For the hydrocarbon lake on Titan, see Ontario Lacus.

Lake Ontario (French: Lac Ontario) is one of the five Great of North America. It is bounded on the north, west, and southwest by the Canadian province of Ontario, and on the south and east by the American state of New York. Ontario, Canada’s most populous province, was named for the lake. In the Wyandot (Huron) lan- guage, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. It is the last in the Great Lakes chain and serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake On- tario is also the only one of the five Great Lakes not to share a shoreline with the American state of Michigan. View from Fort Ontario, Oswego, New York 1 Geography

Historic cannon at Fort Niagara; across the lake

draining Lake Erie, with the St. Lawrence River serving as the outlet. The drainage basin covers 24,720 square Basin miles (64,030 km2).[1][5] As with all the Great Lakes, wa- Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and ter levels change both within the year (owing to seasonal the smallest in surface area (7,340 sq mi, 18,960 km2),[1] changes in water input) and among years (owing to longer although it exceeds Lake Erie in volume (393 cu mi, term trends in precipitation). These water level fluctua- 3 tions are an integral part of lake ecology, and produce and 1,639 km ). It is the 14th largest lake in the world. When [6][7] its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 maintain extensive wetlands. The lake also has an im- miles (1,146 km) long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes’ portant freshwater fishery, although it has been negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean sur- [8] face elevation of the lakes at 243 feet (74 m)[2] above and invasive species. sea level; 326 feet (99 m) lower than its neighbor up- Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents stream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles (311 have created a significant number of lagoons and shel- kilometres; 168 nautical miles) and its maximum width tered harbors, mostly near (but not limited to) Prince Ed- is 53 statute miles (85 km; 46 nmi).[2] The lake’s av- ward County, Ontario and the easternmost shores. Per- erage depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot (283 ft; 86 m), with haps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen a maximum depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet (802 ft; 244 as the site of the Upper Canada (Ontario) capital for m).[2][3] The lake’s primary source is the Niagara River, its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include

1 2 3 HISTORY

Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presqu'ile Bay, and lake became a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, in association Sodus Bay. The bars themselves are the sites of long with the Champlain Sea. Gradually the land rebounded beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy from the release of the weight of about 6,500 feet (2,000 Island Beach State Park. These bars are often as- m) of ice that had been stacked on it. It is still rebounding sociated with large wetlands, which support large num- about 12 inches (30 cm) per century in the St. Lawrence bers of plant and animal species, as well as providing area. Since the ice receded from the area last, the most important rest areas for migratory birds.[9][10] Presqu'ile, rapid rebound still occurs there. This means that the lake on the north shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly sig- bed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the south nificant in this regard. One unique feature of the lake shore and turning river valleys into bays. Both north and is the Z-shaped Bay of Quinte which separates Prince south shores experience shoreline erosion, but the tilting Edward County from the Ontario mainland, save for a amplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss to 2-mile (3.2 km) isthmus near Trenton; this feature also property owners. supports many wetlands and aquatic plants, as well as as- sociated fisheries. Major rivers draining into Lake Ontario include the Ni- 3 History agara River; ; ; Trent River; the Cataraqui River; the Genesee River; the Oswego River; the Black River; and the Salmon River.

2 Geology

Lake Ontario bathymetric map.[11][12][13] The deepest point is marked with "×".[14]

The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian- age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age. The action of the ice occurred along the pre- glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as today’s basin. Material that was pushed southward by the ice sheet left landforms such Map of Lac de Frontenac (now Lake Ontario), showing as , kames, and moraines, both on the modern Teiaiagon and Lac Taronto (now ) land surface and the lake bottom,[15] reorganizing the re- gion’s entire drainage system. As the ice sheet retreated Ontario, or 'beautiful great lake' derives its name from the toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence val- / Haudenosaunee first nation which inhabited the ley outlet, so that the lake surface was at a higher level. area around the lake until about 1700. The lake was a bor- This stage is known as Lake Iroquois. During that time der between the Huron and their vassals and the Iroquois the lake drained through present-day Syracuse, New York Confederacy in pre-European times. In the 1600s, the into the Mohawk River, thence to the Hudson River and Iroquois drove out the Huron from southern Ontario and the Atlantic. The shoreline created during this stage can settled the northern shores of Lake Ontario. When the be easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave- Iroquois withdrew and the Anishnabeg / Ojibwa / Missis- cut hills 10 to 25 miles (15 to 40 km) from the present saugas moved in from the north to southern Ontario, they shoreline. retained the Iroquois name.[16] When the ice finally receded from the St. Lawrence val- The first documented European to reach the lake was ley, the outlet was below sea level, and for a short time the Étienne Brûlé in 1615. As was their practice, the 3

