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Gender, Equity and Development Edited by Kathryn Robinson And The Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies (RSPAS) at The Australian National University (ANU) is home to the Indonesia Project, a major international centre of research and graduate training on the economy of Indonesia. Established in 1965 in the School’s Division of Economics, the Project is well known and respected in Indonesia and in other places where Indonesia attracts serious scholarly and official interest. Funded by ANU and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), the Project monitors and analyses recent economic developments in Indonesia; informs Australian governments, business and the wider community about those developments and about future prospects; stimulates research on the Indonesian economy; and publishes the respected Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. The School’s Department of Political and Social Change (PSC) focuses on domestic politics, social processes and state–society relationships in Asia and the Pacific, and has a long-established interest in Indonesia. Together with PSC and RSPAS, the Project holds the annual Indonesia Update conference, whose proceedings are published in the Indonesia Assessment series. Each Update (and resulting Assessment volume) offers an overview of recent economic and political developments, and devotes attention to a significant theme in Indonesia’s development. The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) in Singapore was established as an autonomous organization in 1968. It is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia, particularly the many-faceted problems of stability and security, economic development, and political and social change. The Institute’s research programmes are the Regional Economic Studies (RES, including ASEAN and APEC), Regional Strategic and Political Studies (RSPS), and Regional Social and Cultural Studies (RSCS). The Institute is governed by a twenty-two-member Board of Trustees comprising nominees from the Singapore Government, the National University of Singapore, the various Chambers of Commerce, and professional and civic organizations. An Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is chaired by the Director, the Institute’s chief academic and administrative officer. First published in 2002 in Singapore by Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 119614 Internet e-mail: [email protected] World Wide Web: http://www.iseas.edu.sg/pub.html All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. © 2002 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. Acknowledgement The publisher gratefully acknowledges the artists for permission to reproduce their material on various pages in this book. On the front cover is a mixed media on canvas titled "Penganten Jawa" (Javanese Bride and Bridegroom) by Astari Rasjid, 2000; on the back cover is a work of bronze titled "Resistante" (Resistance) by Dolorosa Sinaga, 1996. The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the editors and contributors and their interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of the publishers or their supporters. ISEAS Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Women in Indonesia: gender, equity and development/ edited by Kathryn Robinson and Sharon Bessell. (Indonesia assessment series ; 2001) 1. Women—Indonesia. 2. Women in development—Indonesia. 3. Women—Indonesia—Social conditions. I. Robinson, Kathryn. II. Bessell, Sharon. III. Series. DS644.4 I41 2001 2002 sls2002003619 ISBN 981-230-158-5 (soft cover) ISBN 981-230-159-3 (hard cover) Copy-edited and typeset by Beth Thomson, Japan Online. Indexed by Angela Grant. Printed in Singapore by Seng Lee Press Pte Ltd. AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page v CONTENTS Tables viii Figures x Contributors xi Acknowledgments xiv Glossary xvi Prologue xxiii 1 Introduction to the Issues 1 Kathryn Robinson and Sharon Bessell 2 The Mega Factor in Indonesian Politics: A New President or a New Kind of Presidency? 13 Krishna Sen 3 The Downfall of President Abdurrahman Wahid: A Return to Authoritarianism? 