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1992 Interpersonal communication Paul A. Soukup Santa Clara University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Soukup, Paul A. (1992). Interpersonal communication. Communication Research Trends, 12(3), 2-33.

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A Quarterly Information Service from the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Vol. 12. (1992) No. 3 Interpersonal Communication

by

Paul Soukup, S.J. Santa Clara University

,,,p;,,: Husband and wife, parent and child, priest and penitent, supervisor and employee, "the~ 'happy hour' regulars at the corner pub - almost all of us communicate interpersonallfJ every day. Important decisions can depend on success or failure in carrying out this.,'. process. Ultimately, it probably is of far more practical importance than mass media,, communication. But what do we really know about it? ,;I As the author of this issue points out, only three of the last forty issues of Trends havJ! focussed on topics which can be labelled 'interpersonal communication'. Most of the other's,,' have been devoted to various aspects of mass communication. '1J'. While trying to rectify this neglect, we have to recognize some obstacles. Those studying_·,,,; interpersonal communication often are not able to define just where it ends and other!'''"I: categories of communication begin. The field is handled differently in different countries_; ·•· In the United States it has been welcomed within the fold of communication science, c : although others, such as psychologists and anthropologists, have long been interested ·1_·_.n it. In Europe and elsewhere it is most often a part of psychology. £'__·.·._,_,,, ,,: . ""' To describe the study of interpersonal communication on a worldwide basis theref~i~ is a challenging task. We have elected, for the sake of coherence, to limit our survey to thi'1 .. North American perspective: interpersonal communication treated as a subfield of com~ munication studies. The references, bibliography and current research sections do try to1f suggest the broader geographic and disciplinary range of relevant efforts, and hopefully ~i future is~u~ of Tren~s :,viii be able t~ deal. ~ith the same topic as it is mor_e_,t ._ character1stically studied m other academic trad1t10ns. :< ·. :.'t,._:i1 Introduction

Interpersonal textbooks tend to tell stories. A Look Back Some begin by recounting how an oldster sat When Communication Research Trends last day by day in the park, never saying anything. reviewed the area of interpersonal communica­ Yet the neighbours came to know their com­ tion in 1986 (Vol. 7, number 1), it focused on panion's moods and dispositions. Communica­ general themes that emerge in the study of tion occurred even without speech. Other texts interaction between two people--particularly on recount tales of conversations gone awry or of 'studies of communicative interaction, commu­ successful ones, wondering just how people nicators, communication in relationships, manage to talk. Still other stories narrate communicative situations and mediated inter­ family events, highlighting differences in personal communication' (McDonnell, 1986, p. speech between the generations. Wives fret 1). Much of the research reported in that because their husbands don't talk; husbands review emerged from psychology and communi­ resent being asked to discuss what to them is cation studies which employed a variety of obvious. laboratory and experimental methods. Many of Put more abstractly, interpersonal com­ those studies also presumed that one cannot munication study seeks to answer these kinds not communicate, judging communication, in of questions: Does someone who ignores you other words, from the perspective of a receiver communicate anything to you? How can the who interprets even unintentional individual same word or phrase have such different actions as communicatively meaningful. meanings to people? How can people talk Interpersonal communication study had anyway? Are arguments and disagreements emerged from a tradition rooted largely in really summarized in the now-famous line from anthropology and social psychology. Watzla­ the film 'Cool Hand Luke': 'What we have here wick and his colleagues acknowledge their debt is a failure to communicate'? The difficulty for to Gregory Bateson (1958) whose work interpersonal communication has been to move informed their axioms. Another key movement from the anecdotal to the general. in the early definition of interpersonal com­ Near the beginning of the contemporary munication was symbolic interactionism, as focus on communication between individuals, proposed by George Herbert Mead in the 1930's Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don and developed by Herbert Blumer (1969). Jackson published what became a seminal These schools of thought provided theoretical work. Examining case studies of psychiatric beginnings; methodological foundations also patients, they proposed five general axioms of came from both anthropology and psychology. interpersonal communication. These axioms, The ethnography and ethnomethodology of the which find their way into almost every intro­ former have now somewhat eclipsed the labora­ ductory text in communication, include: (1) One tory experiments of the former. cannot not communicate; (2) every communica­ During the last 10 years interpersonal tion has a content and a relationship aspect communication research has burgeoned, exam­ such that the latter classifies the former; (3) ining almost every aspect of communication interaction sequences, like word sequences, including the mass media, which appear in­ cannot be understood as a string of isolated directly as a topic of interpersonal conversation elements; (4) human beings communicate both (Kepplinger & Martin, 1986; Schenk, 1989). digitally and analogically; and (5) communica­ Interpersonal studies deal with personality tion comprises both symmetrical and comple­ factors and communicator style (Duck, 1985; mentary interaction (1967). Bell & Daly,1985; Richmond, Gohram, & Furia, The tale of those axioms tells the story of 1987), emotion (Wowk, 1986; Shiminoff, 1988; some of the current thinking about interper­ Matsumoto, 1991), communication competence sonal communication. (Schrader, 1990), conversation (McLaughlin,

