caucasian Geog Rev 1:16–27 Beruchashvili N, Elizbarashvuili N, Davitashvili Z (2012) Geography of Georgia. Klio and Meredian, Tbilisi, p 264 (in Georgian) Bondyrev IvI (2000) Bondyrev IvI (2006) Application of information analysis in the study of landscape-ecological state of mountain regions (for example, Kaz- begi district of Georgia). Dissertation Doc Sci, Tbilisi, p. 50 Bondyrev IV, Bondyrev IvI (1989) The “Apius road” on Abkhazian mountain. Nat Geo 2:10–11 (in Georgian) Bondyrev, IV, Lominadze GJ (2003) Relief, landscapes and some archeological discoveries in the upper reaches of the Algeti river (the Trialeti Range, Eastern Georgia) Bull. Acad Sci Geo 172(2):365–367 Bondyrev IV, Khechikashvili MO (2006) Remote sensing methods for study of open systems (case South-East Georgia landscapes). Changes of environment at the tarn of Millenium (proceeding of the Int Sci Conf). Poligraph, Tbilisi-Moscow, pp. 205–212 Bondyrev IV, Mikadze IP, Seperteladze ZKh, Kharatishvili LA, Tcereteli ED (1985) The natural resources of the Colchis lowland, Overview, ser. “Information for major scientific and technological programs”. State Committee on Science and Technology, Tbilisi, issue 21, p 60 Bondyrev IV, Tavartkiladze AM et al (2008) Anthropogenic transformation of the South Caucasus Natural Ambiente. Polograf, Tbilisi, p 476 Bondyrev IV, Gongadze SA, Salukvadze ED, Chaladze TV, Goli- Fig. 10.36 Ardoti (Khevsureni) djashvili RA (2011) The role of the geophysical fields in design to landscape (for example of Dedoplistckaro district, Georgia)/Cauca- sian Int Schools-workshop “Seismic risk. Seismic risk management In Tbilisi, during the last century, a Museum of Folk Ar- operations in the Caucasus”. (24–26 Oct 2011). Vladicavcaz (Rus- chitecture and Ethnography, which is still open, was created sia). pp 62–65 (in Russian) Chaladze TT, Bondyrev IV (2007) Anthropogenic transformation of on the slope of the Trialeti range at Turtle Lake. There you landscapes on Lagodekhi district of Georgia and identification to will not find any similar houses. In fact, in various parts of risk-factor of formation to mudflows, based on analysis of satellite the country were lining buildings, the most convenient and images and GIS-technologies. “Mountain areas—ecological prob- practical in certain climatic and landscape conditions. lems of cites”. Mat Int Sci Conf. Yerevan. 2010, pp 143–146. 120 10 Landscapes

Djanashvili AG (1964) The animals of Georgia. “Atlas of Georgia”, Central Caucasus, Tbilisi: “Metsnie-reba”. (part 1—1971, p 258, part Tbilisi-Moscow, p 149 (in Russian) 2—1974, p 376) (in Georgian) Dmitrieva AA (1960) Determinant to plants of Adjaria. Metcniereba, Nakhutcrishvili GSh (1972) Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of Tbilisi, p 448 (in Russian) the Central Caucasus Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of the Gagnidze RI (1974) Botanical-geographic analyze flora-cenotic com- Central Caucasus, Tbilisi: “Metsnie-reba”. (part 1—1971, p 258, part plex of the subalpine tall grass in Caucasus. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 2—1974, p 376) (in Georgian) p 172 (in Russian) Nakhutcrishvili GSh (1973) Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of Gigauri G (2000) Biodiversity of Georgian mountainous forest ecosys- the Central Caucasus Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of the tems. Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, Central Caucasus, Tbilisi: “Metsnie-reba”. (part 1—1971, p 258, part pp 69–82 2—1974, p 376) (in Georgian) Kiknadze AG (1993). Scientific basis of regulation of costal processes Nakhutcrishvili GSh (1974) Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of (case study: coast of the Black Sea). Coastlines of the Black Sea. the Central Caucasus Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of the ASCE, New York, pp 201–213 Central Caucasus, Tbilisi: “Metsnie-reba”. (part 1—1971, p 258, part Kiknadze AG (1995) Technologies of costal restoration in the Eastern 2—1974, p 376) (in Georgian) Black sea//Bull. De l’institute Océanographique, Monaco, No 15. Nakhutcrishvili GSh (1999) The vegetation of Georgia, Braun-Blan- pp 43–51 quetia, 15, Came-rino, p 175 Kiknadze AG, Sakvarelidze VV, Peshkov VM, Russo GE (1990) Nakhutcrishvili GSh (2000) Georgia basic biomes. Biological and land- Breach-forming process management of the Georgian Black sea scape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 43–68 coast. J Coast Res 6:56–70 Sabashvili MS (1964) Soils, in “Atlas of Georgia”, Tbilisi-Moscow, Kiknadze AG, Meladze FG, Sakvarelidze VV, Jaoshvili ShV (1999) pp 136–139 (in Russian) From costal protection to regulate of the costalformiring. Institute of Tatashidze ZK, Tcikarishvili KD, Jishkariani VM (2009) Cadastre of Oceanology, Moscow, pp 97–1010 the karsts caves in Georgia. Tbilisi: Institute of Geography. Work 3 Krasnov AN (1893) On the flora of the basin of river Chakva/Proc (82), p 666 Comm Him Exp Nature of the Kharkov University (in Russian) Tavartkiladze AM (2009) The soil of Adjara: a condition, problems Krasnov AN (1894) On the flora of the basin of river Chakva/Proc and aspects to management. Mat Int Sci Conf—“Critical ecoregions: Comm Him Exp Nature of the Kharkov University (in Russian) Modern condition, problems and ways of their decision”, Tbilisi, Krasnov AN (1911) Possible future nature of Batumi coast. Russians pp 83–89 tropics. Batumi, pp 24–32 (in Russian) Urushadze TF (1997) Major soils of Georgia. Tbilisi: Metsniereba. Nakhutcrishvili GSh (1971) Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of 19910. p 268 (in Georgian) the Central Caucasus Ecology of alpine plants and vegetation of the Deforestation and Reforestation 11

Abstract The intensive transformation of the natural environment in Georgia, such as the development of steep and unstable slopes under construction, reconstruction of highways, mass replacement of the wooden houses of heavy construction, and destructive logging, has been hasty and unproductive. There has been a sharp decline in the upper forest boundary, on average, at 320–450 m throughout the South Caucasus. It is believed that in a mountainous watershed, the basic forest cover on the relief should not be reduced below 50 % of the total area. When the forest cover goes below 45 %, the demolition of soil by erosion increases five times. In the Caucasus, after clear cutting, soil erosion reaches 1100 m ha, and after the selective cutting it reduces to 570 m ha. Vegetation of the South Caucasus is extremely diverse and consists of a variety of individual species. The whole area of the rainforest is characterized by the predominance of sclerophyllous plants. With the support of both international and regional organizations such as WWF, long-term prospects for the conservation of biological diversity in the Caucasus-Pontes space have been identified. From 6500 species of vascular plants found in the Caucasus, 1600 are endemic. This is the highest level of endemism in the temperate zone in the northern hemisphere. About 400 species of trees and shrubs grow here; 61 species are endemic to Georgia, and 43 to Caucasus. This chapter discusses affor- estation and deforestation and their consequences.

…Who plants trees, he acquires the right to ascend to the sky. (Confucius, pp. 551–479 a.c.)

The role of humans in the formation and transformation of 11.1 Forest Cover forest cover in the South Caucasus should be understood at this stage and in the past era. The last is particularly impor- Forest cover is involved in the creation of soil, water, animal, tant, since the anthropogenic factor is one of the most pow- mineral, energy, recreation, and resort resources and at the erful instruments of change of natural environment in the same time is an important part of the landscape, which has world in general and in this region in particular. Descriptions experienced a lasting and significant anthropogenic transfor- are found not only in the writings of some of the most emi- mation among other components of the landscape environ- nent scientists of our time, but also in the writings of such ment. All of the factors (together with climatic fluctuations) historically significant figures like Vakhushti Bagrationi have led to a sharp decline in the upper forest boundary, on (Vakhushti 1941). average, at 320–450 m throughout the South Caucasus. It is

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 121 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_11, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 122 11 Deforestation and Reforestation believed that in a mountainous watershed, the basic forest Table 11.1 Stock of phytomasses and annual growth of some types of cover on the relief should not be reduced below 50 % of the forests of Georgia. (Rodin et al.)1974) total area. When forest cover goes below 45 %, the demoli- Types of Value of phyto- Phytomasse The amount of tion of soil by erosion increases five times. In the Caucasus, phyto-landscapes masse (ц/га) (center/ha) leaves (%) after clear cutting, soil erosion reaches 1100 m3/ha, and after Humid subtropical 4100 245 6–8 selective cutting it reduces to 570m3/ha. forests Temperate decidu- 3700 130 1.5 The modern vegetation of the South Caucasus is extreme- ous forests ly diverse and is described as a gigantic amount of individual species and their growth which provides a significant amount of data and high biological productivity from the lapin ( Pterocarya fraxiniflolia), chestnut ( Castanea vesca), annual growth of plant biomass (Table 11.1). In the humid dzelkva ( Zelkva creuata), pomegranate tree ( Punica grana- subtropics of the Colchis and Lenkoran lowland the index of tum), holly ( Ilex aquifoliam), rhododendron ( Rhododendron dryness is 0.45–0.6, hydrothermal record 6–10, bio-hydro- ponticum), lianas ( Hedera colchica), ferns ( Polypodium thermal capacity 5–8 points, and consumption of chemical vulgare, Osmunda regalis), et al. The sustainability of forest elements is 600–800 kg/ha·year (Budiko 1971). ecosystems in the mountains is maintained until the angle The whole area of the rainforest region is characterized of the slope does not exceed 400 and the distance from the by the predominance of sclerophyllous plants, hence stock upper edge of the avalanche breakdown of the forest is no biomass ranges from 40 to 60 t/ha·per year. The product typ- more than 300 m. It is not possible to accumulate the energy ically ranges from 0.5 to 1.1 kg/m2 per year of dry organic off the avalanche. matter. The plant uses about 1.8 % active solar radiation.

11.3 Lowlands 11.2 Protection It is best to speak for them. In 1913, the Colchis lowland For the mountain regions of the world, including Georgia, and the surrounding foothills growing tea was just 894 ha; forests provide protection and prevents or alleviates the after 50 years it was 62 k ha, almost 72 times more. The area negative consequences of such spontaneously dangerous has drained more than 12,000 ha of swamps and conducted and catastrophic phenomena as avalanches and debris flows. a total of 820 k of drainage channels. However, the active Within avalanche zones, the mountain forests exist in three anthropogenic transformation of the natural landscapes of states: Colchis and their domestication led to the formation of sec- 1. Fragile state, when avalanche processes and weather con- ondary plant communities here which are trying to drown ditions are characterized by the variability of parameters out the planting of crops. that prevent them from developing sustainable linkages Back in the Holocene era, almost all low-lying territories (adapt); of Georgia were covered with forest vegetation. Mainly, in 2. State of degradation, when a forest is not able to counter eastern Georgia, they were represented by broadleaved for- the powerful onslaught of avalanches, allowing them to ests: oak, hornbeam, walnut, and lapin and in valleys and reach the bottom of the river valley (Chuenkov and Vla- floodplains by oak, elm, and basswood. The disappearance sov 1976; Margvelani 2004). of lapin forests (there were only small areas of island habi- 3. Naturally exposed slopes have a significant impact not tats in Gare Kakheti) is attributable to human activities. This only on the mosaic nature of the landscape, but also in- also explains the role and the dramatic decrease in species crease the buffer ability of groups of organisms with cli- composition of oak forests of the Southern Caucasus. The matic fluctuations (Bondyrev et al. 1985) ancient population of the region was one of the most ancient The modern vegetation of the South Caucasus is extremely centers of tilling, perfectly aware of the high productive ca- diverse and characterized by significant dimensions of se- pacities of the soils found in oak forests and active deforesta- lected species ( KolkhetiIvy reaches 20 cm in diameter, and tion of their arable land. the Pontic rhododendron is a treelike form) and timing (to To date, significant work has been done to identify long- achieve the same size in one fifth the time than in Central term prospects for the conservation of biological diversity in Europe). The vegetation is a kind of indicator of features of the Caucasus-Pontes space with the support of both interna- the natural landscape specific to territories and their eco- tional and regional organizations such as WWF. This region logical state. In this regard, the Colchis and Lankaran low- is one of 200 “WWF ecoregions,” ensuring the conserva- lands are unique natural museums with many species of tion of biodiversity on a global scale. This is one of the 25 plants growing in the whole region. In Colchis, the relics hotspots of the world, from the point of view of ecological of the Tertiary era are boxwood ( Buxus colchica Pojark.), problems. 11.4 Biodiversity 123

11.4 Biodiversity Table 11.2 Locations of protected areas of Georgia on tall zones. (Bondyrev et al. 2000) 2 The ecoregion is 580,000 km and consists of the parts of the High-altitude High mountain The area of protected % Caucasus in the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan, zone (m a.s.l.) area (ha) territories (ha) Georgia, Northeast Anatolia in Turkey, and part of the north- 0–400 1382560 10360.7 0.75 western Iran (Fig. 11.1). Of 6500 species of vascular plants 400–600 634970 16943 2.67 found in the Caucasus, 1600 are endemic. This is the high- 600–1000 1188110 18228 1.53 est level of endemism in the temperate zone in the northern 1000–1400 999640 23434 2.34 hemisphere. It is unusually high for the temperate zone and 1400–1800 973670 38901 4.00 1800–2600 1361410 43187 3.17 the level of diversity of animals: more than 160 mammals 2600–3000 304110 12903 4.24 (32 of them endemic), 400 species of birds, 80 species of 3000–3500 107390 4756 4.43 reptiles (21 endemic), 16 amphibians (4 endemic). > 3500 41210 21.3 0.05 To determine the priority areas for biodiversity conserva- Total area 6993070 168734 2.41 tion, specialists from six Caucasus countries took 70 species from all major taxa (52 species from IUCN “red list” and 34 endemic). Their habitats and key habitats were marked on ecoregion (Table 11.2). The symposium identified the nat- maps. At a symposium in 2002, more than 50 experts from ural corridors required for the integration between priority all of the Caucasian countries approved the maps of species areas. Then the experts identified long-term objectives for and areas, the most important for each taxon. A total of 260 biodiversity conservation in the Caucasus ecoregion, and the were identified (29 for mammals, birds, 121 for reptiles and action to be taken urgently. 28 for amphibians, 22 for fish and 60 for plants). The GIS Forests in Georgia (Table 11.3) occupy an area of team prepared a map of the most representative areas. Based 2.77 million ha (40 %). About 400 species of trees and on this map, experts selected 54 priority critical areas. The shrubs grow here; 61 species are endemic to Georgia, and total area was 135,100 km2, 23 % of the total area of the 43 to Caucasus. Wood stocks occupy 434 million m3, boost

Fig. 11.1 Current status of ecosystems in the Caucasus. (Conser- vation on ecoregional…, 2006) 124 11 Deforestation and Reforestation

Table 11.3 Distribution of the dominant coniferous tree species in Table 11.4 Distribution of certain dominant deciduous woody spe- squares cies in squares No Tree species Area in ha. % No Tree species Area in hectares % 1 Fir Caucasian 189782 6.9 1 Beech East 1175583 42.5 2 Spruce Easter’s 138589 5.0 2 Oak Imeretis 291041 10.5 3 Pinus Sosnowski 122050 4.4 3 Hornbeam Caucasisus 274888 9.9 4 Juniper 4075 0.1 4 Alder 200008 7.2 5 Yew Berry 259 5 Edible chestnut 105956 3.8 Total: 454755 16.4 6 Birch 73379 2.7 7 Carpinus orientalis Mill. 48144 1.8 8 Acacia 24601 0.9 4.5 million m3/year. Forests have 153 species of trees, 202 Total: 2193600 83.6 shrubs and subshrubs, 11–29 lean’s wood 434 million m3, growth 4.5 million m3/year. Forests have 153 species of trees, shrubs, subshrubs 202 and lean’s 11–29. Of the total, about 22 % of forests grow on slopes of 0–20°, and the remaining 78 % on steep slopes (21–35°) and steeper slopes (> 35°). This further indicates their role in slope-fastening processes. The biomass of an adult tree of diameter 60 cm varies, depending on breed. So the biomass of the Caucasian fir is 7.31 m3, beech 5.8 m3, Eastern spruce-pine 5.79 m3, Sosnowsky’s pine 4.7 m3, and hornbeam 48 m3. Deciduous forests (Table 11.4) represent 83.6 % of the forest area of all countries and needle forests represent 16.4 %. The main forest-forming species are: beech East ( Fagus orientalis) (42.5 %), Oak Imereti’s ( Quercus iberica) (10.5 %), hornbeam Caucasian ( Carpinus caucasicа) (9.9 %), bearded Alder ( Alnus barbata) (7.2 %), Fir Caucasian ( Abies Nord- maniana) (6.9 %), Spruce Easte ( Picea orientalis) (5.0 %), Fig. 11.2 Landscape of the valley of River Chorohi, near the village Sosnowsky’s pine ( Pinus Sosnowski) (4.4 %), and Edible Erge chestnut ( Castanea sativa) (3.8 %). Especially valuable rare species are: Oak Imereti’s ( Quercus Imeretina), Oak long-legged ( Q. longipes), Oak Caucasus. Only in the territory of Adzharia, about 200 spe- haut mountains ( Q. macranthera), Oak Gartvisan (Q. Hart- cies of plants are endemic to Colchis (Memiadze 1976). It vissiana), Pistachio ( Pistacia mutica), Yew Berry ( Taxus is noteworthy that the s. Zemo-Džoto (Khelvachauri region, baccata), Pine Pitsudica ( Pinus pithyusa), Zelkowa ( Zel- Adjara) was discovered in the lost world of the pristine rain- kowa carpinifolia), Elm Georgian ( Ulmus georgica), ber- forest landscapes of Colchis, located on the 4103514611 N est elliptical ( Ulmus eliptica), Cork Elm ( Ulmus suberosa), latitude and 410421 5611 E longitude, and the virgin thickets Georgian Maple ( Acer ibericum), boxwood kolkheti ( Buxus of boxwood, occupying an area of about 120 ha from the colhica), Corylus Colchica ( Corulus colhica), Caucasian hilly uplands to the highlands. The Thalveg valley is located pterocarya ( Pterocaria caucasica), Bladdernut ( Staphylea at 350–480 m below the surrounding mountains (Bondyrev colchica), etc. et al. 2006). Dmitrieva(1960, pp. 37–38) noted: “Buxus col- In addition, tree species in the forests of Georgia are valu- chica Pojarsk. currently in Colchis is a rare phenomenon, able from a genetic selection point of view; such species which is mostly shaded and moist mountain forest options.” are: Abies Nordmanniana, Picea orientalis, Fagus orienta- However, she never said these habitats were specific popula- lis, Pinus Sosnowsky, Carpinus caucasic, Quercus iberica, tions on the territory. The scientific literature on the region Quercus pontica, Quercus longipes, Betula Medvedevvi, Bet- of such landscapes is also absent (Fig. 11.2). The only source ula mingrelica, Betula Raddeana, Castanea sativa etc. The that contains general information on the existence of vast forests with a predominance of these species occupy more areas of the boxwood is the work of Krasnov. than 75 % of all forests of Georgia. The territory of boxwood bushes are in the narrow and The uniqueness of the Georgian forest ecosystems that shaded River Barchkhotastskali Gorge, stretching from are on an area of about 0.5 m ha is that they are still pris- rolling hills to the midlands. The valley is oriented to the tine virgin forests. They are located in hard-to-reach moun- west, toward the Black Sea, and from the north and the south tain gorges and are the last habitat of natural forests of the it is closed from the cold winds crests on the ridges Arpazoni 11.5 Anthropogenic Changes 125

Fig. 11.3 Landscape map of area Erge-Gele-Gurdani1 yellow soils of red soils and yellow soils; 5 the basin of pale-lake, with little wavy and lowland areas with steep slopes to dismembered much beech for- surface and completely transformed vegetation (gourds, citrus, pineap- ests and undergrowth at yellow and brown forest soils; 2 Foothill and ple guava, rarely—tea) in alluvial-lacustrine clay soils; 6 tea plantations lowland areas with steep slopes of dissected quite fully devoid of for- on the steep slopes of rolling foothills and lowlands with brown and red est cover (felling’s) with secondary shrubs at yellow and brown forest soil; 7 floodplain folded for River Chorokhi alluvium and with patches soils; 3 planation surfaces of the watersheds with beech woodland on of grassy vegetation and rare shrubs; 8 Chorokhi River bed with numer- brown forest soils; hills with steep slopes of gorges, dense groves of ous islands, separated by trees and grassy vegetation on sand-mud sub- boxwood, black berry sites, hazel and others of the watershed. 4– Wa- strate; 9 residential landscape of rural settlements; 10 household plots tersheds with beech woodland on brown forest soils; hills with steep with tangerine and lemon gardens, plantings of feijoa, rarely- tea; 11 slopes of gorges, dense groves of boxwood, black berry sites, hazel etc. elevation height above sea.; 12 names of settlements

ranging in size from 2 to 5 m in diameter in the suburbs of Zemo Džočo. The depth of the gorge and its orientation to the presence here of high humidity and shaded exposition, creates optimal conditions for life for Buxus colchics phytocoenoses (Fig. 11.3). That is, we are dealing with a classic refugee. Given that the boxwood is a famous sherry (400–600 years), which at the age of 200–250 years of the thickness of the barrel is only 30–25 cm, one can confidently talk about the age of these landscapes as at least 700 years (Fig. 11.4)!

11.5 Anthropogenic Changes

Today in a large mountainous part of the region and espe- Fig. 11.4 The Gel-Gurdani—a refugium of the Buxus colchica pojark. cially the Black Sea coast, the value of technogenic pres- forests of Adjara. a The River Barkhochatas-tskali with traces of debris flows; b bushes of boxwood sure reaches its maximum. The main causes of intensive transformation of the natural environment are land use, development of steep and unstable slopes under construction, (404.7 m) and Talakhnari (780.9 m). The thalweg of the river reconstruction of highways, mass replacement of the wood- is 350–480 m below the surrounding mountains. Grove is en houses of heavy construction, and destructive logging represented by trees in height from 1 to 2 m, which occupy (only in pools of the rivers of Abkhazia from 1955 to 1974, the entire upper part of the valley of River Barchkhotasts- cut down more than 10 million m3 of wood). Wood plays a kali. The river shows signs of repeated assembly of powerful significant role in the development of a modern economy—it mudflows that are particularly pronounced, in the form of is the main supplier of a wide range of building materials and enormous poorly processed stone blocks of irregular shape, sometimes only one type of fuel (especially in developing 126 11 Deforestation and Reforestation

Table 11.5 Growing season and the production of various types of vegetation in the southwestern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus Tips of landscapes Height above Growing sea- Production sea level (m) son in decades (center/ha) Seaside, the dune with 0–5 23.3 102 psam-mophytes Bogs and boggy low- 0–15 23.3 780 lands with gardens Floodplain land- 0–200 23.0 432 scapes with Colchis vegetation Lowland plains of the 0–200 23.0 296 Colchis vegetation Low hills with Colchis 0–200 23.1 302 vegetation Fig. 11.5 Mountain forest of Svaneti, Georgia High hills and foot- 200–600 23,3 200 hills with Colchis vegetation Xerophyte woods of the 500–1000 20.0 112 mountain regions of Adjaria and Lazistan (Turkish) Middle mountain 1000–1800 14.0 94 forest’s

Table 11.6 General characteristics of the forests of Georgia for high- altitude zones and corners in the gradient slopes (Gigauri 2000) In % of total area of On tall zones The steepness of the forests of Georgia (м над у.м.) slope (n) 26.8 0–1000 73.2 1000–2700 22.0 0–20 78.0 > 20

Fig. 11.6 Annual values emissions of the CO2 in resulting from deforestation (Gzirishvili) countries). Specific data on the size of productivity of main types of landscapes explored territory brings (Jakeli 1971) agreement on climate change, biomass growth (calculat- (Table 11.5). ed on the dry weight) on unused lands for 20 years is ap- In mountain and highland areas, one should take into ac- proximately 2.5 Tg, and processes for more than 20 years is count extreme cold and winds, specific to these territories. 1.05 Tg (Fig. 11.6). The amount of carbon stored in biomass Therefore, for the choice of species for revegetation, pref- in the first case is Tg 1.1 and in the second it is 0.48 Tg. erence should be given to the hardy species such as Oak The amount of carbon stored in the soil on totally unused high mountain ( Quercus meranthera F. et M.), maple high land (land eroded) is 3.36 Tg, representing 12.32 Tg CO2 mountain ( Acer Trautvetteri Medw.), pine Caucasian ( Pinus equivalent. Sosnowsky N.), etc. (Table 11.6). In the subalpine zone, the In 1990, as a result of human activity, “operating for- main representative of forest phytocenosis is birch, with nu- ests” were characterized by the following balance: emis- merous valuable qualities. It is used for business, casewood sions—0.664 Tg, fixation—12,384 Tg, that is 11,725 Tg and instrumental wood, high-energy fuel, etc., and the result remote volume CO2. In 1990–1996, the volumes of conser- was mass logging (Fig. 11.5). For Caucasus and Georgia in vative and selective felling dropped, while the volume of particular, the following are typical Birch: bush ( Betula fru- illegal logging rose sharply, leading to an increase in CO2 ticosa Pall.), warty ( B.pendula Roth.), Radde ( B.raddeana emissions. Annual emissions during this period ranged from L.), megrelica ( B.megrelica D.Sosn.), and dwarf ( B.nana L.) 16 to 161 Gg. The maximum air losses occurred in 1994. (Litvinskaya 2005). However, these calculations do not take into account such With respect to the question on the amount of emissions, phenomena as deforestation, fires on sites, and the transfor- according to the Georgian National Council framework mation of hayfields and pastures, because these processes 11.6 Reforestation 127

Fig. 11.8 Illegal export of timber from Georgia to Turkey through Sarpi, Ajara. (Photo by Kh. Kvlividze)

Fig. 11.7 Forest fire in Adigeni region of Georgia and today is represented by only a single species. The virgin forests of the foothills and lower mountain belt have disap- were not previously accounted for in the management and peared due to intensive harvesting. It is noteworthy that the use of forests in Georgia. At the same time, according to Tiriphono-Mukhranis plain (central part of the Kartlian low- far from incomplete data the annual fire damage in Georgia lands) in the past was covered with dense oak and hornbeam ranged from 3 to 92 ha (Fig. 11.7). forests, and the name itself /muxa/-in Georgian means Oak. Reduction in the area of forests occurs for many reasons, Intensive developments of those territories and deforestation including overgrazing, illegal felling of forests for firewood have led to their near-extinction and replacement of barbed and selective felling of high trees (both controlled and un- Bush formations. However, these landscapes have been controlled). The loss of protective covering exposes the soil transformed by man. Today, the entire surface is busy with to water and wind erosion, decreases the ability of soil to cultural landscapes of land, with rare relics of oak groves. retain moisture, which leads to a drop in the productivity of agricultural lands and lands lying below in the direction of groundwater flow. Increase in the speed of erosion has led to 11.6 Reforestation increased sedimentation in streams and reservoirs, lowering the efficiency of irrigation and hydroelectric plants. In the recent past, landscapes of the Tsiv-Gombor Ridge In view of the need to mitigate the negative impact on (eastern Georgia, southern mountain border of the Alazani the state of soil and water loss of large areas of forest land Valley) were submitted to the oak-hornbeam–tall forests. since 1926, newly planted forests cover about 300,000 ha of Their cutting down led to the extinction of these forests degraded agricultural lands in 1998. Only in 1970 did the and replaced them with barbed shrub formations (paliurus) annual planting of forests amount to 7000 ha/year. In 1980, (Fig. 11.8). the average annual volume of landings decreased to 5000 ha, In the upper zone of mountains (1600–1700 m above and in the 1990s—1000 ha. In 1998, forests were planted on sea level), as a result of overgrazing, mountain meadows 300 ha. have become unfit for use and intensive erosion ultimately Unregulated deforestation undermines the entire balance led (along with the factor of lithology) to the formation of of the local ecosystem, creating pockets of new disasters. It the typical bed lend relief. Alazani Valley was covered by should be noted that coastal parts of Georgia have practical- dense forests in the past (250–400 years ago), from which ly no natural vegetation and vegetation has survived only in tugajnymi today, there are only small groves in the islands the form of small islets in river valleys, plains, and valleys. (Fig. 11.9). In many ways, it is because of logging under tea plantation A similar picture is also seen to the east of Kakheti, in the and citrus. A beginning was made in 1883, when in Chakvi territory of Azerbaijan. Between the lower reaches of rivers (Tbilisi, Georgia), plants first imported from China, were and Azerbaijan Velvelichay, there are forests that are fully planted. For the period from 1899 to 1965, the area of tea anthropogenically transformed and replaced by secondary plantations grew 120 times. Today, most of these plantations barbed-shrub formations [Керимов]. have been cut down on the territory of Georgia. The realities of today’s life show that the brunt of the According to Bliadze (2003), for the past 15 years, forests situation again falls on the shoulders of forest ecosystems in the valley of the Kvirila River have practically disappeared if mountain forests are cut down by the local population to 128 11 Deforestation and Reforestation

Fig. 11.9 Saint church grove in Upper Svaneti

obtain at least some means of livelihood and fuel. From 1955 3 to 1974, more than 10 million m of wood was cut down Fig. 11.10 Illegal cutting down of forests in the region with. Shovi, only in Abkhazia. In the past, the region had a good tradition West Georgia. (Photo the D. Svanadze) of nature conservation, including mountain forests, which in some places have survived so far. This is the so-called “Church or temple forest”, holy places, etc. (Fig. 11.10). year.(Given that the per hectare forest can get an average of An example of this is Sioni church forest in Kazbegi dis- 200–250 m3 of wood, it turns out that more than 23,000 ha a trict, Gudisi of the Holy wood of the Aragvi River, some “sa- year are being felled.) cred groves” Svaneti (Fig. 11.10), pine (2000–2200 m above How accurate this information is, is once again proven sea level), and Birch (2300–2600 m) communal groves of in the materials specified in the work of Aleksidze (2006), Tusheti, etc. in the mountainous regions of Georgia. Appar- which note that the felling of forests, despite taboos was ex- ently, this proven mechanism for protecting mountain forests tremely aggressive in recent years. So, in 2000, in Aragvi at- is fully functional and at the present stage, that gives us some tempted official House of 40,000 m3, actually was cut down hope. at least two more times, but the official plan was only 50 %. Felling of forests on the territory of Georgia in the So- Notes also mention that in between 1990–1992, with the de- viet period was far from perfect, and in 1989–1997, forestry teriorating social and economic situation in the country and was in continuous chaos. According to an official from the the outbreak of diseases of horticultural crops, more than Ministry of Forestry, Georgia information (Fig. 11.11) were 30 % of all gardens were cut down in Shida Kartli (the main scheduled each year, cutting down on the amount of 1.4 mil- area of gardening in Georgia), and in their place wheat was lion m3, and illegal, accounted for more than 5 million m3/ seeded.

Fig. 11.11 Illegal cutting down of forests in separate regions of Georgia for post conflict period 1993–1997 1 Kareli, 2 Signakhi, 3 Kaspi, 4 Akhmeta, 5 Telavi, 6 Gurdjaani, 7 Sagaredjo, 8 Dedo- plis-tskaro, 9 Marneuli, 10 Bol- nisi, 11 Dmanisi, 12 Tskhinvali, 13 Akhalgori, 14 Dusheti, 15 Tianeti, 16 Mtskheta, 17 Tbilisi, 18 Lagodekhi, 19 Tetritskaro, 20 Kvareli, 21 Khashuri. (compiled on the basis of the content of Ukleba et al. 1998) References 129

Fig. 11.12 Structure chart used in Georgia power sources for 1990– 2001 (According to the Regional Ecological Centre of Caucasus)

In Samegrelo (Western Georgia), the forest area, ac- Fig. 11.13 Woodlands in Zakatala district of Azerbaijan, on the border 2 cording to official data from 1989, was 591.2 km . Based with Georgia. The mudslide and the ancient Queen Tamar bridge on the analysis of space images (NiMa/C/CNES/SPOT), it was found that in 2005, it was already 557.3 km2, having decreased by 5.7 km2. Considering that more than 60 % of all wood harvested annually goes abroad, the remaining 40 % evidently shows the real picture of forests in Georgia (Fig. 11.12). The Georgian Government has announced 20-year auctions for licenses for the right to use forest resources and timber. According to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources of Georgia, the auctions are for forests of three regions—Samegrelo–Zemo Svaneti, Racha–Lech- khumi and Shida Kartli. In 2007, the volume of felling in Abkhazia was officially only at 60 %. This is due to the lack of adequate number of local enterprises employed about derevopererabotkoj. Therefore, almost all wood is wasted, which of course implies a huge amount of informal deals. However, on official plots, valuable trees sometimes just gniû on the vine, but in informal forests, disappears with Fig. 11.14 Tea plantations on the slopes of the mountain range in the Rize. (Photo by I. V. Bondyrev) fabulous rapidity. Over the past 10 years, due to the large scale deforestation, there have been increased floods and mudflow activity in the river basins of Kur, Araz, etc. soil, but also the nature of the terrain. This is particularly (Fig. 11.13). clear in Ûsufeli in the basin of the Chorokh River. A similar situation is observed in neighboring Georgia and parts of Turkey. The low forest belt of the southern slopes of the Pontides mountains has been radically transformed by References man, as the Black Sea coast of Turkey developed 25 00 BC. Now there are only patches of secondary forests and shrubs. Al’bov NM (1892) The forest of Abkhazia. Note of the Scientific Soci- Natural landscapes are preserved only in the upper zone (high ety of Agriculture the South Russia. Odessa, pp 45–77 (in Russian) Aleksidze T (2006) Anthropogenic transformation of the landscape mountain forests and subalpine meadows and bushes), locat- of Kartli. Dissertation of the Doctoral Science, Tbilisi, p 50 (in ed below the mountain forest landscapes, almost completely Georgian) replaced by man-made and cultural landscapes. The coastal Aptsiauri V (2003) Landscape-ecological town planning concept. strip is completely changed and here only anthropogenic Tbilisi, p 132 (in Georgian) Astakhov NE (1973) Structural geomorphology of the Georgia. landscapes by landings of hazelnut and tea plantations can Metsniereba (Science), Tbilisi, p 224 be found on the terraced slopes (Fig. 11.14). It is changing Balian SP, Balian AS, Bondyrev IV, Seperteladze Z Kh, Mamedov not only the biota, but also the structure of the landscape that RM, Machavariani LD (2002) Paleogeography and contemporary does not stand up to the heavy pressure of modern civiliza- xerophycation of the landscape of South Caucasus//New of the Kazakhstan National University, ser. “geographic”, No. 2, pp 4–14 tion. It has violated not only the phyto- and bio-cenoses and (in Russian) 130 11 Deforestation and Reforestation

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Tbilisi sci., Tbilisi, p. 157 (in Georgian) State University Press, Tbilisi, pp. 18–35 Davitaia E Ph (2006) Geochemical functioning of natural systems, as Bondyrev IV, Sulkhanishvili GS (1989) Experimental study of mechan- a basic element of assessing landscape-ecological situation. Mat. ics of frost weathering of mountain rocks. Hydrogeol Eng Geol Vakhushti Bagrationi institute of geography, “new serial”,. â„ 1 (80), 12(354):19–25 (Bull Tbilisi Polytechnic Univ Surf) Tbilisi, pp. 263–267 (in Georgian) Bondyrev IV, Tsereteli ED (2007) Development of dangerous geody- Dolukhanov AG (1942) Chestnut forests of Georgia. Materials of the namic processes in the territory of South Caucasus and the problem Tbilisi botanic institute vol. VIII, pp. 57–86 of mitigation their consequences. NATO ARW Conf. “Natural disas- Gagnidze RI (1974) Botanic-geographical analysis the floristic com- ters and water security: risk assessment, emergency response and plex of subalpine waterside plant of Caucasus. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, environmental management”. Springer, Amsterdam, pp. 193–198 p. 187 (in Russian) Bondyrev IV, Tskhovrebashvili-Kvirkvelia NK (2001) Geographical Gagnidze RI (2000) Diversity of Georgia’s flora. In: Biological and factor in determining ecological compatibility of autochthon and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp. 21–32 allochthon population. Bull Georgian Acad Sci 163(3):488–491 References 131

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Abstract Because of mismanagement, Georgia is losing a lot of arable land each year. Analysis of subarid and arid territories of the South Caucasus shows that desert and semidesert landscapes are most closely bound to paleogeographical and paleogeomorphological conditions of the area and consequently with particularities of lithogenesis. Major types of arid landscapes of eastern Georgia are situated in the thick terrigenous–marine deposits (conglomerates, clays, sandstones). High salinity and gypsum content of these rocks stipulate aggressive reaction of soil that in turn results in the degradation of vegetative cover, i.e., causes desertification. Drought is a frequent visitor to the territory of eastern Georgia. Dur- ing 1900–1990, about 134 (12 %) drought months were registered, air temperature rose by 4–5 °C in comparison with mean perennial, relative humidity was lower by 30 % and wind velocity 5–10 m/s. A fierce drought occurred in the summer of 2000 when the whole territory of eastern Georgia was declared a zone of ecological disaster. Only 20 % of grain crops and 5 % of the sunflower crop were harvested. Climatic changes recorded in Georgia are most clearly revealed in the nature of changing mean annual and mean monthly temperatures and precipitation. A general trend of climate warming is noted in eastern Georgia at a rate of 0.006 °С per annum. The desert presents itself a peculiar natural complex—a type of landscape which is formed under the conditions of constant or seasonal dry and hot climate. These landscapes are characterized by an unusual soil–ground component and at the same time by extremely poor aspectual composition. This chapter discusses growing desertification in Georgia.