French explorers introduced other names for the lake. In 1632 and 1656, the lake was referred to as Lac de St. Louis or Lake St. Louis by Samuel de Champlain and cartographer Nicolas Sanson respectively (likely for Louis XIV of France)[17] In 1660 Jesuit historian Francis Creuxius coined the name Lacus Ontarius. In a map drawn in the Relation des Jésuites (1662–1663), the lake bears the legend “Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois” with the name “Ondiara” in smaller type. A French map pro- duced in 1712 (currently in the Canadian Museum of Civ- ilization[18]), created by military engineer Jean-Baptiste de Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as “Lac Frontenac” named after Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau. He was a French soldier, courtier, and Gover- Wetlands on a lakeshore nor General of from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698. Artifacts which are believed to be of Norse origin have ever, these wetlands are changing in part because the nat- been found in the area of Sodus Bay, indicating possible ural water level fluctuations have been reduced. Many earlier visits by Europeans, but this remains unproven. wetland plants are dependent upon low water levels to reproduce.[20] When water levels are stabilized, the area A series of trading posts was established by both the and diversity of the marsh is reduced. This is particu- British and French, such as (Kingston) in larly true of meadow marsh (also known as wet meadow 1673, Fort Oswego in 1722, Fort Rouillé (Toronto) in wetlands); for example, in Eel Bay near Alexandria Bay, 1750. After the French and Indian War, all forts around regulation of lake levels has resulted in large losses of the lake were under British control. The United States wet meadow.[21] Often this is accompanied by invasion by did not take possession of forts on present-day American cattails, which displace many of the native plant species territory until the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794. Per- and reduce plant diversity. Eutrophication may accel- manent, non-military European settlement began during erate this process by providing nitrogen and phospho- the American Revolution. As the easternmost and near- rus for the more rapid growth of competitively domi- est lake to the Atlantic seaboard of Canada and the United nant plants.[22] Similar effects are occurring on the north States, population centres here are among the oldest in the shore, in wetlands such as Presqu'ile, which have inter- Great Lakes basin, with Kingston, Ontario, formerly the dunal wetlands called pannes, with high plant diversity capital of Canada, dating to the 1670s (Fort Frontenac). and many unusual plant species.[23] The lake became a hub of commercial activity following the with canal building on both sides of the Most of the forests around the lake are deciduous forests border and heavy travel by lake steamers. Steamer ac- dominated by trees including maple, oak, beech, ash and tivity peaked in the mid-19th century before competition basswood. These are classified as part of the Mixedwood from railway lines. Plains Ecozone by Environment Canada, or as the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands by the United States In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a type of scow Environmental Protection Agency, or as the Great Lakes known as a stonehooker was in operation on the north- Ecoregion by The Nature Conservancy. Deforestation in west shore, particularly around Port Credit and Bronte. the vicinity of the lake has had many negative impacts,[24] Stonehooking was the practice of raking flat fragments including loss of forest birds, extinction of native salmon, of Dundas shale from the shallow lake floor of the area and increased amounts of flowing into the lake. for use in construction, particularly in the growing city of In some areas more than 90 percent of the forest cover Toronto.[19] has been removed and replaced by agriculture. Cer- tain tree species, such as hemlock, have also been par- ticularly depleted by past logging activity.[25] Guidelines 4 Ecology and environmental con- for restoration stress the importance of maintaining and cerns restoring forest cover, particularly along streams and wetlands.[26][27]

The Great Lakes watershed is a region of high biodi- The open water is less-affected by shoreline features, such versity, and Lake Ontario is important for its diversity as wetlands, and more affected by nutrient levels that con- of birds, fish, reptiles amphibians and plants. Many of trol the production of algae. Algae are the basis of the these special species are associated with shorelines, par- open water food web, and the source of primary produc- ticularly sand dunes, lagoons, and wetlands. The impor- tion that ends up as Lake Trout and Walleye at the top of tance of wetlands to the lake has been appreciated, and the open water food web. many of the larger wetlands have protected status. How- Like the other Great Lakes, Lake Ontario used to have 4 5 CLIMATE

