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Home , Luke 15, Parables of Jesus, The Prodigal (Angel)

in the : History of Interpretation and Hermeneutical Guidelines1 Robert L. Plummer

bout one-third of ’ teaching is in story that illustrates a moral attitude or a religious A parables. So influential are these parables principle.”2 While these definitions are correct, that even people who have never read the use the most fundamental component of a is expressions drawn from them (e.g., that there must be a comparison.3 For example, in Robert L. Plummer is Associate Professor of “the good Samaritan” or “the prodi- the parable of the hidden treasure the kingdom of Interpretation at The Southern gal Son”). Though widely known, heaven is compared to a treasure (“The kingdom Baptist Theological Seminary. Jesus’ parables are also notorious of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field,” Matt for their frequent misinterpreta- 13:44). The Greek word parabolē which underlies He has served in missionary assign- ments of varying length in China, tion. In this article, I will begin our English word “parable” has a broad range of Israel, Trinidad, Ghana, Malaysia, by defining “parable” and giving a meaning. It can refer to proverbs, similes, figura- and Turkey. Dr. Plummer’s articles brief historical survey of how the tive sayings, stories, etc. For our purposes, how- have appeared in Westminster Theological Journal, Journal of the parables have been interpreted. ever, we will limit our discussion primarily to the Evangelical Theological Society, Then, in the second half of the story parables that are found in the Bible. New Holman Bible Dictionary, The article, I will offer some guidelines Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, for properly interpreting parables. History of Interpretation and other publications. He is the author of Paul’s Understanding of At this point, we will briefly survey the way the Church’s Mission: Did the Apostle Defining “Parable” parables have been interpreted throughout church Paul Expect the Early Christian Com- When asked the definition of history. This summary will be helpful in two munities to Evangelize? (Paternoster a parable, most might regards: (1) In seeing the interpretive missteps Press, 2006) and 40 Questions about Interpreting the Bible (Kregel, forth- respond, “An earthly story with a commonly taken throughout history, the reader coming) from which this article is heavenly meaning.” The diction- will be forewarned not to repeat them; and (2) it taken. ary definition is “a short fictitious can be instructive to see how scholarly insights

4 SBJT 13.3 (2009): 4-11. resulted in significant shifts in the understanding Priest The Law of parables. The interpretation of parables is sur- Levite The Prophets veyed in five historical periods below. Samaritan Wounds Disobedience, vices, Jesus’ Original Setting and the and sin Writing of the Gospels Beast (Donkey) ’s body, which At the least, we can say that Jesus and the bears our sins inspired authors properly understood his Stable (Inn) The Church parables. Thus, when Jesus gives an explanation of Two Denarii Knowledge of the Father his own parables (Matt 13:36–43; :13–20), and the Son or the Gospel authors give contextual clues as Manager of the Head of the Church “to to the meaning of the parables (e.g., :29; Stable (Innkeeper) whom its care has been 15:1–2), those interpretations are definitive. It is entrusted” (guardian important to note that while Jesus used parables ) to illustrate truth (:12; Luke 10:36–37), Promised Return of Savior’s he also used parables to conceal truth and increase the Samaritan the culpability of his hard-hearted opponents (Mark 4:10–12, 33–34; cf. 2 Thess 2:11–12).4 Early Christians interpreted parables in this way for several reasons: (1) Jesus himself explains The Early Church to the Reformation at least a few details of his parables allegorically Very soon after the completion of the New Tes- (Mark 4:13–20; Matt 13:36–43). If Jesus can do tament, early Christians began interpreting the this, why not his followers? (2) Allegory was a text allegorically. That is, they proposed many common approach to interpreting religious texts allegorical meanings unintended by the biblical in the Greco-Roman world. Some early Chris- authors. For example, every early post-New Tes- tians uncritically adopted some of the interpretive tament interpretation of the parable of the Good methods of their day. (3) Allegorical interpreta- Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) explains the story as tion emphasizes the interpreter’s access to the an allegorical message of salvation, with the Good “secret” meaning of the parables. Such a method Samaritan signifying Jesus. In the text, however, is inevitably attractive to humans who have a pro- Jesus clearly tells the story to answer a Jewish legal pensity towards the secretive and