Because of mismanagement, Georgia is losing a lot of arable The area damaged through these natural hazards has inland each year. This chapter discusses growing desertifica- creased 2.5 times during the last 25–30 years. The anthro- tion in Georgia. pogenic factors have played a major role in the activation of these disastrous processes. One of them is deforestation which has turned into a real national disaster for Georgia. By the 12.1 Deforestation and Droughts middle of the nineteenth century, the Georgian forest area had reduced by 30–35 %. At present forests occupy 2.1 million ha One of the negative phenomena in the territory of eastern and about 1 million m3 have been cut down. During 1990– Georgia is drought. About 134 (12 %) drought months were 1996 alone over 200,000 m3 of wood was cut down illegally registered during 1900–1990, the air temperature rose by and therefore intensive development of exodynamic process- 4–5 °C in comparison with mean perennial, relative humid- es like erosion, landslides, and mudflows, was provoked. All ity was lower by 30 % and wind velocity 5–10 m/s. A fierce these processes greatly affected Georgia’s sufficiently com- drought occurred in the summer of 2000 when the whole plex social and economic life. The annual damage inflicted territory of eastern Georgia was declared the zone of eco- by these processes amounts to, on average, US$ 250–300 mil- logical disaster. Only 20 % of grain crops and 5 % of the sun- lion. In the years of their extreme activity (recurring every 3–5 flower crop were harvested. or 8–11 years) the damage amounts to US$ 0.6–0.1 million.

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 133 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_12, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 134 12 Desertification

Fig. 12.1 Natural hot tubs in the Vashlovani. (Photograph by Z. Janelidze)

During 1987–1992 this figure reached an astronomic value of tal movement of the significant air masses, preserving their US$ 10 million. This testifies the interrelation of these pro- own meteorological features) have been noted. cesses and requires a very thoughtful approach both to their Desertification is interpreted differently: study as well as the development of practical measures for 1. Complete loss of vegetative cover with the impossibility mitigation of natural hazards. Here one can find such unique of its regeneration (Raymers 1990); landforms as natural mineral baths (Fig. 12.1). 2. Reduction of natural resource potential of the region well below the conditional level for more than one order; 3. Degradation of soils in arid, semiarid and dry subhumid 12.2 Desertification regions, as a result of the total influence of different factors, including human activity (Convention of UNO 1994). Climatic changes, recorded in the territory of Georgia, are There are two forms of desertification: desertification and most clearly revealed in the nature of changing mean annual desertization. The former means an expansion of area (in- and mean monthly temperatures and precipitation. A general crease on peripheries of already existing deserts), whereas trend of climate warming is noted in eastern Georgia at a rate the latter means origin of new deserts on account of increas- of 0.006 °С per annum. The desert presents itself a peculiar ing desertification. It is known that arid and semiarid ecosys- natural complex—a type of landscape which is formed under tems are able to cope with droughts, which are normal, sea- the conditions of constant or seasonal dry and hot climate. sonably repeated conditions required for their development These landscapes are characterized by an unusual soil–ground (Worren 1990). Unlike droughts, desertification is character- component and at the same time by extremely poor aspectual ized by longer amplitudes to which these ecosystems fail to composition and phyto- and zoocoenosis discharge. get used to so quickly, and degrade. The desert areas and semideserts of the Earth form about In a resolution of the UNO conference on problems of 48.4 million km2 or 43 % of the entire land area. The area desertification (Nairobi 1978) it was noted that “…measures of anthropogenic desert is 10 million km2 or 12.7 %. The of struggle with desertification are necessary to take place process of desertification develops at an average rate of before the expenses on reconstruction will outdo practical 7—24 km2/h or 12.9–21 million ha (Raymers 1990). About possibilities or until the possibility of action still exists.” 30 million km2 (19 % of the land) is under the threat of de- (UN Conference on Desertification 1978). Progressive desertification. At the modern stage of evolution, processes of velopment of desertification processes can bring about the desertification are defined by the complex set of natural and phenomenon of integration of landscapes, when there are socioeconomic factors. As a result of global climate warm- some differences in their morphological structures and pe- ing evaporation from surfaces of water pools intensifies. The culiarities of operation are wiped off that finally bring about processes of advection in intercontinental regions (horizon- their integration, and occasionally transition to hierarchi- cally higher levels (Belgibaev 2000). 12.3 Desert Landscapes 135

Two clear indicators of landscape desertification are dis- conditions of the area and consequently with particularities tinguished: typomorphic formations in the structure of soil of lithogenesis. The major types of arid landscapes of eastern mantle, like limestone (CaCО3) and gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) Georgia are situated in the thick terrigenous–marine deposits concretions. Determination of the rate of desertification of (conglomerates, clays, sandstones). High salinity and gyp- the territory is carried out using Dobrovolsky’s method (Do- sum content of these rocks stipulate aggressive reaction of brovolsky 1961), based on the correlation of Sr/Ba occurring soil that in turn results in the degradation of vegetative cover, in the soil. i.e., causes desertification (Fig. 12.2). This process has been In Georgia, desertification represents not only an envi- noted by other researchers as well. As Worren (1990) says, ronmental, social, and economic problem, but also a climatic desertification is manifested differently upon lithologi- problem. Climate warming poses a serious threat to the Cau- cally different substrata. So, on clayey slopes where run-off casus glaciers, as it causes melting due to high temperatures, takes place, the desertification process is irreversibly, but on low relative humidity, and fall in solid atmospheric precipi- the slopes next to them situated on the sandy soil ground, tation. In case these processes take on a systematic character, desertification lasts a bit longer than does a drought. they will cause an accelerated glacier retreat and obviously Analysis of the situation in eastern Georgia was based lead to serious climatic change, first local and then regional. upon the data on physical–geographical zonation by Ja- The Caucasus ecological balance is clearly under threat, the vakhishvili et al. (1990). The type of landscape is taken as a more so if the processes become irreversible. It is anticipated fundamental unit of landscape. Information was taken from that in Georgia, just like in the whole region of the Caucasus, “Landscape Map of Georgia” (scale 1:600,000). the period up to 2050 will see a significant decrease in an- In the territory of Georgia with an area of about 69.7 km2, nual river runoff (50–150 mm/year). The effect of warming 67 type of landscapes are distinguished (Table 12.1). Con- will presumably be different in western and eastern regions. sequently, for every 10,000 km2 there occur, on average, 14 In eastern Georgia, a rise in ambient temperature over the types of natural landscapes. However, the results obtained first half of this century may reach 2 °C, while in western represent theoretical calculations and do not reflect a real Georgia open to the constant influence of the Black Sea it picture, observed in the territory of the country today. This will only reach 1 °C. is stipulated, on one hand, by the fact that “Landscape map of Georgia” (Javakhishvili 1990 (1970), to a greater degree reflects a reconstructed condition of natural landscapes char- 12.3 Desert Landscapes acteristic of the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century. The rate of development of civili- Analysis of subarid and arid territories of the South Caucasus zation of the twentieth century significantly contributed to shows that desert and semidesert landscapes are most close- space-provisional distribution of landscapes in Georgia. ly bound to paleogeographical and paleogeomorphological

Fig. 12.2 Typical desert developed on David Garedji plateau

Table 12.1 Amount of subarid and dry semihumid landscape types distinguished in the territory of Georgia and their areas Name Amount of landscape types and their area Intermontane plain landscapes Amount of types Area (km2) 1 Plains of moderate dry subtropics 4 2387.2 2 Plains of dry subtropics 5 1371.5 3 Highland of moderate dry subtropics 15 3712.3 136 12 Desertification

Research conducted Bondyrev et al. (2000) has shown and other easily soluble salts (Nakaidze and Sokhadze 1979). that among plain landscapes, landscapes of moderate dry Chalk horizon has a power 5–30 cm and correlations of SiO2/ subtropics of eastern Georgia play a significant role (28 %). Al2O3 =5–7, SiO2/Fe2O3 = 18–28, but SiO2/R2O3 = 4–5.5. A great variety of natural landscapes are found in Shida Meadow gray-brown soils, occupying nearly the entire Kartli region—36 types for 10,000 km2 (Table 12.2). Then space from the state border to the town of Rustavi, are char- comes the region of the Gombori ridge with 35 types. acterized by heavy mechanical composition (clayey frac- Natural landscapes basically suffer from the influence of tions 70–80 %), increased contents of particles of size less anthropogenic and technogene processes. A part of the land- than 0.001 mm (> 50 %), high toughness and waterproof scapes was transformed to some kind of natural–anthropogen- ability, rough structure and contents of cations, Na and easily ic complexes, another part suffered from basic changes (fell- soluble salts (mainly Cl) pH > 7. Power of humus hori- ing of woods, drainage of swamps, irrigation of arid lands, zon varies from 15 to 20 cm, containing no more than 2.5 %. construction of new cities and transport communication sys- Chalk contents can reach 8 % (Sokhadze 1977). tems, and mining complexes), lost its former structure, giving Chernozem and chernozem-like heavy clayey and loamy rise to qualitatively new forms of anthropogenic landscapes. soils, are found in the region of Vaziani, Sartichala, and Mu- On the other hand, landscapes, like other dynamic open ganglo (Sokhadze 1977). These soils are characterized by high type systems, are classical homeostats, capable of support- efficiency, stability against washing, porosity, and accordingly ing a certain mode of structure forming processes, even have waterproof ability, small three-dimensional weight, and under the conditions of very significant, but not long-lasting uneven distribution of carbonates according to profile. рН is 7. changes (natural or anthropogenic) of environment. Analysis Content of СаСО3 varies from 0.4 to 4.5, correlation of SiO2/ of the situation has shown that unchangeable natural types Al2O3 = 5–6, SiO2/Fe2O3 = to 25, but SiO2/R2O3 = 3–5. of landscapes present themselves a group of small areas, oc- Brown soils are found in the whole territory from the town cupying lands most unfit for cultivation (marshes, peat bogs, of Rustavi to Zages, in the area of Igoeti, and some other and coast lagoons). In eastern Georgia about 40 % of the land places. These soils have a well-defined crumbling granular is subject to the influence of surface washout and 15 % of it structure, power of about 25–30 cm and are referred to a washes out even more intensively (Bondyrev et al. 2000). heavy clayey soils. Contents of physical clay reach 70–77 %, but smaller fractions 30 %. In the lower part of the profile, soils are carbonaceous. The reaction to рН is neutral. 12.4 Soils Brown meadow heavy loamy and clayey soils occupy small gently sloping relief forms from Igoeti to Gori alternating with Gray-brown chalk soils, situated in Rustavi-Gardabani plain brown soils. They are characterized by comparative monoto- (Samgori section and slopes of Yagludja) are distinctive for nous profile, small contents of humus (2–3 %), рН = 7.5–8. clearly formed differentiated profiles, the presence of grayish with phreatic waters participating in their shaping. 20–30 cm power humus horizon, weak blocks, coarse crum- A small area of typical arid landscapes situated on the left bling structure of upper horizons, strong compaction of aver- bank of the Mtkvari River between the towns of Vaziani and age horizons, the presence of concretions and pseudomycelia Rustavi is considered (Table 12.3). This territory is made in carbonate–illuvial horizon, as well as crystals of gypsum up of powerful (20–170 m) thick conglomerates of Upper

Table 12.2 Variety of landscapes of separate sections of the “Great Silk Road” within the territory of eastern Georgia No Route Distance (km) Number of types Biodiversity (type/100 km) 1 Beiuk-Kiyasiki–Tbilisi 52 5 9.6 2 Tbilisi–Gori 75 8 10.7 3 Gori–Khashuri 44 5 11.4

Table 12.3 Trends of variation of landscapes of eastern Georgia Epoch Phase Absolute age (1000 years) Nature of landscapes Late Holocene 2.5–1 Priority development of grassy formations Middle Holocene III 4–3 Expansions of area of lowland oak forests II 6–5 Maximum spreading of lowland and flood plain forests I 8–7 Broad spreading of flood plain forests Early Holocene II 9–8 Lowland forests I 10–9 Expansions of area of flood plain forests (pterocarya, nut) Old Holocene 18–10 Cold forest steppe Late Pleistocene 50–19 Aquatic vegetation, rarely madder маревые and wormwood 12.6 Characteristics of Landscapes 137

Pliocene (Akchaghyl) with loamy and clay partings. They epoch was characterized by more humid and cool climate occur in quartzcosaus and greywacke sandstones of Middle that caused the substitution of steppe landscapes by sylvan. and Upper Oligocene with clay partings, up to 900 m thick In Holocene, the tectonic activity increased even more, ac- aleurites and gritstones that indicate repeat changing of companied by multiple arched uplifts on the peripheries of sedimentation nature. The upper stage of conglomerate rock region under study. This brought about the lifting of part of mass/terrain/is either overlapped by the washed-out mantle the territory and formation of Vaziani badland high plateau. of redeposit pebbles and boulders or is cemented by gypsum All these promoted the presence of unusual regularity in cement, forming conelike hills and ridges situated just at the the process of shaping and evolution of present landscapes contact of plains and foothills. The presence of gypsum ce- (Table 12.5). At present arid landscapes of dry subtropics are ment explains conservation of these forms, since it creates developed on the territory, which are under investigation by some kind of armor, protecting pebble terrain and preventing the following varieties: it from the processes of arid weathering characteristic of the 1. Flood plain forests on the soils rich of organic alluvial. given territory. Powerful (to 25 m) sediments of loess-like 2. River valleys with groves of juniper ( Juniperus) and jas- loams and bad land nature of foothill relief indicate a long mine in alluvial-solonetz-like and clayey soils. period of sedimentation and arid relief formation. 3. Flat plains with furrowed Botriochlocum, Stipa, and Fes- tica formations in alluvial, chestnut, and argillo-salt bottom soils. Phyto masses of phytocenoses vary 19–28 c/ha 12.5 Influence of Anthropogenic Activity (Sokhadze 1977). 4. Gently sloping plains with landscapes transformed due to The enormous influence upon the development of natural anthropogenic activity, occupied by poultry complexes, processes of the region results from anthropogenic activity. with the remainder of grassy vegetation on thin grey soils. In the 1960s, the construction of the Lower Samgori irriga- 5. Gently sloping terraced plains with anthropogenic land- tion system (5–12 m3/s) resulted in the development of sig- scapes (garden areas) in irrigated and poorly saline brown nificant arrays of irrigated lands on the plains (20,000 ha) and chestnut soils. and intensive cultivation of these territories on the one hand, 6. Plains dissected by gorges and ravines with discharge of but in-washing out of salts from the upper horizons and caus- saline phreatic waters, brush wood of shrub type juniper ing secondary salinization on the other hand. The nature of andsemidesert views (wormwood, Paliurus spina-christi) circulation of geochemical flows inside the landscapes is in light brown soils. Particularly notable are semidesert clearly seen in the example of vicinities created at the end tugai landscapes in the Armkhmshenis-khevi river valley of the 1980s around Didi Tapa reservoir, being filled by the with anthropogenic lakes formed in the places of extrac- waters of this very irrigation system (Table 12.4). tion of clay along its banks. Here the banks are covered by bright white salt crust and separate crystals of gypsum. 7. Marshed suffosive subsidences and basins in the plain 12.6 Characteristics of Landscapes surface and slopes of broad troughlike valleys with peat- boggy soil vegetative cover. Tracking the change of landscapes of the given territory in 8. Hilly ridges, composed of conglomerates cemented by the epochs of Pleistocene and Holocene, landscapes of the gypsum, with separate bushes of Paliurus spina-christi Lower Pleistocene are distinguished little from the present or juniper and rare grassy vegetation in light brown and ones. In Khazar epoch climate got more arid. The Wurm chestnut soils.

Table 12.4 Amount of subarid and dry semihumid landscape types distinguished in the territory of Georgia and their areas Name Amount of landscape types and their area Intermontane plain landscapes Amount of types Area (km2) 1 Plains of moderate dry subtropics 4 2387.2 2 Plains of dry subtropics 5 1371.5 3 Highland of moderate dry subtropics 15 3712.3

Table 12.5 Within the territory of Eastern Georgia. (Bondyrev et al. 2000) No Route Distance (km) Number of types Bio-diversity (type/100 km) 1 Beiuk-Kiyasiki–Tbilisi 52 5 9.6 2 Tbilisi–Gori 75 8 10.7 3 Gori–Khashuri 44 5 11.4 138 12 Desertification

Fig. 12.3 Badland landscape of eastern Georgia (Iori upland) and mud volcano

9. Piedmont ridges and separate masses with spiny bushy Bondyrev IV, Seperteladze Z Kh, Aleksidze TD (2000) Biodiversity vegetation ( Paliurus spina-christi) in light brown and of Landscapes and their recreational capacity on Georgian part of Euroasian transport corridor. II Int. sci.-practice conf. “Georgia/Cau- chestnut soils. casus–crossroad on the Great Silk Road”, Tbilisi: pp 64–65 10. Badland landscape with bushes of Astragalus, Cara- Convention of UNO (1994) Convention of UNO on the struggle against gana, and Teucrium chamaedrys on talus slopes and desertification, Paris, p 52 debris cones upon powerfully degraded and ablated Dobrovolsky VV (1961) Tipomorphic Neoplasm’s in Quaternary sediments is USSR desert. Soil science, No. 10, pp 44–57 (in Russian) skeleton soils (Fig. 12.3). Vaziani badland high plateau Javakhishvili AN (1990) Works, vol I. Anthropological Works. Tbilisi has been used as a Russian military firing ground until Universiti Press, Tbilisi, p 384 (in Georgian and Russian) recently. Mikeladze BV, Murvanidze Ch K (1986) Development and reclamation of steep slopes. Tehinform, Tbilisi, p 52 (in Georgian) From the above discussion of the situation created in east- Nakaidze EK, Sokhadze EV (1979) Typological especially soil subtropical steppe vegetation Eastern Transcaucasia. In: Natural resources ern Georgia, desertification as well as climatic and anthro- and methods of their studies. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, pp 26–44 (in pogenic problems pose a real threat to this region. Studies Russian) of natural environment of concrete areas should be carried Raymers N Ph (1990) Environmental management (dictionary-refer- out. Analysis of data obtained will serve the development of ence), Misl, Moscow, p 782 (in Russian) Sokhadze ME (1977) Ecological-biological and phytocoenotic charac- scientifically motivated work directed at the softening of the teristics the steppes of Eastern Georgia. Metcniereba, Tbilisi, p 180 pressure upon the natural environment of eastern Georgia. Tavartkiladze AM, Nakaidze EK (1994) Problems of rational use and protection of soil resources of Georgia. Metcniereba, Tbilisi, p 195 (in Georgian) UN Conference on Desertification (1978) Round-up, plan of action and References resolution. UN, New York Urushadze TF (1997) Major soils of Georgia. Metcniereba, Tbilisi, Belgibaev ME (2000) Soil-geographical methods increasingly aridiza- p 268 (in Georgian) tion and desertification of Kazakhstan. Mater. Iner. Sci. Conf. “New Worren B (1990) Problem of desertification. In “Sahara”, М.: Progress, methods to study natural and natural-economic systems,” Almaty, ed. 1990, pp 393–402. Kazah. State Univ. pp. 16–23 (in Russian) Ecosystems 13

Abstract Georgia can be considered as a rich treasure of flora and fauna. The Georgia flora comprises 4100 species of vascular plants. The low-lying marshy lowlands of eastern Georgia are occupied by semidesert biomes with intermittent fragments of solicited desert. For this type of desert vegetation the presence of ephemeral organisms are typical. One of the fragments of the desert biome is represented by the communities of Nitraria schoberi, which are spread in Shida (inner) Kartli, Kartli, and Meskheti. One of the variants of the erosive desert is the vegetation covering the washed-away soil of the Iori river. It is in such places that Tulpa eichleri, a very rare endemic plant, grows. One of the main dominants of the semidesert biome is Artemisia fragans, which is widespread in eastern Georgia. In eastern Georgia, the steppe vegetation is spread a little higher than the semidesert (300–700 m). Due to anthropogenic influences the steppe is interspersed by the elements of forest—a dry, light forest and bush vegetation. The soil is black in some places and climate is dry subtropical with some features of continental climate; winter is rather dry and summer is hot. The fauna of Georgia comprises 109 species of mammals, 322 species of birds, 52 species of reptiles, 13 species of amphibians, and more than 120 species of freshwater and through passage and marine fish. This chapter provides a glimpse of Georgia’s faunal and floral treasure.

Georgia can be considered as a rich treasure of flora and (1) Compositae—538 species, (2) Gramineae—332, fauna. This chapter provides a glimpse of this treasure. (3) Leguminosae—322, (4) Rosaceae—238, (5) Crucife- rae—183, (6) Scrophulariaceae—179, (7) Labiatae—149, (8) Caryophyllaceae—135, (10) Liliaceae (Gagnidze 1974) 13.1 Vegetation

According to Gagnidze [VII-9], Georgian flora comprises 13.2 Arid and Semiarid Ecosystems 4100 species of vascular plants. Among them: Pteridophy- ta—74, Gymnospermae—17, Angiospermae—4009 ( Di- A desertification trend is observed over fairly large areas of cotyledoneae—3254, Monocotydoneae—755). In the flo- the territory’s ecosystem: the Chachuna steppe, foothills of ristic–ethnographic districts of Georgia, the number of spe- the Kotsakhura range’s southern face, the Iori steppe, the El- cies amounts to: Abkazeti—1978 species, Svaneti—1100, dari lowland, the Taribana depression, Natbeuri, the Chatmi Khevi (Kazbegi’s area)—1347, Racha-Lechkhumi—1200, depression, on Iori river terraces (downstream of the Dali Imereti—900, Tughet-Khevsureti—1000, Shida kartli (r.r. water reservoir), and foothills of the Kotsakhura range’s Ksani-Liakhvi)—1125, Kakheti—1400, Trialeti range— western part (between the oil well and the Chachuna steppe). 1650, Meskheti range—1400, Javakheti (South Georgian Small spots of desertification are found in the pistachio light highlands)—1500, Iori river valley—200. In Georgia’s flora, forest complex. Intrusion of desert elements is even found according to the number of species, ten leading families are in flood plain forests (Abramia 2009). A considerable part considered (Fig. 13.1): of arid and semiarid ecosystems is per se a rare biotope for

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 139 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_13, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 140 13 Ecosystems

Fig. 13.1 Modern plant cover in Georgia. Coniferous forests: 1 dark erasus, 11 Caucasian rhododendron. Alpine meadows: 12 subalpine coniferous forests and beech forests, 2 Pitcunda’s pine forests, 3 moun- meadows and tall grass, 13 alpine meadows. Light forests: 14 light tain pine forests. Broadleaf forests: 4 lupin–alder lowland forest, 5 forest, 15 shibliak, 16 phrigana formation. Steppe and semidesert: Colchis broad-leaved forests, 6 beech forests with Colchis underbrush, 17 Andropogon ischemum and Stipa steppes, 18 mountain steppes, 19 7 beech forests, 8 oak and oak–hornbeam forests, 9 krummholz forest semidesert. Wetlands: 20 bogs vegetation, 21 bottomland forests and and park forest to highlands. Evergreen shrubs: 10 Prunus lauroc- bushes. (Beruchashvili et al. 2012a, b)

Georgia (arid light forests, semidesert and desert elements), Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resourc- for which reason certain species in Georgia are only ob- es) Red Data Book Phalacrocorax pygmeus—(LR); Aegy- served in this territory: Levantine viper, francolin, striped pius monachus—(LR); Haliaeetus albicilla—(LR); Aquila hyena, and goitered gazelle. heliaca—(VU); Aythya nyroc—(VU); Rhinolophus ferrume- The ecosystem provides refuge for rare communities quinum—(LR.cd); Rhinolophus hipposideros—(VU.A2c); that do not occur in other areas. It harbors such coenoses as Barbastella barbastellus—(VU.A2c); Driomys nitedula— Salsoletum–Kalidiosu) and Salsoletum–Anabasiosum. They (LR.nt); and others. are spread locally in assemblages of semidesert and steppe There are major biomes in Georgia. A biome is under- plants, and have so far been known only in the Eldari low- stood as vegetation and animals with habitation on this or land. These coenoses comprise such species as: Salsola den- that type of the landscape geographical organization of a droides, Kalidium caspicum, and Anabasis aphylla. natural habitat. G. Nakhutcrishvili, (Nakhutcrishvili 1971– Twenty-four insect species occurring in the region have 1974, 1999, 2000) allocated territories of the country into been listed in the USSR Red Data Book, among them: Pa- four basic biomes. pilio machaon, Papilio alexanor orientalis, Iphichlides podalirius, Utethesia pulchela, Arctia caja, Coenonimpha saadi, and others. Among rare vertebrate species it is neces- 13.2.1 Biome of Desert and Semidesert sary to point out a number of species listed in the Red Data Book of Georgia: Pelobates syriacus, Eryx jaculus, Eumeces The low-lying marshy lowlands of eastern Georgia are oc- schneideri, Elaphe longissima, Haliaeetus albicilla, Aythya cupied by semidesert biomes with intermittent fragments of nyroca, Perdix perdix, Mesocricetus brandti, Suncus etrus- solicited desert, with the participation of Salsola ericodes, cus, Nyctalis leisleri, Lutra lutra, Hyaena hyaena, Lynx lynx, Jamanthus pilosus, Suaeda microphylla, Petrosimonia bra- Gazella subgutturosa, and Cervus elaphus. chiata, and Kalidium capsicum. For this type of desert veg- Among small mammals, the following are rare and en- etation, the presence of ephemeral organisms, such as Poa dangered species: Sorex volnuchini, Crocidura leucodon, Al- bulbosa, Colopodium humile, Bromus japonicus, Eremophy- lactaga elater, Cricetulus migratorius, Allactaga willamsi, ron orientale, Alissum desertorum, and others, are character- and others. Some birds and small mammals are rare on a istic. One of the fragments of the desert biome is represented global scale as well, and are listed in the IUNC (International by the communities of Nitraria schoberi, which are spread in 13.2 Arid and Semiarid Ecosystems 141

Shida (inner) Kartli, Kartli, and Meskheti. One of the variants Cleistoges bulgarica, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Onobrychis ka- of the erosive desert is the vegetation covering the washed- chetica, and others. away soil of the Iori river where Festuca sulcata, Supa szo- vitsiana, Artemisia fragans, and others can be found. It is in such places that Tulpa eichleri, a very rare endemic plant, 13.2.3 Biome of Light Forest and Hemixerophi- grows. One of the main dominants of the semidesert biome is lous Shrubbery Artemisia fragans (some botanists assign it to desert vegetation), which is widespread in eastern Georgia, particularly on In the zone of semidesert and steppes of eastern Georgia the plateau of the Iori and Lower Kartli. the vegetation of arid light forest is widespread. The biome consists of xerophilous plants of the forest and grass cover, which is drought-resistant. This biome is most widespread 13.2.2 Biome of Steppe between the plateaus of the Alazani and Iori rivers, and Vashlovani reserve; it occupies an area of 5000 ha. Its basic The steppe vegetation in eastern Georgia is spread a little ecosystems are: Pistaceeta mutica, Gunipereta ( Gunipreta higher than the semidesert (300–700 m). Due to anthropo- foetidissima, Gunipreta policarpos), and Pyreto–Calteeta genic influences the steppe is interspersed by the elements ( Pyrus salicifolta, Celtis caucasica). of forest—a dry, light forest and bush vegetation (Fig. 13.2). The soil is black in some places and climate is dry subtropical with some features having continental climate; winter is 13.2.4 Forest Biome rather dry and summer is hot. The snow cover is insignificant and unsteady. One of the most characteristic ecosystems of The forest biome in Georgia occupies a larger area than other the steppe biome is a steppe where Botriochloa ischaemum vegetation types. It covers 36.7 % of the republic’s territory. dominates. Some botanists consider such steppes as semi- Different dominants of the forest cover various territories of steppes; others think that they are semisavannah or savan- the country. For example, Fagus orientalis occupies 51 % noids. the area, Abies nordmanniana 10 %, Quercus iberica and To prove it they refer to the presence of the savannah various species of oaks 33 %, Picea orientalis 6.3 %, Pinus components—Imperata cylindrical and Erianthus purpura- kolchiana 3.6 %, Alnus barbara 3 %, Castanea sativa 2.1 %, scens in the steppes together with Botriochloa ischaemum. other species of Betula lirwinowii, and betula 2 %. Geor- We share the opinion of those botanists who consider such gia’s remaining forest area is covered by Carpinus cauca- steppes as one of the variants of the steppe. The main com- sica, Lilia caucasica, Acer platanoides, Acer trautvetteri, ponent of these steppes is Botriochloa ischaemum, partially Fraxinus excelsior, and others. Only the Javakheti plateau Festuca sulcata, and following them there is Stipa capillata, is forested. A very small territory of Khevi and mountainous Stipa lessingiana, Stipa pulcherrima, Koelera macrantha, Tusheti is forested. On South Georgian highlands, the wood

Fig. 13.2 Semidesert landscapes of the Gardabani steppe. (Brine lakes in the vicinity of Vaziani) 142 13 Ecosystems vegetation seldom occurs, in the form of separate groves or Europe and Asia that have entirely different landscapes, cli- small forest areas. They are introduced by pine forests or oak matic contrasts, great relief, and so on. light forests. Basically, today it is a zone of mountain mead- Of particular mention is the vegetation of the upper bor- ows and steppes. der of the forest of the subalpine zone (2400–2759 m) which is enriched with the diversity of flora and phytocoenosis and great abundance of endemic and relict species (Fig. 13.3). 13.2.5 Orobiomes The vegetation of the subalpine zone is characterized by the following forms: (1) light forest, (2) forest with deformed The high-mountain vegetation Georgia is distinguished by trees, (3) creeping shrubs, (4) tall grass, and (5) broad-leaved a great diversity, which, in the first place, is conditioned by meadows (Fig. 13.4).

Fig. 13.3 Vertical zones of vegetation in Georgia. (Nakhut- crishvili 2000) 13.2 Arid and Semiarid Ecosystems 143

Fig. 13.4 The remnants of tea plantation around and in the area of Guria. (Likhauri)

There is the question of the Colchis lowland. The Colchis into arable lands (Fig. 13.5). In Holocene, almost all low ter- lowland, although it currently constitutes almost completely ritories of Georgia were covered by wood vegetation. In East man-changed territory, remained a separate refuge for an- Georgia the cores have been introduced by broad-leaved for- cient Colchis flora. However, from the mid-1930s, these ter- ests: oak, hardbeam, walnut, and wingnut; and in valleys and ritories have started to become accustomed to intensive use bottomlands of the rivers—oak, scotch elm, elm, and linden. by people. Well-known Colchis bogs, on which the tea plan- Disappearance from a compound of these wingnut forests tations largest in the former USSR have been created, have (there were only small sites of island areals in Gare Kakheti) almost been completely drained. By the end of the twenti- is caused by human activity. The decrease in the role of oak eth century, the area of these plantations became more than in a specific compound of forests of southern Caucasus also 75,000 ha. Unfortunately, today they are completely aban- speaks. As a result of field investigations in August–Septem- doned and have become unfit for use (see Fig. 13.4). ber 2006 and given interpretation of aerial photographs from In Georgia, there are 153 species of trees, 202 species of 1973 (1:40,000) and satellite filming in 2006 (Google) to es- bushes, 22 species of forbs, and 11 species of lianas, out of timate the condition of the ecosystem, the given territory was which 26 % are endemic. Based on the size (height) they are found to have been spent. Thus, the basic accent became the subdivided as follows (see Table 13.1) (Gigauri 2000). specification of parameters and features of spatial placing of Among forests, the greatest area (19 % of all country for- natural boundary Gel-Gurdani. In the satellite picture, the an ests) is occupied by needle-leaved trees (pine and fir). On inclined projection was observed (Fig. 13.6), and the position shores of the rivers of Colchis, fragments of the well-known of natural boundary concerning the Black Sea and the orienta- Colchis forests are preserved. Here such trees were intro- tion of a mountain frame of the gorge is well visible [VII-16]. duced: alder, oak, ash, hardbeam, willow, Pterocarya ptero- Going from Batumi to the east along the valley of carps (Mehx) Kuth., with a shrub layer from azalea, elder, Chorokhi river we can observe alternating diversified land- Corylus colchica alb, Ilex colchicum, etc. The ancient popu- scapes which in the majority of cases have almost been relation of the region, being one of the most ancient centers of versed by man (Fig. 13.6). However, moving ahead from Ze- agriculture, perfectly knew about high fertile qualities of the mo-Dzhoto in the east, we get to the forgotten world of un- soils generated in oak forests and actively converted them touched landscapes of damp subtropics of Colchis located at 41°35′46″ N and 41°42′56″ E. Here, for the first time, there was a site of virgin box thickets occupying a space of nearly Table 13.1 Full chemical analysis of separate kinds of soils 120 ha1. It is known that such box thickets are observed only Type Size (m) No. of species Full-grown trees ≥ 25 153 1 It is necessary to notice that the total area of a known Khosta yew- Average height 7–25 56 box grove (the Caucasian reserve, the Russian Federation) makes 300 Low height < 7 46 hectares from which the box occupies no more than 73 ha 144 13 Ecosystems

Fig. 13.5 Soil profiles of western ( A–B) and eastern ( C–D) Georgia. Symbols: 1 low-power mountain-meadow, 2 meadow gray cinnamonic and mountain meadow, 3 mountain meadow chernozem and meadow gray cinnamonic, 4 light and podzols brown forest, 5 brown forest, 6 cinnamonic forest, 7 humus calcareous, 8 a complex of brown forest and raw humus calcareous, 9 Chernozem, 12 low-power chernozems, 13 chestnut soils and solonetzic, 15 red soils, 17 podsolic, 18 low-power podsolic, 20 subtropical gley podzols, 22 solonetzics, 27 bog-alluvial, 28 alluvial calcareous, 29 alluvial saturated, 30 meadow calcareous, 31 degraded soils of all types. (Urushadze 1997)

merous descent of powerful earth flows which are especially

brightly shown in the vicinity of Zemo-Dzhocho in the form of enormous poorly processed boulders of the wrong form of the size from 2 to 5 m in diameter. The depth of gorge and its orientation promote the presence here a mode of high humidity and shad, creating optimum conditions for a life box phytocoenoses. That is, we deal with classical refuge. Considering that the box is a known long-liver (400–600 years) at which at the age of 200–250 years the thickness of a trunk reaches only 30–25 cm, it is possible to speak with confidence about the age of these landscapes as a minimum of 500 years! All the aforesaid testifies to the uniqueness and relic character of landscapes of Gel-Gurdani and the necessity Fig. 13.6 Landscapes of a valley of Chrokhi river at Erge of their protection as unique natural sanctuary of a Tertiary epoch (Fig. 13.8). The last quarter of the twentieth century is characterized by catastrophic degradation of the natural eco- in places in the narrow and shaded gorges of the rivers from system of the Caucasus (and including Georgia), and their foothill hilly heights to average height mountains. replacement natural-anthropogenic or completely trans- Dmitrieva (1960) remarks: “The Box (Buxus colchica formed landscapes. This process is observed everywhere, Pojarsk.) now in Colchis represents an unusual occurrence though it develops with non-uniform rate. In mountains it is peculiar to mainly shady and damp variants of mountain slowed down, and some places it is even imperceptible, but woods” (Dmitrieva 1960, pp. 37–38). However, she does in foothills and on plains it accepts an irreversible character. not mark any concrete areas for distribution of these popula- Substantially the process of degradation of natural ecosys- tions in the given territory. In the scientific literature on the tem (landscapes) is caused by the economic (or more truly given region the description of similar landscapes is absent. to tell—thriftless) activity of the people. However, in the A unique source in which there are general instructions on last decades the role of such crisis phenomena as confronta- the presence in these places of extensive areas of growth of tions, local wars, etc., have caused ecological damage which box are given by Krasnov (1893–1894, 1911). reaches huge figures in billions of dollars, and their conse- The grove comprises trees of heights from 1 to 2 m, which quences lead to full degradation of all ecosystems, and both occupy the whole top part of the valley of Barchakhotis-tck- areas of conflicts and surrounding territories have sharply ali river (Fig. 13.7). The river channel carries traces of nu- increased. 13.3 Fauna 145

Fig. 13.7 Landscape map of site Erge-Gel-Gurdani (scale 1:20,000). den cultures, citruses, a feijua, it is rare-tea) on alluvial-lake clay soils. Symbols: 1 Foothill and low-mountain sites with the abrupt strongly 6 Tea plantations on abrupt slopes of hilly foothills both low-mountain dismembered slopes with beechen woods and underbrush yellow and with brown and red soil. 7 Combined is alluvium flood-plain river brown soils. 2 Foothill and low-mountain sites with the abrupt strongly Chorokhi with sites of grassy vegetation and rare bushes. 8 A channel dismembered slopes a cavity deprived of a wood cover (felling) with of river Chorokhi with numerous (large and average) the islands, sepa- secondary bushes on yellow and brown soils. 3 The leveled surfaces on rately standing trees and grassy vegetation on a sandstone-clay substra- watersheds with a beechen light forest on brown wood soils. 4 Low- tum. 9 Seletib’s landscapes of rural settlements. 10 Personal plots with mountain with abrupt slopes of gorges, dense groves of a box, black- tangerine and lemon gardens, feijoa plantings, it is rare-tea. 11 Marks berry places, hazel, etc. on red and yellow soils. 5 A hollow pale lake of heights above sea-level. 12 Names of settlements. (Bondyrev et al. with poorly wavy surface and completely transformed vegetation (gar- 2008; Tavartkiladze 2009)

Despite an arrangement in the various climatic zones, this zone it is transformed from 60 to 80 % of landscapes. In practically all sites have undergone anthropogenic transfor- the preservation of modern rates of anthropogenic influence, mation from 20 to 79 % of landscapes except for high moun- in 15–20 years on flat sites natural landscapes will be com- tains in which limits of anthropogenic transformation does pletely replaced by the natural-anthropogenic landscapes not exceed 3–5 %. Most intensively there is a transforma- and reversed by the man. tion of flat landscapes and poorly slope relief surfaces. In

13.3 Fauna

The fauna of Georgia is introduced by 109 species of mammals, 322 species of birds, 52 species of reptiles (reptiles), 13 species of amphibians, more than 120 species of freshwater, and through passage and marine fish (Figs. 13.9, 13.10, 13.11, 13.12). From the end of the 1990s (in connection with political events and wars), an accurately fixed tendency to reduce the number of representatives of various kinds of fauna is observed in Georgia. From 80 kinds of molluscs fixed in western Georgia (Colchis), on only 28.0 Kolhidsky lowland were preserved that grew out of human activity. Today 230 kinds of invertebrate (150 Nematodes, 11 Dumbricides, 1 Mega- ascolecides, 37 Armour-clad pincers, 1 Multilegs) are fixed. Fig. 13.8 Natural boundary Gele-Gurdani-refuge box woods Adjara There are numerous spiders and crustaceans. Among reptiles (Georgia): а channel of the Barhochatas-tskali River with traces of a descent of mudflows; and b box thickets in a valley of the given river it is necessary to note verdigris, too, a Paludal turtle, numer- 146 13 Ecosystems

Fig. 13.9 Mother bear and three cubs. Keli plateau. (photo I. V. Bondyrev)

Fig. 13.10 The proliferation of different fauna of Georgia. 1 Hare, 2 Brown bear, 3 Wolf, Fox, Marten, Badger, Caress, 4 Squir- rel Altay, 5 Squirrel-teleuck, 6 Jackal, 7 Hyena a striped, 8 Chamois, 9 Lynx, 10 Caucasian and Dagestan Round, 11 Nutria, 12 Mole, 13 Mink, 14 Otter, 15 Cat tocane, 16 Raccoon dog, 17 Goat beozarium, 18 Gazelle, 19 Deer Caucasian, 20 Rое, 21 Wild boar, 22 Seal, 23 Ordinary Dolphin, 24 Sea pig (dolphin), Casual running’s: 25 Tiger, 26 Leopard Transcaucasium, 27–28 discovery date. (Djanash- vili 1964)

ous lizards and frogs. Badridze et al. (2000) reported 107 ti. One of the priority directions of the protected areas is the kinds of birds and 19 kinds of mammals inhabiting the terri- development of ecotourism. So far ten national parks of tory. The number of principal views of mammals of Colchis Georgia already have been developed according to interna- is reflected in Tables 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, Fig. 13.13. tional standards and they have modern tourist infrastructure. The first protected territory of Georgia was established in 1912, Lagodekhi National Park (Fig. 13.14). In 1996, the 13.4 State Natural Reserves and Ecology Parliament of Georgia adopted the law for nature protection zones, according to which all conservation areas were divid- In accordance with the program of “Caucasian protected ed into six categories: (I) State natural reserve (restricted ac- areas” Program of Support for Georgia, an agreement was cess), (II) National Park, (III) Natural Reserve, (IV) Natural signed February 15, 2010, between the Ministry of Environ- area (“protected landscape”), (V) National monument, (VI) ment and Natural Resources of Georgia and KFW ( Kredi- regulated nature zone. According to the agency for protected tanstalt für Wiederaufbau). Under the agreement, KFW pro- areas of the Ministry of Environment and Natural resources vided a grant of 4,000,000 EUR, for protected areas. The of Georgia (http://www.dpa.gov.ge) in the country there are funding was to carry out work exclusively on separate pro- 14 public natural reserves (Sahno 2011). These include: tected areas that would contribute to the improvement of the (1) Algeti State natural reserve, (2) Adjameti State natu- management of protected natural areas and socio-economic ral reserve, (3) Sataplia State natural reserve, (4) Saguramo development of nearby residents. The plan is to create a cen- State natural reserve, (5) Liakhvi State natural reserve, (6) tral Caucasian natural area and the National Park of Javakhe- Kazbegi State natural reserve, (7) Mariamdjvari State natural 13.4 State Natural Reserves and Ecology 147

Fig. 13.11 Some representatives of fauna of Georgia. 1 East goat ( Carpa caucasica), 2 Black Sea dolphin-afalina ( Tussiops truncates), 3 Squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris), 4 (), 5 Fox ( Vulpes vulpes), 6 Wild pig ( Sus scrofa), 7 Striped hyena ( Hy- aena hyaena), 8 Roa ( С(aenad h capreolus), 9 Caspian geogame ( Gymnodactylus caspius), 10 Caspian turtle ( Testudo caspica), 11 Too ( Natrix natrix), 12 Lizard ( Vipera lebetina), 13 Sturgeon ( Acipenser gullenstadti) and Chute ( Raja clavata), 14 Eagle ( Aquila sp.), 15 Heron ( Ardea cinerea), 16 Seagull ( Lariformes)

reserve, (8) Iori State natural reserve, (9) Kobuleti State nat- There are also other types of protected areas including: ural reserve, (10) Borjomi State natural reserve, (11) Ritsa State natural reserve, (12) Bichvinta-Musera State natural National Parks (1) Kintrishi, (2) Colkheti, (3) Borjomi- reserve, (13) Pskhu-Gumista State natural reserve, and (14) Kharagauli, (4) Tbilisi, and (5) Kazbegi. Mtirala State natural reserve.