Some Lake Ontario areas of concern include the Oswego River and Rochester Embayment on the American side, and Hamilton Harbour and Toronto on the Canadian Side. By the 1960s and 1970s, the increased pollution caused Lake Sturgeon were abundant in 1860 and had been driven to frequent algal blooms to occur in the summer.[8] These near extinction by 1960. blooms killed large numbers of fish, and left decom- posing piles of filamentous algae and dead fish along the shores.[29] At times the blooms became so thick that an important commercial fishery. It has been largely de- waves could not break. Fish eating birds such as osprey, stroyed, mostly by over-fishing. Consider the Lake Stur- bald eagle and cormorant were being poisoned by con- geon as but one example. Lake sturgeon are huge fish— taminated fish. Since the 1960s and 1970s, environmen- they can grow up to three meters long and exceed 190 kg tal concerns have forced a cleanup of industrial and mu- in weight. The females mature slowly and require decades nicipal wastes. Cleanup has been accomplished through to reach sexual maturity. It was once an abundant species better treatment plants, tighter environmental regulations, in Lake Ontario. “In 1860, this species, taken on inciden- deindustrialization and increased public awareness. To- tal catches of other fishes, was killed and dumped back day, Lake Ontario has recovered some of its pristine qual- in the lake, piled up on shore to dry and be burned, fed ity; for example, walleye, a fish species considered as a to pigs, or dug into the earth as fertilizer.”[28] It was even marker of clean water, are now found. However, regional stacked like cordwood and used to fuel steamboats. Once airshed pollution remains a concern. The lake has also its value was realized, “They were taken by every avail- become an important sport fishery, although with intro- able means from spearing and jigging to set lines of baited duced species (Coho and Chinook salmon) rather than or unbaited hooks laid on the bottom to trapnets, pound- the native species. Bald eagle and osprey populations are nets and gillnets.”[28] Over 5 million pounds were taken also beginning to recover. from adjoining Lake Erie in a single year. The fishery collapsed, largely by 1900. They have never recovered. Invasive species are a problem for Lake Ontario, particu- Like most sturgeons, the lake sturgeon is rare now, and larly lamprey and zebra mussels. Lamprey are being con- is protected in many areas. Populations in the Oswego trolled by poisoning in the juvenile stage in the streams River are being actively managed for recovery. where they breed. Zebra mussels in particular are diffi- cult to control, and pose major challenges for the lake and

ATMOSPH ND E A RI C C I A N D A M E I C N its waterways. O I S

L T

A R

N A

T

O

I

I

O

T

N A N

U E .S C .D R E E P M AR M Lake Ontario Food Web T O MENT OF C

Sea Lamprey Walleye

Burbot Lake Trout Chinook Salmon Coho Salmon Smallmouth Bass Brown Trout Rainbow Trout

Lake Whitefish 5 Climate

Yellow Perch Rainbow American Eel Smelt Atlantic Salmon

Slimy Sculpin Alewife Round Goby The lake has a natural seiche rhythm of eleven minutes. 3 Opossum Shrimp The seiche effect normally is only about ⁄4 inches (2 cm)

Zebra/Quagga Mollusks Chironomids Amphipods Invasive waterflea mussels but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds,

Cyclopoids Calanoids Native waterflea Raptorial waterflea and atmospheric pressure changes.

Diatoms Because of its great depth, the lake as a whole never Green algae freezes in winter, but an ice sheet covering between 10% Blue-green algae Flagellates Rotifers

Foodweb based on “Impact of exotic invertebrate invaders on food web structure and function in the Great Lakes: NOAA, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, 4840 S. State Road, Ann Arbor, MI A network analysis approach” by Mason, Krause, and Ulanowicz, 2002 - Modifications for Lake Ontario, 2009. 734-741-2235 - www.glerl.noaa.gov and 90% of the lake area typically develops, depending on the severity of the winter. Ice sheets typically form along Lake Ontario food web the shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake is not as deep. During the winters of 1877 and 1878, the ice This food web has been damaged not only by over- sheet coverage was up to 95–100% in most of the lake. fishing, and changes in nutrient levels, but also by other In the winter of 1812, the ice cover was stable enough types of polluted from industrial chemicals, agricultural that the American naval commander stationed at Sackets fertilizers, untreated sewage, phosphates, such as from Harbor feared a British attack from Kingston, over the laundry detergents, and chemicals. Some pollutant chem- ice. icals that have been found in the lake include DDT, When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer wa- benzo[a]pyrene and other pesticides; PCBs, aramite, ter of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it as lake- chromium, lead, mirex, mercury, and carbon tetrachlo- effect snow. Since the prevailing winter winds are from ride. The International Joint Commission has identi- the northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of fied areas where pollution is particularly intense (point the lake is referred to as the snowbelt. In some winters the sources) and mapped them as Areas of Concern. A Re- area between Oswego and Pulaski may receive twenty or medial Action Plan has been developed for each area. more feet (600 cm) of snowfall. Also impacted by lake- 5