2 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 1984; Tannen, 1990), nonverbal behaviour One must also add a caution at the begin­ (Burgoon, Birk, & Pfau, 1990; Burgoon & ning of this overview: not only is it incomplete; Walther, 1990), marriage (Noller, 1984; Fitz­ it reflects a distinctly North American and patrick, 1988b), family relationships (Stephen United States bias. Most of the work in inter­ 1990), work relationships (Goldsmith, 1992; personal communication occurs in the United Wayne, 1992), small groups (Gudykunst, 1986; States. In fact, few other regions even use the Hirokawa & Poole, 1986), conflict (Cahn, 1990), separate term 'interpersonal communication' as gender (Fischer, 1988; Halterman, 1991; Gen­ a descriptor within communication studies. In der and Verbal Communication, 1991), and so Europe, Asia, and South America, the interper­ on. sonal concern falls into the domain of psycho­ Perforce, this review takes a more modest logy, socio-linguistics, or social psychology. and more restricted view of current work in This is not to say that scholars in these regions interpersonal communication. It begins, first, do not attend to interpersonal communication; by revisiting the classic axioms and using a they do but with a different theoretical and debate surrounding them and other work to methodological focus from their colleagues in introduce some serious theoretical challenges the States. (For examples of this work, see to the whole tradition of interpersonal com­ Szopinski, 1976; Somlai, 1982; Katori, 1984; munication research. Second, it examines Caffarel Serra, 1986; Sainz Sanchez, 1986; some of the building blocks of interpersonal Bgazhnokov, 1987; Joseph, 1987; Keppler, communication--conversation and nonverbal 1987; Knops, 1988; Borsoni, 1989; Geser, 1989; communication. Third, it notes some research Ne!, 1989; Roiz, 1989; Huls, 1990; Klushina, in specific areas of interpersonal behaviour: 1990; Meunier, 1990; Andrade, 1991; Fruggeri, family relationships, marriage, and conflict. 1991; Ito, 1991; and Yoshitake, 1991.)

I. The Critique of Communication Theories

Stewart J. 1991. 'A Postmodern Look at Traditional Communication Postulates', Western Journal of Speech Communication, Vol. 55, pp. 354-379.

Lannamann, J. W. 1991. 'Interpersonal Communication Research as Ideological Practice', Communication Theory, Vol 1., pp. 179-203.

Rakow, L. F. 1986. 'Rethinking Gender Research in Communication', Journal of Communication, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 11-26.

The Background to the Debate Michael Motley (1990) began one recent re­ This section reviews some of the theoretical examination of interpersonal communication by grounding for interpersonal research and then questioning the validity of the first of Watzla­ examines in more detail three specific cri­ wick, Beavin, and Jackson's axioms, that one tiques. Some scholars working in this area cannot not communicate. He acknowledges have become less and less comfortable with that 'equating behaviour and communication applying the information-theory model stem­ has ... been implicit in many other broad ming from electronic communication (Shannon approaches to communication,' but then noted & Weaver, 1949) to interpersonal sources. that such orientations favour the receiver over Others note that social or linguistic practices the sender. More serious, from a theoretical within the research enterprise itself have kept perspective, is his juxtaposition of this axiom us from noticing important issues. The three with four basic information-theory assumptions critiques--by Stewart, Lanamann, and Rakow-­ about communication--'that communication is each change our perspective by calling atten­ interactive, involves encoding, involves the tion to what people readily take for granted. exchange of symbols, and has a fidelity dimen-