Fig. 13.12 Numerical dynamics of some large mammals in East Georgia: 1 bear, 2 Roe dee, 3 deer, 4 fallow deer, and 5 round. (Ba- dridze et al. 2000) 148 13 Ecosystems

Table 13.2 Number of principal views of mammals of Colchis. (Badridze et al. 2000) Species Mole Nutria Rat Jackal Wood cat Roe Wild pig Number of individuals per ha 300–500 8–10 20–40 6–7 5–7 5–6 ≤ 3

Table 13.3 Ungulate, carnivo- N Species Subspecies Status rous animals and sea mammals 1 Martes martes Martes martes Iorenzi LR of Georgia. (Badridze et al. 2000) 2 Martes foina Martes foina boccamela LR 3 Mustela nivalis Mustela nivalis boccamela 4 Mustela (Lutreola) lutreola M.(L.).l (Turowi) EN 5 Vormela peregusna V. p. peregusna EW (CR) 6 Lutra lutra Lutra lutra meridionalis LR 7 Meles meles Meles meles cfnescens LR 8 Procyon lotor LR 9 Ursus arctos EN 10 Hyaena hiaena Hyaena hiaena satunini EW (CR) 11 Canis lupus Canis lupus cunanensis LR 12 Canis aureus Canis aureus moreoticus LR 13 Vulpes vulpes Vulpes vulpes caucasica Dinnik LR 14 Nycteteutes procyonoides N.p. ussurensis Mateshie LR 15 Felis silvestris Felis silvestris caucasica LR 16 Felis (Chaus) shaus Felis (Chaus) shaus CR 17 Felis (Lynx) lynx Felis (Lynx) lynx dinniki CR 18 Panthera pardus Panthera pardus saxicolor syn. EW (CR) Panthera pardus tuliana Panthera pardus ciscaucasica EW The species which has disappeared in the nature, CR species being on the verge of disappear- rance, EN Close to disappearance, VU Lost touch with the basic areal, LR Low risk, DD status unknown

Table 13.4 Biodiversity of Class Number of species The number of endemic species Vertebrates representatives of the Bone fishes ( Osteichthyes) 84 Freshwater—9 fauna of Georgia. (On materi- Fresh and waters through passage waters On Colchis water area—6 als to materials (Badridze et al. 2000)) Amphibians ( Amphibia) 13 3 Reptiles ( Reptilia) ≈ 52 ≈ 15 Birds ( Aves) ≈ 322 ≈ 3 Mammals ( Mammalia) 105 ≈ 38 Including: (Probably—110) Insectivora, Rodents, Bats 78 ≈ 36 Predators ( Carnivara) 19 1 Artiodactyl 8 2 Cetacea 3 –

Natural Reserves (1) Corudji, (2) Katsoburi, (3) Chachuni, different types of tours, including trekking, horse riding, (4) Gardabani, and (5) Cobuleti. boating. In addition, customers can choose educational tours, monitoring of the birds and animals, much more. Natural Areas (1) Vashlovani, (2) Lagodekhi, (3) Tousheti, The most popular Kazbegi National Park (eastern Geor- (4) Batsara-Babaneuli, and (5) David-Garedji gia) was visited in 2013 by 23,264 visitors, and the complex Mgvime monastery in Imereti region (western Georgia) was National Monuments (Natural), Since 2003 Year (1) Ala- visited by 22,832 visitors. An updated reserve Sataplia in zani, (2) Eagle Canyon, and (3) Takhti-tefa (on the territory western Georgia was opened on 18 December 2010. As part of the Vashlovani natural area). of the reconstruction project, the territory of reserve, at the There is a rush of visits to these areas during summer, same time, is a tourist center, where a special building has but travelers from the United States and Europe come to the been built for the preservation of the footprints of dinosaurs parks throughout the year. Georgia’s reserves accommodate in the caves with stalactites and stalagmites having modern 13.4 State Natural Reserves and Ecology 149

(2000 m above s. l.). The steep slopes are interspersed with deep and narrow gorges. Vashlovani reserve is located in Eastern Georgia, in the intermountain depression on the Shi- raki plateau, in the eastern part of Tsiv-Gombori ridge, and has an area of 8034 ha. The varied relief of the territory is from plateau to cliffs and deep gorges. Its elevation is 100– 800 m above s. l. The reserve is surrounded by dry steppes and freshwater bodies. Seats are walking Woods. Kazbegi reserve is located in Kazbegi district of Georgia in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, and has an area of 8707 ha at altitudes from 2000 to 4000 m above s.l. It consists of sites situated on Terek and Aragvi Rivers, with fauna of many valuable, rare and endemic animals: Dages- Fig. 13.13 Rare species Martens Caucasus’s. (Kazbegi massive) tan Tur, Caucasian chamois, Brown bear, Fox, Lynx, Cauca- sian beech Marten; the birds are the Caucasian black grouse, Minor Asian amphibians frog, Green Frog; reptiles—steppe lighting and acoustics are paved paths in the Cockish forest. Viper (Bondyrev 1987) Also built are the visitor’s center, an exhibition hall and a Kintríshi National Park is located on the northwestern and cafeteria. western slopes of the Adjara-Trialeti ridge and has an area The most attractive areas of Georgia: of 7166 ha, of which 6505 ha is covered by forests. It has The reserve Adjameti, located in the west of the country, an altitude of 450–500–2000 m above s. l. The reserve (the in the Colchis lowland, in the valley of the River Rioni, is Gorge of the River Kintrishi) runs through several mountain 4848 ha (an area mainly covered by forests of relict species rivers and streams that make up waterfalls, with sub-alpine of oak ( Imereti, Gartvis, Georgian). Wildlife: deer, jackals, zone being home to some beautiful mountain lakes. The re- civet, Persian squirrel etc. (Fig. 13.15). The reserve Algeti serve has registered about 1200 species of plants and there is located on the Eastern spurs of the Trialeti range, in the are tertiary relict forests, chestnut and beech. It has many gorge of River Algeti and has an area of 6000 ha with over relic and endemic species: Birch, Pontius Oak, Bay Laurel, 500 ha covered with forest, 885 ha with meadows, and 25 ha Yew, Rhododendron Ungern. Also there are Caucasian brown with water. The slopes of the Trialeti range are covered with bear, roe deer, chamois and snowcock. dense subalpine vegetation. Сolkheti National Park is located near Poti in the marshy Batsara-Babaneuli reserve located on the southern slopes parts of Colchis lowland on the banks of the River Pichori of the Great Caucasus has an area of 16,297 ha. This is one and Lake Paleostomi. Its area is 500 ha, of which 340 ha are of the world’s largest Yew ( Taxus baccata) groves (Batsara occupied by forests and 157 ha by swamps. The relief is a valley). waterlogged plain. The climate is subtropical. Much of the Borjomi reserve is located in the spurs of the Adjara- reserve is the swamp of Colchis relic forest. It has A lot of Imereti range, with 18,048 ha2 terrain mountain Park Creepers—Ivy, Right, Periploca gracca L. For landscape is

Fig. 13.14 The first protected territory of Georgia. National Park: A Borjomi-Kharagauli, B Colkhish, C Tusheti, D Mtirala, E Vashlovani, F Kazbegi, G Algeti, H Tbilisi, I Javakheti. National reserves: 1 Bichvinta-Miussera, 2 Ritsa, 3 Pskhu-Gumista, 4 Sa- taplia, 5 Kintrishi, 6 Tusheti, 7 Borjomi, 8 Liakhvi, 9 Batsara, 10 Lagodekhi, 11 Vashlovani, 12 Ba- baneuli, 13 Kobuleti, 14 Mariam- djvari, 15 Adjameti. (Geographia of Georgia 2012) 150 13 Ecosystems

Fig. 13.15 Young bear was found by the monks of the monastery at Racha (Central Georgia) and living with them and Pater Gabriel of the two bear cubs

characterized by grassy marshes ( With Reeds, Reeds, Sedge, Sitnikom, Bracken Majestic) and Sphagnum bogs. The fauna is very poor; there are Wild Boar, Roe Deer, Wolf, Marten, Rats (grey and black), Marsh turtle Nature reserve Lagodekhi is located on the southern slopes of the eastern part of the main Caucasian Ridge, in the basin of the River Alazani, near the town of Lagodekhi. It has an area of 17.8 thousand ha, with more than 12,000 ha of woodland and 4.9 thousand ha of meadows, and 87 ha is water. It has an extremely difficult mountain terrain, narrow gorges, hills, mountains and deep valleys. On the territory of the reserve are three mountain rivers: Shromis-khevi, Lagodehis-tskali, and Mazim-tsckali. It has quite a lot of waterfalls and a waterfall Gorge Lagodekhi, falling from a height of 100 m. In the Alpine zone are several picturesque mountain lakes of glacial origin. Fig. 13.16 Lake the Black rock’s, Lagodekhi region Mariandjvari reserve, located in eastern Georgia, on the southern slopes of Gombor Ridge—Tsivi watershed basin of the Iori and Alazani Rivers, has an area of 1040 ha of which Sagurámo, State nature reserve, located on the Sagurami 932 ha is covered by forests and 8 ha by meadows. Much of Ridge, near Tbilisi, has an area of 5247 ha (4819 ha is cov- the reserve is covered with pine forests: pine Sosnovsky; rare ered by forests). Its mountain terrain is cut by deep mountain animal species there are Caucasian brown bear and Persian valleys. On the territory of the reserve are several mountain squirre (Fig. 13.16). rivers. It has many rare and relict plant species, including its Ritsa, State natural reserve, is located in Abkhazia on the boxwood, staphylea, azaleas, kolkheti Ivy, yew, Holly, and southern spur of the main Caucasian Ridge, adjacent to Lake smilax. Ritsa. It has an area of 16,289 ha2 (14,922 ha of forest, 337 ha Sataplíâ-State natural reserve, in the Tskaltubo region of of meadows, 169 ha of ponds). Its topography is mountain- Georgia, is located on the southern slopes of the southwest- ous where rios Lashipse, Bzybi, Yupshara are cut by deep ern part of the main Caucasian Ridge, on Mount Sataplia. Its gorges. On the slopes around Lake Ritsa are terraces. Lake area of 354 ha is covered by forests. It topography is moun- Ritsa is situated at an altitude of 950 m above sea level (the tainous and the territory of the reserve has a crater of an ex- depth of 100 m). There are mineral springs Avadkhara. tinct volcano, as well as several karst caves of rare beauty, 13.4 State Natural Reserves and Ecology 151 with stalagmites, stalactites, columns of whimsical form, and held on May, 28–29, 1999 in Tbilisi. The conference was wells. The biggest cave has a length of about 600 m. In the dedicated to biological and landscape diversity (Biological reserve people have discovered fossilized footprints of di- and Landscape Diversity of Georgia). nosaurs that lived here about 70 million years ago. On the The study “The Present State of Species Biodiversity of Hill also has been found parking Sataplia Grotto stone age Fauna in Georgia,” published in the Proceedings of the Con- human. In the reserve grow 20 species of endemic plants. ference, can be considered as an attempt to assess the biodi- Much of the reserve is covered by forests of Colchis from versity of Georgia’s animal population. The data on the spe- Colchis Taxis haccata L., Boxwood, Holly, Laurocerasus of- cies composition of animal population (or the second level of ficinala Roem, beech Colchis etc. There are seven species of biodiversity), collected by the authors, are brought together mammals ( Hare, Jackal, Fox, Badger), about 50 species of and summarized in the above-mentioned work (Eliava et al. birds. 2009). Eight years have passed since the conference was In 2013, the new law of Georgia on the “red list” and “Red held. Many new data on Georgia’s animal biodiversity have Book”, included changes in accordance with the approval accumulated during this period. Now it is time to revert again authority; the “red list” instead of the President would be to the problem of Georgia’s animal biodiversity (Table 13.5). from the Government. One of them reads: “…the Presidium A considerable number of studies, dedicated to differ- of the National Academy of Sciences of Georgia will present ent taxons and mainly to the biodiversity of invertebrates, a draft of the ‘red list’ for the Ministry of Environment and have been published during recent years (Eliava et al. 2002). Natural Resources, which will forward it to the Government These studies contain more precise data on insects, differ- of Georgia, or justified changes to return to the Presidency ent groups of worms, spiders and Crustaceae. Data on the of the Academy,” stated in the law which is published in the species the species composition of birds and mammals were “journal.” The law went into effect after the new President refined. Despite the fact that the information available today took the oath. Under current law, today the Ministry of the is more accurate and more complete than that dated by the Environment forwards projects for approval of the President. year 1999, it may be understood that refinement should be Biological diversity is a unique phenomenon of animate continued further. nature. It is a result of long-term evolution of life on the Table 13.5 contains data on the species belonging to par- planet and most important characteristic of the present state ticular taxons, starting from the highest taxons and ending of the biosphere and the ecosystems forming the biosphere. with orders in particular cases. These data are taken not only In the landscape ecosystem and species diversity, we con- from published works, but also from unpublished materi- sider species diversity, which is conditional on the stationary als possessed by our colleagues. Taxon names are given in state of ecosystems. The stability of ecosystems is defined by Latin. The total number of each major taxon is bracketed. the interrelations between the taxons comprising them. The Biodiversity of vertebrate animals, especially of mammals, more diverse these relations are the more stable the ecosys- deserves special attention, as these mammals are greatly tem is, if no geological cataclysms occur. threatened by being the objects of trade. Due to this, some Each bioregion or landscape is characterized by a cer- groups of mammals are viewed separately. As seen from the tain peculiarity of the living population. This statement is table, the type of arthropods, especially the class of insects, true for both plant and animal inhabitants. The Caucasus, in is especially numerous. The number of species of arachnids general, and Georgia, in particular, represents an extremely and annelid worms has significantly increased. According to interesting bioregion, distinguished by landscape and eco- the latest data, the number of bird species has also signifi- system biodiversity, which conditions the diversity of animal cantly increased. Several mammal species have been added population. Despite the fact that the animal world has been also. The number of fish has also grown. See Fig. 13.17 and intensively studied in Georgia, data on Georgia’s animal bio- Table 13.6. According to recent data, more than 16,000 spe- diversity have not been properly summarized and analyzed cies of invertebrate and vertebrate animals are registered in until recently. There is substantial data accumulated on the Georgia. Seven fifty eight of them belong to Chordata. basis of investigations of different taxonomic groups, but It has been established on the basis of an evaluation of the these data are scattered in different publications, both local animal biodiversity of Georgia (Table 13.7) that Georgia’s and foreign. fauna is distinguished in Europe. For example, by the num- The first notes on the diversity of representatives of dif- ber of mammals Georgia holds the leading position in Eu- ferent taxons can be found in a number of separate mono- rope. The same is the case with birds. As to reptiles, Georgia graphic works (Bondyrev 1987; Sahno 2011; Beruchashvili holds the third place after Spain and Azer-baijan. If we con- et al. 2012a, b), but it is impossible to comprehend the gen- sider the total diversity of vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, eral state of animal biodiversity on their basis. The first at- reptiles, birds and mammals), it will turn out that Georgia tempt to generalize the data available was made at the first occupies the first place in Europe in this respect too. National Conference, organized by Tbilisi State University, 152 13 Ecosystems

Table 13.5 Animal diversity of Georgia according to main taxonomy Protozoa [293] Order Lepidoptera 1635 Metazoa [15,761] Order Coleoptera 4600 Phylum Spongia [1] Order Hymenoptera 1680 Phylum Coelenterata [5] Order Diptera 900 Phylum Plathelminthes [470] Others 610 Class Turbelaria 5 Phylum Echinodermata [1] Class Trematoda 170 Phylum Chordata [758] Class Monogenoidea 103 Subphylum Acrania [1] Class Cestoda 192 Subphylum Vertebrata [757] Phylum Nemathelminthes [1151] Class Cyclostomata 1 Class Nematoda 1148 Superclass Pisces 188 Class Nematomorpha 3 Superclass Tetrapoda 568 Phylum Acanthocephales [39] Class Amphibia 13 Phylum Annelida [201] Order Urodela 4 Class Polychaeta 66 Order Anura 9 Class Oligochaeta 118 Class Reptilia 54 Class Hirudinea 17 Order Squamata 51 Phylum Mollusca [283] Order Chelonia 3 Class Bivalvia 45 Class Aves 390 Class Gastropoda 238 Class Mammalia 111 Phylum Arthropoda [13,252] Order Insectivora 10 Class Crustacea 138 Order Chiroptera 28 Class Arachnida 1591 Order Logomorpha 1 Class Myriopoda 52 Order Rodentia 39 Class Insecta 11,471 Order Cetacea 3 Subclass Entognata 51 Order Camivora 22 Subclass Ectognata 11,420 Order Artiodactyla 8 Order Orthoptera 184 Total 16,054 Order Homoptera 862 Order Hemiptera 600

As concerns endemism, mainly endemics to the Caucasus some order of mammals which are found in Georgia’s fauna are found in Georgia, though endemics of Georgia are nu- (carnivores, artiodactyls, Cetacea). In Table 13.6 the white- merous among invertebrates: in some groups the number of belly seal ( Monachus monachus), entered into the “Red List” endemics exceeds 25 %. Tables 13.6 and 13.7 show the list of of Georgia, is listed, despite the notification that the species

Fig. 13.17 The fauna of Georgia. (Atlas of Georgia 1965, 2007) 13.4 State Natural Reserves and Ecology 153

Table 13.6 Animal diversity of No. Species Status Georgia according to main taxon 1 Martes martes Linnaeus, 1758—Common Marten LC 2 Martes foina Erxleben. 1777—Rock Marten LC 3 Mustela nivalis Linnaeus. 1766—Weasel LC 4 Mustela erminae Linnaeus, 1758-Stoat NE 5 Mustela lutreola Linnaeus, 1761—European Mink NE 6 Mustela vision Schreber, 1777—American Mink (Introduced species) NE 7 Vormela peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770—Marbel Polect NE 8 Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758—Common Otter VU 9 Meles meles Linnaeus, 1758—Badger LC 10 Procion lotor Linnaeus. 1758—Common Raccoon (Introduced species) DD 11 Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758—Brown Bear EN 12 Hyaena hyaena Linnaeus, 1758—Striped Hyena CR 13 Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758—Jackal LC 14 Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758—Wolf LC 15 Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758—Red Fox LC 16 Nyctereutes procynoides Grey, 1834—Raccoon-like dog (Introduced species) LC 17 Felischaus Giildenstadt, 17,756-Jungle Cat, Chaus VU 18 Felis silvestris Schreber, 1777—Wild Cat LC 19 Felis libyca Forster, 1780—Steppe Cat NE 20 Panthera pardus Linnaeus, 1758—Leopard, Panther CR 21 Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758—Lynx CR 22 Monachus monachus Hermann, 1779—Monk Seal BE

Table 13.7 Artiodactyls and No Species Status Cetacea of Georgia. (Arctio- 1 Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758—Wild Boar LC dactyla Owen 1848; Cetacea Linnaeus 1758) 2 Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758—Red Deer CR 3 Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758—European Roe Deer LC 4 Capra aegagrus Erxleben, 1777—Wild Goat CR 5 Capra caucasica Giildenstadt et Pallas, 1783—West Caucasian Tur EN 6 Capra cylindricomis Blith, 1840—East Caucasian Tur VU 7 Rupicapra rupicapra Linnaeus, 1758—Chamois EN 8 Gazella subgutturosa Giildenstadt, 1780—Goitreb Gazelle RE 9 Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758—Common Dolphin LC 10 Tursiops truncates Montagu, 1821—Botte—Nosed Dolphin DD 11 Phocoena phocoena Linnaeus, 1758—Common porpoise VU

“is extinct in the coastal waters of Georgia.” Gazella subgut- arthropods) are also included. Some of them are presented in turosa enters into Table 13.7 as it also appears in the “Red the IUCN Red List (2006) as well. List.” We did not enter Cervus nippon in the list; it might Of the animal population of Georgia big-size mammals, be entered only occasionally in Georgia, though some spe- especially artiodactyls and also some orders of birds are cialists consider it to be a representative of Georgia’s fauna. under the most severe anthropogenic stress, as they have al- American mink is also entered into the list (Table 13.6), as it ways been the objects of trade and at the same time greatly is not specified yet whether it is still preserved in local fauna dependent on their habitats (Fig. 13.18). If we consider the after being introduced in Kvareli district in the 1930s. rate of destruction of animal habitat caused by forest clear- Nearly 22 species of carnivorous mammals, including the ing (deforestation), it becomes clear why the biggest part of white-belly seal ( M. monachus), are entered into the “Red these animals is included in the “Red List”. Habitat destruc- List,” and 8 species of artiodactyls 6 appear in the “Red tion negatively affects the diversity of animal groups, includ- List,” and 2 Cetacea species of 3 are in the list. Also 35 spe- ing invertebrates. The existing data provides the evidence cies of birds, 11 species of reptiles and 2 species of amphib- that in order to preserve Georgia’s animal biodiversity it is ians are present in the “Red List.” Apart from this, several essential to undertake effective measures of in situ protec- fish species and 23 species of invertebrates (among them 4 tion. For some species the method of re-introduction should species of annelids, 1 species of mollusks and 18 species of be applied. Continuation of taxonomic and faunistic inves- 154 13 Ecosystems

Fig. 13.18 Dynamic of numbers of some large mammals in Eastern Georgia during 1985–1997 1 bear, 2 chamois, 3 deer, 4 fallow deer, Caucasian and Dagestan round. (Eliava et al. 2009)

tigation targeted at a further study of the animal population (the Trialeti Range, Eastern Georgia). Bull Georgia Acad Sci 172(2): will contribute to the fulfillment of this important task. 365–367 Bondyrev IV, Tavartkiladze AM et al. (2008) Anthropogenic transformation of the South Caucasus Natural Ambiente. Polograf, Tbilisi, 476 p References Bondyrev IV, Mikadze IP, Seperteladze ZKh, Kharatishvili LA, Tcereteli ED (1985) The natural resources of the Colchis lowland, Overview, ser. “Information for major scientific and technological Abramia G (2009) Problems of desertification in Georgia (general programs”, Tbilisi: State Committee on Science and Technology, review accompanied with case studies. Mat Inern Sci Conf “Critical issue 21, 60 p ecoregions: modern condition. Problems and Ways of their decision”. Bondyrev IV, Gongadze SA, Salukvadze ED, Chaladze TV, Golidjash- I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, pp 113–116 vili RA (2011) The role of the geophysical fields in design to land- Badridze I, Eliava I, Kadjaia G, Cholokava A (2000) Present condition scape (For example of Dedoplistckaro district, Georgia). Caucasian of species diversity of fauna in Georgia. In: Biological and landscape Imtern. schools-workshop “Seismic risk. Seismic risk management diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 33–42 operations in the Caucasus”. (24–26. 10. 2011). Vladicavcaz (Rus- Beruchashvili NL (2000) Georgia’s biodiversity against a global back- sia). pp 62–65 (in Russian) ground. In: Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Bukhnikashvili A, Kandaurov A (2002) The annotated list of mammals Tbilisi, pp 7–20 of Georgia. Proceed of the Institute of Zoology (Academy of Sci- Beruchashvili NL, Shotadze M et al. (2002) The basic trends of ences of Georgia), vol XXI, pp 319–340 (in Georgian) the development environment of the Caucasus over the past 30 Chaladze TT, Bondyrev IV (2007) Anthropogenic transformation of years//“Caucasian Geographical review”. No 1, pp 16–27 landscapes on Lagodekhi district of Georgia and identification to Beruchashvili N, Elizbarashvuili N., Davitashvili Z (2012a) Geography risk-factor of formation to mudflows, based on analysis of satellite of Georgia. Klio and Meredian, Tbilisi, 264 p (in Georgian) images and GIS-technologies. “Mountain areas-ecological problems Beruchashvili N, Elizbarashvili N, Davitashvili Z (2012b) Geography of cites”. Mat Intern Sci conf Yerevan. 2010. pp 143–146 of Georgia. Clio and Meridian, Tbilisi, 264 p Djanashvili AG (1964) The animals of Georgia. In: Atlas of Georgia. Biological and Landscape Diversity of Georgia (2000) Proceedings of Tbilisi, p. 149 (in Russian) the First National Conf. WWF Country Office, Tbilisi, 312 p, 28–29 Dmitrieva AA (1960) Determinant to plants of Adjaria. Metcniereba, May 1999 Tbilisi, 448 p (in Russian) Bondyrev IV (1987) The main problems in the study and instigation of Elanidze R (1983) Ichthyofauna of the rivers and lakes of Georgia). the highland regions of Georgia//“Overview”, ser. “Geology”, No 1, Tbilisi, 319 p (in Georgian) Tbilisi, 68 p (in Russian) Eliava I, Kakulia G, Devdariani Ts et.al. (2002) Proceedings of the Bondyrev Iv I (2000) Institute of Zoology (Academy of Sciences of Georgia), vol XXI, Bondyrev Iv I (2006) Application of information analysis in the study pp 27–43 of landscape-ecological state of mountain regions (for example, Kaz- Eliava G, Kakulia N, Bagaturia N et al (2004) Proceedings of the begi district of Georgia), Dissertation Doc. Sci., Tbilisi, 50 p Institute of Zoology (Academy of Sciences of Georgia), vol. XXII, Bondyrev IV, Bondyrev Iv I (1989) The “Apius road” on Abkhazian pp 30–37 (in Georgian) mountain,” Nature of Georgia”, No 2, pp 10–11 (in Georgian) Eliava I, Cholokava A, Kvavadze E, Bakhtadze G, Bukhnikashvili A Bondyrev IV, Khechikashvili MO (2006) Remote sensing methods for (2009) Animal biodiversity of Georgia. In: Critical ecoregions: mod- study of open systems (case South-East Georgia landscapes). In: ern condition, problems and ways of their decision (Mat of the Intern Changes of environment at the tarn of Millenium (proceeding of the Sci conference-Shef redactor—I. V. Bondyrev). Tbilisi, pp 70–75 Intern Sci Conf). Poligraph, Tbilisi, pp 205–212 Gagnidze RI (1974) Botanical-geographic analyze flora-cenotic com- Bondyrev IV, Lominadze GJ (2003) Relief, Landscapes and some plex of the subalpine tall grass in Caucasus. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, Archeological Discoveries in the Upper Reaches of the Algeti River 172 p (in Russian) References 155

Gigauri G (2000) Biodiversity of Georgian mountainous forest eco- Mazmanidi N (1997) The Black Sea Fish Ecology and oil. Batumi, systems. In: Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, 146 p (in Russian) Tbilisi, pp 69–82 Mkheidze T (1992) The spiders of Georgia. Tbilisi, 388 p (in Georgian) Gogebashvili I (2000) Proceedings of the Institute of Zoology (Acad- Nakhutcrishvili G Sh (1971–1974) Ecology of alpine plants and veg- emy of Sciences of Georgia), vol. XX, pp 13–23 (in Georgian) etation of the Central Caucasus Ecology of alpine plants and veg- In Georgia have changed the “Law on the Red list and Red Book”. etation of the Central Caucasus. Metsnie-reba, Tbilisi, (part-1, 1971. http://www.apsny.ge/2013/pol/1380176124.php 258 p, part 2-1974. 376 p) (in Georgian) Kiknadze AG (1993) Scientific basis of regulation of costal processes Nakhutcrishvili G Sh (1999) The vegetation of Georgia. Braun-Blan- (case study: coast of the Black Sea). In: Coastlines of the Black Sea. quetia, 15, Camerino, 175 p ASCE, New York, pp 201–213 Nakhutcrishvili G Sh (2000) Georgia basic biomes. In: Biological and Kiknadze AG (1995) Technologies of costal restoration in the Eastern landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 43–68 Black sea//Bull. De l’institute Océanographique. Monaco. No 15. Sabashvili MS (1964) Soils. In: Atlas of Georgia. Tbilisi, pp 136–139 pp 43–51 (in Russian) Kiknadze AG, Sakvarelidze VV, Peshkov VM, Russo GE (1990) Sahno N (2011) Wilderness areas of Georgia. http://natalia-sakhno.live- Breach-forming process management of the Georgian Black sea journal.com/4758.html coast. Journal of Coastal Research 6: 56–70 (Florida, USA) Tatashidze ZK, Tcikarishvili KD, Jishkariani VM (2009) Cadastre of Kiknadze AG, Meladze FG, Sakvarelidze VV, Jaoshvili Sh V (1999) the karsts caves in Georgia. Institute of Geography, Tbilisi. work From costal protection to regulate of the costalformiring. Institute of 3(82):666 oceanology, Moscow, pp 97–1010 Tavartkiladze AM (2009) The soil of Adjara: a condition, problems and Kobakhidze D, Mkheidze T, Rekk H, Japaridze S (1964) Animal world aspects to management. In: Mat. Intern. Sci. Conference-“Critical of Georgia, vol 2. (Arthropoda). Tbilisi, 360 p (in Georgian) ecoregions: modern condition, problems and ways of their decision”. Krasnov AN (1893–1894). On the flora of the basin of river Chakva. Tbilisi, pp 83–89 Proc. Comm. Him. Exper. Nature of the Kharkov University (in Urushadze TF (1997) Major soils of Georgia. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, Russian) 268 p (in Georgian) Krasnov AN (1911) Possible future nature of Batumi coast. “Russians tropics”. Batumi, pp 24–32 (in Russian) Anthropogenic Impact on Environment 14

Abstract Georgia is undergoing massive changes that are impacting its environment and ecosystem. Unwise and unplanned interference in the ecosystem brings about unpredictable change, revealing itself in the breaking structure and off-balance local ecosystems, which in turn, undermine the economic base. Of the total area of all woods in the Caucasus (7.32 million ha), 39.4 % accounts for the territory of North Caucasus (Russia) and 37.9 % for Geor- gia, i.e., woods occupy 2.7 million ha or about 40 % of the countryʼs area, and resources of “business” xylem form 434 million m3.The present-day life shows that the burden lies on timber ecosystems where mountainous wood is being chopped down by the local population as a means of survival and for fuel. In the past there were good traditions of nature protection, including mountainous woods, which were preserved in a number of places until now. Analysis of biodiversity of landscapes in Georgia has shown 97 types of landscapes. In every 10,000 km2 area, there are on average, 14 types of wild landscapes. The greatest variety of wild landscapes is in Shida Kartli which has 36 types in a 10,000 km2 area. It is followed by the Gombori ridge with 35 types and the mountainous part of Adjara-Guria with 34 types. Hence, the defining role belongs to land forms and climate. Georgia can be considered as a rich ecosystem. This chapter provides a glimpse of this treasure.