effect snow is the Tug Hill Plateau, an area of elevated land that is about 20 miles (32 km) east of Lake Ontario, creating ideal conditions for lake-effect snowfall. The “Hill”, as it is often referred to, typically receives more snow than any other region in the eastern United States. As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter en- thusiasts, such as snow-mobilers and cross-country skiers. Lake-effect snow often extends inland as far as Syracuse, with that city often recording the most winter snowfall ac- cumulation of any large city in the United States. Other cities in the world receive more snow annually, such as Quebec City, which averages 135 inches (340 cm), and Sapporo, Japan, which receives 250 inches (640 cm) each year and is often regarded as the snowiest city in the world. Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be cre- Winter scene on Toronto Bay in 1835 ated by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment for recreational boaters. In a normal winter, Lake Ontario will be at most one quarter ice-covered, in a mild win- ter almost completely unfrozen. Lake Ontario has com- pletely frozen over on five recorded occasions: from about January 20 to about March 20, 1830;[30] in 1874;[31] in 1893;[31] in 1912;[31] and in February 1934.[31] Lake breezes in spring tend to retard fruit bloom until the frost danger is past, and in the autumn delay the onset of fall frost, particularly on the south shore. Cool onshore winds also retard early bloom of plants and flowers until later in the spring season, protecting them from possible frost damage. Such microclimatic effects have enabled tender fruit production in a continental climate, with the southwest shore supporting a major fruit-growing area. Apples, cherries, pears, plums, and peaches are grown in Marina in Port Dalhousie, Ontario many commercial orchards around Rochester. Between Stoney Creek and Niagara-on-the-Lake on the Niagara Peninsula is a major fruit-growing and wine-making area. The wine-growing region extends over the international border into Niagara and Orleans counties. Apple vari- eties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown on the lake’s north shore, around Cobourg.

6 Settlements

A large conurbation called the occu- pies the lake’s westernmost shores, anchored by the cities of Toronto and Hamilton. Ports on the Canadian side in- clude St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston, Victoria Beach, Cobourg, Ontario near the St. Lawrence River outlet. Close to 9 mil- lion people or over a quarter of Canada’s population lives within the watershed of Lake Ontario. The American June 17, 2004, to January 10, 2006, when the service shore is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester and was cancelled. The Crystal Lynn II, out of Irondequoit, the much smaller ports at Oswego and Sackets Harbor. New York, has been operating between Irondequoit Bay The city of Syracuse is 40 miles (64 km) inland, con- and Henderson, New York since May 2000, operated by nected to the lake by the New York State Canal System. Capt. Bob Tein. Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario’s American watershed. Ontario, Canada A high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry, the Spirit of On- tario I, operated between Toronto and Rochester from • Toronto 6 6 SETTLEMENTS

• Mississauga

• Hamilton

• Burlington

• Oshawa

• Kingston

• Whitby

• Stoney Creek

• Grimsby

• Oakville Fishing at Pierhead Light in Oswego, New York, c. 1900. Fort Ontario behind. • St. Catharines

• Port Hope

• Cobourg

• Brighton

• Pickering

• Ajax

• Bowmanville

• Belleville

• Trenton

• Niagara-on-the-Lake

New York, U.S.A.

• Rochester

• Greece

• Irondequoit Olcott Light, Olcott, New York

• Webster 6.1 Ocean and lake navigation • Oswego The Great Lakes Waterway connects the lake sidestream • Fair Haven to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence Seaway, and upstream to the other rivers in the chain via the Welland • Sackets Harbor Canal and to Lake Erie. The Trent-Severn Waterway for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of • Cape Vincent Quinte to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron), via Lake Simcoe. The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to the • Three Mile Bay New York State Canal System, with outlets to the Hudson River, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain. • Wilson The , also for pleasure boats, connects Lake • Chaumont Ontario at Kingston to the Ottawa River in downtown 6.4 Other topics 7

by the basement rock found throughout the region. Wolfe Island, located near Kingston at the St. Lawrence outlet, is the largest island in the basin. It is accessible by ferry from both Canada and the U.S.

• – only islands on the western end of the lake

• Association Island

• Galloo Island - and nearby Little Galloo Island, Calf Island, and Stony Island

• Amherst Island

• Simcoe Island

• Garden Island

• Grenadier Island

• Waupoos Island

• Nicholson Island

• Big Island

Sodus Point Light, Sodus Point, New York 6.4 Other topics

Ottawa.