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~ .. sion' (p. 1). On each of these counts, he argues, ity, particularly after she and her colleagues the axiom fails. developed a methodology that could examine The four information-theory assumptions nonverbal behaviour 'without requiring that imply a restricted range of behaviours: thus not intentionality be established' (p. 595). all behaviours will satisfy their conditions for She concludes her response by suggesting communication. To explain his argument, that researchers treat both models as hypoth­ Motley presents a 3 x 3 matrix made up of eses rather than axioms or assumptions. They source behaviour and receiver behaviour--only could then seek ways to test them empirically. four of whose cells meet the requirements of interactivity, encoding, symbolic exchange, and Philosophical Critique fidelity. For better or worse, most communica­ Others entered the discussion as well (Beach, tion research ignores the other five cells. 1990;Anderson, 1991; Motley, 1991; Clevenger, Watzlawick et al's axiom includes them--hence 1991). However, John Stewart raises an im­ the contradiction. Motley concludes by portant set of larger questions for this tradition suggesting that communication scholars can't of interpersonal communication theory through have things both ways: they must reject either an examination of its philosophical grounding. the axiom or their common assumptions. In 'A Postmodern Look at Traditional Com­ Later that year Janet Beavin Bavelas (a co­ munication Postulates' (1991), he re-examines author of the original axioms) responded to the issues from a perspective that challenges Motley (Bavelas, 1990). She stresses the need commonly accepted Enlightenment truths. He to separate, on logical grounds, the two comments: propositions that Motley had treated as One of these received truths is that, as equivalents: 'All behaviour is communication' Descartes and Kant insisted, questions of and 'One cannot not communicate.' Because 'fact' can and should be rigorously separated the former contains a universal quantifier from questions of 'value.' This belief was while the latter has an existential quantifier developed into what are sometimes called the (p. 593), the two cannot be equivalent. 'modernist dualisms' between subject and object, theory and practice, art and science, Beyond that she reconstructs the historical art and reality, literature and criticism, form and content, will and reason. (p. 355) context of the 'one cannot not communicate' Following postmodernist thinkers such as axiom. Interested in real world communication Heidegger, Gadamer, Habermas, Lyotard, and working with verbally impaired individ­ Foucault, and MacIntyre (as summarized by uals, Watzlawick's team focused on nonverbal McCarthy, 1987), Stewart reviews four key communication. The research methods of the themes of postmodernist thought. 1960's provided only introspection as an First, Stewart points out that these thinkers avenue to investigate nonverbal encoding and critique the traditional Cartesian-Kantian intentionality. The team finally rejected the conceptions of reason, noting that reason is information theory model of communication seldom independent of context and group (whose assumptions Motley had employed) as interest. Second, postmodernists offer a cri­ applied to nonverbal behaviour. 'Given the tique of the sovereign, rational subject. 'The choice between abandoning nonverbal behav­ construct "the subject" is problematic both iours and accepting an introspective criterion, because it covers over unconscious factors and we chose nonverbal behaviours, brashly enfran­ because it ignores the inherently social nature chising all of them' (p. 595). The choice put of human identity' (p. 357). Third, they criti­ empirical observation ahead of theoretical cize the notion of'knowledge as representation, niceties. An early critique of this approach according to which the subject stands over (Wiener, Devoe, Rubinow, & Geller, 1972) against an independent world of objects that it attempted to resolve the impasse by distin­ can more or less accurately represent' (p. 357). guishing informative from communicative acts. Instead, they argue, that humans are in the Building on this, Bavelas argues that empirical world and cannot give 'objective' accounts. research on these questions remains a possibil- Fourth, postmodernists reject philosophy's