Georgia is undergoing a lot of man-made changes that are ing becomes 570 m3/ha. However, in the Holocene period, impacting its environment and ecosystem. This chapter almost all the lowland areas of Georgia, important parts of briefly discusses some of these anthropogenic changes. Armenia, and northwest and south Azerbaijan were covered by forests. In eastern Georgia the main type of forest was the broad-leafed forest with other species of trees such as oak, 14.1 Hewing of Forests and Forest hornbeam, walnut, and linden. In gorges and groves, forests Restoration included oak, elm, ash, and lime. Human activities made linden disappear from those forests. It is also the reason for Well-known ethnologist and geographer Gumilev (1990) the abrupt reduction of oak in the South Caucasus forests. wrote: “Demolution of forest is torment full way to species In Georgia, forests occupy 2.77 million ha, which makes up suicide.” Due to the anthropogenic influence (with climatic 40 % of the state’s total area. Here 400 species of trees and fluctuation), the upper border of forests has covered about bushes can be seen; of those, 61 are endems of Georgia and 320–450 m of the total territory of the South Caucasus. In 43 are endems of Caucasus. mountainous relief, the forested area in elementary water- If we remember the Crete-Miken, Babylonian, and Sabe- sheds should be not less than 50 % of the total area. Nearly na civilizations, their decline and ruin were caused by natu- 45 % of forested area creates conditions under which the ral factors, including volcano eruptions, earthquakes (Crete, washout of soil as a result of erosion is growing fivefold. Santorum, Soda, and Gomorra), climate change (proto civi- In the South Caucasus, after continued hewing, soil erosion lizations Sahara, Babylon, Saba, civilizations of Middle and becomes as much as 1100 m3/ha and after selective hew- Central Asia), and the changing ocean level (some cultures

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 157 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_14, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 158 14 Anthropogenic Impact on Environment

Fig. 14.1 Inguri reservoir landscape-ecological scheme

of Eurasia coast, Canary Islands). Very often the civiliza- Ecosystems of the region have long been flashing a signal tions themselves were the reason of their own decay and of “SOS”! Will it be heard by anyone? Is there still hope to ruin. Unreasonable and unlimited interference in the natu- change the situation for the better? These questions concern ral processes brought about their unpredictable change, re- the governments of countries of the region. vealing itself in the breaking structure and off-balance local ecosystems, which in turn, undermined the economic bases of these civilizations. The silting of fertile valleys of the Ti- 14.2 Felling of Woods and General Depletion gris and Euphrates, caused by the creation of overweening of Region’s Flora irrigation canal networks and ill-considered realignment of local ecosystems, brought about the bogging up of enormous Vegetation is a special indicator of the particularities of territories, development of epidemics of malaria and fevers, natural landscapes of the territory as well as their ecologi- and sharp reduction in harvests that in the end, resulted in the cal condition (Fig. 14.1). In this respect, the Colchida and decline of these states. Washlovani lowlands present themselves as unique natural Today, when the influence of mankind has become much museums where species of plants which are not found any- more effective in the transformation of the natural environ- where else in the region are saved. ment than any other time in history, it has transformed into Timber cover participates in the creation of soil, water, a dragon devouring itself. The more we take from nature fauna, mineral, power, recreational, and resort resources and (to raise our level of living and fully satisfy our needs for is simultaneously an important landscape complex forming resources and nutrition products), the more we damage the factor which has undergone the most long-lasting and most frail balance of the natural ecosystem. Tens of thousands of significant anthropogenic impact amongst the rest of the kilometers of roads and communication lines chop the de- components in the landscape environment. clivities and trigger unprecedented activation of slope pro- The stability of high mountainous timber ecosystems is cesses. Unadjusted felling of woods disturbs the whole bal- preserved until the angle of gradient of declivities does not ance of local ecosystems creating hearths for more and more exceed 40° and the distance from the stripping by avalanches catastrophes. to the upper edge of wood forms is not more than 300 m In this chapter we consider this negative side of the rela- (Fig. 14.2). (This does not allow for the accumulation of en- tionship between man and nature: felling of woods, exorbi- ergy of the avalanche run.) tantly developing declivities, erosion of ground, exorbitant Of the total area of all woods of the Caucasus (7.32 mil- construction work, and breaking of possible rates of load on lion ha), 39.4 % accounts for the territory of North Caucasus landscapes. We must not chop down the bough we sit on. (Russia) and 37.9 % accounts for Georgia (Caucasus Envi- Step by step we come to the moment when ecosystems of the ronment Outlook, 2002), i.e., woods occupy 2.7 million ha region will be so deformed that this will bring about catastro- or about 40 % of the country’s area, and resources of “busi- phes of enormous scale and size of damage. Even today we ness” xylem form 434 million m3. have separate hearths of ecological catastrophes in the region The present-day life shows that the burden of the situation and have caused an excess of all possible influences on the again lies on timber ecosystems where mountainous wood is landscape complexes as well as their contamination by sew- being chopped down by the local population as a means of ers, refuse, chemical, and biological pollutants. survival and for fuel. In the past there were good traditions 14.4 Biodiversity 159

gion. The given region is one of 200 “ecoregions of WWF” and ensures conservation of biodiversity on a global scale. This is one of 25 “hot” spots of the world, from the standpoint of problems of ecology. Fifty-four priority critical areas have been selected. Their general area is 135,100 km2 or 23 % of the whole area of coercion. Natural corridors required for integration between priority areas have been identified (Fig. 14.3). The ecoregion occupies 580,000 km2 and includes Geor- gia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, part of the Caucasus in the territory of the Russian Federation, north-eastern Anatolia in Turkey, and part of northwest Iran.

14.4 Biodiversity

The analysis of biodiversity of landscapes in Georgia has shown 97 types of landscapes. In every 10,000 km2, there are, on an average, 14 types of wild landscapes. The greatest variety of wild landscapes is in the region of Shida Kartli which has 36 types in a 10,000 km2 area. It is followed by the area of the Gombori ridge with 35 types and the mountainous part of Adjara-Guria with 34 types. Hence, the defining role belongs to landforms and climate (Fig. 14.4). However, this communication consists of the lack of dependence on parameters of landforms and the conditionality Fig. 14.2 Snow bridge on River Zopkhito (Rioni River basin) and of a variety of environments and the structure of landforms. Pirikita Alazani River (Tusheti River) The structure is understood as a lithology-tectogenic basis of a landform, and character of its genesis. Thus, they are of nature protection, including mountainous woods, which more diverse in the structural relation of a landform. There were preserved in a number of places until now. For instance, are more forms by the origin and landform types. Sioni church wood in Kazbegi region, Guda St. wood in Mountain landforms and climate have caused not only the the headwaters of the Aragvi River, some “saint groves” in speckled mosaic of various visual environments, but also a Svaneti, and pine groves (2000–2200 m above sea level), high level of biodiversity in the organic world of Georgia. birch groves (2300–2600 m), and communal groves of Mta- About 7000 species of various plants and 8000 species of Tusheti in the mountainous regions of Georgia. From 1955 mushrooms grow in the country. to 1974 in Abkhazia alone, more than 10 million m3 of wood The fauna of Georgia comprises 109 species of mammals, was chopped down. 322 types of birds, 52 types of reptiles, 13 types of amphib- According to the information received from the Minis- ians, more than 120 types of freshwater, through passage and try of Timber Facilities of Georgia, between 1995 and 1998, marine fish, 111 types of crustaceans, 52 species of multiples, planned felling of 1.4 million m3 of wood was carried out an- nearly 1300 species of arachnids, more than 10,000 species of nually, but illegal felling constituted more than 5 million m3/ insects, 1546 species of hearts, 235 species of elementary par- year. If we take into account that from 1 ha of wood it is pos- asites, etc. Thus, from 2667 principal views of the described sible to get, on average, 200–250 m3 xylem, then it may be and studied mammals inhabiting the planet Earth, Georgia concluded that more than 23,000 ha of timber massifs were (whose area covers only 0.05 % of land area) is credited to chopped down per annum. have 4.1 % of mammals, 3.8 %, of birds, 0.7 % of reptiles, 0.3 % of amphibians, and more than 0.6 % of fishes. Thus, on a per unit area basis, Georgia has 2129:1; the universal 14.3 Conservation of Biodiversity biodiversity to a biodiversity of fauna of Georgia, on the average, is 24:1. These two orders of magnitude, above the parity At present, the World Wildlife Federation (WWF), with the value, testify to a high level of biodiversity in the country. support of international and regional organizations, conducts Comparing different species included in the “Red Data significant work on the determination of permanent prospects Book” (1982) of the International Union of Wildlife Man- for conservation of biological diversity in the Caucasian re- agement to the corresponding species included in “the Red 160 14 Anthropogenic Impact on Environment

Fig. 14.3 Protected areas in Georgia

Fig. 14.4 Meskheti range (Minor Caucasus, West Georgia)

Data Book of Georgia,” it is found that in Georgia, 14.8 % cially be stressed that many ecological problems in Georgia of species of mammals are safeguarded against all mammal are created by aggravated economic and social conditions species registered and safeguarded, 11.0 % of birds, 14 % of of population, such as felling of wood or damaged commu- reptiles, 13.8 % of amphibians, and about 0.5 % of fishes. nication lines. The aggravation of the ecological situation, The greatest protected areas of the country fall to hyp- in turn, strains the socioeconomic situation in the country. sometric zones of 2600–3500 m—8.67 % and 1400–1800 m Thus, we have to face some kind of exclusive circle. with 4 %. It shows that the coverage of safeguarded species of fauna in Georgia is at a high level, testifying to the successes in the protection of biodiversity of the country. References Landscapes, like other open type dynamic systems, represent classical homestas, able to maintain a definite regime Beruchashvili N, Kushlin A, Zazanashili N (eds) (2000) Biological and of structure forming processes, under the conditions of even landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, 312 pp Gumilev LN (1990) Geography of ethnos in historical period. Mir, very significant but not prolonged changes (natural or an- Moscow, 280 pp thropogenic) of the natural environment. It should espe- Redbook Georgia (1982) Sabchota Sakartvelo, Tbilisi, 427 p (in Georgian) Part IV Developmental Geography Economic History 15

Abstract In Georgia, there existed favorable conditions for grain growing, gardening, viniculture as well as cattle breeding. It would be logical to suppose that the economy was developed in the areas that had less forest area and wild beasts. Reasoning from this, arable farming would have appeared earlier in East Georgia than in West Georgia. In South Georgia the conditions for cattle breeding were favorable. However, arable and cattle farming appeared later in West Georgia and highland regions of the Caucasian range; supposedly it was introduced from other regions. In the Middle Ages as well as in the earlier period, differences in natural conditions played an important role in the development of the economy of West and East Georgia. Because of a tough historical situation, Georgia fell behind as compared to Western Europe. It could not use favorable natural conditions as completely as European countries that managed to apply hydro and wind energy and developed navigation. Since the second half of the nineteenth century, when the capitalistic way of industry was established in Georgia, the prosperity of West Georgia started and the social-cultural life rapidly developed. Beneficial changes were marked in agriculture as well. Georgia’s economy at the beginning of the twentieth century was mainly agricultural. By the end of the 1980s, Georgia produced 1.4 % of industrial products, 0.9 % of power, 20 % of manganese mining, 1.7 % of agricultural products (among them: tea 94 %, citruses 98 %, fruit and grapes 9 to 9 %) of Soviet Union production. This chapter provides a short discussion of the economic history of Georgia.

This chapter provides a short discussion of the economic his- The appropriative economy was replaced by a productive tory of Georgia. economy in the Neolithic period (VIII–V millennium B.C.), and arable and cattle farming developed. In Georgia, there existed favorable conditions for grain growing, gardening, 15.1 Nature and Society in the Ancient Era viniculture as well as cattle breeding. It would be logical to suppose that the economy was developed in areas where Because of favorable natural conditions, people have been there was less forest area and wild beasts. Reasoning from residing on the territory of Georgia since ancient times. this, arable farming would have appeared earlier in East The ancient settlements are found even today. Numerous Georgia, rather than in West Georgia. In South Georgia, the archeological monuments of the Paleolithic (lower as well conditions for cattle breeding were favorable. Cattle breed- as upper), Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods are found here. ing was the economic basis for Trialeti culture, existing in When people supported themselves by hunting and collect- the Middle Bronze era (III—II millennium B.C.). However, ing (consequently, the form of economy was proprietary), arable and cattle farming appeared later in West Georgia and certain differences in the lifestyle of various regions were highland regions of the Caucasian range; supposedly it was marked. The situation was conditioned by different natural introduced from other regions. The formation of the first conditions; in particular, the population was larger where political union of the Georgian tribes—Diaokh in the basin there was more game, fish, and forests. of the Chorokhi River was conditioned by the richness of

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 163 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_15, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 164 15 Economic History the region with metal ores, which favored the development areas and most parts of Georgia’s plain were not favorable of metallurgy there (Studies in History of Georgia 1970, for it. The difference was even more marked with respect to pp. 361–364). socioeconomic development between the highland and plain regions of Georgia, the main reason for which were different natural conditions. In several provinces of Georgia’s 15.2 Nature and Economy in Antiquity highland, the use of wheels (cart) was practically impossible because of the relief. The scantiness of soils, available for The geographical environment played a great role in the his- agriculture, conditioned the economic backwardness of the tory of Georgia in the period of antiquity. Western and east- highland in comparison with the plain. For this reason, in ern parts of Georgia found themselves in different conditions the Georgia plain, towns appeared and a rich culture devel- in this aspect. With respect to self-defense and safety, West oped even Before Christ (BC), but the highland remained at Georgia appeared in a better condition, as the main range the level of primitive economy. Instead, the highland kept of Caucasus, the Likhi and Meskheti mountain ranges, de- its warrior’s spirit and amazingly rich and diverse mythol- fended Colchis from three sides, and the Black Sea bordered ogy and folklore. This especially concerns the Northern it from the west. Iberia was undefended from the south-east highland of Georgia (The Caucasian range region). Unlike and east by natural barriers and enemies attacked it exactly it, the Southern highland had more favorable geographical from those sides. It should be mentioned that migration for conditions and consequently the socioeconomic and cultural safety was difficult because of limited forest cover (Kor- backwardness was not as marked there. anashvili 1990, p. 67). However, the natural conditions for the development of agriculture in East Georgia were much better than in West 15.4 Economy in the Nineteenth Century Georgia. In Colchis, the poor soils, humid climate, and swampy areas in most of its territory significantly limited Because of a tough historical situation, Georgia fell behind the development of agriculture. Consequently, the popula- as compared to Western Europe. It could not use favorable tion density and number of inhabited places here would have natural conditions as completely as did European countries, been less than in Iberia. The prosperity and establishment of which managed to apply hydro and wind energy and devel- economic–cultural relationships in Colchis were consider- oped navigation. Unlike Europe, capitalism in Georgia did ably supported by the colonization of the eastern seashore of not develop on a local base. It was imported as one of the the Black Sea by the Greeks. In later periods, the importance provinces of the Russian Empire from the central regions of of the Black Sea for the economic development of Georgia Russia. Georgia’s economy was the subject of the Empire’s declined. Moreover, the domination of Turkey from the fif- interests and therefore, experienced certain changes. teenth century made the role of the Black Sea detrimental Since the second half of the nineteenth century, e.g., the for Georgia. period when the capitalistic way of industry was established in Georgia, the prosperity of West Georgia started. The Black Sea ports, Poti and Batumi, became important economical 15.3 Nature and Economy in the Middle Ages centers. The operation of Tkibuli charcoal and Chiatura manganese mines considerably changed the industrial profile of In the Middle Ages as well as in the earlier period, differ- the region. West Georgia’s population was actively involved ences in natural conditions played an important role in the in industry and trade, and occupied the main place in the development of the economy of West and East Georgia. newly formed Georgian bourgeoisie. In particular, the heavy plough was introduced only in the East Georgia’s population appeared more inert and main- plains of East Georgia, where the soil needed deep tillage. ly stayed adhered to the traditional economy (despite the fact In the following periods, the intensive introduction of maize that the political center of the Caucasus and the second big- and haricot beans in West Georgia was of great importance. gest industrial city of this part of the Empire after Baku– The humid climate and not too fertile soil of West Georgia Tbilisi was located exactly in East Georgia). The growth of was exactly appropriate for these civilizations. They almost the ethnic Georgian population of Tbilisi took place at the completely replaced gomi (Italian millet) and wheat, which expense of migration from West Georgia. This became even required much more area and were more demanding for more intensive after construction of the railway and espe- natural conditions. In East Georgia, wheat kept its leading cially the tunnel through the Surami range, which closely place, as the dry climate there (in nonexistence of irrigation connected the two parts of the country. in agriculture) was not favorable for maize growing. Potato Since the second half of the twentieth century, the pop- growing was not widespread as well, as it grows in colder ulation’s social–cultural life rapidly developed. From the 15.6 Economy in the Socialistic Era 165 same period the relations of Georgia’s historical–geographi- 15.6 Economy in the Socialistic Era cal provinces became noticeably closer. The national self- consciousness of the Georgian people strengthened, and the The Soviet (Socialistic) period of Georgia’s economy in- process of rapid industrial development started. cludes the 1921–1991 years. Its beginning was marked by In 1872–1883 railway connections were established be- massive, often forced, socialization of all branches of in- tween Tbilisi–Poti–Batumi and Tbilisi—Baku. In the last dustry. State economy and state commerce were gradually quarter of the nineteenth century, numerous factories, plants, forming on the basis of small peasant economy and private and small enterprises were opened in Georgia. The mining enterprises. Two forms of socialistic property on industrial (Chiatura manganese in 1879), food, and light industries means had been established by the late 1930s in Georgia: were developed. In the aforementioned period, the cast- state and nonstate (cooperative-collective farming). By the iron foundry, saw mill, cotton, and tobacco factories were end of the 1980s, Georgia produced 1.4 % of industrial prod- constructed in Tbilisi, the iron ore processing was renewed ucts, 0.9 % of power, 20 % of manganese mining, 1.7 % of (Chatakhi, Poladauri gorge), and the glass (the village of Gh- agricultural products (among them: tea 94 %, citruses 98 %, varebi, Gori region) industry started. (Problems of Economic fruit and grapes 9 to 9 %) of Soviet Union production (Statis- Geography of Georgia 1970, pp. 125–126) tical Yearbook of Georgia 1988, p. 12). (Fig. 15.1) Beneficial changes were marked in agriculture as well. In the socialistic period, Georgia’s agriculture obtained One quarter of wheat and wine produced in various regions subtropical specialization. Many regions of the republic of Georgia, were exported. The establishment of commercial were developing according to the Soviet Union’s interests. relations with neighboring countries contributed to the de- Kakheti and Imereti led mainly viniculture, Shida (Inner) velopment of silk, cotton, and tobacco industries. Kartli—fruit growing, Kvemo (Lower) Kartli—vegetable Foreign commerce started to rapidly develop. Tbilisi start- growing, and Samegrelo, Guria, Adjaria and Abkhazia—tea ed step by step to gain importance as the cultural-economic and subtropical fruit production. Cereals, technical cultures and administrative center of Georgia as well as the Caucasus. (sunflower and white beet) and cattle breeding products were In Kutaisi, Gori, Telavi, Akhaltsikhe, Poti, and other districts mainly imported from other republics of the Soviet Union. the development of civil function was comparatively slower. The negative side of such “specialization” began to be ex- Railway junctions were formed in Khashuri, Zestafoni, and posed immediately after the destruction of the Soviet Em- Samtredia. pire. It should also be mentioned that Georgia almost lost the use of its favorable economic-geographical location. Turning the economy to the socialized type had its posi- 15.5 Economy in the First Quarter of the tive as well as negative sides. In the socialistic period power Twentieth Century industry, engineering industry, chemical industry, and black and color metallurgy industry, several types of transport de- Georgia’s economy at the beginning of the twentieth cen- veloped in Georgia. Industrial progress was followed by the tury was mainly agricultural. In the aforementioned period, development of the construction industry. Town building and there existed several forms of industrial property. In particu- town infrastructure reached rather high levels, which meant lar, naturally enterprising small peasants dominated agricul- intensive construction of cultural, scientific, and educational ture and private enterprises in the industry. Agriculture and institutions. forestry made 65 % of the national income, and the industry In 1921–1990, over 400 large industrial enterprises were reached 18 %. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the built and put into operation in Georgia; out of which ap- industry was developing actively. In Georgia it was support- proximately 70 enterprises were established in Tbilisi, 20 in ed by the evident “intervention” of European investments Kutaisi, and 10 each in Sukhumi, Batumi, Gagra, Rustavi, and private businesses. The role of foreign investors was and Zugdidi. Certain enterprises were put into operation in especially important in the power industry, mining and pro- almost all town type settlements in Georgia. Most of the in- cessing industry, transportation, and agriculture. The major dustrial enterprises of Georgia were located in the plains. part of Georgia’s export production was designated to meet More than half of the operating enterprises of the republic the requirements of Russia’s market. were collected in three towns—Tbilisi, Kutaisi, and Rustavi. Before Sovietization, over 300,000 t of cereals, 550 t of Over 60 % of industrial production was produced in four in- tea leaf, up to 80,000 t of grapes, 10 million kWh power, up dustrial junctions (Tbilisi-Rustavi, Kutaisi-Tkibuli, Chiatu- to 30,000 t of charcoal, approximately 40,000 pairs of shoes, ra-Zestafoni, Gori-Khashuri). and so on were produced in Georgia. Even though figures are Significant success was achieved in agriculture as well. not very impressive, they do, however, indicate the evident Despite the fact that in 1921–1990 the sown area increased development of economy in that period (Problems of Eco- only 1.5 times (700,000 ha—1990), agricultural produc- nomic Geography of Georgia 1970, p. 138). tion widely developed. In the aforementioned branch of 166 15 Economic History

Fig. 15.1 Georgia’s industry in 1913 (a) and 1959 (b): 1 Mining Industry. 2 Metallurgy. 3 Chemical Industry. 4 Engineering and Metal-working. 5 Wood Working. 6. Production of Building Materials. 7 Food Industry. 8 Light Industry. 9 Others

economy, besides traditional branches, new branches were References established and developed; in particular of subtropical and technical culture production. In total, agricultural production Koranashvili G (1990) Problems of history of Georgia. Lega, Tbilisi in the aforementioned period increased almost five times. In (in Georgian) Problems of Economic Geography of Georgia (1970) Metsniereba, the socialistic period in Georgia, all types of transport de- Tbilisi, 542 p (In Georgian) veloped: (automobiles, railway, electric transport, subway, Statistical Yearbook of Georgia (1988) State Committee of the Statistic, aviation, pipeline, cable-way, navigation, and urban electric Tbilisi, 276 p (In Georgian) transport). Studies in History of Georgia (1970) Sabchota Sakartvelo, vol 1. Tbilisi, 816 p (in Georgian). Economy 16

Abstract Georgia’s economic landscape is intriguing. Georgia has long had well-developed industries that require sophisticated skills. Yet by some measures it is clubbed with developing countries. Coal is the major fossil fuel and its forecasted reserves equal hundreds of millions of tons. There are 15 famous oil deposits in Georgia out of which the biggest is the Patardzeuli deposit which is considered to include 80 % of the forecasted oil reserves of the country. The “Georgian” oil is of high quality. Gas reserves are significant. In 2000, Geor- gia extracted 80 million m3 of gas and in 2008 this number increased to 110 million m3. It is possible to increase the extraction of gas to 3–4 billion m3. Thermal waters have a long history in Georgia. Resources of thermal waters are almost inexhaustible; nowadays only about 35 % of the existing sources are used and the rest are wasted. The manufacturing industry is well developed, producing cast iron, rolled metal, steel pipes, and many other widely used goods. Energy is generated by fossil fuel power plants and hydroelectric power stations. The chemical industry is on the rebound. This chapter discusses a short history of Georgia’s economy.

Georgia is often considered as a developing country, but it toward the poorest countries. With per capita GDP equaling drastically differs from developing states in Africa and Asia. US$ 450 in 1994, Georgia stood at the 150th place among On the basis of per capita income and GNP, Georgia proves 190 states. Fortunately, the economic situation has been im- to be a developing country, while other indices reveal the proving since 1995. While per capita GDP in 1997 increased opposite. Considering the educational level of the popula- to US$ 1000, in 2011 it exceeded US$ 3210 (Georgia Statis- tion, share of employees within sectors like science, culture, tical Review 2011, pp. 7–8). Owing to this increase, Georgia and health, characteristics of urbanization and demographic has moved to the list of countries with medium income. landscape as well as the structure of economy, Georgia The discrepancy between economic and sociocultural belongs to the group of developed states. Those branches of conditions in Georgia leads to serious problems. The eco- industry that are not common for developing countries were nomic condition of the country is weak, corresponding to well developed in Georgia, among which one can name aero- the level of a developing state, while the requirements of space manufacturing, aviation industry, ship building indus- its population not only equal but in some cases even exceed try, electrical engineering, precise mechanical engineering, the requirements of residents of highly developed countries. and others. All this was preconditioned by the fact that unlike This imbalance creates additional impediments to the further Asian and African countries, Georgia has never been a typi- development of Georgia. cal colony; rather, it has been one of the world’s biggest and strongest nations. Defining the place of Georgia among states classified ac- 16.1 Fuel-Energy Complex cording to their economic development is challenging. On the basis of per capita GDP (nominal), equaling US$ 3500 by The fuel-energy complex is considered as one of the priority the end of the 1980s, Georgia was above the middle level of industries in Georgia. As a result, it is one of the most viable development, thus approaching rich states. But severe eco- industries regardless of the overall poverty and difficulties. nomic and political crises in the 1990s pulled Georgia back Georgia suffers from the lack of fossil fuels, thus the major-

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 167 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_16, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 168 16 Economy

Fig. 16.1 Main power stations. 1 Hydro stations and 2 thermal stations ity of fuel is imported. The importance of the fuel-energy cascades of hydroelectric stations. Its projected capacity is complex in Georgia explains why only energy production 1640 MW generating 5.5 million kW/h electricity. level is kept up to 70 % of the production level that existed The average flow of Georgian rivers is seasonal and thus during the Soviet period. changeable. In winters, when the demand for electricity is Georgia is rich in hydroelectric power resources the highest, river flows are minimal. This preconditioned the (Fig. 16.1), and on a per square kilometer basis it holds one opening of the first energy block of Tbilisi district fossil fuel of the leading places in the world. However, only 10 % of the power plant with a capacity of 160 MW in 1963. In 1972, the country’s hydroelectric potential is used. Japan uses 80 % of capacity of the plant increased eight times up to 1250 MW. its hydroelectric potential; this is equal to 90 % for Norway, Since the 1980s, when the 9th and 10th energy blocks started Sweden, and Switzerland; France, Canada, and the USA use operating, the Tbilisi district fossil fuel power plant has be- 88, 60, and 44 %, respectively (Beruchashvili et al. 2009). come the plant producing the most power in Georgia. It is Georgia has been producing and consuming energy for possible to generate 7 million kW/h electricity. more than a century. The very first fossil fuel power plant Nowadays, the Georgian electrical system is a difficult started in 1887. The first hydroelectric power station in Geor- system consisting of 8 fossil fuel power plants, more than gia (second one within the Russian empire) with a capacity of 60 hydroelectric stations, and more than 400 substations 103 kW commenced energy production in 1898 in Borjomi (Fig. 16.2). The length of electricity transmission lines is Gorge. For the provision of city trams with necessary energy, about 100,000 km. The biggest electric stations of Georgia another fossil fuel plant with a capacity of 1430 kW was built are as follows: Enguri hydroelectric station with its cascades, in Tbilisi in 1905. This plant has been in operation since. cascades of Vartsikhe hydroelectric station, Zhinvali hydroelectric station, Lajanuri hydroelectric station, Khrami I hydroelectric station, Khrami II hydroelectric station, Gumati 16.1.1 Electric Power Engineering I hydroelectric station, Gumati II hydroelectric station, and Rioni hydroelectric station. A unified energy system in Georgia was created in 1934 The capacity of Georgian electric power stations to gener- when the recently constructed Rioni Hydroelectric Station ate electricity is 15.5 million kW/h out of which 7.5 million is was linked to Zemo Avchala Hydroelectric Station through generated by fossil fuel power plants and 8 million by hydro- electrical transmitting lines. Building and operating the En- electric power stations. In winter, the proper functioning of guri hydroelectric station (1961–1980) was another impor- fossil fuel power plants is crucial as they generate more than tant event in the energy history of Georgia. This station is half of the necessary electricity (4.5 million kW/h). In sum- very sophisticated, engineering construction consisting of 16.2 Manufacturing Industry 169

sufficient attention nowadays. Thus, the Georgian fossil fuel energy plans mostly work on imported gas and black oil. The dynamics of coal mining show that the most active period was in the 1950s. In 2004, only 8000 t of coal were extracted which is several times less than the quantity of coal extracted in the 1930s. Existing coal reserves can satisfy about 50 % of metallurgy needs and about 70–80 % needs of the energy sector.

16.1.3 Oil Deposits

There are 15 famous oil deposits in Georgia out of which the biggest is the Patardzeuli deposit which is considered to include 80 % of the forecasted oil reserves of the country. Mirzaani, Taribana, Patara Shiraki, Supsa, Teleti, and other Fig. 16.2 Electricity generation. 1 Total electricity generation, 2 Elec- tricity generation in hydropower stations deposits are also well known in Georgia. “Georgian” oil is of high quality as it has low sulfur and is considered to belong mer, the role of hydroelectric stations becomes more impor- to the light oil category. Even though, nowadays, Georgia tant as they produce more than 5 million kW/h of electricity. does not extract so much oil, in the period of 1975, 1985 Analysis of Georgian electricity production reveals a millions of tons of oil were extracted. In 2004, 97,000 t of oil very interesting picture. The maximum quantity of electric- were extracted (including gas condensate) which is 20 times ity (15.4 million kW/h) generated in Georgia was in 1984. In less than that in 1990. 2003–2007 Georgia produced only 7.5 million kW/h electricity with a per capita index of 1700 kW/h, while the per capita electricity demand in Georgia equals 5500 kW/h (Georgia in 16.1.4 Gas Reserves Figures 2008, p. 32). The consumption of electricity in Geor- gia was more than was produced. Consequently, Georgia im- In 1990, 60 million m3 of gas was extracted in Georgia. In ported 2–3 million kW/h electricity from its neighbors. The 1995 only 1/20 of this quantity was extracted and in later years situation has, however, been improving recently. Georgia not this process was totally stopped. In 1999, new important de- only satisfies its demand for electricity but also exports it posits of gas were found in Sagarejo (Ninotsminda), Marneu- during summer. Nowadays, a majority of the generated elec- li, and Gardabani. In 2000, Georgia extracted 80 million m3 tricity is consumed by its population, even though the share of gas and in 2008 this number increased to 110 million m3. of electricity consumed in various industries as well as by Theoretically, it is possible to increase the extraction of gas by transport has been increasing. 3–4 billion m3 which will satisfy half of the demand of this fossil fuel in Georgia (Beruchashvili et al. 2009, p. 163). Thermal water in industry has a long history in Georgia. 16.1.2 Fossil Fuel Industry It was actively used in house utilities (Tbilisi, Zugdidi, and Kindghi), green houses (Vani and Kodori), in the process- A majority of common fossil fuels (coal, oil, peat, thermal ing of tea leaves (Kindghi and Zugdidi), and at certain bal- water, and others) can be found in Georgia but in small quan- neological resorts (Tbilisi, Tskaltubo). Resources of thermal tities. Coal is the major fossil fuel in Georgia. Its forecasted water are almost inexhaustible; nowadays only about 35 % reserves equal to hundreds of millions of tons. Out of ten of the existing sources are used and the rest are wasted. deposits found in Georgia only two of them—Tkibul-Shaori and Tkvarcheli—have industrial importance. About 80 % of Georgian coal reserves come from the Tkibuli-Shaori depos- 16.2 Manufacturing Industry it. Akhaltsikhe (Vale) brown coal deposits also have a certain importance. The fossil fuel-energy crisis, ruining of traditional foreign The contribution of coal in the overall fuel-energy bal- economic links, loss of markets for sale and sources, and ance of Georgia is no more than 3 %, a very small share of quick privatization preconditioned the fall of the Georgian which is used for the production of electricity. The usage of industry at the end of the twentieth century. Nowadays, the coal from the energy generation perspective is not being paid majority of industries, which are mostly in private owner- ship, are focused on satisfying local market demands. 170 16 Economy

The share of industry in GDP (15 %) became less than that While 4000 universal machine tools were manufactured in of agriculture (27 %). Georgia transformed from an indus- 1960, this number decreased to 2700 in 1986, to 348 in 1993 trial–agricultural state into an agriculture-dominant country. and only a few such machines have been produced in recent Even though some revival has been vivid in certain sectors years (Georgia in Figures 2008, p. 41). of the industry in recent years, industrial goods produced in “Elmavalmshenebeli,” the biggest enterprise of electro- 2006 were only one fourth of that in 1990. According to the technical machinery in Georgia, produced 138 railway en- volume of produced goods, processing industries occupy the gines in 1983, but nowadays only 2–3 such machines are first place; next come the electro-energy sector and extrac- produced per year. Such important enterprises as “Tbilavi- tion industries. According to the share of produced industrial amsheni” (Tbilisi aircraft factory), Tbilisi Electric Engine goods, Tbilisi (2/5 of such goods), Kvemo Kartli (1/4) and Adjusting Factory, Tbilisi Unified Enterprise Mioni (main Imereti (10 %) should be noted. electric engineering factory in Georgia), Tbilisi Electric Cal- culating Machinery Factory, Tbilisi TV Producing Factory, Kutaisi Automobile Factory, Kutaisi Electromechanic Fac- 16.2.1 Metallurgy tory, Kutaisi Tractor Factory, Poti, and Batumi Ship Building Factories are practically not functioning. There are several metallurgical factories in Georgia. The prominent one is the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant whose construction started in 1944 and first production occurred in 16.2.3 Chemical and Oil-Chemical Industry 1950. This plant used iron ore from Dashkesan (Azerbaijan), coal from Tkvarcheli and Tkibuli, ferroalloy from Zestaponi, Even though the Georgian chemical industry did not suffer manganum from Chiatura, and flux from Sadakhlo quarry. as severe a crisis as the mechanical engineering industry did, As one of the biggest consumers of electricity, the Rustavi it did not manage to fully escape the challenge. Certain facto- Metallurgical Plant produces cast iron, rolled metal, steel ries stopped working totally, while others drastically reduced pipes, and many other widely used goods. their production. But in several sectors (e.g., production of The Zestaponi Ferroalloy Factory was founded in 1933 on nitrogen fertilizers) the production increased. the basis of high quality Chiatura manganum, Tkibuli coal, The Georgian chemical industry is based on mining chem- and electricity generated from Rioni hydroelectric power ical industry (extraction of arsenic, bentonitic clays, barite, station. This factory produces more than 40 types of goods andesite, and diatomite). Enterprises with chemical-pharma- among which we can emphasize ferro-manganum, manga- ceutical (Tbilisi and Batumi) and household chemistry pro- num metal, and silico-manganum. In 1985 the Zestaponi files (Tbilisi and Kutaisi) contribute to the further develop- Ferroalloy Factory produced 509,000 t of ferroalloy, while ment of the chemical industry in Georgia. Kutaisi is the center in 2006 this number decreased to a seventh of the original of chemical engineering in Georgia with its nitrogen fertilizer, (Georgia in Figures 2008, p. 38). caprolactam, and chemical fibber producing factories. Madneuli Mining Company is the biggest colored met- Rustavi Chemical Plant, created in 1951, is the biggest allurgy operation in Georgia. It is situated in Kazreti bor- enterprise in Georgia producing mineral fertilizers, potassi- ough of Bolnisi District. There is vertical laying of different um permanganate, etc. Its products are highly demanded, as types of ores, based on zonal principle: color ores of barite, Rustavi Chemical Plant is the only producer of nitrogen fer- barite-lead, barite-copper-zinc, and copper-zinc replace one tilizer in Southern Caucasus. In 1985 it produced 114,000 t another. These ores also include gold. of nitrogen fertilizers, while in 2006 this number increased to 120,000 t. Batumi Oil Processing Factory is the biggest oil-chemical factory processing Baku oil products and trans- 16.2.2 Machine Engineering fer of oil products into tankers.

Mechanical engineering has been an important industry in Georgia, but its role has been decreasing gradually and 16.2.4 Construction Industry nowadays its share in produced industrial goods is no more than 10 %. A majority of industries are closed due to their Since Georgia is rich in basalt, marble, andesit, lime, marl, noncompetitiveness and nonprofitability. Some of those fac- dolomite, gypsum, etc., it has a good basis for the develop- tories changed their profile of production and currently are ment of the construction material industry, which has been oriented toward the production of daily goods. one of the traditional industries in Georgia. Products of Tbili- Out of the still functioning mechanical engineering fac- si, Batumi, Kutaisi, and Rustavi construction material facto- tories in Georgia we need to emphasize Tbilisi Unified En- ries are well known not only within Georgia but also outside terprise “Charkhmshenebeli” as noteworthy. This factory its borders. Sectoral enterprises are all over Georgia among produces multi-functional machine tools and automatic lines which highly demanded goods are produced by Rustavi Ce- even though their production has been decreasing gradually. ment Factory, Kaspi Cement Factory, Kaspi Tile Factory, 16.2 Manufacturing Industry 171

Metekhi Break Factory, and Gardabani Ruberoid Factory. Silk production is among those sectors that have been The boom in construction in Georgia creates good conditions suffering an extremely severe crisis. Nowadays, about 100 for further development of the construction material industry. small enterprises produce light industry goods like shoes and clothes. The Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Khoni, Ozurgeti, and Telavi Silk Spinning factories do not work at the moment. Other 16.2.5 Timber Processing and Paper Production types of light industry also suffered from a severe crisis. The Tbilisi Broadcloth Plant, Tbilisi Shoe Factory Isani, Tbilisi, The timber industry was based on imported materials, even and Telavi Socks Factories, Gori Cotton Plant, Senaki Carpet though a certain volume of wood (600–650,000 m3) was pro- Factory, and many others are not working at the moment. duced on the ground. In 2007, 76,000 m3 timber was produced in Georgia. Here it may be noted that that this number may not be correct, as all of the produced timber is not registered. 16.2.7 Food Industry Timber stays as one of the key energy producing materials used in households for heating and food preparation purposes. Almost all the inhabited areas of Georgia have their own A majority of forests in Georgia are for soil protection, food producing enterprises. Currently more than half of the water regulating, sanitary, and recreational functions, and industries are focused on food production. The food indus- the rest are used for exploitation. Mainly, the Kolkheti val- try uses mostly agricultural products. Due to the diversity of ley forests have an industrial significance. Forest reserves goods produced, the food industry is also diverse. The food in Georgia are more than 400 million m3. Timber process- industry produces 30 % of the overall industrial goods of ing factories in almost all the regions of Georgia are mainly Georgia. Bakery, confectionary, spaghetti, sugar, oil, wine, focused on sawing, even though the role of furniture produc- tea, beer, fruit, vegetables, tobacco, dairy, mineral water, and tion has been increasing gradually along with the number thousands of other types of small enterprises, factories, and of such factories. The Zugdidi Paper Producing Plant was plants operate in Georgia. Some of the local products are the main one in the given sector. In the 1980s it produced still in demand abroad. Many foreign companies have also 35,000 t of paper and 60,000 t of cardboard annually. Nowa- expressed their interest in Georgian products. Their invest- days this sector does not function at all. ments in the food industry will contribute to the production of high quality competitive products which in turn will promote the revival of the Georgian countryside. 16.2.6 Light Industry The closure of the Russian market for Georgian wine production turned out to be one of the severest impediments Light industry is considered as one of traditional industries for this traditional and most important sector of the Geor- in Georgia. Lack of relevant materials as well as energy cri- gian food industry (Fig. 16.3). Despite this setback, wine sis had a crucial impact on this sector. In the last decade of production keeps developing in Georgia covering more new the twentieth century, the number of people employed in the markets in Europe and North America. light industries was reduced by 100,000. This is the worst performance index in the Georgian industry.