28 Edward Aspinall 4 The Year in Review: From Blind Man’s Bluff to Mega Expectations 41 Mari Pangestu 5 Further Comments on the Economy, with a Gender Perspective 61 Mohammad Sadli 6 Institution Building: An Effort to Improve Indonesian Women’s Role and Status 68 Khofifah Indar Parawansa v AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page vi vi CONTENTS Commentary 78 Sue Blackburn 7 Feminism in Indonesia in an International Context 80 Saparinah Sadli 8 Gay and Lesbi Subjectivities, National Belonging and the New Indonesia 92 Tom Boellstorff 9 And the Winner Is … Indonesian Women in Public Life 100 Mayling Oey-Gardiner 10 Indonesian Women Artists: Transcending Compliance 113 Carla Bianpoen 11 Literature, Mythology and Regime Change: Some Observations on Recent Indonesian Women’s Writing 130 Barbara Hatley 12 Women and the Labour Market during and after the Crisis 144 Lisa Cameron 13 Women’s International Labour Migration 158 Graeme Hugo 14 Customary Institutions, Syariah Law and the Marginalisation of Indonesian Women 179 Edriana Noerdin 15 Women’s Grassroots Movements in Indonesia: A Case Study of the PKK and Islamic Women’s Organisations 187 Lies Marcoes 16 Women’s Activism against Violence in South Sulawesi 198 Zohra A. Baso and Nurul Ilmi Idrus 17 Gender Mainstreaming and Sex-disaggregated Data 209 Soedarti Surbakti 18 The Changing Indonesian Household 219 Gavin W. Jones 19 Women, Family Planning and Decentralisation: New Variations on Old Themes 235 Terence H. Hull and Sri Moertiningsih Adioetomo AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii 20 Men, Women and Community Development in East Nusa Tenggara 250 Ria Gondowarsito References 265 Index 277 AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page viii TABLES 4.1 Real GDP Growth by Sector, 2001–01 45 4.2 Real GDP Growth by Expenditure, 2001 47 4.3 Macroeconomic Indicators: Actual and Targeted, 2000–02 48 4.4 Budgets for 2001 and 2002 52 9.1 Distribution of Position of Chair and Deputy Chair in Local Legislatures by Sex, April 2000 107 9.2 Structural Positions in the Civil Service by Echelon and Sex, September 2000 108 9.3 Composition of Civil Service by Sex and Level, September 2000 109 12.1 Labour Force Participation Rates, 1996–2000 146 12.2 Unemployment Rates, 1996–2000 148 12.3 Underemployment, 1996–2000 150 12.4 Hourly Wages, 1996–2000 152 12.5 Work Status, 1996–2000 154 13.1 Overseas Workers Processed by the Ministry of Labour, 1969–2001 160 13.2 Sector of Employment of Official Workers Deployed Overseas, Repelita IV–VII 162 13.3 Province of Origin of Undocumented Indonesian Workers Deported from Tawau (Sabah) to East Kalimantan, January 1994 – June 1996 165 13.4 Place of Origin of Female Overseas Migrant Workers according to Three Studies 166 viii AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page ix TABLES ix 13.5 Relationship of Migrant Workers to Head of Household in Community of Origin 166 13.6 Educational Background of Female OCWs according to Three Studies 167 13.7 OCWs Returning to Indonesia within One Year 171 13.8 Reasons Given by Migrant Workers from West Java for Their Return 171 13.9 Profile of Returning OCWs Arriving at Jakarta Airport, December 1998 and September–October 1999 172 13.10 Reasons Given by Returned Migrants for Leaving the Village 173 17.1 Gender Empowerment Measure, 1994 213 17.2 Gender Empowerment Measure for Five Lowest and Five Highest Ranked Provinces, 1999 213 18.1 Average Size of Household, 1971–95 220 18.2 Indonesia: Proportion of Women Who Head Households, by Age Group, 1971–95 221 18.3 Women Divorced and Widowed, by Age Group, 1971–95 223 18.4 Indicators of Extended Families, 1971–95 225 18.5 Indonesia: Educational Attainment of Young Women, 1971–95 227 18.6 Indonesia and Jakarta: Indicators of Trends in Marriage Timing and Non-marriage for Women 228 18.7 Female Labour Force Participation Rates in Urban Areas of Selected East and Southeast Asian Countries, 1970–90 230 18.8 Indonesia: Trends in Female Labour Force Participation Rates, Urban Areas, 1971–95 230 19.1 Reported Contraceptive Use among Married Women Aged 15–49, by Method Used and Prevalence, 1993–2000 240 19.2 Reported Prevalence of Contraceptive Use among Married Women aged 15–49, by Urban and Rural Residence, 1993–2000 240 20.1 Gender Participation in Project Activities 258 20.2 Gender Participation in Daily Activities 260 AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page x FIGURES 4.1 Rupiah and Stock Market Performance, 2 June 2000 – 6 November 2001 43 4.2 Actual and Potential Real GDP, 1996–2001 46 4.3 Explosion of Government Debt, 1997–2000 55 4.4 Export and Import Growth, December 1997 – September 2001 57 12.1 Unemployment Rates in Java, 1996–2000 149 13.1 Province of Origin of Official Overseas Migrant Workers, 1994–99 163 13.2 Overseas Labour Migrants in Surveyed Village by Sex, 1976–96 164 18.1 Jakarta: Female Labour Force Participation Rates, by Age Group, 1971–95 231 19.1 Sample Survey Estimates of Contraceptive Prevalence Rates, 1960–99 236 19.2 Sample Survey Estimates of Total Fertility Rates, 1968–97 247 x AAWomen'sBookFinal 12/3/02 5:30 PM Page xi CONTRIBUTORS Sri Moertiningsih Adioetomo Researcher, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Jakarta Edward
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