4 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 distancing itself from rhetoric and poetics. presumes a representational view of the world. Following a solid tradition in speech communi­ 'In order for a fidelity assessment to work, one cation, dating back to Aristotle, they reassert has to assume a considerable degree of both the role of discourse and dialogue in the knowl­ discreteness and stability in the phenomena edge process. being matched or fitted' (p. 370). The sender These four postmodernist themes offer and receiver proposed by the model must then alternatives to the information-theory model's have access to their own and each other's goals four assumptions which Motley noted. Where and messages so that they can compare them the received model sees communication as and assess fidelity. Postmodernist thought symbolic behaviour, the alternative model asks whether humans do indeed assess the takes its lead from Gadamer who critiques the fidelity of claims in this way or whether com­ semiotic approach to language because 'it munication is rather an ongoing process that inadequately captures "the language that lives comes clear only over time. in speech"' (p. 360). Both ordinary language The postmodernist critique strikes at the and hermeneutic philosophy offer different heart of the tradition of interpersonal com­ constructs of language, constructs which are munication research. Often assuming the much more active, dialogic, and rooted in the information-theory model (and seldom advert­ human lifeworld. Language, then, 'is not ing to its origin in electronic communication), representational but presentational; it is not interpersonal theorists developed careful em­ symbolic but constitutive' (p. 364). pirical studies that, as Motley pointed out, Similarly, the encoding process comes under favoured the receiver and validated the fire for it presumes a representational basis of Cartesian/Kantian worldview. The postmodern communication and thought. The encoding position first moves all communication research postulate rests upon the Cartesian-Kantian (and especially interpersonal research) towards assumption of a rational subject who is cut off an explicitly transactional model in which from a real world and who overcomes the communication defines the identity of its subject-object dichotomy by encoding informa­ participants. 'Second, researchers aware of the tion. But this account ignores the fundamental postmodern critiques will certainly continue relatedness of human beings in the world. their efforts to study speech communication Further, it assumes that cognition and lan­ as-it-actually-happens, and preference will be guage can be separated. Postmodernist given to research approaches which minimally thought notes that we humans 'are as much impose predetermined structures ofrationality' subject-to the linguistic resources for defining (p. 373). Third, 'validity' and 'proof will be our world as those resources are subject-to us' seen more clearly as a function of pragmatic (p. 365). communication practices. Finally, research Most postmodernist thinkers would accept will more explicitly move away from the infor­ the third information-theory postulate: com­ mation-theory model toward one rooted, per­ munication is an interactive, two-way process. haps, in hermeneutics. Most see communication (and human life in general) as characterized by 'mutuality, invol­ Ideological Critique vement, and context-dependence' (p. 367). Although he did not participate in the debate However, a few would substitute 'transactive' occasioned by Motley, John Lannamann, also for 'interactive' since the latter term implies writing in 1991, offers a critique of interper­ that communicators have adequately grasped sonal communication research similar to that things prior to their exchange whereas the of Stewart but from a different starting point. former highlights the fact that the subject Focusing on ideological practice, he notes that matter constantly changes even as people what is 'absent in the metatheoretical debates communicate. People understand through about interpersonal research has been the communication, not prior to it. investigation of how epistemological decisions Finally, postmodernist thought questions are shaped by latent ideological commitments' the fidelity postulate since that assumption (p. 183). This omission stems from institu-

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 5 tional demands for specialization (which separ­ Third, interpersonal research assumes ate interpersonal a research from social phenom­ purposeful behaviour in individuals. 'Individ­ ena), from an early empirical orientation, and uals are seen as controlling their own destiny, from competing treatments of interpersonal and theories of social action based on subjec­ power. Mainline interpersonal work treats tive intentionality work to shore up our linger­ power as 'a communicative product or process ing modernist belief in the unitary self' (p. through which one person effects an intended 192). The function of social practices, social behavioral or attitudinal change in another roles, and social patterns remains hidden person' (p. 184); the alternative view treats behind the ideological defense of the auton­ power from the systemic level. These three omous individual. The research tradition factors blind us to the ideological basis of simply does not ask whether the behaviour is interpersonal domination. indeed autonomous. Lannamann identifies four ideological Finally, the research tradition attends characteristics only which suggest trends in inter­ to the present when it comes to interpersonal personal communication research. First, the behaviour. 'This pervasive ahistoricism has research tradition tends to select the individual several roots including an early emphasis on as the locus of personhood. Empirical instru­ process (Berlo, 1960), a pragmatic focus on the ments (questionnaires, content analysis, inter­ here and now (Watzlawick, Beavin & Jackson, viewing) focus on the individual, even when 1967), a microsocial focus that precludes an theorists acknowledge that interpersonal examination of the prevailing social epoch, communication and takes place between individuals. the lingering effects of a thorough-going Such an approach ignores the social origins of reductionism in experimental method' (p. 194). the self (p. 187) and shifts explanations to Whatever the cause, we find few historical cognitive structures and away from social studies ofrelationships and the communication processes (p. 188). AB a case in point, he notes that characterizes relationships. Lannamann that relationship-development models account notes that only a few conflict models suggest for friendship formation by a cost/benefit that one needs to look at the roots or history of analysis carried out by individual actors, thus the conflict in order to understand a current reducing 'relationships to isolated individuals situation. pursuing hedonistic acts' (p. 190). Such a focus As a response to this situation, Lannamann on the individual is itself ideological, he says, offers the alternative of critical interpersonal because it reinforces a power model of relation­ research. One can avoid the four weaknesses ships and then ratifies those power relation­ by developing 'an explicit account of the unin­ ships by keeping them from systematic analy­ tended consequences of social interaction. By sis. Historical, social, and even geographical expanding the unit of observation to include patterning in relationships disappears. the ramifications of interpersonal action, we Second, the research tradition concentrates are better able to see the recursive link on the perceptions of the knowing subject. between interpersonal practices and the emerg­ Like the previous characteristic, this too ent structures of larger social systems' (p. 195). neglects social processes and material condi­ Social class and the experience of state author­ tions. For example, language--a product of the ity, for example, lead to styles of interpersonal human community--both produces and posi­ behaviour--whether among school drop-outs, tions subjects within society. How we speak teenage gang members, or upwardly mobile makes a difference but most people do not urban professionals. Secondly, Lannamann attend to how they speak. Only recently urges a rethinking of the concept of power (spurred on by feminist studies with its empha­ away from an energy model (where one person sis on language inequality, for example) has or thing exerts a force on another) and towards communication study shown an interest in the a sense of constraint applied recursively. For ways that social institutions such as language example, the enactment of power in a student­ actually determine interpersonal relations (pp. teacher relationship depends 190-191). on historical patterns of legitimation, highlighted by a