6.2 Lighthouses

• Beach Canal Lighthouse

• Braddock Point Light

• Charlotte-Genesee Lighthouse

• Gibraltar Point Lighthouse

• Oswego Harbor West Pierhead Light

• Presqu'ile Lighthouse Toronto fire boats and police marine unit

• Selkirk Lighthouse

• Sodus Point Light

• Stony Point Light

• Thirty Mile Point Light

6.3 Islands

Nearly all of Lake Ontario’s islands are located on the eastern and north-eastern shores, between the Prince Ed- ward County headland and the lake’s outlet at Kingston. The Toronto Islands on the north-western shore are the remnants of a sand spit formed by coastal erosion, whereas the mostly larger eastern islands are underlain The Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway at Hamilton, Ontario 8 10 SEE ALSO

The Great Lakes Circle Tour and Seaway Trail are des- • The lake seen from dead end of Dutch St.; Huron, ignated scenic road systems connecting all of the Great New York (A sparsely populated neighboring town Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[32] As the Seaway of Wolcott, New York) Trail is posted on the U.S. side only, Lake Ontario is the only of the five Great Lakes to have no posted bi-national • Sandbanks Provincial Park circle tour. In the 1800s, there were reports of an alleged creature • Bathers at Southwick Beach State Park, eastern similar to the so-called Loch Ness Monster being sighted shore of Lake Ontario, New York State in the lake. The creature is described as large with a long neck, green in colour, and generally causes a break in the • Sodus Outer Light, Sodus Bay, New York surface waves.[33][34][35] • View of Lake Ontario from Toronto’s CN Tower, showing , Toronto Islands, and 7 Swims across the lake Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport • Pier in Oakville, Ontario As of 2012, nearly 50 people have successfully swum [36] across the lake. The first person who accomplished the • Sculpture at top of Scarborough Bluffs feat was Marilyn Bell, who did it in 1954 at the age of 16. Toronto's Marilyn Bell Park is named in her honor. • Scarborough Bluffs The park opened in 1984, and is located just to the east of the spot where Bell completed her swim.[37] In 1974, Diana Nyad became the first person who swam across the lake against the current (from north to south).[38] 10 See also On August 28, 2007, 14-year-old Natalie Lambert from Kingston, Ontario made the swim leaving Sackets Har- • bor, NY and reaching Kingston’s Confederation basin Bay of Quinte less than 24 hours after she entered the lake.[39] On Au- gust 19, 2012, 14-year-old Annaleise Carr became the • Charity Shoal Crater youngest person to swim across the lake. She completed the 32-mile (52-km) crossing from Niagara-on-the-Lake • Engagements on Lake Ontario to Marilyn Bell Park in just under 27 hours.[40] • Fort Niagara

8 Industrialisation • Glacial Lake Admiralty • Glacial Lake Iroquois The government of Ontario, which holds the lakebed rights of the Canadian portion of the lake under the • Iroquois Confederacy Beds of Navigable Waters Act,[41] currently does not per- mit off-shore wind power to be generated offshore.[42] In • Trillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (Natural Iroquois settlement of the northern shores of Lake Resources),[41] the Superior Court of Justice held that Ontario Trillium Power—since 2004 an “Applicant of Record” • who had invested $35,000 in fees and, when in 2011 Lake Ontario Waterkeeper the Crown made a policy decision against offshore wind- farms, claimed an injury of $2.25 billion—disclosed no • Niagara River reasonable cause of action. • Ontario Lacus, a hydrocarbon-lake on Saturn's While the Great Lakes once supported an industrial- moon Titan named after Lake Ontario scale fishery, with record hauls in 1899, overfishing later blighted the industry.[43] Today only recreational fishery • activities exist. St. Lawrence River

• United Empire Loyalist

9 Images • Welland Canal

• Satellite image during late autumn • Wyandot people 9

10.1 Great Lakes in general [11] National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Ontario. National Geophysical Data Center, • Great Lakes NOAA. doi:10.7289/V56H4FBH [access date: 2015-03- 23]. • Great Lakes Areas of Concern [12] National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of • Great Lakes census statistical areas Lake Erie and Lake Saint Clair. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5KS6PHK [access • Great Lakes Commission date: 2015-03-23]. (only small portion of this map) • Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal [13] National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, • Great Storm of 1913 D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, • International Boundary Waters Treaty NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: 2015-03- 16]. • List of cities along the Great Lakes [14] “About Our Great Lakes: Tour”. National Oceanic and • Seiche Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) - Great Lakes En- vironmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved • Sixty Years’ War for control of the Great Lakes 2 April 2015. Google Earth Great Lakes Tour GreatLakesTour_Merged.kmz • Third Coast [15] Origin of drumlins on the floor of Lake Ontario and in • Snowbelt upper New York State; Quaternary geology; bridging the gap between East and West — Department of Geology, . Geology.utoronto.ca (November 11 References 17, 2011). Retrieved on 2011-11-29. [16] Smith 1987, p. 10. [1] “Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts”. U.S. Government. May 25, 2011. Retrieved November 12, [17] Lake Ontario Facts and Figures. Great-lakes.net (Febru- 2011. ary 28, 2005). Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

[2] “Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1” (in English and [18] Museum of Civilization French). United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2011. [19] Snider, Charles Henry Jeremiah, Townsend, Robert B. Tales from the Great Lakes. Toronto: Dundurn Press [3] Wright 2006, p. 64. Limited, 1995, pp. 25.