conspiratorial. expert’s question, “Who is my neighbor?” (Luke 10:29). A typical example of such allegorical inter- The Reformation pretation is below. The Protestant Reformers of the sixteenth cen- tury decried the allegorical excesses of their for- The Parable of the Good bearers. Martin Luther (1483–1546) said that Samaritan, as interpreted by Origen’s allegorical interpretations were “silly,” Origen (ad 185–254)5 “amazing twaddle,” “absurd,” and “altogether use- 6 Parable Details Allegorical Explanations less.” While isolated voices throughout pre-Refor- Man going down to Adam mation church history had criticized illegitimate Jericho allegory, the Reformation was the first time that Paradise such focused criticism descended systematically Jericho The world even to the parables. Unfortunately, out of habit, Robbers Hostile powers carelessness or for other reasons, many Reformers (John 10:8) continued to provide allegorical reflections on the

5 parables. (1509–1564), the prince of for interpreters to hear parables as they were heard Reformation biblical expositors, was most con- by Jesus’ original first-century Jewish Palestinian sistent in keeping to the authorial intent of the audience.11 Jesus announced an in-breaking of parables. In reference to allegorical interpretation, God’s kingdom mediated through his messianic specifically as represented in the allegorization of reign. Any interpretation of the parables which the parable of the good Samaritan, Calvin wrote, fails to consider this original historical context is doomed to failure. I acknowledge that I have no liking for any of Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, schol- these interpretations; but we ought to have a ars known as “Redaction critics” drew attention deeper reverence for Scripture than to reckon to the final editorial contributions of the Gospel ourselves at liberty to disguise its natural mean- authors. For parables, this emphasis was impor- ing. And, indeed, any one may see that the curios- tant because Gospel authors gave their readers ity of certain men has led them to contrive these editorial clues to the proper interpretation of speculations, contrary to the intention of Christ.7 Jesus’ parables. Through grouping similar para- bles, providing important contextual information, The Reformation to the Late or employing other literary devices, the authors Nineteenth Century of the Gospels provided guidance to the correct The Reformation broke the allegorical stran- understanding of Jesus’ parables. glehold on much of the Bible, but a majority of In the late twentieth and early twenty-first cen- Christian writers continued to allegorize the par- tury, there has been somewhat of a regress towards ables. The many unexplained and striking details early allegorical tendencies. On one front, some in Jesus’ stories were irresistible fodder to these reader-response and “aesthetic” critics insist on interpreters who, due to historical influences, were reading the parables apart from the original his- predisposed to see allegorical significance that the torical context.12 The parables are taken as hav- biblical authors did not intend. ing a dynamic meaning-producing polyvalent life of their own. While this description may sound The Late Nineteenth to the Early somewhat appealing in the abstract, in real life Twenty-First Century it means parables can mean whatever the reader Several important developments in the inter- wants them to mean. Clearly, however, Jesus pretation of parables have occurred in the last used parables to convey specific, definable truths. century and a half. In 1888, the German New Tes- Admittedly, the affective power of story cannot tament scholar Adolf Jülicher published the first of be reproduced in propositional summary, but the his two-volume work, Die Gleichnisreden Jesu (The basic meaning of Jesus’ parables can and should be Parable-talks of Jesus).8 Jülicher’s study sounded so summarized. the death knell for allegorical interpretation of On other fronts, there has been an increasing the parables.9 Instead of allegorizing the details uncritical interest in the history of the church’s inter- of a parable, he focused on the main point of why pretation of biblical texts.13 In other words, various Jesus gave the parable. Unfortunately, Jülicher interpretations of biblical passages are valued in their interpreted parables according to his skeptical and own right and given a level of authority and influence liberal theological predilections and mislabeled which sometimes equals or exceeds the inspired text. many legitimate teachings of Jesus as later histori- While a study of “reception history” (the way a text cal accretions.10 has been received throughout history) can be quite In the early to mid-twentieth century, scholars informative, the text itself must maintain a clear such a C. H. Dodd and Jeremias called primacy over aberrant interpretations.