Fig. 16.3 Geography of wine factories 172 16 Economy

Fig. 16.4 Land fund. 1 Arable, 2 Perennial, 3 Hayfield, 4 Pasture, 5 Forest, and 6 Other lands

16.3 Land Fund Cropland is usually used for annual plantation (cereals, technical crops, and vegetables) and cattle food. Cereals and Despite the lack of land, Georgia is still characterized by di- legumes (wheat, corn, barley, soybeans, beans, and peas) verse and fertile soil-climate conditions as well as by unique represent the main annual plants used in Georgia. Wheat soil resources (Fig. 16.4). Contrasting geographic conditions covers thousands of hectares of cropland in Kakheti, Kar- precondition the aforementioned diversity. Georgia is unique tli, and Samtskhe-Javakheti, while Imereti, Samegrelo and for its complex soil surface mosaic. There are more than 30 Guria allocate cropland mostly for corn. More and more land types of soils in Georgia, one third of which are employed is being allocated for vegetables and potatoes at the expense for land use. of reducing land area used for forage and technical crops. Almost half of the Georgian land fund is for agricultural purposes (arable land/cropland, perennial plantation, mowing land, grazing land). Two fifths of the land fund belongs 16.3.2 Perennial Plantation to forests; as for nonagricultural lands (covered by bushes, marshland, water, industrial buildings, settlements) they rep- Perennial plantation covers 10 % (about 300,000 ha) of agri- resent 1/7 of the whole land. cultural land in Georgia which include vineyard, tea planta- More than half of the agricultural land represents grazing tion, citrus orchards, and other orchards for fruits and ber- land, one fourth is cropland, and the rest is covered by mow- ries. Vine-growing is one of the oldest sectors in Georgia, ing land and multi-year plantations. The biggest share of ag- which is considered as one of the homelands of vine. About ricultural land is in Kakheti and the smallest share-in Adjara. 500 local species of vine are known in Georgia (4000 all Differences can be traced in the usage of lands, their fertility over the world) out of which 50 are important from an agri- level, location, and many other characteristics. cultural and industrial standpoint. The famous vine types in- Recent increases in the area of nonagricultural land as clude Rkatsiteli, Saperavi, Mtsvane, and Ojaleshi. There are well as freeing land from agricultural usage revealed a very some imported species which are also popular in Georgia, dangerous trend. Georgia is already full of erosive and over- and these include Aligote, Pinot, Chardonnet, and Cabernet. salted lands, areas with landslides and lands needing ame- Vine plantation in Georgia can be found at 600–700 m lioration. In addition, more than 80,000 ha of land lost its elevation above the sea level. At early heights vine species fertility due to the floods of 1987, 1989, and 1997. Owing to are used, while in lowlands late or middle ripening vine spe- the aforementioned types of activities related to the rational cies are spread. Vine is everywhere in Georgia except in usage of land, defending the soil fund in Georgia has become high mountainous regions, but the main areas of the country more and more important. where it is actively cultivated is Kakheti, Imereti, Kartli, and certain districts of Racha-Lechkhumi. Fruit-growing is also popular in Georgia and covers high- 16.3.1 Cropland lands as well as lowlands. Due to the economic crisis, reduction of sale markets, and destruction of processing indus- Agricultural land in Kakheti, Kvemo Kartli, and Samtskhe- try, lands covered by orchards reduced twice in comparison Javakheti is relatively rich in cropland, while Adjara, Ra- with 1988. Famous for fruit growing, Shida Kartli suffered cha-Lechkhumi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti suffer from the scarcity from extremely severe challenges. Of sub-tropical plants, tea of such land. In general, the per person area of cropland in plantations cover huge areas. At the same time west Geor- Georgia is only 0.15 ha which is not enough, thus having a gia’s Black Sea hills are covered by citrus trees (orange, tan- negative impact on agricultural development and the quan- gerine, and lemon), tung, bay trees, bamboo, and eucalyptus. tity of agricultural products. 16.4 Agriculture 173

16.3.3 Mowing and Grazing Land 16.4.1 Plant Growing

Mowing and grazing (hayfield and pasture) lands cover 2/3 Wheat is grown on 1/3 of the land where cereals are grown. of agricultural lands of Georgia and are spread on 1/4 of the It is mostly grown in east Georgia and is used as daily food Georgian territory. In mountainous regions there are natural (Fig. 16.5). Forage wheat is less spread out. The best wheat mowing lands, while in the plains, artificial mowing lands species is “Vardzia,” the potential crop capacity of which are used. Natural mowing lands are mostly in Samtskhe-Ja- is 50 metrics t/ha. The overall wheat harvest in Georgia is vakheti, Racha-Lechkhumi, and Adjara, while Kvemo Kartli about 350–400,000 t. is more famous for its artificial mowing lands. Corn is popular in Samegrelo, Svaneti, Abkhazia, Racha, Georgia is rich in summer and winter natural grazing lands. Imereti, and Guria. Its productivity is more than half a mil- Summer grazing lands are in mountainous regions, where al- lion tons. The biggest share of the cropland is allocated for pine and sub-alpine grass grows. Winter grazing lands are corn. Following proper cultivation, based on agricultural largely in the Kvemo Kartli plain and Iori plateau. Samgrelo- principles the crop capacity of corn can reach 100 metrics t/ Zemo Svaneti, Racha-Lechkhumi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, and ha which can fully satisfy the corn demand. Samtskhe-Javakheti are extremely rich in grazing lands. The best barley in Georgia is grown on the Javakheti volcanic plateau at a height of 1800–2000 m above sea level. Oats and rye, mostly used for forage, are also grown in high 16.3.4 Forests mountainous regions. Beans have recently reached a special place in the daily food of the Georgian population. Beans The area covered by forests in Georgia is 2 million 980,000 ha grown in plains are famous for their taste all over the world which represent about 43 % of Georgian territory. Coniferous but their productivity is low reaching only 4–6 metric t/ha as well as broadleaf plants (80 %) can be found in Georgian which may be due to less than modern methods of cultiva- forests. Beech grows in 50 %, oak tree 10 %, fir-tree 8.4 %, tion. and hornbeam 6.6 % of the Georgian forests. Potato growing has been increasing recently (302,000 t A majority of forests in Georgia are above an elevation in 2000, 410,000 t in 2008, average productivity is 120– of 1000 m above sea level, half of which is located on more 150 metric t/ha). Early potato species are grown in Kvemo than 25° slopes and the rest on 10–25° slopes. As a result, Kartli while late potato is grown mostly in the Samtskhe- the Georgian forests do not have a wide industrial usage and Javakheti region. Vegetables (tomato, cucumber, cabbage, are mostly for protecting water and soil, and for esthetic- onion, pepper, and greens) have always been in high de- recreational and other purposes. mand. Growing of vegetables is spread out almost everywhere in Georgia, even though they are mostly concentrated in the surroundings of big cities. 16.4 Agriculture

Agriculture’s contribution to the GDP of Georgia is in third 16.4.2 Other Crops place, and its share in the GDP is more than 10 %. However, as compared with the 1980s, the current number of agricul- Technical crops are also grown in Georgia which include tural products has reduced three times. Such a reduction was tobacco (grown in Adjara, Abkhazia, Guria, Samegrelo, conditioned by the closure of markets and the consequent and Kakheti), sunflower (Kkaheti, Kvemo Kartli), sugar shift to small household economy. Nevertheless, there is beet (Shida Kartli), and soybeans (west Georgia). Medical good potential if good soil-climate conditions are used ra- balsamic (ether-bearing) plants-rose, basil, eucalyptus, bay tionally (mechanization, electrification, usage of chemicals) leaves, and others are cultivated in Shida Kakheti, Kvemo in conjunction with peasants’ skills and experience. This will Kartli, and the Black Sea regions of Georgia due to relevant help the country satisfy its demand for many agricultural soil and climate conditions. products. Vine growing is a traditional sector in Georgia. Focus- Nowadays, the future of agriculture is in the hands of ing on the cultivation of black vine species popular in West- private entrepreneurs and farmers. Market economy require- ern markets, Georgia has been widening those lands, where ments and challenges with satisfying population demands vine species, necessary for exporting wines, are well culti- for certain agricultural products conditioned the shift in agri- vated. The average productivity of Georgian vine species is cultural activities in various districts of Georgia. Growing of 4–5 t/ha which is much less than that of European species. cereals has become extremely active as cereals constitute the The vine harvest has also decreased. In 1990, 700,000 t of daily food and promote cattle rearing development, but the grapes were cultivated but in 2007, this number decreased role of tea growing has drastically decreased. to 250,000 t (160,000 t in 2011). The Russian boycott of the 174 16 Economy

Fig. 16.5 a Wheat cropland, b Graph corn cropland: 1 8000– 12000, 2 3000–8000, 3 3000– 5000, 4 1000–3000, 5 100–1000, and 6 < 100 ha

Georgian wine and the consequent closure of Russian mar- 16.4.3 Cattle Rearing kets seriously contributed to the reduction of productivity and the volume of vine harvest. The development of cattle rearing is strongly linked to the The above reason also conditioned a decrease in the cul- development of forage, thus in turn it is strongly dependent tivation of various fruits as well as reduction in lands cov- on the development of plant growing (Fig. 16.6). Georgia ered by orchards. About 97 % of citrus cultivated in Georgia has always suffered from the problem of cattle feeding, as is tangerine as only this particular fruit (unlike orange and basic forage or natural grazing lands cannot fully satisfy the lemon) can best survive the high humidity and low winter existing needs. This in turn leads to the requirement of culti- temperature in the western part of Georgia where it grows. vation of artificially grown forage (especially corn and soy- Keeping high volumes of citrus harvests requires high ex- beans) which is challenging. penditures. However, the closure of markets, decrease in the Due to the scarcity of forage, Georgia has always been a income of population, and breaking of cultivation rules seri- country importing a majority of cattle rearing products. The ously contributed to the reduction of citrus harvests as well Georgian farmer cannot take care of the cattle, provide them as areas of lands covered by orchards. with forage, processing, and keep and sell cattle growing The productivity of tea in Georgia is only 20 metric cen- products at the same time. ters/ha which is several times less than that in the 1980s. Nowadays, the number of cattle (cows, oxen, and buffa- Such a reduction in the productivity is caused because tea los) exceeds 1.3 million. Cows represent half of the afore- growing can no longer be kept as a separate sector. Its culti- mentioned number. It may be noted that the majority of cattle vation requires high expenditures. Georgian tea is grown at is characterized by medium and low productivity but high the extreme north latitude (43°) with ecologically, the most caloricity. Without renewing of species selection the pro- disadvantageous conditions. ductivity of cattle will keep decreasing. It is important to mention that rearing of horses, oxen, and donkeys has been increasing recently. 16.5 Transportation, Communication and Trade 175

Fig. 16.6 Dynamics of cattle (millions). 1 Cattle, 2 sheep, and 3 swine

Areas where cattle rearing is actively practiced in Georgia 16.5 Transportation, Communication and (high mountainous regions of Caucasus, Racha, Samegrelo, Trade mountainous Adjara, Guria, Samtskhe-Javakheti), coincide with alpine and sub-alpine zone plants. The inability to use Owing to the convenient strategic geographic location of North Caucasus winter pastures has had a negative influence the country, the role of transport in the economy of Geor- on the number of sheep and goats (800,000) in Georgia. In gia is huge. Roads connecting Asia and Europe, North 1991–1997 the number of sheep and goats in the country de- and South cross Georgia. Almost all types of transport creased by 1 million. Sheep breeding is traditional in eastern (land, water, air, and pipeline) are developed in Georgia. Flu- Georgia, while west Georgia is more focused on goat breed- vial transportation was also developed in the past, but nowa- ing. The Georgian sheep is characterized by low productiv- days this type of transport is no longer used as Georgian riv- ity, as it only produces 1–1.5 kg of wool per year (Beru- ers are not useful for modern means of transportation. chashvili et al. 2012, pp. 174–175). Political and socioeconomic events that took place in the The livestock of pigs in Georgia is 400,000 at the given 1990s had an impact on the functioning of transportation moment. Swine breeding is traditional in the Kakheti and systems in Georgia, especially on freight turnover, passenger Samegrelo regions. Such sectors as poultry breeding, hare turnover, number of units of transport, etc. In 2003, freight breeding, and beekeeping have been progressing recently, and passenger turnover decreased almost three times in com- while silkworm breeding has been suffering severely. parison to that in 1990. However, we have currently been witnessing an increase; each year freight turnover increases by 8–10 %. Motorcars are the most widely spread means of 16.4.4 Zonal Specialization of Agriculture transportation, as the mountainous terrain of Georgia hinders the adequate development of railway transportation. Tbilisi Specialization in agriculture in Georgia is based on regional as is the biggest transportation/traffic hub in Georgia; other well as clearly revealed zonal principles. Vine growing, cere- hubs are in Kutaisi, Khashuri, Samtredia, Poti, Batumi, and als, and industrial crop growing is well developed in Kakheti; Sokhumi. cereal growing and fruit growing is developed in Shida Kar- tli; cereal growing, vegetable growing, and potato growing in Kvemo Kartli; vine growing, cereal growing, and vegetable 16.5.1 Land Transport growing in Imereti; cereal and vegetable growing is developed in Adjara, Guria, Samgrelo, and Abkhazia-sub-tropical Railway transport has a history more than a century old in economies; and cattle breeding, potato growing, and cereal Georgia (Fig. 16.7). The first railway line Poti-Zrstaponi growing is developed in Samtskhe-Javakheti. The population started functioning in 1871. Nowadays the current length in the plains of Georgia works on the land, while the popula- of railways in Georgia, which is fully electrified, is about tion in the mountainous regions develops cattle breeding. 1600 km. The biggest part of the railways is of wide rail- track, even though at certain parts (e.g., Borjomi-Bakuriani) it is of narrow rail-track. In the future, carrying cargo by railway will increase as this determines the efficient functioning 176 16 Economy

Fig. 16.7 Formation of railway lines

Fig. 16.8 Railway and automobile roads. 1. Railway, 2 main automobile roads, and 3 other automobile roads

of the Europe-Asia transportation corridor (especially, after 16.5.2 Maritime and Air Transportation construction of Kars-Akhalkalaki railway line). Automobile transport has a vital importance for the popu- Maritime transport has a crucial role in terms of strengthening lation of Georgia and its economy, as it has been the main economic links of Georgia with not only Black Sea states but means of transportation within the state as well as for con- also with the rest of the world. Intensive development of mari- necting with neighboring states. The length of roads in Geor- time transport in Georgia started in 1967 when the special Ba- gia reaches 22,000 km a majority of which is hard surface tumi maritime-shipping unit was created, unifying the marine (Fig. 16.8). The construction of the Tbilisi-Batumi freeway Batumi, Poti, and Sokhumi harbors, several port units, and has a special importance as through this freeway, Georgia tens of maritime industries and support organizations. In the will connect Turkey with Azerbaijan and thus will play a se- beginning of the 1990s, a majority of ships belonging to the rious role in Central Asia-Europe communication. In 2008, shipping unit were sold out or were out of order. Recent trends three times more cargo (27 million t) was carried by automo- have been revealing an increase in the freight turnover due to bile transport in comparison to that in 1996, as the number the gradual activation of the Caucasus transportation corridor. of passengers doubled (263 million). Georgia has already The Georgian Aviation Department is a recently created connected its new partners via automobile roads, and new organization which includes international (Tbilisi, Kutaisi, tourist-commercial routes have been open. Batumi, and Senaki) as well as local (Telavi, Poti, Akhal- kalaki, Lagodekhi, Mestia, Ambrolauri, Tsageri, and others) airports. In 2007, Georgian airlines provided more than half a million persons with transportation services which are 6 16.5 Transportation, Communication and Trade 177 times more than that in 2000. Georgian aviation has been 16.5.4 Georgia Transportation Corridor of gradually increasing its capacity, establishing links, opening Eurasia new routes, and purchasing new equipment. Since gaining independence, Georgia has got a new function as the transit transportation corridor of Eurasia, as revealed 16.5.3 Pipeline and Other Types of Transport by the crossing of the territory of Georgia by various transit oil pipelines as well as the construction of gas pipelines. On The issue of building an oil pipeline on the territory of Geor- March 8, 1996, a special package of agreements, focusing on gia and Azerbaijan linking the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea the construction and exploitation of the Baku-Supsa oil pipe- started to be discussed by the end of the nineteenth century. line was signed. The existing oil pipeline was reconstructed, In 1897–1907, the Baku-Batumi oil pipeline was constructed construction of new lines and maritime terminals was also and exploited for transportation of ready products like kero- started by 11 foreign oil companies. The overall length of the sene. The length of this pipeline is 865 km and its longest given pipeline was 900 km. part is on the Georgian territory. The second Baku-Batumi On November 19, 1999, a special governmental agree- pipeline was constructed in 1925–1930. In 1974, parallel ment on the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (Tur- to the oil pipeline, another 232 km long pipeline was con- key) oil pipeline was signed. The overall length of the pipe- structed between Batumi and Khashuri. In the past oil had line is 1730 km, 225 km of which are on the territory of been carried from Baku to Khashuri by railways and later Georgia. About 50–80 million t of Caspian oil will be carried it was transported by pipeline. Finding a new oil deposit in through this pipeline on an annual basis eastern Georgia enabled the construction of the 426 km long On February 27, 2003, international oil companies signed Samgori-Batumi pipeline. a project putting in motion the Shah-Deniz natural gas depos- In the Soviet period three gas pipelines existed: Karadagh- it and Baku-Tbilisi-Erzerum South Caucasus gas pipeline. Aghstapa-Tbilisi, Vladikavkaz-Tbilisi, and Sochi-Sokhumi. Owing to this project, Georgia will receive 59 million m3 of Natural gas was imported from Russia, Turkmenistan, Azer- gas free of charge; gas will also be purchased at a cheaper baijan, and Iran. Nowadays the main gas provider for Geor- price. It is also calculated that due to the gas import, Georgia gia is Azerbaijan (Fig. 16.9). will save 1 million m3 of timber which is a good precondi- In terms of passenger turnover, the means of city electro- tion for improving the ecological situation in the country. transportation (metro, tram, trolley-buses) play a vital role. On July 13, 2009, the Nabucco gas pipeline project was also Opened in 1966, the Tbilisi metro stays as the most “con- signed according to which Eastern and Central Europe will sumed” means of transportation in Georgia, as its annual receive Central Asian and Azerbaijani gas via Georgia and passenger turnover is 2 million persons. Carrying cargos and Turkey bypassing Russia. This extremely important energy passengers is also done via rope-way which is convenient project will reduce the dependence of Europe on Russia and over short distances and in case of mountainous regions. will increase the energy-transit role of Georgia (Beruchash- Tens of rope-ways for carrying freight (Chiatura, Kutaisi, vili et al. 2012, pp. 178–179). Tkibuli, Tkvarcheli, and Nordi) and passengers (Tbilisi and Borjomi) as well as mixed ones (Sighnaghi, Utsera, Chia- tura, etc.) existed in Georgia.

Fig. 16.9 Pipelines. 1 oil pipelines, and 2 gas pipelines 178 16 Economy

16.6 Communication reational zones can be identified: (1) zone of seaside resorts (from Leselidze to Sarpi); (2) zone of balneological resorts Communication in Georgia has a century old history. The (Nabeghlavi, Tskaltubo, Tsaishi, Menji, Akhtala) spread- first telecommunication network with 120 subscribers started ing till 700 m above sea level; (3) balneological-climate working in Tbilisi in 1893. At the beginning of the twentieth resorts (Borjomi, Sairme, Zvare, Nunisi) and countryside century, postal communication among main cities was pro- tourist routes zone situated at 700–1000 m above sea level; vided by tens of organizations and hundreds of postal boxes. (4) mountain-climate resorts zone (Abastumani, Tsaghveri, Nowadays all the existing means of communication are de- Tsemi, Kojori, Kiketi, Manglisi etc.) situated at 1000–1500 m veloped in Georgia. All the regions are provided with postal, above sea level; (5) mountain-climate resorts (Shovi, Bakh- telephone, and telegraph communication means. Any place maro, Lebarde, Avadkhara, Bakuriani) and mountain-tourist in the world can be connected from Georgia and mobile and routes zone situated at 1500–2000 m above sea level; and internet communication have found a wide use in the country. (6) mountain tourism, mountain-skiing, and mountaineering zone situated at an elevation of 2000 m above sea level. Millions of people spent their vacations at Georgian re- 16.7 Internal Trade sorts, where they were served by more than 500 resort-tourist institutions. More than 120,000 persons could spend vacation In the 1990s, serious changes took place in internal trade in at sanatoriums, resorts, tourist camps, and other types of rec- Georgia. In 1990, state-owned trade represented 95 % of retail reation institutions at the same time. At the moment Georgian trade; nowadays this index characterizes the private sector. In tourism has started its re-development and most probably it 1990, the local market was dominated by locally produced (especially exotic and mountain tourism) will once again be- goods; currently, imported goods are more popular than inter- come one of the main sectors of Georgian economy. nally produced goods. Thus, within a few years a serious evolution took place in the trade of the country. Trade in Georgia is represented in three main forms: state, cooperative, and pri- 16.8.3 Resorts in Georgia vate sectors. Private trade developed without any rules. About 300 small markets and fairs used to function, trading low qual- Resorts of international importance in Georgia can be found ity goods of suspicious origin. Such markets operate in four in plains as well as in mountainous regions (Fig. 16.10). regions of Georgia: Tbilisi, Imereti, Kakheti, and Samegrelo. There are more than 100 resorts out of which some (Bor- Nowadays this form of trade has been improving gradually. jomi, Tskaltubo, Gagra, Akhali Atoni, Bichvinta, Kobuleti, Bakuriani, and Gudauri) are of international importance. Of particular note is the aesthetic environment and comfortable 16.8 Resorts and Tourism climate of the resorts. Those resorts which are situated along the coast of the Black Sea include Gagra, Bichvinta, Akhali 16.8.1 Role of Resorts and Tourism in the Atoni, Kobuleti, Makhinjauri, Mtsvane Kontskhi, and Tsikh- Economy of Georgia isdziri. Leselidze, Sokhumi, Kindghi, Ureki, Batumi, and Gonio, are also important Black Sea coast resorts. A majority of resort-recreation and tourism-recreation re- Georgia is famous for its balneological and balneological- sources can be found in Georgia. If we take into consider- climate (Tskaltubo, Abastumani, Borjomi, Akhtala, Utsera, ation that resources are allocated only on 70,000 km2, then Nabeghlavi, Menji, Lebarde, Skuri, Sairme, Zvare) resorts, Georgia can easily be considered as the richest and most as there are almost all types of mineral waters in the coun- unique state in the world. Georgia is rich in its diverse land- try. The number of resorts exceeds 2000. A majority of such scape, contrasting nature, 315 km long Black seaside, natural waters (65 %) is sour and sulfurous; as for mineralization, all and historical sightseeing, medical and mineral waters, and three types of mineral waters (weak, medium, and strong) glaciers and tops of mountains covered with perpetual snow. can be found in the country. People can also enjoy vari- From this perspective Georgia can easily be considered as a ous mountain and countryside resorts which include Shovi, museum of natural and historical-cultural sightseeing. Thus Tskneti, Kojori, Kiketi, Anglisi, Tsemi, Surami, Bazaleti, Georgia has huge potential to become a country of highly Ujarma, Kvishkheti, Gudauri, and many others. developed tourism and recreation.

16.8.4 Tourism 16.8.2 Geography of Tourist-Recreation Resources Georgia is a tourist state where a tourist can visit various cultural, historical, ethnographic or natural sightseeing places Plains, mountainous regions as well as the seaside in Georgia within a short period of time. One of the conditions of de- are rich in tourist-recreation resources. Several tourist-rec- velopment of tourism in Georgia is the abundance of histori- 16.9 Foreign Relations 179

Fig. 16.10 Resorts of Georgia. 1 Climatic, 2 climatic-balneologic, 3 Balneologic, 4 balneologic- climatic, and 5 mud-bath resorts

cal and cultural values as Georgia is rich in historical monu- er, after being annexed by Bolshevik Russia, Georgia lost its ments. Mtskheta, Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Kartli, right to lead its independent foreign policy relations. Only Kakheti, and high mountainous regions are extremely rich in in 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and regain- such monuments, a majority of which are located near trans- ing independence, did Georgia become a full right member port routes which makes them easier to reach. Certain histori- of the international community and establish close relation- cal monuments are hard to reach due to the lack of good roads, ships with numerous states and international organizations. even though important tourist routes still cross those locations. The independence of Georgia was officially acknowl- The ethnographic diversity of Georgia, especially in its edged by more than 150 states, a majority of which had mountainous regions, attracts foreign tourists. The unique already established diplomatic relations with the country lifestyle and charm of Svaneti, Racha, Mtiuleti, Khevi, (Fig. 16.11). Thirty states have their embassies in Georgia Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, and Pshavi, attracts and 70 more states have ambassadors in Georgia who work many tourists. Natural beauty is also one of the main charac- in combination as their embassies are in other states. In re- teristics of Georgia. The country is famous for its beautiful return, Georgia itself has embassies in more than 45 countries serves, waterfalls, caves (Akhali Atoni, Sataplia, Tsutskhvati, which at the same time cover 40 more states in terms of dip- and Tskaltubo), alps, canyon type gorges (Dariali, Iupshari, lomatic relations. Since 2008, war diplomatic relations with Tvishi, Khrami), natural and artificial water reservoirs, river Russia have been terminated. ravines, and beautiful landscapes which were always visited Georgia is a member of more than 50 international by many tourists. For example, during the peaceful times Lake organizations. It became a member of the United Nations Ritsa was visited by 1.5 million tourists each year. (UN) on July 31, 1992. The country has its representatives in Recently greater interest towards Georgia’s tourist-recre- NATO, OSCE, CE, EU, etc. The country is an active mem- ation resources as well as an increase in the number of visi- ber of BSEC. Fourteen international organizations have per- tors and tourists has been noticed. Tens of tourist companies manent representatives in Georgia. operate and new tourist routes have been created.

16.9.2 Geography of Economic Relations 16.9 Foreign Relations During the Soviet period, the economy of Georgia was part 16.9.1 Geography of Political Relations of the unified Soviet economic complex and thus fully served its interests. Due to this reason, those sectors for which there During the 2500 years of history of its statehood, Georgia has was a high demand in other Soviet Republic states were de- been actively involved in international relations and has had veloped in the country and the need for the import of rel- close political, economic, and trade connections with many evant products was avoided. Consequently, certain sectors states. After becoming part of the Russian Empire Georgia within agriculture (tea, citrus, vine growing, fruit growing, lost its foreign policy functions and did not present the sub- tobacco growing), the food industry, and resorts were well ject of international relations. In 1918–1921, when Georgia developed in Georgia. From heavy industry products, only a gained its independence, which was recognized by 15 other few (electro-wagons, military aircrafts, nitrogen fertilizers, states, the country re-joined international relations. Howev- steel pipes, etc.) were exported from Georgia mainly to so- 180 16 Economy

Fig. 16.11 Diplomatic relations of Georgia. 1 States with embassies in Georgia, 2 States with an ambassador in Georgia, but an embassy in another country, 3 States with diplomatic relations with Georgia (without embassies), 4 Other states, 5 Diplomatic relation is broken off, 6. States where Georgia has an embassy, 7 States where Georgia has an ambassador, but an embassy in another country

Table 16.1 Foreign trade of Georgia. Share of world states in the export and import of Georgia (million dollars 2010) No. Import No. Export Total 5156 Total 1575 1 Turkey 887 1 Azerbaijan 224 2 Ukraine 560 2 Turkey 215 3 Azerbaijan 484 3 USA 180 4 China 335 4 Armenia 159 5 German 330 5 Ukraine 103 6 Russia 290 6 Canada 87 7 Arab Unites Emirate 159 7 Bulgaria 62 8 USA 177 8 Russia 34 9 Romania 141 9 Spain 33 10 Italy 136 10 German 32 cialist and developing countries. Such an economic structure Turkmenistan no longer holds a place among the first ten made Georgia strongly dependent on other republics (mainly trade partners of Georgia unlike years past when it was in Russia), because such important goods as sugar, oil, petro- the first place according to goods imported from there. Since leum, electricity, gas, coal, timber, products of mechanical the 2008 war, the role of Russia in the economy of Georgia, engineering, chemical, and light industries were imported to which was the main trade partner of Georgia, has decreased. Georgia from abroad. Currently, Georgia is experiencing a positive trade bal- After the collapse of the Soviet Union, old economic ance with several states in the world which include Spain, ties were broken and thus Georgia faced harsh economic Switzerland, Iraq, Panama, and Pakistan. However, in gen- challenges and a need to find its place in the world market. eral, the overall trade balance of Georgia is negative, as the Nowadays in Georgia, the main imports are gasoline, various cost of imported goods is much more than the income from types of machinery, and cereals, while a majority of exported exported goods. The geography of foreign trade covers all goods are agricultural and food industry products. five continents. The dynamics of the volume of foreign trade Certain changes have recently taken place in the foreign are characterized with increasing trends and it becomes clear trade geography of Georgia (Table 16.1). In 2011, Georgia that in the future this volume will be much more than it is had trade relations with 110 states (instead of 82 countries today. like in 1996). The main trade partners are Turkey, U.S., Financial support, long term credit, and investment play a Great Britain, Azerbaijan, and Ukraine, and their share in the crucial role in the foreign economic relations of Georgia. In foreign trade of Georgia is 2/3. It needs to be emphasized this respect we have to underline the role of not only foreign that serious traits (number and composition of foreign trade states (first the U.S.), but also of international economic or- partners have changed) as well as numerical (increased sev- ganizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) eral times) changes have taken place in the foreign trade. and World Bank (WB). References 181

Studies in history of Georgia (1970a) vol. 1. Sabchota Sakartvelo, References Tbilisi, 816 p. (In Georgian) Studies in history of Georgia (1970b) vol. 5. Sabchota Sakartvelo, Beruchashvili N, Davitashvili Z, Elizbarashvili N (2009) Geography of Tbilisi, 868 p. (In Georgian) Georgia. Saqartvelos matsne, Tbilisi, 264 p. (In Georgian) Studies in history of Georgia (1973) vol. 2. Sabchota Sakartvelo, Beruchashvili N, Davitashvili Z, Elizbarashvili N (2012) Geography of Tbilisi, 672 p. (In Georgian) Georgia. Klio-Meridian, Tbilisi, 284 p. (In Georgian) Georgia in Figures (2008) Geostat, Tbilisi, 154 p. (In Georgian) Georgia Statistical Review (2011) and (2012) Geostat, Tbilisi, 238 p. (In Georgian). Natural Resources 17

Abstract Georgia has sufficient natural resources including organic (soil, forests, fresh water, marine, and mineral pools), mineral (useful minerals), energy infrastructure (solar and hydro power and thermal springs), and climatic and medicinal resources (medicinal mud, healing mineral and thermal springs, healing climate of individual areas, and sea water). There are eight large reservoirs with a total area of 120.5 km2 and 34 large lakes (the total amount of more than 70 million m3) as well as more than 17 major river basins with a total area of water intake of 41,164 km2.Technical hydropower resources of the large and medium-sized rivers in Georgia are 81 billion kWh/year. There are six large hydropower plants with a total capacity of 5862 billion kWh/year as well as thermal power stations with a total capacity of 682 MW. Georgia is endowed with good quality groundwater, fertile soils for agriculture, mineral resources, favorable сlimate, sea, mountains, and mud and recreation potential. The objective of this chapter is to provide an inventory of these resources and raw materials and discuss their geographical location.

The economic backbone of a country rests on the availability 17.1.1 Reservoirs of sufficient natural resources in order to undertake development and to fulfill needs of business and normal life of As shown in Table 17.1, Georgia has several major reservoirs its inhabitants. Despite its relatively small area, 69,500 km2, with surface area varying from 3.6 to 34 km2, and storage Georgia has sufficient natural resources, including organic capacity varying from 87 to 676 million m3. The morpho- (soil, forests, fresh water, marine, and mineral pools), min- logical characteristics of large lakes are shown in Table 17.2. eral (useful minerals), energy infrastructure (solar and hydro power and thermal springs), and climatic and balneological resources (medicinal mud, healing mineral and thermal 17.1.2 Water Balance of River Basins springs, healing climate of individual areas, and sea water). The objective of this chapter is to provide an inventory of The water balance of major river basins is shown in these resources and raw materials and discuss their geo- Table 17.3. graphical location.