[4] Shorelines of the Great Lakes [20] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and [5] A Report on Water Resources and Local Watershed Man- Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, agement Programs. The State of the New York Lake On- Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Chapters 1 and 2. tario Basin (2000) [21] Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., and [6] Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., and Nicholas, J.R. 2007. Lake-level variability and water Nicholas, J.R.. 2007. Lake-level variability and water availability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey availability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1311.Box 4 Circular 1311, 25 p. [22] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and [7] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Cambridge, UK. Chapter 2. [23] Moore, D. R. J. and Keddy, P. A. (1989). The relationship [8] Christie, W. J. (1974). Changes in the fish species com- between species richness and standing crop in wetlands: position of the Great Lakes. Journal of the Fisheries Re- the importance of scale. Vegetation, 79, 99–106. search Board of Canada, 31, 827–54. [24] Williams, M. 1989. Americans and Their Forests: A His- [9] Maynard, L., and Wilcox, D.A., 1997, Coastal wetlands torical Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University of the Great Lakes—State of the Lakes Ecosystem Con- Press. ference 1996 background paper: Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 905–R– [25] Keddy, C.J. 1993. Forest History of Eastern Ontario. A 97–015b, 99 p. report prepared for the Eastern Ontario Forest Group.

[10] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and [26] Environment Canada. 2004. How Much Habitat is Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Enough? A Framework for Guiding Habitat Rehabilita- Cambridge, UK.497 p. tion in Great Lakes Areas of Concern. 2nd ed. 81 p. 10 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[27] Keddy, P.A. and C. G.Drummond. 1996. Ecological [40] Alamenciak, Tim. “Exhausted, but jubilant Annaleise properties for the evaluation, management, and restora- Carr completes Lake Ontario crossing”. thespec.com. tion of temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. Ecologi- Retrieved August 20, 2012. cal Applications 6: 748–762. [41] Trillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (Natural [28] Scott, W.B. and E.J. Crossman. 1972. Freshwater Fish- Resources), 2012 ONSC 5619 (CanLII) eries of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Department of the Environment, Ottawa. p. 88. [42] “Ontario’s off-shore wind turbine moratorium unresolved two years later”, Toronto Star, Spears, Feb 15 2013 [29] Vallentyne, J. R. (1974). The Algal Bowl: Lakes and Man, Miscellaneous Special Publication No. 22. Ottawa, [43] Author unknown (1972). The Great Lakes: An Environ- ON: Department of the Environment, Fisheries and Ma- mental Atlas and Resource Book. Bi-national (U.S. and rine Service. Canadian) resource book.

[30] Kingston Chronicle, January 30, 1830, 2, col. 6 (“For sev- Bibliography eral years past we have not been visited with so much snow as has fallen here within the last fortnight. The storm of Wednesday and yesterday could only be equalled by such • May, Gary (2008). “The Day the Lake Froze Over”. visitations as are familiar to our Lower Canada friends. Watershed Magazine (Winter 2008/2009). The thermometer has ranged from 10° below, to 20° above 0, for the last ten days. The Lake is firmly frozen, • Smith, Donald B. (1987). Sacred Feather. Univer- and a cheap and safe style of travelling has revived the in- sity of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6732-8. tercourse with our brethren of the independent portion of • the world”); Republican Compiler [newspaper], February Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The 23, 1830, p. 2, col. 5 (“At Kingston, Upper Canada, the New York Times (2006). The New York Times Al- quantity of snow which had fallen had not been equalled manac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin for several years.—The Lake (Ontario) was frozen, and Books. ISBN 0-14-303820-6. crossing had become general”); Perry, Kenneth A, The Fitch Gazetteer: An Annotated Index to the Manuscript His- tory of Washington County, New York, 4 vols. (Bowie, Md.: Heritage Books, 1999), 4:565 (“Kingston, Upper 12 External links Canada, [experiencing] the deepset [sic] snow in several yrs., & Lake Ontario frozen over”); Kingston Chronicle • Lake Ontario NOAA nautical chart #14820 online [newspaper], January 9, 1830, 2, col. 1 (“the Bay was • frozen across this morning”); see also Vermont Chronicle, EPA’s Great Lakes Atlas (Bellows Falls, Vt.) Friday, February 19, 1830, p. 31, col • Great Lakes Coast Watch D, quoting the Quebec Gazette: “The Lake (Ontario) was frozen, and crossing had become general.” • Lake Ontario Bathymetry [31] May 2008.