6 Hermeneutical Guidelines son (:11–32), there are three If parables have been so infamously misinter- main characters—the father, the older brother, preted throughout church history, what are some and the younger brother. The three main points, hermeneutical guidelines that will aid us in staying based on the activity of the three representative on the proper course? As a start, it is important to characters, would be note that Jesus often employed parables to teach about the kingdom of God. Klyne Snodgrass claims (1) The father: God the Father is gracious and that the meaning of almost all parables can be sub- . sumed under the theme of kingdom, which was the (2) The older brother: Followers of God should main subject of Jesus’ preaching (Mark 1:15). In beware a begrudging attitude towards his grace fact, many parables begin with an explicit introduc- and forgiveness exercised towards others. tory phrase such as, “This is what the kingdom of (3) The younger brother: God welcomes rebels God is like” (Mark 4:26). Snodgrass writes, who confess their sin, turn from it, and embrace his mercy.18 The primary focus of the parables is the coming of the kingdom of God and the resulting - On the other hand, Stein maintains that it is ship that is required. When Jesus proclaimed the more helpful to express the main point in one kingdom he meant that God was exercising his sentence. He might explain the meaning of the power and rule to bring forgiveness, defeat evil parable as follows: God (represented by the father) and establish righteousness in fulfillment of Old is gracious to sinners (the younger brother) and, Testament promises.14 therefore, we should not despise his to others (as did the older brother). The focus of the parable, This kingdom theme, in turn, is often expressed according to Stein, is on the response of the older through three main theological sub-motifs: “the brother and his unwillingness to rejoice in his graciousness of God, the demands of discipleship, brother’s return and his father’s complete accep- and the dangers of disobedience.”15 tance. This analysis is confirmed by the context Below are several suggestions for determining as Luke clearly indicates that Jesus is respond- the author’s intended meaning of a parable.16 ing to the for their begrudging attitude towards God’s mercy (Luke 15:1–2). Determine the Main Point(s) of the But just how do we determine the main point(s) Parable of a parable? Stein recommends these additional The most important principle in interpreting questions: 19 the parables is to determine the reason the parable was uttered and why it was included into the canon (1) Who are the main characters? As we have of Scripture. There is some debate among evan- already seen with the parable of the , gelicals as to whether each parable teaches only the main characters are the father, the younger one main point (e.g., Robert Stein) or whether a brother, and the older brother. Stein suggests parable may have several main points (e.g., Craig that of the three, the father and the other brother Blomberg). In reality, these two perspectives are should be given the most attention. not as varied as they may initially appear. (2) What occurs at the end? As Jesus often stresses For example, Craig Blomberg insists that par- his most important point at the end of a parable, ables can have one, two, or three main points, the fact that the parable of the prodigal son determined by the number of main characters/items ends with a rebuke of the older brother (Luke in the parable.17 Thus, for example, in the parable of 15:31–32) further supports that Jesus is focusing

7 on correcting a wicked attitude towards God’s Vineyard Israel Matt 21:33–41 gracious treatment of sinners. Vine Israel or John 15:5 (3) What occurs in direct discourse? (in quotation God’s People marks) Direct quotations draw the readers’ or Fig Tree Israel Mark 11:13 listeners’ attention to the parable’s emphasized Sheep God’s people Matt 25:31–46 point. For example, in the parable of the prodigal Servant Follower Matt 25:14–30 son, note the emphatic placement of the older of God brother’s quoted words towards the end of the Enemy The devil Matt 13:24–30 parable (Luke 15:29–30). Harvest Matt 13:24–30 (4) Who/What gets the most space? (That is, who Wedding Messianic Matt 25:1–13 or what has the most verses devoted to them?) Feast banquet, the Simply by giving the most literary space to a cer- coming age tain person or item in the parable, Jesus showed us where his emphasis lay. Symbolic stock images appear as main charac- ters or central actions within parables. Sometimes Recognize Stock Imagery in the a non-stock image plays a central role, and careful Parables study must determine its significance. Additional In my classroom lecture on parables, I some- details in the story are generally intended