17.1.3 Hydroelectric Potential 17.1 Water Resources Rivers of Georgia are characterized by high hydropower Georgia has adequate water resources in its lakes, reservoirs, potential. Technical hydropower resources of the large and rivers, and aquifers. medium-sized rivers in Georgia are 81 billion kWh/year, of

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 183 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_17, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 184 17 Natural Resources

Table 17.1 Reservoirs of Georgia Name Depth (m) Useful volume The surface of the area (km2) (million m3) Inguri 70 676 13.5 Jinvali 40 370 11.5 Khrami 15 292 34.0 Shaori 7 87 13.0 Sioni 32 300 10.4 Tbilisi 27 290 11.6 Akhaltsikhe 55 525 11.0 Khudoni 55 223 5.2 Tobari 35 100 3.6

Table 17.2 Morphological characteristics of large lakes of Georgia. (Apkhazaxa 1975) Name Administrative Height above Surface area Drainage area Max. Average depth Water volume region s.l. (m) (km2) (km2) depth (m) (m) (million m3) Aduedaadzishi Ochemchiri 2411 0.32 2.3 64 29.6 9.48 Amtkeli Gulripshi 512 0.58 153 65 29.6 18.5 Aragvistavi Kazbegi 2797 0.07 0.14 4.5 2.8 1.97 Arkiani tba Tsalka 1582 0.02 0.28 4.2 2.8 1.97 Bareti Tsalka 1621 1.34 9.3 1.3 0.82 1.6 Bazaleti Dusheti 878 1.34 9.3 1.3 0.82 1.1 Big Bebesiri Gali 15.9 0.61 17.5 4.5 2.3 1.4 Dig Okrotskali Ochemchiri 2421 0.1 2.2 26.5 12.0 1.2 Grdzeli tba Tsalka 1584 0.08 0.41 3.9 2.02 1.63 Khalakhel (Grdzeli) Bogdanovka 2784 0.17 0.98 11.9 6.52 11.1 Djandari Gardabani 291 10.6 102.4 7.2 4.8 51.0 Kartsakhi (Khozapini) Akhalklaki 1799 26.3 158 1.0 0.73 19.3 Kelis tba Kazbegi 2914 1.28 7.56 63.0 27.8 31.7 Kelitsad Kazbegi 3062 0.25 4.51 13.0 8.48 2.12 Lamazi tba Kazbegi 2808 0.11 1.48 16.5 11.4 1.28 Lisi Tbilisi 624 0.47 16.1 4.0 11.4 1.25 Madatapa Ninotsmindaa 2108 8.78 136 1.7 1.08 9.5 Big mtsra Sukhumi 2184 0.15 1.66 42.0 17.9 2.68 Mrude tba Ninotsminda 2545 0.26 7.8 8.3 5.3 1.48 Paltostomi Poti 0.3 18.2 547 3.2 2.6 52.0 Paravani Ninotsminda 2073 37.5 234 3.3 2.42 90.8 Patara Narionali Landchkhuti 13.1 0.17 1.11 1.6 0.88 1.49 Big Ritsa Gudauta 884 1.49 155 101 63.1 94 Little Ritsa Gudauta 1235 0.10 2.95 76 33.8 3.25 Sagamo Ninotsminda 1996 4.81 528 2.3 1.6 7.7 Tabatskuri Borjomi-Akhalkalaki 1991 14.2 83.1 40.2 15.6 221 Tobavarchkhili Tsalendjikha 2650 0.21 1.12 35.0 15.8 3.31 Khanchali Bogdanovka 1928 13.3 176 0.8 0.48 6.4 Tsuteli-khatkhi Akhalgori 2779 0.23 2.42 53 19.3 4.56 Tsourbliani-tba Tsalka 1568 0.12 0.32 3.3 1.82 2.18 a prior to 1991, it was called Bogdanovka 17.1 Water Resources 185

Table 17.3 Water balance of main rivers of Georgia River basin Area Precipitation Drain Evaporation Underground drain (km2) (mln.m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) Bzibi 1502 4021 2963 1058 995 Kodori 2036 5438 4107 1331 1120 Inguri 4062 8285 5921 2364 1732 Rioni (to Kutaisi) 3547 5813 3714 2099 1372 Kvirila 4513 6790 3687 3103 1227 Supsa 1107 2233 1387 846 340 Natanebi 490 1188 810 378 198 Adjaristskali 1540 2649 1687 962 500 Paravani 2278 1535 613 933 380 Khrami (within Georgia) 4481 2862 1047 1815 457 Suramula and prone 719 806 352 453 121 Big Liakhvi 2311 2523 1360 1163 469 Aragvi 2738 3216 1788 1428 701 Iori (within Georgia) 3824 2544 805 1739 347 Alazani (within Georgia) 5462 5957 3109 2848 1284 Tergi/Terek/ (within Georgia) 1964 1337 933 404 355 Tushetis and Pirikita Alazani 868 1126 765 360 309 (within Georgia)

Table 17.4 Hydroelectric power stations During the period 1990–2000, the country was gripped Name of the pool Technical capacity % from technical by an energy crisis. Production of electricity fell by a fac- (billion kWh/year) resources tor of 2 and the consumption increased by 2.2 times. In in- Rioni 19.0 20.4 dustry, it fell 8.8 times and in transport 5.2 times. A similar Inguri 13.4 14.2 trend was observed in agriculture. In 1997, the annual elec- Kura (Mtkvari) 11.6 12.4 trical energy consumption amounted to 14.4 million kWh, Kodori 9.5 10.1 38.1 million kWh in construction, and 384.1 kWh million in Bzibi 4.7 5.0 utilities. The electricity consumption growth was observed Total 5862 62.1 in only residential population to 2.5 billion kWh, constitut- ing 33.5 % of the total consumption expenditure of energy, i.e., 1.5 times greater than the industry, agriculture, transport, which western Georgia has 73 % (59 billion kWh/year) and construction, and community services combined. eastern Georgia has 27 % (22 billion kWh/year). Allocation The hallmark of electric balance of Georgia was also a of technical resources of the large and medium-sized rivers relatively large proportion of losses of the electric power. For in Georgia is given in the Table 17.4. Hydroelectric power example, in 1994, the total consumption of losses amounted stations of Georgia are shown in Fig. 17.1. to 31.3 % of the total consumption and 35.4 % of total elec-

Fig. 17.1 Hydroelectric power stations of Georgia 186 17 Natural Resources

Fig. 17.2 Electricity consumption in the country. (http:// www.inogate.org/index. php?option=com_inogate&view= countrysector&id=120&lang=ru)

tricity production. The electrical systems worked in nonstan- dard and emergency settings, which had a destructive impact on its devices and energy installations. By the beginning of 1995, the power production from plants of all kinds was 4800 k. kW, while the status of power plants with a total power of 1800 kW, i.e., 28.7 %. In those years, the energy crisis reached at its peak. The result was economic destabi- lization, a complete breakdown of discipline in the industry, robbery of power facilities, turnover of qualified personnel, and other negative phenomena (Fig. 17.2). However, the positive developments in the power industry began to show after 2005 when the electricity production increased every year, and in 2009 it amounted to 8278.1 million kWh, an increase of 16.6 %. Accordingly, the volume of imports decreased by 5.5 times and exports increased by 6.2 times. Of the total electricity production in 2005, the share of imports stood at 16.7 %, in 2009 that figure fell to 3.3 %, i.e., more than to five times. In modern conditions of economic development, the balance of power had already seen Fig. 17.3 Diagram of the distribution of energy within the country its surplus. This trend occurred in 2007 and 2009; the surplus reached almost 500 million kWh. Due to reforms in the industry, sound economic policies, and technical assistance solid foundation for the further development of the power in- from the international community, impressive results were dustry of Georgia and the future of the country. The electricity obtained for the last 8 months of 2010 (Fig. 17.3). crisis has been accompanied by a conciliation approach and, The construction of the hydroelectric stations required most importantly, the introduction of false pricing policies, the investments. By October 2010, 20 were in the process as for example, the consumer electricity supply at artificially of implementing projects for the construction of a hydro- reduced rate. In the early years of the 21st century, the situ- electric power station. Their implementation enabled the ation in the industry hardly improved. In years 2000–2004, country to bring power plants with total installed capacity of the electricity production even decreased by 10 % and the 2015.3 thousand kW and an annual electricity 6452.78 kWh. consumption increased by almost 1 %. Thus, the annualized Construction of a number of such stations, new transmission electricity deficit increased to 1.2 billion kWh, that deficit lines, and substations has already started. The implementa- increased three times. The electricity import increased two tion of current and future investment projects will create a times (up to 1.2 billion kWh) (Table 17.5). 17.1 Water Resources 187

Table 17.5 Production and consumption of electricity in Georgia in 2000–2010, million kWh. (Chomakhidze 2001) Year Produc- Including for: Con- Balance tion Hydro Thermal sumption (+) (−) ES ES 2000 7446.0 5953.0 1493.0 7847.0 − 401.1 2001 6942.0 5531.0 1411.0 7296.3 − 354.3 2002 7256.0 6767.0 489.0 7724.7 − 468.7 2003 7163.8 5723.0 1440.0 7898.0 − 735.0 2004 6706.0 5892.8 813.2 7916.0 − 1210.0 2005 6880.8 5850.2 1030.6 7842.8 − 962.0 2006 7419.9 5316.1 2103.8 8114.9 − 695.0 2007 8169.5 6724.5 1445.0 7973.3 + 196.2 2008 8279.1 7053.6 1225.5 8248.5 + 30.6 2009 8278.1 7314.6 963.5 7783.5 + 494.6 2010 6184.4 5898.1 286.3 5766.8 + 417.6 (8 mount) Fig. 17.4 Structure of direct customer’s electricity consumption. (Review of the Energy Market in Georgia)

Table 17.6 General hydroelectric power stations of Georgia Hydroelectric Stations Capacity, milllion Development of mil- kVt lion kVh Table 17.7 Economic potential of rivers of Georgia Chorokhi-1 24 152 River basin Economic potential % of economic Chorokhi-2 24 152 resources Kelvachauri 22.4 144.1 Inguri 10.0 31.7 Kirnati 14.4 96 Rioni and Tskhenistskali 7.0 22.2 Bakhvi 6 35 Kodori 5.3 16.7 Kura (Mtkvari) 43 200 Tushetis Alazani 3.2 10.2 Khudoni 750 1500 Mtkvari (Kura) and 2.2 7.0 Aragvi 8 50 Aragvi Khobi-1 46.5 247 Bzibi 1.5 4.6 Khobi-2 39.5 223 Khrami and Paravani 1.1 3.4 Паравани 78 425 Shaori and Tkibula 0.3 1.0 Cascade 450 1677 Minor Rios 1.0 3.2 Tvishi 100 403 Total 31.6 100 Namakhvani 250 928 Joneti 100 346 Lukhuni-1 10.8 66.07 Lukhuni-2 12 73.58 For the period 2002–2007, electricity consumption in Lukhuni-3 7.5 46.03 the country grew significantly. In 2007, total consumption Квирила 5.2 22 amounted to 7.812 billion kWh, in 2008–8.075 billion kWh, Zoti 36 144 and in 2009—7.639 billion kWh (Table 17.6). Since the end Nenskra 438 1200 of the 1990s, Georgia has been an exporter of electricity to four neighboring countries (Turkey, Russia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia). Construction of the 400 kV line connecting Geor- The total installed capacity of thermal power plants of gia with Armenia has already begun, which should improve Georgia is 682 MW. The power plant is located near Tbilisi, the capacity of transit through Georgia and will transfer to Gardabani district. While in recent years, much of the elec- Russia and Iran. Total exports in 2007 amounted to 628 mil- tricity is produced from fossil power stations in winter or lion kWh (Fig. 17.4). imported from abroad, from the end of 2007 and during the winter months of the year 2008, the situation has changed. First, the main producers of electricity during the winter pe- 17.1.4 Economic Potential of Georgian Rivers riod are now HES.Second, electricity is generated by thermal power plants; only a small amount of energy is imported. In The economic potential of the rivers of Georgia is seen in 2007, electricity produced was 8.17 billion kWh. Table 17.7. 188 17 Natural Resources

17.1.5 Mineral Waters 17.1.6 Hydrogeological Regionalization

Georgia is endowed with rich mineral waters, as shown in Georgia is rich in underground water resources whose char- Table 17.8. acteristics are shown in Table 17.9. Figure 17.5 depicts hydrogeological regionalization

Table 17.8 Brief description of the use of mineral waters of Georgia. (Georgian Natural Resources and Their Rational Use 1991) Deposit District Flow rate (m3/day)/ Chemical composition and min- Use temperature (°С) eralization (grams/liter) Abastumani Adigeni − /41–48 Nitrogen–sulphate–chloride– Balneology sodium–calsium–natrium, M—0.6 Avadkhara Gudauta 75/8–12 Sodium carbonate and calcium- Drinking treat-ment, filling magnesium, M—5–7 Amagleba Vani 345/41 Sodium chloride-natrium, Balneology M—9.9–10.3 Aspindza Aspindza 475/41–42 Balneology Akhaltsikhe Akhaltsikhe 600/38 Balneology Borjomi Borjomi 702/17–32 Balneology, drinking treatment, filling Vajas Tskaro Dusheti − /12 Filling Vardzia Aspindza 288/46–55 Filling Gagra Gagra 825/39–43 Balneology Goridjvari Gori 70/16–30 Balneology Djava Djava 25/1–12 Drinking treatment, filling Zvare Kharagauli 31/13–15 Drinking treatment, filling Zekari Vale 355/36 Balneology Kazbegi Kazbegi − /15 Filling Kvereti Sachkheri 50/15–17 Balneology Kokotauri Keda 10/11 Filling Lebarde Martvili 30/7 Drinking treatment Lugela Chkhorotsku 5/12 Filling Mendji Senaki 535/24 Balneology Mitarba Borjomi 50/21.5 Filling Muashi Lentekhi 50/8 Drinking treatment, balneology Nabeglavi Chokhatauri 55/17 Balneology, drinking treatment, filling Nasakirali Ozurgeti 296/18 Balneology Nunisi Kharagauli 80/27 Balneology Octomberi Kvareli 120/15–30 Balneology Sairme Vani 80/12 Drinking treat-ment, filling Samtredi Samtredia 2767/65–67 Balneology, heat supply Skuri Tsalindjikha 75/17 Balneology, drinking treatment, filling Sulori Vani 230/35–37 Balneology Bosleti Sukhumi 120/35–42 Balneology Tbilisi Tbilisi − /30–65 Balneology, heat supply Tkvarcheli Ochemchira 185/32–39 Balneology Trgvas-Abano Telavi 89/34–37 Balneology Udjarma Sagaredjo 100/45–47 Balneology Utsera Oni 300/6–14 Drinking treatment, filling Khovle Kaspi 60/13 Balneology Tsaishi Zugdidi 1450/26–82 Balneology, heat supply Tskhaltubo Kutaisi 14000/33–35 Balneology Shovi Oni − /8–12 Drinking treatment 17.3 Mineral Resources 189

Table 17.9 Characteristics of underground resources in Georgia (Georgia’s water resources and problems of the sustainable use, in book “Georgia’s Natural Resources and Their Rational Use,” Tbilisi: “Metsniereba (Science),” 1991, pp. 315–446) Hydrogeological area, region Area of the aquifer Natural resources Forecasting-opera- Operating resources (complex) (m3/seconds) tional resources by and artesian basin (km2) (m3/seconds) 1. Area of the groundwaters on crystalline 1960 34.2 16.0 substrate the great Caucasus 2. Water system of crumpled zo-ne of the 19117 221.4 122.0 southern slope of the great Caucasus 2.1. Integrated water system fracture of 1938 29.7 24.0 Abkhazia 2.2. Svaneti integrated water system 5020 69.7 38.0 2.3. Mestia-Tianeti fracture-Karst water system 6674 62.3 27.0 2.4. Kazbegi-Mtiuleti fracture system 4010 38.6 22.5 2.5. Area of the groundwater in fractured rocks 225 4.6 1.5 of Kelasuri array Land use (thousand ha./%) 3. Artesian pools of the intermountain’s deflec- 25920 220.6 130 tion of Georgia belt IV. Area water systems in Adjara-Trialeti fold 9775 73.0 45.1 system Fracture groundwater Artvin-Somhit’s blocks 1630 23.0 17.4 Total of Georgia 62402 573.0 337.5 97.1

Fig. 17.5 Scheme of hydrogeological regionalization in Georgia: 1 ground (fractural) waters crystalline substrate of the Caucasus, 2 water pressure hori- zontals of the crumpled zone of southern slope of Great Caucasus, 3 artesian pools of the Georgian belt, 4 ground water systems of the Adjara-Trialetsi fold zone, 5 groundwater of the Artvin-Som- hitski blocks, 6 hydrogeological region

17.2 Agricultural Land Resources 17.3 Mineral Resources

The distribution of land in different categories is given in The foundation of modern economy of any country rests on Table 17.10. Climatic features of Georgia are shown in the availability of natural resources. Fortunately, Georgia has Fig. 17.6. Features of climate, rich water resources, and considerable natural resources, as shown in Table 17.11. The fertile soils create all conditions for the development of Georgian economy has energy raw materials, as shown in diversified agriculture. Figure 17.7 shows areas of agri- Fig. 17.9, which depicts reservoirs and specific deposits of cultural specialization and Fig. 17.8 shows helioenergetic oil, gas, coal, and lignite. Figure 17.10 shows the geographi- zones. cal location of nonmetallic minerals of Georgia. 190 17 Natural Resources

Table 17.10 Distribution of the Georgia land trust and land (for 1988) (Terior 2002, pp. 210–211) Types of land Land category Square by 1* 2 3 4 5 6 7 category 4606.0/100 2339.7/100 149.9/100 74.1/100 76.4/100 26.5/100 7272.6/100 Arable land 679.9/14.76 2.5/0.11 4.0/2.67 0.4/0.54 – – 686.8/9.44 Perennial crops and plantations 267.1/5.80 3.8/0.16 0.3\0.2 1.1/1.48 – – 272.3/3.74 Virgin land 2.8/0.06 0.1/- – – – – 2.9//0.04 Cultivated land 949.8/20.62 6.4/0.27 4.3/2.87 1.5/2.02 – – 962.0/13.22 Hayfields 164.4/3.57 7.6/0.32 1.7/1.13 0.1/0.14 – – 173.8/2.39 Pastures 1860.9/40.4 55.1/2.36 6.2/4.14 0.6/0.81 – 24.9/93.96 1947.7/26.78 Total agricultural 2975.1/64.6 69.1/2.95 12.2/8.14 2.2/2.97 – – 3083/42.39 land cut Household plots 187.7/4.07 0.2/0.01 0.2/0.13 5.5/7.42 – – 193.6/2.66 Forests 613.9/13.33 2253.4/96.31 4.0/2.67 1.4/1.89 – – 2872.7/39.5 Shrubs 175.1/3.8 – 0.9/0.6 0.5/0.67 – – 177.0/2.44 Swamp 6.1/0.13 2.1/0.09 – 0.1/0.14 – – 8.3/0.11 Land under water bodies 51.0/1.11 4.1/0.18 6.9/4.6 1.1/1.48 55.2/72.25 0.5/1.89 118.3/1.63 Land for roads 83.1/1.8 2.0/0.08 25.7/17.15 11.2/15.11 – 0.1//0.38 122.1/1.68 Land rig, yards, etc. 40.8/0.89 – 63.3/42.23 41.9/56.55 – 0.2/0.75 146.2/2.01 Other 473.2/10.27 0.8/0.38 36.7/24.48 10.2/13.77 21.2/27.75 0.8 550.9/7.58

Fig. 17.6 Climate of Georgia 17.3 Mineral Resources 191

Fig. 17.7 Areas of agricultural specialization of Georgia

Fig. 17.8 Map of helioenergetic zoning. (Terior 2002)

Chiatura’s manganese deposit divides the River Kvirila tons deposited carbonate reservoir or manganese oxide and and its tributaries into individual uplands. Sedimentary rocks oxide ore at the bottom. The general geological reserves of are mainly the mesozoic and palaeogene–neogene age for- manganese ore oxide ore account for 26.5 % and 45.1 % is mations, gently sloping on the northeast angle of 1–6°. The carbonate, oxide is 15 %, and mixed 14.4 % (1986). The total manganese layer consists of a series of metallic layers, al- power is 7.0 0.5 m horizon manganese, and the useful power ternating with streaks of h siliceous rocks. The number of is from 0.5 up to 5–6 m. Present are oxide ores, and per- mineral origin is in a pack of 3–18 and their power is mostly oxide and metallurgical ores. (http://www.mining-enc.ru/ch/ 30–35 cm, but these same limits are changing. The top car- chiaturskoe-mestorozhdenie). 192 17 Natural Resources

Table 17.11 Mineral resources of Georgia. (After Georgia’s Mineral Resources and Their Rational Use 1991 (in Russian)) Mineral resources of Unit of Emerging fields Undeveloped deposits Promising area Total Georgia for the period measure Quantity Stocks Quantity Stocks Quantity The Quantity Resources 1990–2000. [1] projected Declension Balance Projected Balance projected sheet sheet resources 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Fuel and energy raw materials Oil Million 11 – – – – – 1 – 12 – Gas—condensate tons 1 – – – – – – – 1 – Coal 2 358.9 385.0 3 6.8 – 7 360.0 12 1103.9 Lignite – – – 2 76.0 – – – 2 76.0 Peat 7 7 48.5 26 15.7 – – – 35 64.2 Metals Iron ore Million – – – 3 177 60 2 240 5 477 Manganese ore tons 1 216.7 35.0 2 32.0 64.0 2 50 5 397.7 Lead–zinc ore 1 – – 2 – – 2 – 5 – Copper ore 1 – – 6 – – 15 – 22 – Arsenic 2 – – – – – – – 2 – Mercury – – – 4 – – – – 4 – Antimony – – – 2 – – – – 2 – Tungsten – – – 3 – – – – 3 – Molybdenum – – – 1 – – – – 2 – Mining chemical materials Andesitic Million/ 1 4.7 – 2 8.5 – – – 3 13.2 m3 Barite Million 2 3.9 0.7 3 14.8 26.5 3 1.2 8 47.1 Bentonite clay tons 2 17.9 17.0 – – – 8 159.5 10 194.4 Diatomite’s 1 9.6 – – – – – – 1 9.6 Calcites Million 2 6.2 – 1 9.6 – – – 3 15.8 Mineral paints tons – – – 2 0.6 – 1 0.6 3 1.2 Talc 1 2.3 – – – – – – 1 2.3 Zeolites 1 4.5 – 1 1.8 2.0 1 32.0 3 40.3 Nonmetallic raw materials for metallurgy Clay refractory Million – – – 1 2.0 – – – 1 2.0 (Fireclay) tons Dolomites 2 85.4 – – – – – – 2 85.4 Limestone fluxing 2 50.6 – 2 14.2 – – – 4 64.8 Chalcedony 1 3.5 – – – – – – 1 3.5 Ornamental stones Agate Tons 1 1600 – 1 12 – – – 2 1612 Obsidian Million 1 30.1 – – – – – – 1 30.1 tons Natural building materials Decorative cladding Million 35 194.8 – 30 148.6 – – – 65 343.4 Wall stones m3 7 27.3 – 6 8.8 – – – 13 36.1 Limestone for the 20 58.3 – 22 148.6 – – – 42 206.9 production of lime Sand and gravel 36 286.1 – 34 382.1 – – – 70 668.2 Quartz-feldspar sand 5 108.3 – 5 382.1 – – – 10 131.9 Brick clay 24 41.1 – 33 81.2 – – – 57 122.3 Cement clay Million 2 27.3 – 1 40.3 – – – 3 67.6 syrte Limestone tons 2 59.5 – 1 145.2 – – – 3 204.7 Building stones Million 4 79.3 – 23 524.5 – – – 27 603.8 m3 Light weight “” 4 15.9 – 13 200.7 – – – 17 216.6 aggregates Gypsum and gaja Million 2 4.1 – 4 10.3 – – – 8 14.4 tons 17.3 Mineral Resources 193

Table 17.11 (continued) Mineral resources of Unit of Emerging fields Undeveloped deposits Promising area Total Georgia for the period measure Quantity Stocks Quantity Stocks Quantity The Quantity Resources 1990–2000. [1] projected Declension Balance Projected Balance projected sheet sheet resources 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 limestone on similar Million – – – 1 4.0 – – – 1 4.0 to chalk, m3 Roofing Million – – – 1 4.2 – – – 1 4.2 tons Total 188 245 43 476

“Chiaturmanganum” is one of the largest producers of manganese concentrates. According to official figures, the company reserves by categories a + b + c are estimated at 160 million t of manganese ore. In 2003, the volume of ore mining totaled 457 thousand. At the end of the 1980s, the company produced about 3.9 million t of manganese ore. Minister of Economic Development of Georgia, G. Arve- ladze, and General Director of Georgian Manganese (sub- sidiary of British Stemcor), A. Ziltenman, signed an agreement in 2013 on the sale of three major Georgian companies “Chiaturmanganum,” “Ferro Zestaponi,” and “Vartsikhe HES.” Arveladze said that an amount of US$ 132 million would be deposited in the State Budget of Georgia and underlined that the British company would invest in the devel- Fig. 17.9 Chiatura opment of Stemcor on the order of US$ 100 million. In the

Fig. 17.10 Overview map of the coal and oil deposits and geological Adjaria, mountain Kakheti, Imereti, Alazani). 3 unpromising territory, zoning of the territory of Georgia. (Georgian Natural Resources and 4 oil fields: 1 East-Chaladidi, 2 Supsa, 3 Shromisubani-Tskaltsmin- Their Rational Use 1991). Oil:1 Territories perspective for oil and da, 4 Norio, 5 Satskhenisi, 6 Teleti, 7 southern dome of Samgori, 8 gase—the main area the formation of oil: ( I—Colchis, II—Guria, Samgori, 9 Rustavi (gas and condensates), 10 Taribana,11 Mirzaani. III—Kartli, IV—Natsvaltskalis, V—Sud Kakheti); the zone oil and gas Coal:Deposits of coal: 13 Bzibi, 14 Tkvarcheli, 15 Magana, 18 Gelatiе, accumulation: ( а Colkhida, b Guria, с Kartli, d neighborhood of Tbi- 19 Tkibuli-Shaori Deposits of brown coal: 21 Akhaltsikhe, 22 South- lis, e interfluves the Kura (Mtkvari) and Iori), 2 territory not identified Kaketi prospective areas: 16 Kvabia-Gordi, 17 Partskhanakebi, 20 perspectives oil—possible areas of oil and gas accumulation: (West Sinatle-Shkmeri (gas and condensates) 194 17 Natural Resources

Fig. 17.11 Gold. Madneuli gold deposit (http://omedia.ge/ inenglish/portfolio/madneuli/)

Fig. 17.12 Nonmetallic deposits of Georgia (Georgian Natural Re- 27 Shrosha, 28 Akhaltsikhe, 30 Kisatibi, 31 Chordi, 32 Bakuriani, 33 sources and Their Rational Use 1991). 1 barite, 2 diatomite, 3 flux- Chorchana, 34 Abano, 38 Davidgaredji, 41 Kobi, 42 Kazbegi (Ste- ing limestone, 4 talk, 5 serpentenit, 6 zeolite, 7 dolomite, 8 andeztte, pantsminda), 44 Tsitelitskaro. Ore occurrence: 1 Bzibi, 3 Brdzishkha, 9 mineral paints, 10 agate, 11 chalcedony, 12 bentonite clay, 13 Clay 4 Okami, 5 Otkhara, 9 Sakeni, 10 Lakhyntsara, 15 Urashi, 20 Kvilshori, refractory. Deposits: 2 Apsha, 6 Pitsikvari, 7 Tkvarcheli, 8 Gventsvishi, 22 Khvamli, 23 Kirovisi, 26 Lichi, 29 Akhaltsikhe, 36 Tedzami-Khov- 11 Skuri, 12 Khudodi, 13 Khishi, 14 Kudaro, 16 Askana, 17 Vani-Keda, le, 39 Mushevani, 40 Loki, 43 Sadakhlo 18 Matkhodji-Udaluri, 19 Gvedi, 21 Gumbri, 24 Kutaisi, 25 Chishura, next 2 years, it will double the power of the enterprise and improve working conditions, and environmental activities 17.4 Soil and Coal Deposits will be held. According to the memorandum, the company is the owner of the UK Limited Stemcor Consultant Ferroalloy Figure 17.10 shows a map of coal and oil deposits; Fig. 17.11 Plant, acknowledges a tax debt of enterprises of 63 million shows a map of gold deposits; and Fig. 17.12 shows a map (US$ 35 million), and agreed to pay this amount. (Georgia of nonmetallic deposits. Figure 17.13 reflects on the dynam- has sold three of its businesses. //http://www.minerjob.ru/ ics of production and Fig. 17.14 shows 30-day copper pro- viewnew.php?id=7170). duction. 17.6 Mineral Water 195

Fig. 17.13 Dynamics of the production in Madneuli deposit/s (http://omedia.ge/inenglish/ portfolio/madneuli/)

17.5 Building Materials

Building material resources are shown in Fig. 17.15.

17.6 Mineral Water

Figure 17.16 provides an overview of existing and prospective deposit of mineral waters in Georgia. Speaking about the nature of the country and its resources, we cannot fail to mention that an equally important problem is using all these natural resources, without forgetting that the most important one is the preservation of the nature, that is, the future. This is mentioned in the works of the Rus- sian scientist, A. N. Terior. He wrote, “A very interesting initiative was featured in the book “Sustainable Development of the City.” In that he writes, “… for the full restoration of the ecological balance of the new and the natural environment of our planet we have only one way: to get to know her part (about 1/3 of land!) in a natural state. Simple returns as tier areas stranded either extremely complex or simply not possible, given the growth of us barely and urbanized areas. However, it would be possible to replace the return of sustainable integration, builder of urbanized sectors, sustained the Terry biopositive corporate reconstruction of buildings and structures that will create principal new biopositive objects, related to nature. They do not alienate nature and organically included in the genes by ecosystem. Nature will perceive biopositive objects (buildings, construction) as Fig. 17.14 Thirty-day copper naturally related natural objects that gradually will lead to 196 17 Natural Resources

Fig. 17.15 Map of building materials. 1 limestone for the production varzetis, 51 Adjametis (of spongolit’s), 52 Argveti, 53 Zovreti, 54 of lime, 2 brick clay, 3 cement raw materials. Deposits:1 Gantiada- Bosleti, 55 Moliti, 56 Chncharauli, 57 Badjis-khevi, 58 Ambrolauri, I, 2 Gantiadi-II, 3 Tinis khidi, 4 Pitsinda, 5 Otkhara-I, 6 Otkhara- 59 Kvedrula, 60 Lashuri, 61 Motsameti II, 62 Perevi, 63 Sachkheri, II, 7 Volodarskoe, 8 Tavisupleba, 9 Tkvarcheli, 10 Ochemchire, 11 64 Brili, 65 Ali, 66 Mrtrkhi, 67 Kareli, 68 Khtsisi, 69 Azavreti, 70 Djgeri, 12 Achigvara, 13 Dzikhazurgi, 14 Gali, 15 Tsaishi, 16 Tsaishi- Djava, 71 Ortubanis, 72 Kareli, 73 Gomareti, 74 Gori, 75 Korsuisi, II, 17 Tsaishi-II, 18 Nodjis-khevi, 19 Pirveli maisis, 20 Shkhepi, 21 76 Korinti, 77 Kaspi, 78 Mirianis, 79 Kavtiskhevi, 80 Dzegvi, 81 Landchkhuti, 22 Merisi, 23 Djakhandjuri, 24 Chkvaleri, 25 Akhuti, Kavtiskhevi, 82 Kaspi, 83 Saskhore, 84 Napareuli, 85 Jeboti, 86 26 Didi-Chkoni, 27 Matkhodji, 28 Naisokovskoe II, 29 Nosiri, 30 Saskhori-I, 87 Saskhori-2, 88 Iori, 89 Gadabani-1, 90 Gadabani-2, Dziguri, 31 Bardzgnari, 32 Bunikauri, 33 Ledjeri, 34 Muris-khidi, 35 91 Djankhoshi, 92 Gulgulis, 93 Kvareli, 94 Sharbanis, 95 Eretiskari, Lesulavi, 36 Banodji, 37 Tsulukidze, 38 Ukaneti, 39 Isriti, 40 Rokhi, 96 Kakabeti, 97 Kardanakhi, 98 Sagaredjo-1, 99 Sagaredjo-2, 100 41 Tsageri, 42 Ambrolauri, 43 Tkibuli, 44 Djvari, 45 Mitsameti-1, 46 Kan-dauris, 101 Chiatura-I, 102 Chiatura-II, 103 Tsitrlitskaro-I, 104 Chkhari, 47 Navenakhevi-I, 48 Navenakhevi-II, 49 Dzevri, 50 Na- Tsitrlitskaro-II, 105 Milaris

achieving sustainability, MOS formation equilibrium. and as well as an extensive network of small local airports in halt the degradation of the natural environment” (Terior all tourist regions of the country. In addition, there is suffi- 2002, 2005). cient infrastructure (hotels, holiday homes, campings, tourist Among the natural resources that are scarce and the cli- camps, and hunting grounds, etc.) This is also reflected in mate, climatic-balneology, and recreation resources, Georgia Table 17.12. In addition, there are a large number of travel is rich. It has clean and healthy mountain air, and has many companies and travel agencies that have contracts with the thermal and mineral springs, therapeutic mud, and wonder- local population in the accommodation, food and guards, ful complex combination of close mountains and warm sea. horses or jeeps for individual orders or small (4–6 people) Figure 17.17 shows combinations of natural ingredients, groups at their request. making Georgia attractive for many tourists and sightseers One of the sites of nontraditional types of recreational from around the world (Bondyrev et al. 1985). resources is open at the turn of the century (XX-XXI), in It can be seen that Georgia not only has a rich natural po- the village of Dmanisi location of ancient people, which tential, but also has a dense network of roads and railways, dates back 1.8 million years ago (Lordkipanidze et al. 2013; 17.7 Landslides 197

Fig. 17.16 Overview map of the location of the existing and prospec- Abastumani, 60 Akhaltsikhe, 61 Uraveli, 62 Uravi, 63 Skhepuri, 64 tive deposits of mineral waters (Natural Resources of Georgia 1991). Nunisi, 65 Dzviri, 66 Aspindza, 67 Vardzia, 68 Karobi, 69 Gona, 70 I operated oilfield, II prospective sources. Sources (deposits):1 Gagra, Chelula, 71 Sortuani, 72 Tsipileti, 73 Sorgibi, 74 Zvare, 75 Surami, 2 Baklanjvka, 3 Avadkhara, 4 Sukhumi, 5 Tkvatcheli, 6 Zugdidi, 7 76 Likani, 77 Borjomi, 78 Akhaldaba, 79 Shovi, 80 Utsera, 81 Gomi, Tsaishi,8 Mendji, 9 Natanebi, 10 Zvare, 11 Sakeni, 12 Bia, 13 Sat- 82 Gulianta, 83 Chista, 84 Kvereti, 85 Mitsobi, 86 Laberi, 87 Sadgeri, sureyskiro, 14 Khorsha, 15 Petskho, 16 Sakharbedio, 17 Saadamio, 18 88 Nrdzvi, 89 Mitarbi, 90 Gudjareti, 91 Tsikhisdjvari, 92 Keshelta, Kvaloni, 19 Nasakirali, 20 Dzimiti, 21 Ko-kotauri, 22 Namonastrevi, 93 Bagiata, 94 Djava, 95 Tsiklovani, 96 Khvedureti, 97 Elbakiani, 98 23 Lakhamula, 24 Skuri, 25 Lugela, 26 Mukhuri, 27 samtredia, 28 Na- Tkemlovani, 99 Tsinubani, 100 Edisi, 101 Gorisdjvari, 102 Biisi, 103 beglavi, 29 Skelashi, 30 Brcho, 31 Bavari, 32 Lebarde, 33 Tskaltubo, Narzan-vokluza, 104 Pkhelshe, 105 Kobi, 106 Big Mayorsha, 107 34 Zeyndari, 35 Amagleba, 36 Dikhashkho, 37 Ioriti, 38 Soulori, 39 Nadibaani, 108 Khovle, 109 Khadiskhevi, 110 Pansheti, 111 Kazbegi, Danispareuli, 40 Khikhadziri, 41 Mestia, 42 Kashveti, 43 Laskadura, 112 Arsha, 113 Chiriki, 114 Makarta, 115 Pasanauri, 116 Khando, 117 44 Khipuri, 45 Daouguri, 46 Lashichala, 47 Muashi, 48 Simoneti, 49 Tsikhedidi, 118 Bolnisi, 119 Vedza-deda, 120 Vajas-Tskaro, 121 Tbili- Obcha, 50 Kveda Simoneti, 51 Sviri, 52 Argveti, 53 Nikabeeti, 54 si, 122 Udjarma, 123 Togvas-Abano, 124 Chailouri, 125 Octomberi, Zekari, 55 Sairme, 56 Abastumani, 57 Adigeni, 58 Mlashe, 59 Old 126 Gurdjaani

Vekua and Lordkipanidze 2011). In recent years, some phic hominid appearance in Dmanisi and name Homo erec- remains of ancient people have been found. Figure 17.18 tusergaster georgicus shows a reconstruction of one of the recent finds. Science has revealed to the publication of the world’s most complete early representative of the genus Homo skull known 17.7 Landslides to science: extremely small brain (total 546 cm3), huge jaw, extremely brutal, and archaic. Its differences from the One of the destabilizing factors affecting communication other skulls at Dmanisi (all five skulls belong almost to one lines (roads and railways), agriculture, human settlements, population) have prompted researchers to all early Homo and so forth is landslide processes, common in mountainous ( Habilis, Rudolfensis, Ergaster’s) in one highly polymor- Georgia (see Fig. 17.19). 198 17 Natural Resources

Fig. 17.17 Climatic, sea- and haut mountain, mud and recreation potential of Georgia. (The map is based on the Atlas of Georgia 1964, 2001)

Fig. 17.18 Redesigned the appearance of the hominid from Dmanisi (South Georgia) executed by S. Evseev References 199

Fig. 17.19 The danger of landslide processes on the territory of Georgia. Landslide processes and their level of risk to economic activity and population (Berdznishvili et al. 2000)

References

Apkhazaxa IS (1975) Lakes of Georgia. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p. 179 (in Russian) Berdznishvili D, Janelidze T, Tsulukidze I, Tsereteli E et al (2000) The ecological status of underground hydrosphere, geohazards and their prediction. Geology Department of Georgia, Tbilisi, p. 348 (in Georgian) Bondyrev IV, Mikadze IP, Seperteladze ZK, Kharatishvili LA, Tcereteli ED (1985) Natural resources of the Cockish lowland, Tbilisi, 60 p. (in Russian) Georgian Natural Resources and their Rational Use (1991) Metsniereba (Science), pp. 12–13, Tbilisi Terior AN (2002) Environmental infrastructure and the living environment. REFIA, Moscow, p. 357 (in Russian) Terior AN (2005) Ecositi: problems, solutions. REFIA, Moscow, p. 308. (in Russian) Sustainable Development 18

Abstract The notion of “balanced development” requires a fresh look—deliberations—based on the reassessment of valuables, when conscience and not the value of goods and natural resources play a leading role. The well-known expression “… everything is sold, except conscience” reminds us more about the Wild West than humanistic civilization constructing the edifice of future. Concern about the future is just what we are going to hand over to our descendants, not personally to our grandsons and great-grandsons, but to future generations. Having said this, we should acknowledge that modern society is not sufficiently ready to practically deal with, rather than show, putting into practice the concept of “balanced development.” Complicated socio-economic and political dynamics in Georgia have brought about abrupt deterioration. Completely degraded landscapes can be seen in the vicinity of towns. Some of the rivers are amongst the most polluted rivers. Water systems are fully amortized. Pollution of drinking water sources does not exceed acceptable standards. More than 40 % of microbiological tests from some of the water pump stations do not meet the demands of sanitary control. This chapter deals with some aspects of sustainable development.

