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Sinkholes and Subsidence in South Africa

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Sinkholes and Subsidence in South Africa Western Cape Unit P.O. Box 572 Bellville 7535 SOUTH AFRICA c/o Oos and Reed Streets Bellville Cape Town Reception: +27 (0) 21 946 6700 Fax: +27 (0) 21 946 4190 Sinkholes and subsidence in South Africa A.C Oosthuizen and S. Richardson Council for Geoscience Report number: 2011-0010 © Copyright 2011. Council for Geoscience 1 Contents Contents..................................................................................................................................................2 Figures.....................................................................................................................................................2 Tables......................................................................................................................................................3 1 Introduction to sinkholes................................................................................................................1 2 Mechanism of sinkhole formation..................................................................................................1 2.1 Weathering of Dolomite........................................................................................................1 2.2 Sinkhole Formation................................................................................................................6 2.2.1 Sinkholes formed under the Ingress Scenario ..................................................................6 2.2.2 Sinkholes formed under the Dewatering Scenario (lowering of the groundwater table) 8 2.3 Subsidence Formation.........................................................................................................10 2.3.1 Surface Saturation-type subsidence ................................................................................11 2.3.2 Dewatering-type subsidence ...........................................................................................12 2.3.3 Partly developed sinkholes ..............................................................................................13 3 Affected areas in South Africa ......................................................................................................15 3.1 Towns on Dolomite..............................................................................................................20 4 SINKHOLE AND SUBSIDENCE INCIDENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.........................................................21 4.1 Dewatered areas .................................................................................................................22 4.2 Non-dewatered areas..........................................................................................................22 5 CONSEQUENCES OF SINKHOLE AND SUBSIDENCE FORMATION ..................................................24 6 Summary.......................................................................................................................................29 7 References ....................................................................................................................................30 Figures Figure 1. Occurrence of dolomite across South Africa ...........................................................................2 Figure 2: Conceptual diagram of typical karst landscape in South Africa (after Waltham and Fooks; 2003) .......................................................................................................................................................4 Figure 3: Dissolution of dolomite bedrock (Lyttelton Quarry, Centurion).............................................5 Figure 4: A sinkhole that has formed as a result of a leaking service pipe (Waterkloof, Pretoria) .......5 2 Figure 5: Example of sinkhole that bottleneck, i.e. narrow opening at surface (Atteridgeville, Pretoria) ................................................................................................................................................................7 Figure 6: Large sinkhole (± 15 m diameter) triggered by ingress of water (Centurion, Gauteng).........8 Figure 7: Large sinkhole (> 50 m diameter) caused by lowering of the groundwater level (Bapsfontein, Gauteng)...........................................................................................................................9 Figure 8: Sinkhole formation process in both ingress and dewatering scenario’s ...............................10 Figure 9: Example of a surface saturation-type subsidence, < 5 m in diameter (Centurion, Gauteng)12 Figure 10: Example of a dewatering-type subsidence (Babsfontein, Gauteng) ....................................13 Figure 11: Example of a partly developed sinkhole (Centurion, Gauteng) ............................................13 Figure 12: Subsidence formation in both an ingress and dewatering scenario ...................................14 Figure 13: Distribution of Dolomite in the Gauteng Province ..............................................................16 Figure 14: Distribution of Dolomite in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces...............................17 Figure 15: Distribution of Dolomite in the North West Province .........................................................18 Figure 16: Distribution of Dolomite in the Northern Cape Province ....................................................19 Figure 17: Sinkhole and subsidence occurrence in the Far West Rand................................................22 Figure 18: Sinkhole and subsidence occurrence in the East Rand........................................................23 Figure 19: Sinkhole and subsidence occurrences in the area south of Pretoria...................................24 Figure 20: The ‘Sinkhole farm’ in the Wonderfontein spruit valley, Venterspost Compartment ........25 Figure 21: The 55 m diameter sinkhole that swallowed the West Driefontein mine crusher..............25 Figure 22: A sinkhole swallowed a house with a family of 5 in the Blyvooruitzig village.....................26 Figure 23: A sinkhole killed one spectator at Venterspost recreational club, October 1970..............26 Figure 24: Sinkhole in Laudium during 1970’s (Pretoria, Gauteng).....................................................27 Figure 25: Sinkhole in Waterkloof during 1980’s (Pretoria, Gauteng)..................................................27 Figure 26: Sinkhole damaging a house in Thaba Tshwane (Pretoria, Gauteng) ...................................28 Figure 27: Sinkhole damaging a house in Lyttelton Manor, 2008 (Centurion, Gauteng).....................28 Figure 28: Townhouse in Valhalla damaged due to a sinkhole, 2010 (Centurion, Gauteng) ..............29 Tables Table 1: Suggested classification of sinkholes in terms of size (after Buttrick & Van Schalkwyk, 1995) 6 Table 2: Towns on dolomite..................................................................................................................20 3 1 Introduction to sinkholes Certain parts of the ground surface of South Africa are prone to sudden, catastrophic collapse which may lead to death, injury or structural damage. Such features are known as sinkholes and in South Africa occur in areas underlain by dolomite rock. Approximately 25% of Gauteng Province, as well as parts of Mpumulanga, Limpopo, North West and Northern Cape Provinces, are underlain by dolomite (Figure 1). This poses a potential risk to the safety of many people and the structures in which they work and live. Sinkholes are generally circular, up to 125 m in diameter, steep sided and deep (up to 50m). They can occur with little warning; however, cracks in walls or settlement of the ground are often the early warning signs of impending sinkhole formation. At least 38 people are known to have died over the last 50 years in South Africa due to sinkhole formation. An estimated cost of the damage caused by sinkholes to date is in excess of R1 billion (Buttrick et al., 2001). 2 Mechanism of sinkhole formation 2.1 Weathering of Dolomite Although karst weathering commonly occurred during Karoo to recent times (approx < 250 Ma), there were several much older karst events in the preserved Transvaal basin carbonates (Eriksson and Altermann, 1998). A major karst event, for instance, took place during the time interval represented by the unconformity (c < 2.436 Ga - ≥ c. 2.35 Ga) that separates the Chuniespoort and Pretoria Groups (Martini et al., 1995). Large cavities are not only associated with this contact but also occur at several hundred meters below this level. The weathering process is well summarised in the Guideline for engineering geological characterisation and development of dolomite land (2003): Rain water (H 2O) takes up carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the atmosphere and soil (where the concentration of this gas may be up to 90 times greater than in the atmosphere) to form a weak carbonic acid (H 2CO 3). The weakly-acidic groundwater circulating along tension fractures, faults and joints in the dolomitic succession causes leaching of the carbonate 1 Figure 1. Occurrence of dolomite across South Africa 2 minerals. The solubility of dolomite is high in comparison to other rocks, but significant solution cannot be observed over short periods (months and years). This process may be represented as follows: CaMg(CO 3)2 + 2 H 2CO 3 → Ca(HCO 3)2 + Mg(HCO 3)2 The process of dissolution progresses slowly in the slightly acidic groundwater (above and at the groundwater level). The resultant bicarbonate-rich water emerges at springs and is carried away. The dissolution process
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