[32] Great Lakes Circle Tour. Great-lakes.net (July 5, 2005). Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

[33] The Morning Post (London, England), Saturday, July 25, 1835; p. 6 “Sea Serpent in Lake Ontario”

[34] Glasgow Herald (Glasgow, Scotland), Friday, June 28, 1867 “Another Sea Serpent Sensation: A hideous mon- ster discovered in Lake Ontario”

[35] Pinkwater, Daniel. The Monster of Lake Ontario. New York: Houghton Mifflin Publishing, 2010, pp. 46–47.

[36] CNN Wire Staff (August 20, 2012). “14-year-old swims solo across Lake Ontario”. CNN. Retrieved August 20, 2012.

[37] “Plaque in Marilyn Bell Park”. YouTube. Retrieved Au- gust 21, 2012.

[38] Pitock, Todd. “The Unsinkable Diana Nyad”. Reader’s Digest (November 2011). Retrieved August 20, 2012.

[39] http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ kingston-teen-becomes-youngest-to-swim-lake-ontario-1. 643621 11

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Lake Ontario Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Ontario?oldid=672279385 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, Bryan Derksen, Rmhermen, Christian List, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Ichelhof, Montrealais, Ewen, Edward, Docu, Big iron, Andres, Jiang, Samw, Edmilne, Hike395, Jengod, Wik, Thadk, Indefatigable, Oaktree b, Pollinator, Bearcat, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jredmond, RedWolf, Moncrief, Radagast, Bkonrad, Foryst, Foobar, Chowbok, SarekOfVulcan, Sleep pilot, The Singing Badger, Robert Brockway, Balcer, Ge- oGreg, Avihu, Dcandeto, Kate, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Zaphod-Swe, Mjuarez, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Ffirehorse, Qutezuce, John FitzGerald, Vsmith, El C, Bletch, Kwamikagami, .:Ajvol:., Helix84, SPUI, Alansohn, Revmachine21, Fat pig73, Versageek, Ceyockey, Anderskin, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Etacar11, JeremyA, MONGO, BD2412, Jorunn, Susan Davis, WCFrancis, Alaney2k, Tcwd, SeanMack, Lairor, Sango123, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, AdnanSa, Latka, RexNL, Ahunt, Chobot, Marc pasquin, 334a, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, Mr Frosty, Pigman, Epolk, Bachrach44, Joelr31, Brian Crawford, StevieY19, Raven4x4x, Bota47, Some- ones life, Sandstein, KGasso, BorgQueen, Jsp3970, Eog1916, Blastwizard, SmackBot, ILBobby, C.Löser, Skeezix1000, Toofast, Shoy, Unyoyega, Gjs238, Steam5, Ohnoitsjamie, Phizzy, Hmains, Durova, Amatulic, Jprg1966, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ryan- lock2u, MJCdetroit, VMS Mosaic, Paul H., Liddelr, Morio, ArglebargleIV, Robomaeyhem, EMU CPA, John, Snincr, J 1982, Cicero1991, Smalkin, Ckatz, Korovioff, Anonymous anonymous, Darry2385, TJ Spyke, Alan.ca, D.A., Doggydoo, Xxplosive, Ofsevit, Civil Engineer III, Fvasconcellos, Nutster, Ale jrb, MarcosFenn, Em3rald, Devatipan, Bardiak, Cydebot, Jimmykaw, Greenboxed, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Puppybarf, JustAGal, Jbl1975, Gubbagubbaba, Nhl4hamilton, AntiVandalBot, Paste, JimDunning, Spencer, Kariteh, Mikenorton, JAnD- bot, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, VoABot II, HaltonRattlesnake, Chemical Engineer, Daarznieks, User86654, Dtheweather9, Vssun, GregU, Thorin III~enwiki, Stupefaction, Dajd987, MartinBot, Genghiskhanviet, Peter2212, AlexiusHoratius, RaccoonFox, Zeete, J.delanoy, Os- mer, Abhijitsathe, LordAnubisBOT, Sundar1, Touch Of Light, Miskwito, Antepenultimate, STBotD, Hbayat, RobertKafarski, DASon- nenfeld, The Behnam, Idioma-bot, Montchav, VolkovBot, Canopus27, TXiKiBoT, Melsaran, Modal Jig, Onore Baka Sama, Entirelybs, Truthanado, Wavehunter, Larryfordthomas, SieBot, 1013-josh, Thelittlebluegoat, Chris Light, Alaskoko, Samus link, Flyer22, AngelOf- Sadness, Android Mouse Bot 3, John Leech, Lightmouse, OKBot, Altzinn, Brave warrior, Denisarona, Finetooth, Angel caboodle, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Kennvido, Shadows Princess, Mild Bill Hiccup, Puchiko, Rinzertanz, 7&6=thirteen, Cookiehead, SteelMariner, Vanished user k3rmwkdmn4tjna3d, Rror, Good Olfactory, Jhendin, Addbot, Sidsizzle, AkhtaBot, Jim10701, 37ophiuchi, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Vedran12, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Wikipedian Penguin, Madeline1914, VerticalDrop, AnomieBOT, Ujjwalkumar, Ul- ric1313, B137, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Eja2k, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Jeffrey Mall, Chongo713, PhilthyBear, Drdpw, Moxy, Fotaun, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, MastiBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Jugni, FoxBot, Fanfardon, Tbhotch, Stratshaw, Natbug123, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Waleed.mughal, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, Wabbdb, Racerx11, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Akerans, SporkBot, Rcsprinter123, UnknownFork, Mappetop, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, Morgankevinj huggle, Frietjes, Parcly Taxel, BG19bot, Spookyrabbit, Hadifn, Insidiae, DignitySun53, Khazar2, NahidSultan, Darekk2, Darylbender, Lu- gia2453, The Anonymouse, Acetotyce, Magnolia677, Asesorestecnicos, Thewikiguru1, Epic Failure, Monkbot, Ahanford1234, Reval416, Vaselineeeeeeee, Cynulliad, Gaudenjer08, KasparBot, Lake Ontario Wind, That Guy You Know4567 and Anonymous: 273