The concept of “sustainable development,” accepted by the ruined banks and communications at the mouth of the Inguri UN as a working model, cannot be considered as a synonym River, the areas southward from the town of Poti up to the for peacefulness and invariability of geoecosystems. Sus- village of Kobuleti. The poisoned waters of the Mashavera tainability here is more similar to the stability of a pendulum, (below the village of Kazreti), the Debeda (below Alaver- whose fluctuation, though it has a certain range, is not beyond di Dressing-Separation and Mining Enterprise), the Jejora the scope of its amplitude in the usual condition. Thus, a bal- (below the village of Kvaisa), and the Kura (below the city anced development of society and the natural environment of Tbilisi) should be added to their number. It is necessary always occurs in conditions of certain instability which are to differentiate the so called “red zones,” i.e., ecologically the basis of their evolution. The main problem of shaping the disastrous areas. In Georgia, such highly congested and eco- concept of balanced development lies in the determination of logically rather sensitive (“explosive”) mountain regions are those parameters of instability beyond which the stability of Imereti and Atchara. the geoecosystem is broken, and irreversible and disastrous In the South Caucasus, we can conditionally divide trans- natural and anthropogenic phenomena begin to unfold. border ecological problems into several groups. First, there occurs a question about transborder rivers—Mtkvari (Kura) and Alazani (Ganikh). Second is the problem of anthropo- 18.1 Regions of Ecological Disaster genic pollution and change of tendency toward the natural process of development in the sea’s aquatory. Third is the Completely degraded landscapes are especially seen in the problem of exploitation of transborder communications in vicinity of the town of Chiatura and Madneuli Dressing-Sep- complicated conditions of mountainous relief. aration and Mining Enterprise, poisoned by chemical com- Among the most polluted rivers is the Mtkvari (Kura, pounds in the territory adjoining the town of Zestafoni, with Qoral). About 350 million m3 of polluted water comes to its

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 201 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_18, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 202 18 Sustainable Development basin annually from Armenia, about 330 million m3 from Collectively, this is changing the face of landscapes and their Georgia, and 25 million m3 from Azerbaijan. The polluted natural forms (Fig. 18.1). Something different is going on water contains heavy metals, phenols, and oil products. in high mountains (Svaneti, Khevsureti, Syiniki, Shemakha, The Mtkvari on the Georgia–Azerbaijan state border is Mountainous Karabagh, and Talish). Historical traditions of very polluted (371 mg/l, oil products 0.15 mg/l, and phe- construction in the South Caucasus mountains are witness nols 0.03 mg/l). In Azerbaijan itself, the Mtkvari is polluted to this, that villages were constructed on the flat heights of by farm, industrial, and municipal sewage. Here, pollution ridge slopes and thus saved rare areas of fertile soil stratum is growing to as much as 4.1 mg/l, oil products to 0.24– (Cavity between mountains, grove of rivers, old terrace, and 0.30 mg/l, and phenols to 0.04–0.08 mg/l. bottom of paleolakes) useful for farmstead works. The most In 1997, the construction of a transborder gas pipeline ma- transformed are landscapes in the suburban zones of Tbilisi, gistral from Russia to Turkey, the so-called “Blue stream,” Baku, Yerevan, Sumgait, Kutaisi, Rustavi, Zestaponi, Mar- began. It is intended for the export of Russian natural gas to neuli, Batumi, and Poti cities. Some regions have unique Turkey with a volume of 16 billion m3 per year. In addition, examples of construction, organically written in landscape. this pipeline is an ecological danger for landscapes in the transborder Kartsakhi lake region. Furthermore, construction of the railway magistral Akhalkalaki-Kars will begin 18.4 Ecological Catastrophe and Zone soon, which will totally change the environment. of Misfortune

Ecological catastrophes, defined as terrible events with natu- 18.2 Pollution of Ecosystems ral and anthropogenic characteristics, can provoke a fall in the economic development and collapse of ecosystem struc- On the supply of fresh water, Georgia has one of the highest tures from natural (prolonged drought and mass deaths of supplies in Europe, but when it comes to the level of use and domestic animals) or technogenic factors. The result is an provision, it is one of the last. Approximately 50 % of sourc- abrupt and irreversible change in the environment, provokes are around the zone of sanitary protection and water sys- ing mass deaths of organisms and economical damage, col- tems are fully amortized. Pollution of drinking water sources lapse of ecosystems balance and total collapse of structures does not exceed acceptable standards. More than 40 % of as an end, as well as the collapse of the balance of the en- microbiological tests from the water pump station of Tianeti ergy of ecosystems which provokes their degradation and (on the Sioni reservoir) do not meet the demands of sanitary devastation. control. The pollution index is 58 % for Tsageri, 90 % for An ecological catastrophe zone is a territory which cross- Dusheti, and 10 % for Oni. The Mtkvari (Kura) River, which es any permissible level of natural recourse or level of pol- is polluted by various compounds, annually carries 5240 t of lution, which is provoking because even if anthropogenic chemical compounds, 2360 t of fleetly substances, 1500 t of transformation processes stabilize, degradation and demo- oil products, 150 tons of metals, and 110 tons of phenols to lition of natural ecosystems will still continue; collapse of the Caspian Sea, i.e., pollution of rivers is over any permis- benefits from invested powers and materials received for real sible standards by as many as 2 to 13 times. The Araks River production in the territory will still continue; the level of so- is 15 times more polluted. To sum up, this is a peculiar warn- cial tension will still rise and colossal material remedies and ing about the approaching regional ecological catastrophe. finance to help people (international help) will be necessary. In Armenia, the most difficult situation is at the Alaverdi It was, therefore, decided to declare the territory as a zone deposits factory and streams of the Debeda River for irrigat- of ecological misfortune which, of course, is a prerogative ing farmsteads. Of particularly importance is the problem of the state government. Sometimes this judicial formal- of urban residues utilization. The Lilo rubbish station (near ity is unrealized, because the governments have neither the Tbilisi city) has received 2000 m3 every day and 60000 m3 funds nor possibilities for their accumulation from abroad every month since 1989. The total volume of accumulated for realization of every action for definite conditions about urban residues is 9.6 million m3 or approximately 30 million t. the “ecological misfortune zone,” which makes the situation more difficult. It is particularly necessary to note the totally degraded 18.3 Transformation of Space and Growing landscapes in the vicinity of Chiatura town and in the vi- of Cities cinity of Madneuli deposit factory, the chemical polluted territory around Zestaponi and Alaverdi towns, demolished Today, settlements of South Caucasus piedmonts are actively coasts and demolished communications in the estuary of En- growing along the main vehicle magistrales. Gradually they guri, and the coast between Poti and Kobuleti. are connecting and making entirely linear constructions. 18.5 Sustainable Development 203

Fig. 18.1 Dynamic of urban territory on Tbilisi for the past 150–100 years

18.5 Sustainable Development To tackle the problem of balanced development and conservation of biodiversity, consideration of two main factors The complicated socioeconomic and political situation has is necessary: influence of anthropogenic and elemental-de- brought about abrupt deterioration of the natural environment structive processes which are directly bound to each other. in Georgia for the last few decades. All over the country’s for- Probably the best definition of the modern condition of man- ests, wind protecting forest stripes and forest parks have been kind was given by Zabelin (1998a): “… crisis of modern civ- significantly damaged. Fauna resources are quickly destroyed ilization—is the crisis of cattlewise existence of community due to uncontrolled fishery, hunting, and poaching. Many na- of reasonable people.” The concept of firm development is ture conservation and hydrometeorological institutions have not monolithic and consists of three major approaches: eco- been ransacked. The sanitary condition of cities has become nomic, social, and ecological. At present, the economic ap- extremely poor. Significant changes of the natural environment proach is most insignificantly developed. It is based on the in the areas of natural disaster and armed conflicts have been theory of maximum flow of total profit by Khiks-Lindal, observed. State funding of ecological and nature conservation which can be made on the condition of conservation of programs has been considerably reduced. All this requires tak- joint capital by means of which this profit is produced. To ing prompt action for stabilization, and consequent recultiva- say it plainly, it implies optimum use of organic resources tion and reconstruction of natural landscapes of the country. and use of ecological technologies. However, the question 204 18 Sustainable Development is exactly which resource must be saved (physical, natural, that will gradually bring about stability, recovery of lost bal- or human) and to what extent different types of resources ance, and stopping of degradation of the natural environment are interchangeable, to determine their cost, particularly of (Terior website). ecological resources. Here, so many problems arise that situ- It is noted that depending on engineering and geologi- ation becomes a dead end. Two types of capital stability are cal features of soils, this type of construction can be carried often spoken of: weak (stable in time natural and produced out: (1) on declivities with a gradient from 25 to 500, i.e., resource) and strong (unreducible natural resources) (sus- terraced buildings; (2) on landslide bodies for the reason of tainable development…). their stability; (3) frequently flooded areas; (4) buildings and The social approach is directed toward conservation of structures capable of detention mudflows; or (5) artificial the sustainability of social and cultural systems, including “planting of trees and shrubs” on the slopes and creation of the reduction of armed conflicts. It is specifically noted that networks of anchors with additional capacities for artificial for the achievement of these purposes, it is necessary to cre- soil embankment and cultivation of flax and other plants. ate a more efficient decision-making system, taking experience from history into account and encouraging pluralism. The most essential thing is fairness, not only for this genera- 18.6 Aesthetics tion but future ones as well. The ecological approach must ensure the wholeness of An artificial increase in the ecological efficiency of architec- biological and physical natural systems and most impor- tural landscape planning of the territory is impossible with- tantly, the viability of ecosystems. Coordination of these ap- out using aesthetic characteristics of landscapes and their proaches and their direction toward concrete actions: “…is emotional-moral evaluations. Only in this case, the operation the problem of enormous difficulty, as far as all three ele- of not only the landscape itself but its components will serve ments of sustainable developmentmust be considered keep- to reveal the main system nodes, capable of not only containing balance. Important are as well mechanisms of interac- ing architectural and engineering objects, but also becoming tion of these three concepts” (Zabelin 1998b). stronger, more beautiful and, more importantly, retaining its The peculiar natural environment of Georgia is revealed main functional quality—reproduction of biota. in diversified landscapes existing on a comparatively small Mankind must urgently change its own priorities and territory, with significant aspectual variety of animal species moral, political, and technological principles for the sake and vegetative cover that presents itself as a reserve of stabil- of survival. It must learn to conceive and think in another ity of local ecosystems in the event of incidental disastrous way, since without this we will have no future and the bell phenomena. At present, mountainous ecosystems of the re- will just toll. Probably the notion of “balanced development” gion undergo the cruelest pressing of exogenic geodynam- requires absolutely new deliberations based on the reassess- ics aggravated by anthropogenic factors. This process is ob- ment of valuables, when conscience and not the value of served worldwide, though it develops at a different rate. To goods and natural resources play a leading role. The well a considerable extent, the process of degradation of natural known expression “… everything is sold, except conscience” ecosystems (landscapes) is caused by planned management reminds us more of the Wild West than humanistic civiliza- (or truthfully by mismanagement) by man. tion constructing the edifice of future. Concern about the fu- A very interesting initiative is found in a book by A. N. ture is just what we are going to hand on to our descendants, Terior [web link] “Sustainable development of city”. He not personally to our grandsons and great-grandsons, but to writes: “…for complete restoration of the ecological balance future generations. Having said this, we should acknowledge in the natural environment of our planet there is only one that modern society is not sufficiently ready to deal with, way: lands should be returned to their (about 1/3 of lands) rather than show, putting into practice the concept of “bal- natural condition.” A simple return of lands is either very anced development.” complicated or simply impossible considering the growth of population and urbanized territories. However, we envisage land replacement by sustainable building construction, ecol- References ogization of urbanized territories by biopositive reconstruction of buildings, and structures that will allow the creation Terior AN Sustainable development of city. //www.leadner.ru/tet/t18. of principally new biopositive objects related to nature. They hum Zabelin IM (1998a) Physical geography in the modern science. will not be torn away by nature and will be organically inte- Мoscow, Misl (Thought), 232 p grated into natural ecosystems. Nature will perceive bioposi- Zabelin IM (1998b) Time, time to lose. Moscow, SEU , 1998, 246 p tive objects (buildings, structures, city) as natural objects Global Warming and Climate Change 19

Abstract Like the rest of the world, global warming and climate change are also affecting Georgia’s climate, ecosystem, and hydrologic cycle. The western part and highlands of the territory of Georgia seem to exhibit a trend toward warming, weakened by the influence of Black Sea. The situation is quite different in eastern Georgia, in which a constant rise of air temperature is registered, on average of 0.006 °C per annum, and a reduction of rainfall during summer (12–15 %). These changes are going to have serious implications for the ecosystem and the economic development. It is, however, not clear as to how to cope with the detrimental impacts of climate change. It is not a problem caused by Georgia. It is a global problem caused globally and must be dealt with globally. This chapter discusses some of the effects of climate change in Georgia.

Like the rest of the world, global warming and climate (Colchis) to −2 °C (Kartli’s plain), and in July + 26 to 27 °C. In change are also affecting Georgia’s climate and hydrologic mountains, the temperature sharply falls to −18 °C in January cycle. This chapter discusses some of the effect of climate and goes up to + 12 °C in July. The average amount of annual change in Georgia. rainfall ranges from 300 mm in the east to 2800 in the west. If the infrastructure today led to warming in the western part of Georgia, then it could be alleviated through softening by the 19.1 Warming Trend Black Sea. In eastern Georgia, on the contrary, there has been a sustained rise in temperature on an average of 0.006 °C in Climate warming all over the planet, as it is ambiguously an year and a reduction in the amount of precipitation in the estimated both by climatologists and scientists of allied sci- summer period (12–15 %). It is opined that the change in cli- entific disciplines, is characterized by the unevenness of its mate in eastern Georgia and desertification processes caused spatial–provisional dynamics (Fig. 19.1). The best example by the change are largely of anthropogenic origin. of this is the western part and highlands of the territory of Georgia which have a trend toward warming, weakened by the influence of the Black Sea. The situation is quite different 19.3 Climate Diversity in eastern Georgia, within which a constant rise of air temperature is registered, on an average of 0.006 °C per annum, Climate diversity is determined by its location at the northern and a reduction of rainfall during summer (12–15 %). rim of the subtropical zone between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea on the one hand and by its particularly complex topography on the other. Numerous mountain ranges differ- 19.2 Climate ing in height and direction play an important part in mold- ing the climate. The Black Sea and the Caucasus range sig- The climate in most of the country is subtropical. Average nificantly influence local climatic conditions. The Caucasian air temperature in the flat part fluctuates from 30 °C (Kolkh- barrier protects Georgia from cold air intrusions from the ida) up to −2 °C (Kartli’s plain) (Fig. 19.1). The average air north, while the influence of warm, moist air from the Black temperature of the flat part in January fluctuates from + 3 °C

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 205 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_19, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 206 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

19.4 Formation of Climate

The climate, typical of moderate and subtropical belts, is influenced by atmospheric processes that evolve in the territory of Georgia and its neighboring countries. Arctic and tropical air masses, both marine and continental, are also important. During the warm season, convectional processes play a role in shaping the weather. It is noted that the territory under study shows highly contrasting air temperatures (Fig. 19.2). Districts of Moist Maritime Subtropical Climate Fig. 19.1 Change of mean minimum (a) and maximum air temperatures in the city of Tbilisi for the last 100 years. 1 norm, 2 trend (Geog- 1. Marine wet climate with soft, warm, snowy winters, and raphy of Georgia on web) hot summers: a. Excessively humid area, with prevailing winds from Sea moderates temperature fluctuations and is conducive to the sea high precipitation rates, especially in western Georgia. b. Humid area, with a well-marked monsoon winds c. Moderately humid area, with permanent Northern winds 2. Moderately humid climate with relatively cold winters and relatively dry and hot summers:

Fig. 19.2 Climate map of Georgia (Georgian Centre of investigation of climate) 19.5 Factors Affecting Climate 207

a. Humid climate with very cold winters and long cool continental climate region (eastern Georgia) and transitional summers, well built arid subtropical-to-moderately humid climate subregion (the b. Humid climate with cold snowy winters and short central steppe part of the southern highlands). summers The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the c. Humid climate with humid high mountain climate nation’s relatively small size. There are two main climatic with eternal snowing and glaciers zones roughly separating eastern and western parts of the 3. Moderately humid subtropical region (Eastern Georgia): country. The Greater Caucasus mountain range plays an a. Moderately dry steppe climate with hot summer important role in moderating Georgia’s climate and protects b. Moderately hot, transition to moderate wet, hot sum- the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the mers north. The lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the c. Moderately humid, with moderately cold winters and region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the long warm summers south (Table 19.1). d. Moderately humid, with long cold winters and cool summers e. Transitional from humid maritime to moderately 19.5 Factors Affecting Climate humid continental with cold snowy winters and long summers Georgia’s climate is affected by subtropical influences from f. Transitional from humid maritime to moderately the west and Mediterranean influences from the east. The humid continental with long cold winters and short Greater Caucasus range moderates local climate by serving summers as a barrier against cold air from the north. The relatively g. Moderately humid climate with cold winters and short small territory covers different climatic zones, which are de- summers termined by the distance from the Black Sea and by altitude. h. Alpine moderately humid climate without this summer The climatic zones range from humid subtropical to eternal i. Alpine climate with eternal snows and glaciers snow and glaciers. Georgia is divided into two different cli- 4. Moderately humid subtropical Highlandclimate, transi- matic regions: the western part, which is humid, warm; and tion to moderately dry climate: the eastern part, which is moderately warm and has conti- a. Moderately cold with wet winters and long warm sum- nental climate. Precipitation and humidity are more preva- mers lent in western Georgia as the region is influenced by the b. Mountain steppe climate with cold snowy winters and Black Sea. In Georgia we find almost all types of climate: long, fairly hot summers beginning with frosty climate due to the main permanently c. The climate of the mountain steppes with short sum- snowy Caucasian rocks and glaciers and ending with coastal mers and long winters with little snow humid subtropical climate due to the Black Sea and conti- d. Moderately dry climate of the high mountains without nental climate of east Georgian valleys. this summer e. Boundary of climatic regions f. Boundary of climatic sub-district 19.5.1 Western Georgia g. Boundary of climatic subzones The interaction of atmospheric circulation and radiation fac- Along the Black Sea coast, from Abkhazia to the Turkish tors in the territory give rise to fairly sharp contrasts in terms border, and in the region known as the Kolkhida Lowlands of humidity. The maximum precipitation zones vary from inland from the coast, the dominant subtropical climate fea- 300 to 500 mm to 3500 mm in western Georgia and from tures high humidity and heavy precipitation. Several variet- 1200 to 3500 mm in eastern Georgia (Fig. 19.3). The highly ies of palm trees grow there. Midwinter average temperature rugged terrain transforms general atmospheric circulation in here is 5 °C and the midsummer average is 22 °C. a specific manner, and gives rise to enough variation in the values of various meteorological factors to permit a clear classification into three different climatic regions in the terri- 19.5.2 Eastern Georgia tory of Georgia. In terms of solar radiation regime, Georgia constitutes a part of the subtropical zone. By the pattern of The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influ- atmospheric circulation and the related weather conditions, ence of the Black Sea by the Surami mountains that provide Georgia is divided into two climatic circulation regions a more continental climate. The average temperature here is and one subregion: (1) maritime subtropical humid climate 20–24 °C in summer and 2–4 °C in winter and the humidity region (western Georgia); and (2) transitional subtropical-to- is low. 208 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

Fig. 19.3 Annual rainfall and air temperature (Atlas of Georgia 2007)

19.6 Agroclimatic Districts 19.7.1 Drainage

The territory of Georgia is divided into eight agroclimatic The territory of the country is cut by a dense network of rivers districts: (1) southeastern parts of the Black Sea coast; (2) originating from numerous glaciers or underground sources. northeastern part of the Black Sea coast; (3) Colchie lowland In total there are over 20,000 rivers and their tributaries, of and elevated places situated near it; (4) front mountain plac- which more than 99 % are small rivers (25 km in length). The es of western Georgia; (5) plains of east Georgia; (6) front major rivers are the Rioni, Chorokh, Inguri, Kodori, Bzyb, mountain districts of east Georgia; (7) mountainous areas of Supsa, Alazani, and Iori. The density of the river network is the Caucasioni (Great Caucasus); and (8) mountainous part 0.8 km/km2. The density is 1.07 km/km2 in western Georgia of South Georgia (Fig. 19.4). and is 0.67 km/km2 in eastern Georgia (Table 19.2).

19.7 Hydrography 19.7.2 Groundwater Resources

The basic watershed between the basins of Black Sea and The volume of fresh underground water reserves of Georgia Caspian Sea is derived from the Upper Imereti (Dzirula) is about 18 km3 from which two-thirds is in the western ter- massif, more truly, by its highest part to an anticline Sura- ritory. The most important sources of fresh groundwater are mi or Lihski’s ridge, is submeridional and is dissymmetric karst arrays. Their total number is greater than 50, and an (more close to its eastern block). The ridge height is 1200– average annual production is 100 L/s (Geography of Geor- 1300 m above sea level. gia, website). 19.7 Hydrography 209

Table 19.1 Average monthly and annual temperature for the period 1881–1960 (c) gives an idea of the climate in various parts of Georgia Region I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Year Tbilisi 0.9 2.6 6.6 11.9 17.3 21.1 24.4 24.2 19.6 13.8 7.6 2.8 12.7 West Georgia 5.2 5.8 19.4 12.9 17.9 21.0 23.2 23.6 20.5 16.4 11.5 7.5 14.5 East Georgia 0.5 1.9 5.7 11.1 16.0 19.6 22.9 23.0 119.5 13.1 7.0 2.5 11.8 South Georgia − 2.1 − 0.8 3.0 19.4 13.6 16.8 19.8 20.1 15.8 10.2 4.5 0.0 9.1 Mountain − 0.6 − 4.6 −0.5 5.2 11.0 14.0 16.4 16.3 12.0 7.1 1.6 −4.1 5.7 region Coastal zone 5.8 6.7 9.3 12.7 17.2 20.8 23.5 23.8 20.5 16.6 11.6 19.4 14.7

Fig. 19.4 Agroclimatic zoning of Georgia. Subtropical zone: I humid soft (− 140 to 160 s), orchards, grapes early species, wheat, rye, corn, subtropical (≥ 40,000), wetlands (≥ 1.20), tea, citrus fruits, laurel, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables, Japanese kariya); V moderately warm grapes, nuts, olives, Kiwi fruit, tobacco, rice, vegetables and gourds); (30,000–20,000), humid (1.00–0.60), soft (− 160 to 180 c), gardening II dry subtropical (≥ 40,000), with droughts and severe droughts (0.25– (apples, plums), wheat, rye, barley, maize, early potatoes, vegetables), 0.20), warm ≥ − 120 °C, grapes, flowers and gardens, Kiwi fruit, wal- VI moderated transition (15,000–20,000), sufficiently (1.00–0.80) and nut, olive, cotton, wheat, maize, vegetables, and melons; III transitional strongly (1.2–1.60) moist, moderately soft (− 180 to 200 °C), Frost- from subtropical to temperate (≥ 3500), quite humid (− 0.6 to − 1.0), tolerant varieties of apples and plums, potatoes, barley, corn, and with small droughts (0.35–0.25), moderately warm (− 12 to 140 °C), greens. Cold zone: VII moderately cold (1500–10,000), heavily wet- grapes, horticultural crops, walnut, Laurel, wheat, corn, tobacco, sugar ted (1.20–1.00), moderately cold (− 200 to 220), early potato varieties, beet, vegetables, and gourds). Temperate zone: IV warm (30,000– barley, rye, and greens. VIII cold (≤ 10,000) heavily wetted (1.20–1.00), 35,000), quite humid (1.00–0.60) and moderately humid (0.6–0.45), cold (− 22 to 240 s), subalpine and alpine meadows (Gagua 2013)

Table 19.2 Mid-annual runoff of the basic rivers of Georgia (taking into account water saved up in water basins) (Gigineishvili 2000) River reservoir S basin (km2) Sediment runoff (th. t.) Weighted Total (bottom) Inguri–Dzvari 3170 2826 3046 Rioni–Gumati 3570 6975 7770 Tkibuli–Tkibuli reservoir 49.4 77.5 124 Ladjanura–Ladjanura reservoir 287 164 288 Kura (Mtkvari)–Avchala 20,800 4717 4915 Aragvi–Avchala 2740 1026 1352 Iori–Tbilisi sea 970 310 442

19.7.3 Glacial Resources amount is upward of 3.32 km3 waters, and the useful volume is 2.27 km3. Today, more than 50 big, average, and small In Georgia, the accumulated glacier water resources are more water basins are available, with a total area of 169.5 km3. than 30,100 million m3, of which 22,462 m3 is glaciers in the Inguri river basin (Table 19.3). In water basins the saved 210 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

Table 19.3 Water stocks in glaciers and a glacial drain in pools of the rivers of Georgia. (Gigineishvili 2000) Basin The freezing area (km2) Height to firn lines (m) Water stock in glaciers (km3) Natural glacial drain (million m3) Bzibi 7.8 2800 0.11 32.0 Kekasuri 1.8 2810 0.02 5.0 Kodori 60.1 3000 1.35 171.0 Inguri 2819.0 3240 15.6 550.0 Khobis-tskali 1.6 3100 0.02 6.0 Tckhenistckali 12.9 3290 0.29 15.1 Rioni 50.0 3360 1.35 719.5 Big Liakhvi and Aragvi 19.2 3400 0.12 119.0 Terek (in part to 513.0 23.8 998 Georgia)

19.7.4 Natural Processes but also the washout of some chemical compounds from soil (nitrogen and potassium) occurs, reaching 100–445 nitrogen In the territory of Georgia, the undermining and washing per 1 ha of tea plantation. Typical subtropical conditions, out of coasts and accumulation of alluvial material play the such as high mean annual temperature and a great amount of main role in the general manifestation of natural processes. precipitation, in mountainous and high mountainous relief of The Rioni, Alazani, and Kura rivers (downstream reaches) the region, intensify the processes of river erosion and abla- flow in the riverbeds completely packed by their own allu- tion. From 1930 to 1986 general drainage area of the Black vium situated at a height 1–1.5 m and above the adjoining Sea river basins of the Caucasus formed about 75,000 km2, plain. Besides, such processes play a significant role in plane but their average annual runoff was 43 km3. In the Black ablation, chemical weathering, swamping, and inundation Sea river basins there are 32,198 rivers in the territory of (Fig. 19.5). Some of these processes can have disastrous Georgia, with a general extent 75,550 km (61 % of which is consequences. Processes of plane ablation are stipulated not in Western Georgia) and 600 lakes. The total mean annual only by the influence of surface runoff, which is about 2–5 % river runoff forms about 55 km3 and runoff is 24.2 L/s//km2. of the total amount of precipitation, but by subsurface drain- Disastrous floods are connected either with sharp warming age as well reaching about 8 %. after snowy winter and intensive snow thawing or with water In humid subtropical conditions, surface ablation carries breaking out of dammed lakes in the nival glacial zone. away about 45–100 t of masses of ground from 1 hа into Before irrigation measures were implemented in the the sea. Here, not only does erosion of soil horizon occur middle of the last century in Colchida lowland, inundation

Fig. 19.5 Kodori river 19.7 Hydrography 211 occurred over and over again. As a result, disastrous floods in the Kura River basin (Fig. 19.6). Thus, on 11 July 1967 on the Rioni river during 1811–1812 reduced the population in eastern Georgia, river banks broke, flooded all sowings, in Imereti region to 30–35 %. The data of later years show destroyed a number of villages, and inflicted great damage that the rise of water level in the Rioni river stipulated by the to economy of these regions. In 1968, ample rains along with first aforementioned reasons reached 9.6 m in 1839, 2–3 m hail-triggered landsliding in Borjhomi Gorge blocked the in 1911, and 2.8 m in 1922 (water discharge was 2420 m3/s), Kura river valley. The breakout of bulkhead brought about but 7.7 m in 1968 (water discharge was 5220 m3/s). As a re- the disastrous rush of water (discharge formed 2450 m3/s). sult of inundation in 1982, 132 km2 of territory was flooded, About 1000 km of levees were constructed in Georgia for inflicting damage worth US$ 12 million. protection from floods, but they were only effective with- The flood in 1962 in Adjaria was disastrous and was in certain limits. Disastrous flood waters destroyed dams, caused by the steady downpour, when in 2 days there was and their powerful currents carried death and destruction about 350 mm of precipitation. The water level in rivers (Figs. 19.7 and 19.8; Table 19.4). rose by 3–5 m and the width of overflow on the Chorokhi The above are the main characteristics of large and me- and Adjaris-tskali rivers was 240 m. One of the powerful dium lakes of Georgia, as well as most of the reservoirs disastrous freshets happened in January–February 1987 on (Fig. 19.9). the Rioni river (Colchida lowland). Never-ending torrential rains (up to 500 mm/day) caused by the melting of snow caused a rise in the water level in rivers by 4–5 m. As a result 19.7.5 Lakes of the destruction of defensive dams there occurred flooding of 200 km2, that damaged about 3200 buildings and com- As a result of violent earthquakes, block landslides, colossal pletely destroyed 2000 dwellings and 650 public construc- mudflows (including glacial), and glacier shifting, retaining tions, 1500 hydrotechnical erections, 16.5 km railway tracks, lakes are occasionally formed on mountain rivers. Some of 1300 km motor roads; destroyed 1100 km of power trans- them have already existed for a long time (Ritsa, Amtkeli, mission lines and 700 km communication lines, and about Kvedrula), but the time of their existence varies from a few 16,000 people were evacuated. The total damage was about days (Devdoraki and Tergi) to some months (Table 19.5). $ 300 million. The risk of catastrophic floods and floods is particularly In 2006, heavy floods in the river basins of western Geor- pronounced, as in the example of the Jinvali reservoir situat- gia undermined banks and destroyed many kilometers of car ed on the Aragvi river (eastern Georgia, Caspian Sea basin). roads. Repeated disastrous floods and freshets were noted It lies 35 km northwest of the capital of Georgia, Tbilisi.

Fig. 19.6 Valley to Alazani river near Dedoplistckaro 212 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

Fig. 19.7 Drainage of the rivers of Georgia

Fig. 19.8 a Sources of Inguri river (Svaneti). b River Kabali (Rfkheti)

Table 19.4 Water balance of the principal basins of major rivers in Georgia Basin of rivers The area of its drainage Precipitation Runoff (million m3) Evaporation (million m3) Ground water runoff basin (km2) (million m3) (million m3) Bzibi 1502 4021 2963 1058 995 Kodori 2036 5438 4107 1221 1120 Inguri 4062 8285 5921 2364 1732 Rioni (on Kutaisi) 3547 5813 3714 2099 1372 Kvirila 4513 6790 3687 3103 1227 Supsa 1107 2233 1387 846 240 Natanebi 490 1188 810 378 198 Adjaristckali 1540 2649 1687 962 500 Paravani 2278 1535 613 933 380 Khrami (in Georgia) 4481 2862 1047 1815 457 Suramula and Upper Prone 719 806 362 453 121 Big Liakhvi 2311 2523 1360 1163 469 Aragvi 2738 3216 1788 1428 701 Iori (in Georgia) 3824 2544 806 1739 347 19.7 Hydrography 213

Table 19.4 (continued) Basin of rivers The area of its drainage Precipitation Runoff (million m3) Evaporation (million m3) Ground water runoff basin (km2) (million m3) (million m3) Alazani (in Georgia) 5462 5957 3109 2848 1284 Terek (in Georgia) 1064 1337 933 404 355 Tushetis and Pirikita 868 1126 766 360 309 Alazani

Fig. 19.9 Jinvali reservoir

Table 19.5 Some characteristics of a number of lakes and reservoirs of the Georgia Names Area (km2) Drainage area (km2) Depth (m) Capacity (Million m3) Ecological status and the basic contaminants (mg/L) 2+ + + 2− Mg Na + К SO4 Nitrates Lakes Pharavani 37.5 234 3.3 90.8 2.94 12.03 19.60 Kartcakhi 26.3 158 1.0 19.3 (Khozapini) Paliastomi 119.2 547 3.2 52.0 Tabatckuri 14.2 83.1 40.2 22.1 Khanchali 13.3 176 0.8 6.4 Djandari 10.6 102.4 7.2 51.0 Madatapa 19.78 136 1.7 9.5 Sagamo 4.81 528 2.3 7.7 2.81 12.31 19.10 Great Ritca 1.49 155 101 94.0 Bazaleti 1.22 14.4 7.0 5.55 Keli 1.28 7.56 63.0 31.7 Amtkeli 0.58 153 65.0 119.5 Lisi 0.4–1.5 7.4 3.2 1.0 The Turtle lake 0.2 3.5 2.7 0.2 Abuli 0.8 19.3 1.3 0.65 Baraleti 1.4 9.3 1.3 1.1 Bugdasheni 0.4 69.3 0.9 0.45 Dark Вlue 0.1 2.6 1.9 0.1 Lake Water basins (reservoirs) Tcalka’ 33.7 1047 9.3 313.0 0.30 0.31 0.14 0.098 Djvari (Inguti’) 13.5 3170 81.5 1093.0 Jinvali 7.33 1859 102 520 Shaori 13.0 126 7.0 90.6 Tkibuli 12.1 212 7.0 84.0 Sioni 10.4 567 31.4 325.0 0.40 0.26 0.08 1.440 214 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

Table 19.5 (continued) Names Area (km2) Drainage area (km2) Depth (m) Capacity (Million m3) Ecological status and the basic contaminants (mg/L) 2+ + + 2− Mg Na + К SO4 Nitrates Tbilisi sea 11.8 1008 26.2 3019.0 1.02 1.23 0.035 1.950 Gali 19.2 3336 17.7 145.0 0.43 0.22 0.09 1.440

Fig. 19.10 Comparative data on the plazas and the depth of the major lakes of Georgia

The width of the reservoir is 415 m and the depth is 102 m erosion washes away about 1.8–2.1 % of arable land and sub- (Fig. 19.10). sequently reduces about 20–32 % of territories under crops. While the area of the water surface is 773 million m2, the Before passing to the description of separate types of soils of capacity is 520 million m3 (Gigineishvili 2000; Gavardash- Georgia (Table 19.6), it is necessary to conform to the soil vili 2001). According to the Georgian Water Management terminology used in the former USSR from the international Institute, a situation may occur for territories being flooded standard. as a result of an accident at the Zhinvali earth-fill dam where “…Caucasus a natural soil museum”—these words be- the mass of water can go through the central part of Tbilisi long to the founder of the genetic soil science (Dokuchaev and flood the suburbs, Rustavi. Thus, the bursts of glacial 1899). More than 40 soil types have been identified in the lakes in the valleys of Devdoraki, Amali, and Gveleti gla- territory of Georgia. This is a result of complex bioclimat- ciers (the Tergi river basin) have repeatedly brought about ic and different lithologic and geomorphologic conditions. disastrous floods. A similar situation took place at the burst Some of the soils were first described in Georgia and only of retaining lakes in the Rioni river upper course, as well afterward discovered in many other countries. The diverse as in the basins of the Gordjomi, Atsgara, Skhaltba, Patsa, conditions of soil formation are affected by human activities Khakhieti, and Dzhruchula rivers (Fig. 19.11). of different durations on the soils. In some regions of Geor- In southern and southeastern Georgia, large floods have gia, the cultivation of soil with the frequent use of water- been noted on the Paravani river and in the Khrami river ing has a history of many centuries, while there are regions basin. Activity of high waters, 2–3 times, exceeds indices of where the cultivation of soil has been conducted for only a past years on the shallow water rivers of this area. century. As a result, a number of main principles of modern soil science have been developed. The vertical ash value of soils was discovered in Georgia. The foundations of the 19.8 Soil and Processes of Degradation theory of provinciality and foothill ash value of soils were laid and the notion of the soil metamorphism was formed According to Worldwide Bank data (http://www.worldbank. (Urushadze et al. 2000). The main soils have the following org/en/country/georgia), for the last 15 years the area of characteristics (Fig. 19.12): eroded lands in the region has increased 2.1 times. Annual Red soils: red color, clayed, and usually powerful profile; 19.8 Soil and Processes of Degradation 215

Fig. 19.11 Some lakes of Georgia

Table 19.6 Conformity of names of soils of Georgia with indexation and classification FAO-WRB. (Machavariani 2008; Urushadze et al. 2000) No. Type of soils Indexation FAO-UNESCO Classification WRB-FAO 1 It is mountain-meadow, primitive; peat Mountain meadow Leptosols; leptosols and histosols 2 Mountain-meadow-forest Mountain forest meadow Humic cambisols 3 Mountain-l meadow-chernozem various Mountain meadow chernozem like Humic leptosols 4 Brown: the sour, opodzolenye; poorly non Brown forest Dystric cambisols; dystric cambisols; saturated eutric cambisols 5 Black-brown Brown forest black Humic cambisols and phaeozems 6 Dernovo-karbonatnye; terra-rossa Raw humus calcareous; terra-rossa Rendzic leptosols; rhodic cambisols and luvisols 7 Mountain chernozems Mountain chernozems Chernozems 8 Chernozems (black) Vertisols Vertisols 9 Brown Cinnamonic Eutric cambisols, calcic kastanozems 10 Meadow -brown Meadow cinnamonic Calcaric cambisols and calcic kastanozems 11 Gray-brown Gray cinnamonic Calcaric kastanozems 12 Gray soils Meadow gray cinnamonic Calcic vertisols 13 The salted: solontzi, saline soils Salt soils: solonetz; solonchak Solonetz; solonchak 14 Yellow-brown Yellow brown forest Chromic cambisols, stagnic alisols 15 Krasnozem, Red Soils Red soils Alisols 16 Jeltozem, Yellow Soils Yellow soils Chromic 17 Subtropical podsolic Subtropical podzols Stagnic acrisols 18 Subtropical Gley Podzols Subtropical gley podzols Gleysols 19 Marsh: oozy, peat Bog Soils: silty bog; Silty bog; peat Bog peat Bog 20 Alluvial: the sated; carbonatic Alluvial soils: alluvial saturated; Eutric fluvisols; calcaric fluvisols alluvial calcareous FAO Food and Agriculture Organization, WRB World Reference Base, UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 216 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

Fig. 19.12 Map of soil types in Georgia. 1 Low-power mountain- 9 chernozem’, 12 low-power chernozems, 13 chestnut soils and solo- meadow, 2 meadow gray cinnamonic and mountain-meadow, 3 moun- netzic, 15 red soils, 17 podsolic, 18 low-power podsolic, 20 subtropical tain-meadow chernozem and meadow gray cinnamonic, 4 light and gley podzols, 22 solonetzic, 27 bog-alluvial, 28 alluvial calcareous, 29 podzols brown forest, 5 brown forest, 6 cinnamonic forest, 7 humus alluvial saturated, 30 meadow calcareous, 31 degraded soils of all types calcareous, 8 a complex of brown forest and raw humus calcareous,

Yellow soils: yellow color, clayed, and usual powerful Black soils: weak differentiation, powerful humus horizon, profile; heightened solidity, and clay mechanical content; Bog soils: monotonous profile, heavy mechanical composi- Chernozems: powerful humus horizon; tion, and signs of gleization; Mountain-forest-meadow soils: nondifferentiated profile, Yellow podzolic soils: sharp differentiated profile and signs high and deep humusation, strongly leached; of gleization; Mountain-meadow soils: nondifferentiated profile and well- Yellow podzolic gley soils are very close to yellow podzolic expressed humus horizon; soils, but distinguished with more gleization; Saline soils: with the presence of salts in soil profile; alluvial Yellow-brown forest soils: well expressed humus and yel- soils: with nonhomogeneous soil profile; low-brown alluvial horizon; The soils of Georgia are of different age and many of them Brown forest soils: nondifferentiated profile, cloyed; have complex structures. Brown forest–black soils: powerful humus horizon in condi- Comparatively young soils were formed after the glacial pe- tion of washing water regime; riod. These soils are reported at 1000 m above sea level. The Raw humus calcareous soils: weak differentiated profile and soils that are situated beyond 1000 m above sea level have rich presence of carbonates; a complex structure (Fig. 19.13). Thus, the regions beyond Gray cinnamonic soils: nondifferentiated profile, clayed, 1000 m are characterized by the complex nature of soil cover. carbonate profile with less powerful humus horizon; At present, sharp soil degradation caused by water and Meadow-gray cinnamonic soils are very close to gray cin- wind is noted in Georgia. The reason of soil degradation is namonic soils, but distinguished with gleization and more that more than 9 % of all agricultural lands are located on powerful profile; declivities with the steepness more than 10°, as well as by Cinnamonic soils: with color-differentiated profile, cloyed in the absence of agrotechnical actions and their unsatisfactory nonwater regime; quality. As a result, erosion washes away annually 100–130 t Meadow cinnamonic soils are very close to cinnamonic of mantle of soil in eastern Georgia, whereas in western soils, but distinguished with gleization and more power- Georgia it amounts to 150–200 t/year. During torrential rains ful profile; these values have increased 2–3 times. The regions of upper 19.8 Soil and Processes of Degradation 217