simply times ask for an international student as a volunteer. to make the story interesting and memorable. Addressing the student, I say, “Imagine you pick up a newspaper and find a cartoon with a donkey Note Striking or Unexpected Details and elephant talking to each other. What is the car- My wife and I once gave an Arabic “Jesus video” toon about?” The suggestions are inevitably amus- ( video) to some new Sudanese ing—and completely wrong. The Americans in the immigrants. As we sat in their cramped living class, on the other hand, immediately recognize room, watching the video with them, I was struck the donkey as a symbol of the Democratic political by how the immigrants were captivated by Jesus’ party and the elephant as a symbol of Republicans. teaching and how at certain points they laughed or We do so because we are accustomed to such stock glanced at each other with amusement. For them, imagery from our cultural conditioning. and rightly so, Jesus was an amazing, interesting, Jesus’ first-century audience and the early read- and even humorous teacher. Sadly, our minds have ers of the Gospels were also accustomed to certain been dulled by familiarity. Jesus’ parables are filled stock imagery. From the and other with striking details, unexpected twists, shocking early Jewish sources, we can note these common statements, and surprise outcomes. When such symbols: attention-getting components occur, we need to pay attention because an important point is being Stock Image Significance Example made. For example, in the parable of the unforgiv- Father God Luke 15:11–32 ing servant (Matt 18:23–35), we should note the Master God Mark 12:1–11 nearly unfathomable difference between the debt Judge God :1–8 that the servant owed the king (“ten thousand Shepherd God Matt 18:12–14 talents” [niv] or “millions of dollars” [nlt]) and King God Matt 18:23–35 the debt owed to him by another servant (“a hun- Son Israel, a Luke 15:11–32 dred denarii” [niv] or “a few thousand dollars” follower of [nlt]). Here Jesus emphasizes the immense grace God of God in forgiving the depth of our sin, while

8 also putting in proper perspective the sins we are preparing appropriately by bringing enough oil asked to forgive others. Another example of an for their lamps (Matt 25:4). Though the bride- attention-getting detail is found in the parable of groom delayed his coming, the wise virgins were the widow and the unjust judge (Luke 18:1–8). still ready for his arrival. In the same way, Jesus’ The brash persistence of the widow would have followers are called always to be ready (by living been scandalous—especially in the traditional in faithful obedience), though his coming may be society of Jesus’ day. With this vivid picture of delayed (Matt 25:13). The fact that five virgins determination, Jesus calls his followers to persis- were wise and five were foolish does not mean tence in prayer. Similarly, an older man running that fifty percent of the world will be saved and to anything, much less a with a renegade fifty percent damned. Neither is Jesus teaching us son (Luke 15:20), would have been an undigni- that we should not share (the wise virgins refused fied sight in first-century Israel. How much more to share their oil, Matt 25:9). Jesus was a master surprising, then, is the eager graciousness of God storyteller and he included many details simply to the Father towards repentant sinners. make his stories interesting. A friend once told me about the his Do Not Press All Details for Meaning pastor preached on Matt 13:44–46 (the parables Not all details in a parable have significance. of the treasure in the field and the pearl of great Rather, many details simply make the story inter- price). His pastor asserted that the treasure and esting, memorable, or true-to-life for the hearers. the pearl stood for the Christian believer or the For example, in the parable of the unforgiving ser- church and that Jesus was the one buying the vant (Matt 18:23–35), the amount of money (“ten treasure or the pearl. The pastor claimed that this thousand talents”) and the unit of money (“tal- interpretation must be true because we do not ents”) have no special significance—other than to “buy” the kingdom. Jesus, rather, buys us with his denote a large debt in a known currency. Likewise, blood. This interpretation sounds very pious, but in the parable of the prodigal son, when the father is based on a misunderstanding of parabolic lan- greets his repentant son with new clothes, new guage. In both parables, Jesus sets before his hear- shoes, a ring, and a banquet (Luke 15:22–23), ers a crisis, where everything else is less important these gifts signify acceptance and celebration. than the treasure or pearl. Jesus’ preaching calls They do not each carry some symbolic meaning us to “seek first his kingdom and his righteous- that must