6 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 status difference in a hierarchical social struc­ two universal categories of people does not ture. Each member of the student-teacher necessarily flow from human biology. dyad comes Rather into the relationship with a per­ it stems from the Western Enlightenment's sonal (and social) historical pattern which predilection for binary oppositions and dual­ constrains how they interact (p. 197). isms, from the need to mark individuals in a hierarchical system, and from the social Feminist Critique re­ quirement of a 'structuring structure' to give Several years before these theoretical and order to the world (pp. 21-22). She does not philosophical re-evaluations, Lana Rakow mention, though it may be relevant, that a (1986) had called into question the way that binary opposition like gender provides an 'gender has been operationalized as a pregiven easily accessible independent variable, one that category' (p. 11), to be used as a fundamental can readily be utilized in unsophisticated variable in interpersonal and mass communica­ statistical modelling in empirical studies. tion research. In 'Rethinking Gender Research Her study of gender indicates in Communication,' that the she argues, based on different meanings of gender (in different feminist scholarship, 'that gender should be historical and cultural settings) show that seen as a verb, that is, work that we do to gender 'has meaning, is organized and struc­ construct and maintain a particular gender tured, and takes place as interaction and social system, and as a meaning system, that is, practice, all of which are communication pro­ organizing categories used to make sense of the cesses' (p. '23). Therefore communication world and experience' (pp. 12-13). [Rakow's research must resist using gender as an ex­ more recent (1992) work on feminist directions planatory concept lest it presume what it is in communication research is treated in Com­ trying to establish. munication Research Trends, Vol. 12, No. 1.] Each of these three critiques poses a theor­ Using historical studies she notes that etical challenge to communication research in researchers are more likely to assume male interpersonal communication. Each in its own and female differences than to observe them. way asks that research and theorizing about Following Putnam (1982) she claims that communication put the communication process gender may well be more an effect of communi­ (a social activity) ahead of the particular indi­ cation patterns than a cause of them. 'She viduals engaged in that process. Data [Putnam] argues that sex difference research gathered about individuals, through whatever rests on the assumption that the researchers empirical means, still obscure the social frame­ know which traits and behaviours are mascu­ work and reinforce the tendency to privilege line and which feminine, and that gender is individual behaviours. These critiques-­ mutually exclusive and linked to biological whether centred on postmodernism, ideology, opposites' (p. 16). or gender--ask researchers to develop ways to Using anthropological, sociological, and study the process rather than the communica­ biological data, she demonstrates that creating tor.

IT. Basic Studies in Interpersonal Communication Studies of conversation and nonverbal com­ review will look only briefly at verbal and munication form two of the building blocks in nonverbal communication. These areas could the edifice of interpersonal studies. Other well merit their own extended reviews, as blocks consist the of examinations of motivation to bibliographies in each work demonstrate. communicate, communicator style, interpreta­ Further, one should note that the theoretical tion, and so on (see Knapp & Miller, 1985 for debate outlined in section I occurred only an overview after of the areas). As noted above, this the work reported here was completed.