Fig. 19.13 Soil profiles of western ( A–B) and eastern ( C–D) Georgia and raw humus calcareous, 9 chernozem, 12 low-power chernozems, (1965). 1 Low-power mountain-meadow, 2 meadow gray cinnamonic 13 chestnut soils and solonetzic, 15 red soils, 17 podsolic, 18 low-pow- and mountain-meadow, 3 mountain-meadow chernozem and meadow er podsolic, 20 subtropical gley podzols, 22 solonetzic, 27 bog-alluvial, gray cinnamonic, 4 light and podzols brown forest, 5 brown forest, 6 28 alluvial ccalcareous, 29 alluvial saturated, 30 meadow calcareous, cinnamonic forest, 7 humus calcareous, 8 a complex of brown forest 31 degraded soils of all types

Imereti, on average, washed humus carbonate soil, and the Legenda factor of runoff has changed from 0.009 to 0.06. No. Type of soils In the vicinity of Rikoti mountainous pass near the water- 1 Mountain meadow shed basins—the Black Sea and Caspian Sea—during three 2 Mountain meadow years of studies (1981–1983) on yellow-brown ground, the 3 Mountain meadow runoff factor changed from 0.005 to 0.362. In Zendidi vil- 4 Mountain meadow lage of Keda region in Adjaria, the runoff factor varied from 5 Mountain meadow chernozem-like 0.015 to 0.042. With the development of erosive processes 6 Mountain forest meadow on the ground of 1.0 m power, the loss of 10–12 t/ha has been 7 Brown forest caused, but when power was 0.25 m it was equal to 2.0–2.5 t/ 8 Brown forest 9 Brown forest ha. Ion (chemical) runoff in the river basins of northwestern 10 Yellow brown forest Abkhazia formed 2.04–3.60 t/ha per annum. The ion runoff 11 Brown forest black in the high mountain part does not exceed 2.0 t/ha, but in the 12 Raw humus calcareous lower current it is 2.10–2.73 t/ha. 13 Raw humus calcareous degradation The same amounts of chemical elements are washed 14 Raw humus calcareous—Terra-rossa away from the Tskhenitskali river basin. In the Zemo Imere- 15 Red soils ti, Guria, and Adjaria river basins the amount of washed 16 Red podzolic soils soluble chemical elements sharply decreases. In the Alazani 17 Yellow soils River basin from the headstream to the mouth, the amount 18 Podzolic yellow soils of ion runoff gradually decreases reaching 1.07–0.61 ton/ha. 19 Subtropical podzolic The present day rate of erosion has reached such a level that 20 Orshtein-subtropical podzolic on piedmont and mountainous soil, full genetic profile does 21 Gley-podzoloc subtropical not have time to be formed. 22 Leached mountain chernozems 23 Mountain chernozems 24 Compact mountain chernozems 25 Plain chernozems 218 19 Global Warming and Climate Change

No. Type of soils Cochis lowland— mountain-wood, mountain-meadow, and 26 Carbonate chernozems peat carbonatic soils. 27 Alcali and salt chernozems 28 Meadow chernozems 29 Meadow salt and alcali chernozems 19.9.2 Eastern Georgia 30 Leached cinnamonic 31 Cinnamonic Here, on the bottom high-rise stages meadow and semides- 32 Carbonate cinnamonic ertic black earth, chestnut and light brown soils are fixed. In 33 Light gray cinnamonic 34 Meadow cinnamonic the mountain part brown wood, brown meadow, black earth, 35 Gray cinnamonic and mountain-meadow soils are found. 36 Gray-dark brown 37 Gray brown 38 Light gray brown 19.9.3 Southern Georgia 39 Sod-sulfatic 40 Solonchak’s In the bottom belt (the Akhaltsihe hollow, intermountain 41 Solonetz lowerings) gray-brown and brown soils developed. In val- 42 Alluvial acid leys of the rivers and on the Erusheti highland brown wood, 43 Alluvial saturated brown, and alluvial-carbonatic soils develop; on Djavaheti 44 Alluvial carbonates highland mountain black earth and in the upper belt moun- 45 Mud-bog tain-meadow and peat-bogs soils are found. 46 Peat-bog 47 Anthropogenic The question about how land is being used in the state is a 48 Degradation question of state’s status itself, but for irrigating all land that – Glaciers is essential for farming, it is necessary that there is approximately 6 km3 of water, i.e., 50 % of the total water resources of Georgia. It shows unjustified extensive watering and necessity to search for new decisions. In East Georgia in the usual rain on the slopes with an 19.9 Erosion inclination of 6°–12°under wash off is 30–40 t/ha. If there is a heavy thunderstorm, this index goes up to 150. The total In the development of mountainous wood soil, erosion oc- territory of Georgia under intense erosion is 920,000 ha. In curs as a result of grazing and driving of livestock, and the mountainous Adjara and northeast Pontides, 150–200 t/ particularly by the felling of wood for purposes of planting year ha of arable land is getting washed off. At the time of a agricultural crops. Here wood skidding plays an extremely heavy thunderstorm, this index becomes 350–500 t. negative role on declivities, as a result the mantle of soil is destroyed and 2–3 m wide grooves are formed which represent themselves as groove forming hearths. Today, on steep References declivities the roots of wood plants are denuded to a depth of 20–30 cm or even more. The felling of wood brings about Dokuchaev VV (1899) Preliminary report on studies in the Caucasus a broad development of plane ablation and washing of soils in the summer of 1899. News of the Caucasian Depart. of the Russian geographical society, vol. XII, No. 3 down to the bedrock. In total it is possible to allocate three Gavardashvili GV (2001) Development of schemes of arrangement of basic soil-geographical areas for the territories of Georgia. mudflow structures on the mountain rivers. In: Proceedings of the international conference “erosion-mudflow and some related problems”, Georgian Hydroecology, Tbilisi, pp 33–39 Geography of Georgia, part 1—physical geography. Metcniereba, 19.9.1 Western Georgia Tbilisi, 314 pp. Georgia// http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ georgia Here the genesis of soils is defined as a characteristic of Gigineishvili GN (2000) Internal waters. In: Geography of Georgia, climate (subtropical), so by the layout of land the most part 1. Tbilisi, Metcniereba, pp 116–132 Machavariani LG (2008) Geographical paradigms major soils of Geor- part of this territory—inclined plains. Here it is pos- gia. Universal, Tbilisi, 299 pp sible to allocate the following basic types of soils. On flat Urushadze GF (1999) Soils map of Georgia. Tbilisi plains—bog and marshy soils; on hilly plains and in pied- Urushadze G, Tarasashvili N, Urushadze T (2000) The diversity of monts—krasnozems (laterites), yellow soils, podzolic,and Georgian soils. In: Biological and landscape diversity of Georgia. WWF, Tbilisi, pp 135–150 hidromorfic–podsolic soils; and on a mountain frame of Laws and Government 20

Abstract Since becoming a republic, Georgia has established democratic laws and institutions of government. On 17 November 2013, a year after the inauguration of the President, four constitutional changes were made in Georgia that fundamentally changed the constitution, and the country moved from a presidential system to a parliamentary republic system. However, the position of President still remains significant. Therefore, many feel that the current form of government is more consistent with the model known as a mixed Parlia- mentary–Presidential Republic. The highest body of the executive powers of the country is the Government of Georgia, which has jurisdiction over domestic and foreign policies and reports to the Parliament of Georgia. The Government consists of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, as well as Ministers of State. The Prime Minister is the main political figure, who directs all aspects of the work of the Government. He appoints and dismisses other members of the Government (with the approval of the Parliament). Resignation or termination of the rights and powers of the Prime Minister calls for the simultaneous resignation of all cabinet members. This chapter touches on some aspects of governmental functioning.

Since becoming a republic, Georgia has established demo- the Government. He is no longer a major political figure in cratic laws and institutions of government. This chapter Georgia, and does not define the main political trends in the touches on some aspects of governmental functioning. country. At the same time, he remains the Supreme Com- mander and the Chairman of the Council of National De- fense. He is also the guarantor of unity. Only the President 20.1 Central Government has the right to give orders. After modifying the provisions of the Constitution approved by the President, legislative On 17 November 2013, a year after the inauguration of the acts must be countersigned by the Prime Minister. President, four constitutional changes were made in Georgia The highest body of the executive powers of the country that fundamentally changed the constitution, and the country is the Government of Georgia, which has jurisdiction over moved from a presidential system to a parliamentary repub- domestic and foreign policies and reports to the Parliament lic system. However, the position of President still remains of Georgia. The Government consists of the Prime Minister significant. Therefore, many feel that the current form of and Cabinet, as well as Ministers of State. The Prime Minis- government is more consistent with the model known as a ter is the main political figure who directs all aspects of the mixed Parliamentary–Presidential Republic. work of the Government. He appoints and dismisses other members of the Government (with the approval of the Parlia- ment). Resignation or termination of the rights and powers 20.1.1 Executive Powers of the Prime Minister calls for the simultaneous resignation of all cabinet members. According to the Constitution, the head of the Georgian State is the President, who is elected for a term of 5 years by the voting public on the basis of universal, equal, and direct 20.1.2 Legislative Powers expression of their rights by secret ballot. The same person may be elected to this position no more than two times. After Georgia’s supreme legislative body is the Parliament of the the changes in constitutional rules, the President is no longer country. It defines the main direction of the domestic and the Chief Executive and is not involved in the formation of foreign policies of the country. The Constitution of Georgia

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 219 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1_20, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 220 20 Laws and Government is the foundation stone for the territorial integrity of the 20.2 Regional and Local Authorities country and demands the return of the occupied territories (Abkhazia and former South Ossetia) to the jurisdiction By type of territorial–administrative structure, Georgia is of Georgia. The Georgian Parliament is composed of two a unitary republic consisting of two autonomous republics chambers: the Senate and the Council of the Republic. (Abkhazia and Adjara), the former South Ossetian Autono- The Upper House is the Senate, which is staffed on the mous District (which was abolished by the Supreme Coun- basis of majority voting from the whole territory of Georgia. cil of Georgia in 1990 and whose status is not defined until The Lower House is the Council of the Republic, which is today), 54 administrative districts (municipalities), and 4 au- chosen by proportional principles. Until the two chambers tonomous cities: Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Batumi, and Poti. come into being, the Parliament is unicameral. It consists of The Adjarian Autonomous region consists of five munici- 150 members, 75 of whom are elected by majority from ad- palities and one autonomous city (Batumi). Abkhazia and ministrative regions of the country; another 75 are based on South Ossetia are temporarily occupied territories and do the proportional method of common lists of political parties. not form part of the administrative-territorial division of the The term of office of the members of Parliament is 4 years. country. Previously, Abkhazia was divided into six munici- Parliament carries out the ratification of international palities and one autonomous city. agreements and their denunciation and termination. Parlia- After the restoration of the territorial integrity of the ment has the right to raise the issue of impeachment for the country, it will be differentiated on the basis of federalism. resignation of the President, the Chairman of the Supreme Presumably it will be an asymmetrical federation, which Council, the members of the Government, members of the will consist of three self-contained units: Abkhazia, South Board of the National Bank, and the Auditor-General. Ossetia, and Adzharia; nine provincial, historical, and ethno- In the Parliament of Georgia, the eight convocation (elec- graphic municipalities, and Tbilisi. tion was held on 1 October 2012) was a coalition of the ma- To date, under Georgian jurisdiction, municipalities and jority Georgians; of 85 members, 53 members were from the self-managed cities have been merged into nine municipali- minorities and 12 members were independents who had been ties: Shida Kartli, Kakheti, Kvemo Kartli, Mtskheta-Mtiane- in the majority, as candidates of the national movement, but ti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Guria, Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi, left this faction after elections. Kvemo Svaneti, and Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti. Added to this are the Autonomous Republic of Adjara and Tbilisi; Georgia has a total of 11 large territorial–administrative units. The 20.1.3 Judicial Powers heads of the edges are Governors, who were previously appointed by the President, but after the recent constitutional In Georgia, the Judiciary is independent. Proceedings are reforms are appointed by the Prime Minister. conducted only by ordinary courts. Extraordinary and spe- There is a representative body at the level of municipali- cial courts are prohibited, and the introduction of the military ties. The President of the Government of Adjara’s Supreme court is only valid in the context of war and only in the Gen- Council chooses the autonomy (local Parliament) for sub- eral Court System. mission to the Prime Minister of Georgia. The Mayor of Appointment to the post of judge or the release of a judge Tbilisi is elected by the residents of the capital. The same paves the way for the High Council of Justice, headed by is true for the representative body of the capital—Tbilisi the Chairman of the Supreme Court of Georgia; more than Sakrebulo (meeting)—consisting of 50 members (25–25 and half of the members are elected by the judges of the Court majority on party lists). Administration. The highest judicial body is the Supreme The representative bodies of municipalities and cities Court, which is the Court of Cassation. It is divided into are self-governed and this is also true of the administrative three Chambers: criminal, civil, and administrative. The districts of Tbilisi (75 units). The representative body of the President and judges of the Supreme Court are elected by the city is the City Council (the “meeting”), which is elected by Parliament of Georgia for a period of 19 years. universal, equal, and secret ballot. The City Council selects The Constitutional Court is the constitutional supreme a Chief Executive “Gamgebeli” and members of the local body. It consists of nine members, elected for a period of government. The head ( Gamgebeli) of the municipal “Sakre- 10 years: three by the President, three by the Parliament and bulo” appoints the heads of all city services. three by the Supreme Court. Judicial reform has been one of the most important reforms undertaken in recent years. It can be said that the judicial branch has undergone a radical 20.3 Electoral System and its Organization transformation in Georgia and has approached the European standards as much as possible. One of Georgia’s important achievements as a post-Soviet country is the active participation of the population in the country. In Georgia, the total number of voters is 3.6 million. 20.5 Defense 221

The country conducts three types of elections: legislative, 20.4 Activities and Responsibilities local, and presidential. of Government Parliamentary elections are held in the country every 4 years on the mixed majority-proportional system. The coun- The activities and responsibilities of the Government of try is divided into 75 electoral districts, whose boundaries Georgia are defined by the Constitution and organic law. In coincide with the boundaries of administrative districts, the this respect, Georgia is different from most European coun- districts of Tbilisi, and the self-ruled cities of Kutaisi, Ba- tries, with some exceptions, on the basis of specific condi- tumi, Poti, and Rustavi. tions that have taken place in recent history. Each district, among all single-mandate electoral districts, chooses only one candidate. Each political party may choose only one candidate who will be on the ballot for the election 20.4.1 Security of the district representative. The chosen candidate is the one who scores the highest number of votes (but not less than 1/3 As a result of ethno-political conflicts in the 1990s and the of all participants in the election). The elections are consid- Russia–Georgia war of 2008, Georgia’s territorial integrity ered valid if attended by at least 1/3 of all registered voters has been compromised. Two regions of the country, Abkhazia in this district. and the former South Ossetian autonomous district were occu- In addition to the majority candidate, people vote for a po- pied and are now recognized by Russia as independent States. litical party. According to the proportional system, the whole Today, Russian military bases are located there. Accordingly, of Georgia is one constituency and votes on a party list sys- the main challenge to the security of the country is the prob- tem. Each party puts forward a list of its candidates and se- lem of the breakaway regions and Russian military bases. lects the appropriate number of members of Parliament. For The situation was even more complicated in 2012–2013, its candidate in the Parliament, the party is required to over- when the administrative boundaries of these regions were come the selective barrier and earn more than 5 % of votes declared public and Russian border guards appeared there. throughout the country. Elections take place in the same way Boundary line barbed wire fencing was added to this, fur- for the Supreme Council of Adjaria Autonomous Republic. ther complicating the official situation, because this line Tbilisi City Meeting (Council) is elected by a mixed sys- often passed through towns and villages and separated some tem. The city is divided into 25 electoral districts. Accord- citizens from their neighbors and relatives who suddenly be- ingly, 25 members of the City Council are elected by the came “residents of another country.” majority and proportional systems, and 25 by secret ballot. The main body of the State Security Department is the During these elections, the Mayor of Tbilisi is elected by the Office of Counterintelligence, Intelligence, and Border Se- direct votes of all the residents of the city. curity Department. In 2013, the constitutional Security De- Municipal elections are held every 4 years. The people of partment, which undertook some of the tasks of the secret the municipalities, under the proportional system, pick the police, was abolished. The main body of public safety is Sakrebulo (meeting). The number of members of the Sakreb- the Department of the Interior. Since 2004, its structure and ulo is dependent on the number of people in the municipality. functions have changed dramatically. Inefficient and corrupt In turn, the City Council elects the head of the administration authorities were replaced by service-oriented people geared of the municipality, the gamgebeli, and appoints the heads to modern standards and equipped with the latest technical of smaller administrative districts (cities, regional centers, means, which fully gave way to footage. The creation of the towns, and villages)—rtsmunebuli. patrol police, who quickly began to enjoy great prestige and Presidential elections take place every 5 years. The Presi- very high confidence among the population, was particularly dent is elected by the entire population through universal, successful. As a result of successful reforms, the situation equal, and direct elections, by secret ballot. Every Georgian in Georgia has changed radically. The country, which was citizen aged 35 years can participate in the election of the known for its high level of criminality and corruption, has President as a candidate. The candidate who receives more become one of the most secure and noncorrupt countries in than 50 % of the vote shall be considered as elected. If no the world. candidate obtains such a majority, then 2 weeks later, a second round of voting is held for the two candidates who obtained the largest number of votes in the first round. In the 20.5 Defense second round, the winner is the one who gains a simple majority vote. The size of the armed forces of Georgia in 2013 was 36,500 soldiers. The army consists of 6000 officers and 29 contin- gents of reservists consisting of 140 thousand people. Some 222 20 Laws and Government soldiers served in the army under contract and the rest were Despite activities for the protection of the environment called up for compulsory military service. The task of the and natural resources, Georgia has a lot of challenges. Being Government is that in the next few years, all armed forces a mountainous country, Georgia is vulnerable to active land- are to be on a contract basis. The armed forces of Georgia slide and erosion processes which occur each year. Because are composed of land forces, military aircraft, Coast Guard, of these events, several thousand people become ecomi- Special Forces, and National Guard. The army consists of grants each year. Their relocation to new places and provid- five infantry and two artillery brigades, as well as two engi- ing shelter and minimum conditions for life becomes a heavy neering brigades, a brigade of air defense battalions, intelli- burden on the Government. gence, communications, and medical brigades. The air force A significant problem is deforestation. During the reign is composed of 3000 members of the armed forces. Military of the Soviet Union, the forests of Georgia (98 % of which aircrafts are composed of a bomber and fighter and as well are mountain forests) were mostly recreational, conservation, as aircraft and units of helicopters. water-filter function, and were almost not used for other pur- Before the Russian-Georgian war of 2008, the Georgian poses. Today, because of difficult economic and living condi- armed forces had naval units. However, as a result of war tions, the population is engaged in logging (mostly for heating losses, they were reorganized into the coast guard service and and cooking), which greatly reduced the area of forests. Re- transferred to the Ministry of the Interior. Currently, Georgia forestation has not been carried out due to the lack of funding. is represented by several Coast Guard ships and boats. Big debates and controversies have arisen in connection There are forces of special tasks of special and covert with the construction of large hydroelectric power stations. operations, intelligence and counter-intelligence, counter- Specific problems are those of dam construction and flooding terrorism operations, and asymmetric warfare on land and of the overlying territories. The local population is strongly at sea. These units represent part of the Georgian army, who opposed to this decision, and is not willing to see their homes have been and are involved in similar peacekeeping opera- and land flooded. This, in turn, creates a very big problem tions under NATO auspices and in Afghanistan. for the Government in the implementation of those projects Georgian guards are the oldest part of the Georgian army, that are crucial to the country’s energy independence. which was formed before independence (December 1990) In terms of the ratio of protected areas to the whole coun- and the sources from which the history of the modern Geor- try, Georgia is one of the highest ranked countries in Europe. gian army began. Today, the main function of the National The total protected area is 7.3 % of the total area of the coun- Guard and Reserve Training in the Georgian army is the mo- try (9 national parks, 14 nature reserves, and 33 sanctuaries). bilization of resources, support to military operations and se- Management of these places is done by the National Agency curity, and emergency assistance to civil authorities. for Protected Areas, which is structurally subordinate to the After the year 2000, Georgian troops carried out substan- Ministry for the conservation of nature and natural resources. tial reforms that qualitatively changed the army and brought it up to NATO standards. In this regard, the USA provided invaluable material and financial assistance and support for 20.7 International Relations the indigenous re-equipping of the Georgian army. Immediately after independence, Georgia clearly defined its priorities in international relations integration into Euro- 20.6 Protection of Environment and Natural pean and Euro–Atlantic structures and main political guide- Resources lines. The main foreign policy goal was to join NATO and the European Union. This international orientation has re- One of the important and urgent tasks of the Government of sulted in its standoff with Russia and was the cause of the Georgia is a science-based environmental policy and natural Russia–Georgian war of 2008. Georgia’s main strategic ally resources management plan. Taking into consideration the and strategic partner is the USA which has played a special natural conditions of the country, Georgia is facing many role in promoting and sustaining modern Georgia. Of par- environmental challenges. To address these challenges and ticular importance is the financial assistance that the USA to minimize environmental harm as much as possible, the has provided for the revival of the Georgian economy, social Ministry of Protection of the Natural Environment is charged reform, and the implementation of special training programs with giving direction to all environment-related work. The for Georgian youth in America. jurisdiction of the Ministry includes control and manage- Georgia’s main strategic ally and political partner is the ment of land, natural resources, biodiversity, protection of USA, which played an important role in strengthening the water resources and air quality, climate change, recycling of country. Their support and assistance are noted especially chemicals, and natural and man-made emergencies. Special during the Russia–Georgian war of 2008 that saved Geor- attention is given to policy, forestry, and protected areas (regia from occupation. The role of the USA is very significant serves and nature reserves). and so is the financial assistance that has supported Georgia 20.8 Freedoms and Human Rights 223 in its economic development, social reform, and the imple- in Georgia (the exception is only a short period of 1918– mentation of special education programs, which has allowed 1921, when there was a Democratic Republic of Georgia). young people to receive education in America. Today we can say with confidence that Georgia is quite Along with the USA, a close political relationship has successfully on the road to democracy. Among the post-So- evolved with the European Union—Germany, France, and viet countries, it went ahead and almost caught up with the the UK, as well as with the countries of new Europe: Lithu- Baltic States. In 2005, the then President of the USA, George ania, Latvia, Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and oth- Bush, during his visit to Georgia, said that the country was a ers. In terms of economic relations, Georgia’s main partners “beacon of democracy” throughout the former Soviet Union. are its neighbors: Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, Bulgaria, and Individual freedom and human rights in Georgia are guar- Romania; it has rapidly evolving economic and political ties anteed by the Constitution and protected by law. All Geor- with Japan, China, and India. Since 2013, there has been a gian citizens are free and equal before the law from birth. growth of trade relations with Russia, which was due to the The death penalty was abolished in Georgia, and honor and removal of the embargo on Georgian products. dignity cannot be violated. According to the Constitution of During the period between 2011 and 2013, Georgia estab- Georgia, the freedom of expression, thought, conscience, re- lished diplomatic relations with many countries in America, ligion, and belief of its citizens are protected. Violation of Africa, and Oceania. Globally, there are very few countries these freedoms is punishable by law. Censorship is prohib- that do not have diplomatic relations with Georgia, which has ited by law. NATO and EU membership. This political orientation led to All Georgian citizens have equal political rights: meet- the conflict with Russia and prompted the Russia–Georgian ings, rallies and demonstrations, strikes, trade unions and po- war of 2008. Georgia participates intensely in the work of in- litical parties and participation, participation in general elec- ternational organizations. It is primarily the United Nations, tions and election to any organ of the State. The Ombuds- the European Union and the Organization of Georgia yet to man works with a view to the protection of human rights in participate, but will in the future take part in their work. It is Georgia. The public defender of Georgia (Ombudsman) was primarily the UN, the EU and the EUTO organization, which elected by the Parliament of Georgia for a period of 5 years. Georgia still is, but in the future, participation in them is the Once in 6 years, the Parliament of Georgia hears the public most important political priority for the country (Europe defender’s report on the state of human rights in the country Union and NATO). Today, Georgia is a member of more than and proposes appropriate measures for their improvement. 50 international organizations and has representative offices Despite some successes, there are still serious violations in more than 20 international organizations. of human rights in Georgia. First of all are concerns about the rights of prisoners, illegal actions against them, and de- humanization. There have been cases of illegal eavesdrop- 20.8 Freedoms and Human Rights ping and surveillance. Exposing these illegal activities has played an important role in the “United National Movement” In Georgia, as well as in other post–Soviet countries after during the elections of 2012. independence, one very important task was to replace the to- Georgia has been evaluated by international organiza- talitarian regime with a democratic society, where individual tions as a country under democracy. The level of democratic freedom and human rights are guaranteed and protected by media is estimated as half free. The country is now faced law. It was not an easy task, as the 70-year-old Communist with the challenges to make Georgia a full democracy with dictatorship left an extremely difficult legacy, so much so a free press. that before independence, there had never been a democracy Index

A Boggy lowlands 126 Abkhazia 3, 4, 6, 18, 24, 25, 27–29, 34–36, 39, 41, 43, 45, Broad-leaved woods 15 47, 49, 50, 52, 57, 59, 61–63, 68, 71, 77–79, 93, 125, Brown meadow heavy loamy and clayey soils 136 128, 150, 159, 165, 173, 175, 189, 207, 217, 220, Brown soils 136, 137, 218 221 Abkhazian and South Ossetian conflicts 44 C Accumulation 158, 193, 202, 210 Caspian Sea 13, 177, 202, 205, 208, 211, 217 Adjara 36, 40–42, 47, 49, 50, 58, 59, 62, 72, 78, 89, 124, Caucasian civilization 12 125, 145, 149, 172, 173, 175, 189, 218, 220 Caucasian goat 19 Agrarian reforms of the 1960s 43 Cave bear 17, 18 Agro-climatic districts 208 Caves 18, 90, 92, 148, 179 Akhshtiri cave 17 Cave sites 14 Alazani river 24 Central Georgia 18, 19, 150 Alkaline effusion 17 Climate Ambrolauri 47, 176, 196 diversity 205 Ancient civilizations 11, 16 Climatic Ancient glaciation 14 conditions 11, 14, 205 Ancient man 12–19 fluctuations 15, 79, 121, 122 Annual erosion 214 Coastline 13, 49 Anthropogenic Coasts 13, 202, 210 transformation 121, 122, 145, 202 Colchida 2, 12, 13, 15, 89, 158, 210, 211 Anticlinal domes 13 Coniferous 59, 124, 140, 173 Apsarunt 47 Conservation 14, 122, 123, 128, 137, 140, 146, 159, 203, Arable land 81, 84, 122, 133, 143, 172, 190, 214 204, 222 Archaeological age 13 Cultural Armenian upland 13 landscapes 127, 129 Arzni 12 mosaic 15 Askhi 71 Astroblemes 16 D Aurochs 17, 19, 20 Degradation Azerbaijan 4, 6, 14, 24–26, 51, 53, 123, 127, 157, 159, of soils 134 170, 176, 177, 180, 187, 202, 223 Demographic landscape 39, 167 Azikh 18, 19 Denudation 13, 14, 17, 74, 78, 83 Desert 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141 B Desertification 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 205 Batumi 6, 27, 36, 47, 57, 143, 164, 165, 170, 175–178, Dioskuria 47 202, 220, 221 Disposition of the population 40 Beaver 19 Dmanisi 11, 17, 36, 47, 50, 72, 196, 199 Belts of earthquakes 16 Dmanisi Lower Pleistocene camp-site 17 Black Sea 2, 5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 43, 52, 56, 68, 72, 84, Donkey 19 124–126, 129, 135, 143, 147, 164, 172, 173, 176, Dry steppes 15, 149 177, 178, 205, 207, 208, 210, 217 Duck 19 Black Sea coastal zone 12

I. V. Bondyrev et al., The Geography of Georgia, World Regional Geography Book Series, 225 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05413-1, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 226 Index

E Ingilos 51 East Africa 11, 20 Internal inertia of landscape 14 East Georgia 2, 3, 23, 24, 27, 50, 51, 53, 143, 147, 164, Iori plateau 40, 173 209, 218 Iori river 87, 89 Ecological balance 135, 195, 204 J Ecosystems 13, 15, 17, 19, 67, 122–124, 127, 134, 139, Javakheti 3, 13, 19, 27, 33, 36, 41, 42, 43, 49, 50, 53, 59, 141, 144, 151, 158, 202, 204 61, 63, 69, 72, 139, 141, 146, 149, 172, 173, 175, Eneolithic 2, 11 179, 220 Erevan 19 Jurassic 17, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 78, 83 Erosional dissection of morphostructures 17 Exodynamic processes 82, 133 K Kakheti region 35, 37, 56 F Karst 71, 83, 84, 150, 189, 208 Fauna-floristic groups 14 Karst caves 150 Floodplain 125, 126 Kartli plain 2, 72 Foothills 15, 19, 72, 122, 125–127, 137, 139, 144 Khevsurethi 42 Kitchen refuse 17, 19 G Kobuleti 25, 47, 63, 147, 149, 178, 201, 202 Gagra 36, 47, 68, 69, 78, 89, 93, 165, 178, 188, 197 Kolkheti 40, 47, 56, 59, 68, 122, 124, 150, 171 Geology-geochemical data 16 Kolkheti lowland 40, 56, 59 Georgian Democratic Republic 28, 51 Krasnodar 18, 84, 89 Georgians Krasnodar region 18, 84, 89 emigration to Europe 51 Kura River 211 living in Europe and USA 51 Kvachara 19 living in Turkey and Iran 51 Kvemo Kartli 24, 41, 42, 43, 59, 63, 170, 172, 173, 175, outside of Georgia 51 220 Gigantic ostriches 17 Glacial 12, 13, 15, 68, 69, 74, 82–84, 87, 88, 92, 150, 209, L 210, 211, 214, 216 Landscape complexes 79, 158 epochs 12 Landscapes 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 93, 122, 124, 125, periods 13 126, 127, 129, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, 144, Global breaks 16 145, 158, 159, 160, 179, 201, 202, 203, 204 Gonio 178 Landscapes present themselves a group of small areas 136 Gravitational fields 15 Lava 13, 14, 17, 18, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 78, 91, 92, 94 Gray-brown chalk soils 136 Lesser Caucasus 15, 68 Greek trade colonies on the Black Sea coast 47 Limestone 68, 73, 74, 78, 135, 192, 193, 194, 196 Guenos 47 Local ecosystems 17, 158, 204 Long-lasting changing environment 14 H Lower Pleistocene 137 Hamster 19 Lowland 5, 6, 13, 40, 56, 59, 72, 73, 122, 125, 126, 136, Hare 19, 146, 151, 175 139, 140, 143, 145, 149, 157, 208, 210, 211 Herbivorous 17 Highland 5, 6, 14, 15, 24, 25, 29, 30, 71, 72, 76, 78, 81, M 126, 135, 137, 163, 164, 207, 218 Magnetic anomaly 16 Holocene 12, 18, 19, 76, 79, 122, 136, 137, 143, 157 Mantle plumes 16 Homeostatic equilibrium 17 Maritime subtropical climate 206 Homeostаs 17 Marmot 19 Homo erectus 197 Marshes 91, 136, 150 Homo ergaster 17 Meadow grey-brown soils 136 Horses 17, 174, 196 Mid-annual runoff of the basic rivers of Georgia 209 Hunting 17, 18, 19, 163, 196, 203 Middle ages 5, 27, 33 Middle Ages 5, 50, 57, 164 I Middle Eocene 17, 75 Iberia 2, 4, 5, 23, 47, 164 Middle Khvalyn regression 15 Ilski stand 18 Middle Pleistocene 13, 15 Index 227

Minor Asia 149 Q Mountainous regions 6, 12, 37, 60, 62, 63, 68, 128, 159, Quaternary 17, 68, 69, 70, 75, 77, 78, 93 172, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179 Mountain steppes 140, 207 R Mousterian 12, 13, 15 Racha-Lechkhumi 41, 42, 43, 49, 50, 52, 59, 62, 72, 129, Mtskheta 47, 58, 59, 172, 173, 179, 220 139, 172, 173, 220 Rainfall 205, 208 N Reconstructed condition of natural landscapes 135 Natural environment 11, 13, 17, 18, 19, 67, 94, 121, 125, Red deer 18, 19 138, 158, 160, 195, 203, 204 Refugees and internally displaced persons 44 Natural resources 5, 12, 39, 47, 129, 146, 183, 189, 195, Refugium 12, 125 196, 204, 222 Republic of Georgia 3, 25, 41, 223 NATURAL Resources 222 Rhinoceroses 17 Neogene 14, 15, 68, 77, 78, 191 Ring structures 15, 16, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78 Neolithic period 163 Riss 13, 15 New Euxine epoch 13 River banks 49, 211 Ninotsminda 36, 169, 184 River valleys 12, 13, 76, 93, 127, 137 North Caucasus 15, 19, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 82, 158, 175 Rodents 17, 148 Nuclears 16 Rural population 47, 49, 60 Russia 3, 4, 5, 6, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 45, 51, O 69, 158, 164, 165, 177, 179, 180, 187, 202, 221, 222, Oak forests 122, 136, 143 223 Oni 36, 47, 188, 202 Russian Empire 3, 5, 25, 27, 28, 29, 50, 57, 164, 179 Russian-Georgian war 4, 6, 25, 29, 222, 223 P Palaeolithic S culture 15 Sakajia 19 Palaeozoic 17, 68, 78 Samegrelo 3, 6, 24, 25, 27, 36, 43, 45, 47, 49, 56, 59, 61, Paleolandscapes 14 62, 63, 72, 78, 129, 165, 172, 173, 175, 178, 220 Paleolithic Samtskhe 3, 24, 25, 27, 43, 44, 49, 50, 59, 61, 172, 173, habitable places 15 175, 179, 220 man 17 Samurzakanians are 51 period 17 Satani-dar 12 Paleolithic-Mesolithic 19 Savanna 15, 17 Paravani lake 76 Sedimentation 13, 127, 137 Partridge 19 Semi-deserts 134, 140 Pasis 47 Several types of settlements 49 Peat bogs 136 Shah Abas I 36, 51 Pereidanian Georgians 51 Shaping 12, 13, 15, 17, 82, 136, 137, 206 Piedmont area 14 Shida Kartli 1, 29, 45, 59, 63, 128, 129, 136, 159, 172, Pitiunti 47 173, 175, 220 Plates to lithosphere 16 Silvan arrays 17 Pleistocene 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 75, 76, 136, 137 Slopes 6, 17, 83, 84, 92, 93, 122, 124, 125, 126, 129, 135, Pliocene 11, 12, 13, 14, 75, 76 136, 137, 138, 149, 150, 173, 202, 204, 218 Pliocene flora and fauna 12 Somkhiti ridge 17, 77 Pliocene-Pleistocene epoch 12 Southern Europe 17 Podzolic soils 216 Soviet period 7, 43, 60, 63, 64, 128, 168, 177, 179 Pontian basin 13 Soviet Union 3, 4, 5, 25, 28, 34, 35, 45, 51, 56, 165, 179, Pontian (early Pliocene), 13 180, 222, 223 Populations 12, 15, 19, 30, 41, 124, 144 Space pictures 16 Poti 6, 47, 57, 68, 149, 164, 165, 170, 175, 176, 184, 201, Space-provisional distribution of landscapes 135 202, 220, 221 Structure of landscapes 12 Precipitation 2, 82, 84, 93, 134, 135, 185, 205, 206, 207, Subtropical 210, 211, 212 climate 2, 207 Pshavi 42, 61, 62, 179 zone 205, 207 228 Index

Sukhumi 15, 28, 29, 47, 165, 184, 188, 197 Upper Pliocene 12, 14, 76, 137 Sustainability 15, 122, 196, 201, 204 Urbanization 43, 47, 49, 167 Sustainable development 204 Urban settlements 47 Svaneti 3, 6, 24, 25, 27, 40, 42, 43, 47, 50, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 71, 82, 89, 126, 128, 129, 139, 159, 173, 179, V 189, 202, 214, 220 Vani 47, 62, 169, 188, 194 Vegetation 14, 15, 92, 122, 125, 126, 127, 136, 137, 138, T 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 158 Talish 12, 15, 202 Volcanic eruptions 13 Tbilisi 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 24, 25, 30, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 45, Volcanism 12, 13, 15, 17, 93 47, 49, 56, 57, 58, 63, 72, 82, 83, 84, 94, 127, 136, Volcanogenic 137, 147, 149, 150, 151, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, rocks 17 171, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 184, 187, 188, 189, Vorontsov cave 18 197, 201, 202, 203, 206, 209, 211, 214, 220, 221 Tea plantations 125, 127, 129, 143, 172 W Terrigenous-marine deposits 135 Water Toward warming 2 balance of the principal basins 212 Transcaucasian goat 18 stocks 210 Trends of variation of landscapes of Eastern Georgia 136 Watersheds 93, 125, 157 Tsageri 47, 176, 196, 202 Western Caucasus 12, 71 Tsalka 36, 47, 50, 72, 93, 184 Western Europe 12, 164 Tsikhe-goji 47 Western Georgia 3, 6, 52, 81, 82, 84, 129, 185, 207, 210, Tskaltubo 47, 150, 169, 178, 179, 197 218 Tskhinvali region 34, 41 Western Trans-Caucasus 14 Tskhrajvari 18 Wetlands 140, 209 Tsona 12 Wild Tsutskhvati cave 17, 18 boar 17, 19, 146 Tugai landscapes 137 hen 19 Turkey 3, 4, 6, 24, 25, 27, 28, 33, 35, 36, 37, 51, 52, 53, oxen and ram 19 84, 123, 127, 129, 159, 164, 176, 177, 180, 187, 202, Wurm 12, 14, 17, 18, 137 223 Tusheti 37, 42, 43, 56, 61, 62, 63, 71, 128, 141, 149, 159, Z 179 Zangezur 14 Typical arid landscapes 136 Zones of mineral resources 12

U Uplistsikhe 47 Upper Pleistocene 12, 13, 15, 75, 76