be de-coded. In fact, to attempt such ness” (Matt 6:33). Yes, ultimately, we can only de-coding is to head down the misguided path of seek the kingdom because of the grace given us allegorical interpretation.20 (Eph 2:8–10). In these parables, however, Jesus is Since each central parable figure generally con- calling people to respond by valuing him and his veys only one main point of comparison, it should messianic kingdom above anything else. Divine not surprise us that some characters act in untow- sovereignty does not negate human responsibility. ard ways. The judge in the parable of Luke 18:1– 8, in some sense, represents God, to whom we Pay Attention to the Literary and bring our requests. Yet, while the human judge Historical Context of the Parable is only pestered into justice (Luke 18:4–5), God The authors of the Gospels often clue us to is eager to intervene for his people (Luke 18:7). the meaning of a parable by including informa- The main point of comparison in the parable is tion about why Jesus uttered that parable or by the need for persistence in prayer (Luke 18:1). In grouping together parables on similar topics. An the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Matt. obvious example occurs at the beginning of the 25:1–13), the wise maidens are commended for parable of the Widow and the Unjust Judge (Luke

9 18:1–8). In the opening lines of the account, Luke is often available from a careful reading of the notes, “Then Jesus told his disciples a parable to entire Bible itself (e.g., John 4:9; 8:48), persons show them that they should always pray and not with less familiarity with the Bible may want to give up” (Luke 18:1). Any interpretation which consult a study Bible. Also, highly recommended neglects this authoritative word of guidance is sure is Craig Blomberg’s Interpreting the Parables, which to go astray. gives a brief, insightful discussion of every parable Luke provides similarly helpful contextual in the Gospels. information prior to Jesus’ series of three parables in Luke 15 (culminating in the parable of the prodi- Summary gal son), Luke tells us, “Now the tax collectors and In this article, we began by surveying the his- ‘sinners’ were all gathering around to hear him. tory of interpretation of Jesus’ story parables. We But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law mut- divided the survey into five historical periods: (1) tered, ‘This man welcomes sinners and eats with Jesus’ original setting and the writing of the Gos- them.’ Then Jesus told them this parable” (Luke pels; (2) the early church to the Reformation; (3) 15:1–3). Luke did not have to tell us this informa- the Reformation; (4) the Reformation to the late tion, but this introduction helps us see that these nineteenth century; and (5) the late nineteenth parables are given as a response to religious hypoc- century to the early twenty-first century. This risy which fails to understand the graciousness of brief overview will hopefully help the reader avoid God toward sinners (cf. Luke 15:31–32). Also, both interpretive missteps of the past, as well as give a before and after the parable of the good Samari- historical example of the influence of Christian tan, Luke clearly shows that this parable is Jesus’ scholarship on interpretive trends. response to a self-righteous inquirer who wants In the latter half of the article, we overviewed to illegitimately limit the term “neighbor” (Luke a number of guidelines for the interpretation of 10:25–29, 36–37; cf. :7; 19:11). parables: (1) Determine the main point(s) of the Whether Jesus originally pronounced the four parable. In order to determine the main point, it is parables of Matt 24:45–25:46 (The Faithful and helpful to ask the following questions: (a) Who are Unfaithful Slave, the Ten Bridesmaids, the Tal- the main characters? (b) What occurs at the end? ents, and ) together with- (c) What occurs in direct discourse? (d) Who/ out intervening comment, we do not know. But, it What gets the most space? (2) Recognize stock is no mistake that we find them together and that imagery in the parables. (3) Note striking and they follow immediately on the heels of his escha- unexpected details. (4) Do not press all details tological discourse of Matt 24:1–44. The parables for meaning. (5) Pay attention to the literary and all call Jesus’ disciples to faithful obedience as they historical context of the parable. wait for his return. Sometimes a knowledge of history or cultural Endnotes backgrounds aids in the interpretation of a par- 1This article is excerpted from the forthcoming 40 able. For example, to understand more fully the Questions about Interpreting the Bible by Robert L. parable of the good Samaritan, the reader should Plummer, ©2010. Published by Kregel Publications, know that the Jews of Jesus’ day discriminated Grand Rapids, MI. Used by permission. against . By making the Samaritan the 2Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed. only “neighborly” person in the story (Luke 10:33, 3Robert H. Stein defines a parable as “a figure of speech 36), Jesus condemned his hypocritical contempo- in which there is a brief or extended comparison” (An raries who delimited love to exclude certain races Introduction to the [Philadelphia: or persons.21 While such background information Westminster, 1981], 22). My understanding of the