13.2 Images

• File:Acipenser_fulvescens_GLERL.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Acipenser_fulvescens_ GLERL.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Braddockpoint.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Braddockpoint.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: US Coast Guard - http://www.uscg.mil/history/weblighthouses/LHNY.asp Original artist: Unknown • File:Burlington_Bay_James_N._Allan_Skyway_-_Hamilton,_Ontario,_Canada.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/8/84/Burlington_Bay_James_N._Allan_Skyway_-_Hamilton%2C_Ontario%2C_Canada.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Magnolia677 • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fort_Niagara_aiming_at_Toronto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Fort_Niagara_aiming_at_ Toronto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ad Meskens • File:Fort_Ontario_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Fort_Ontario_5.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ad Meskens • File:Great_Lakes_from_space.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Great_Lakes_from_space.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=793 Original artist: SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE. • File:Lake_Ontario_Cobourg_Apr2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Lake_Ontario_Cobourg_ Apr2006.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paulo Maurício • File:Lake_Ontario_Watershed.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Lake_Ontario_Watershed.png Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drdpw • File:Lake_Ontario_bathymetry_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Lake_Ontario_ bathymetry_map.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: • Great Lakes Bathymetry from National Geophysical Data Center http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html. Credits: Orig- inal artist: Darekk2 using the Great Lakes Bathymetry and GLOBE tiles • File:Lake_Ontario_food_web.pdf Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Lake_Ontario_food_web.pdf Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: NOAA Great Lakes Food Web Diagrams direct Original artist: NOAA, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory: Mason, Krause, and Ulanowicz, 2002 - Modifications for Lake Ontario, 2009. • File:Olcott_lighthouse_with_rainfall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Olcott_lighthouse_with_ rainfall.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ad Meskens 12 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Oswego_NY_Fort_Ontario_LOC_det_4a07737.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Oswego_ NY_Fort_Ontario_LOC_det_4a07737.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Rrl_top_floor_view_lake_ontario_and_marina.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Rrl_top_ floor_view_lake_ontario_and_marina.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Achim Hering • File:Soduspoint.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Soduspoint.JPG License: Public domain Contribu- tors: US Coast Guard - http://www.uscg.mil/history/weblighthouses/LHNY.asp Original artist: Unknown • File:Toronto_fireboats_Sora_and_William_Lyon_Mackenzie_-a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/ 39/Toronto_fireboats_Sora_and_William_Lyon_Mackenzie_-a.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Toronto Fireboats Sora and Wm. Lyon Mackenzie_4765 Original artist: Robert Taylor from Stirling, ON, Canada • File:USGS_image_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/USGS_image_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USGS Document, Circular 1311, Lake-Level Variability and Water Availability in the Great Lakes Origi- nal artist: Douglas A. Wilcox, Todd A. Thompson, Robert K. Booth, and J.R. Nicholas • File:Upper_Canada_and_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Upper_ Canada_and_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the City of Toronto Archives, listed under the archival citation Fonds 1231, Item 173. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Unknown • File:Winter_scene_on_Toronto_Bay.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Winter_scene_on_Toronto_ Bay.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the under the reference number TRL, Acc. JRR 842 This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: William Armstrong (1822 - 1914)

13.3 Content license

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