10 history of interpretation of parables has been greatly ture [Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008], 39–55). influenced by Stein. 14Snodgrass, “Parables,” 599. 4Stein remarks, “The fact that for centuries the mean- 15Craig L. Blomberg, Interpreting the Parables (Down- ing of the parables has been lost through allegorical ers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1990), 326. interpretation and ignorance of the Sitz im Leben 16While the Gospel authors (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and of Jesus also indicates that the parables are not self- John) are technically the authors of the parables (in evident illustrations” (Robert H. Stein, The Method that they wrote them down), we assume that they, as and Message of Jesus’ Teachings [rev. ed.; Louisville: inspired authors, faithfully conveyed Jesus’ meaning. Westminster John Knox, 1994], 40). 17Blomberg, Interpreting the Parables, 166. 5Origen, Homiliae in Lucam 34.3–9. Interestingly, 18Blomberg summarizes the main points accordingly: Origen draws upon an unnamed predecessor for “(1) Even as the prodigal always had the option of this interpretation. He begins, “One of the elders repenting and returning , so also all sinners, wanted to interpret the parable as follows” (Homiliae however wicked, may confess their sins and turn in Lucam 34.3). For an English translation of Origen’s to God in contrition. (2) Even as the father went to extant on Luke, see Origen: Homilies on elaborate lengths to offer reconciliation to the prodi- Luke, Fragments on Luke (trans. T. Lienhard; gal, so also God offers all people, however undeserv- The Fathers of the Church 94; Washington, DC: The ing, lavish forgiveness of sins if they are willing to Catholic University of America, 1996). accept it. (3) Even as the older brother should not 6Martin Luther, Lectures on Genesis, Chapters 1–5, have begrudged his brother’s reinstatement but rather in Works (55 vols.; ed. J. Pelikan; Saint Louis, MO: rejoiced in it, so those who claim to be God’s people Concordia, 1958), 1:91, 98, 233. should be glad and not mad that he extends his grace 7John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evan- even to the most undeserving”(ibid., 174). gelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke (trans. William Prin- 19Questions adapted from Robert H. Stein, A Basic gle; Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, n.d.; Guide to Interpreting the Bible: Playing by the Rules reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003), 63. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 146–49. 8Adolf Jülicher, Die Gleichnisreden Jesu (Freiburg: 20Tertullian (c. 160–225), in fact, did just this. He Mohr, 1888). This work has never been translated interpreted the following parable images accordingly: into English. good Samaritan = neighbor = Christ; thieves = rul- 9The death knell in scholarly circles, at least (K. R. ers of darkness; wounds = fears, lusts, wraths, pains, Snodgrass, “Parables,” in Dictionary of jesus and the deceits, pleasures; wine = blood of ’s vine; oil = Gospels [ed. Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, and I. compassion of the Father; binding = love, faith, hope Howard Marshall; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, (quoted from Stein, An Introduction to the Parables of 1992], 591). Allegorical interpretation in more popu- Jesus, 44). lar literature has continued to the present day. 21Thus, it is fitting that in his modern paraphrase of the 10Ibid., 591. Gospels set in the Southeastern United States of the 11C. H. Dodd, The Parables of the Kingdom (London: 1950s, Clarence Jordan replaces the Samaritan with Nisbet & Co., 1935); Joachim Jeremias, The Para- an African-American. The priest and Levite are rep- bles of Jesus (rev. ed.; trans. S. H. Hooke; New York: resented by “a white preacher” and “a white Gospel Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963). song leader” (The Cotton Patch Version of Luke and 12E.g., D. O. Via, The Parables (Philadelphia: Fortress, Acts [New York: Association Press, 1969], 46–47). 1967). 13See, for example, Daniel J. Treier’s description of the Theological Interpretation of Scripture (TIS) move- ment (Introducing Theological Interpretation of Scrip-

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