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 7 A. Conversation through modelling and use them to guide actions. For example, we learn that conversa­ McLaughlin, M. L. 1984. Conversation: How tion follows a turn-taking rule. First one Talk Is Organized. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. person talks, then the other. Conversationalists also follow sets of interpre­ Nofsinger, R. E. 1991. Everyday Conversation. tive procedures to guide their reactions. For Newbury Park, CA: Sage. example, when someone observes that it is cold Tannen, D. 1990. You Just Don't Understand: in the room, the conversational partner knows Women and Men in Conversation. New York: to interpret this not only as a statement but William Morrow. also as an indirect request to close the window (p. 30). Finally, following Grice (1975), Mc­ Laughlin notes that conversationalists also How People Talk employ a set of common assumptions to facili­ Language and its everyday use makes up the tate the social interaction of talk. For example, foundation of all interpersonal communication. the Quality maxim 'requires that one state only Following in the tradition of ordinary language that which one believes to be true, and for philosophy, linguistics, and ethnomethodology, which there is sufficient evidence' (p. 32). Both communication researchers have looked more the rules and the maxims carry social sanc­ and more at how conversation works. This tions: at minimum the rule violator is judged focus has taken its place alongside the rhetori­ ignorant or impolite. cal analysis of verbal production: interested Conversations work because they have not so much in global interpretation as in patterns--they are somewhat predictable (Nof­ structures and smaller-unit interpretation, singer, 1991, p. 9). Ultimately this makes the students of conversation minutely analyze work of conversation easier so that speakers transcriptions of talk that might occur any­ can attend to their meaning, without undue where. regard for the mechanics of coordinating their Three good examples of this approach to talk. In order to understand some of those interpersonal communication study come from mechanics, researchers have had to describe McLaughlin (1984), Nofsinger (1991), and various aspects of language, often in great Tannen (1990). McLaughlin's book is more detail. Besides talking, conversationalists also technical; Nofsinger planned his as an intro­ perform a variety of actions, or speech acts, in ductory textbook; and Tannen chose a popular their talk. Utterances (locutions) accomplish style to make the fruits of this research tradi­ illocutionary acts (the terminology follows that tion available to a wider audience. Each of Austin, 1975, and Searle, 1969): promises, demonstrates the fact that day-to-day conversa­ requests, commands, threats, offers, greetings, tion requires an immense amount of communi­ and so on. One can distinguish forms from one cative skill. another through propositional content and In Conversation: How Talk is Organized, situational rules (Nofsinger, 1991, pp. 14-45). Margaret McLaughlin presents an overview of Besides having coherence at the functional how people talk. Conversationalists, usually level, conversations also hold together on a unconsciously, know a great deal about com­ structural level through sequences, turn-tak­ munication. Researchers have tried to make ing, and alignment. Sequences are series of this knowledge explicit by describing it in three or more speech acts that form a unit. terms of rules, interpretive procedures, and These include simple things like openings or maxims. Rules specify behaviour in particular greetings as well as more complex things like contexts. 'While most theorists seem to agree stories or arguments (McLaughlin, 1984, pp. that rules prescribe the behaviour necessary to 169-194; Nofsinger, 1991, pp. 49-77). On an constitute a social act or to carry out an action even more basic level, turn-taking establishes sequence, none implies that rules prescribe conversation; it also strikes most people as particular behaviours, or reference idiosyn­ elementary and rather obvious, and--as most cratic situations' (p. 16). People learn rules transcriptions of normal conversation readily

8 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 show--is observed more in the breach of its theoretical level, helps correct the information rules. Indeed, scholars have had trouble defin­ theory models by insisting on rules drawn from ing turns because turn boundaries are so fluid empirical observations. The conclusions gained (McLaughlin, 1984, p. 93). Speakers construct from the careful study of conversation also bear turn units as they talk: 'the important thing fruit in diagnosing and understanding the all­ about... these ... units is that participants can too-real mis-communications that seem to char­ project where they will end' (Nofsinger, 1991, acterize human interaction. pp. 80-81); usually transcriptions indicate that Other studies combine with the study of a speaker did accomplish a speaking goal or conversational analysis in order to improve an was about to accomplish one when the turn understanding of how communication works. ended. Noting turn organization helps specify These studies attempt to refine conversational the rules by which people take turns, refuse methods as well as to develop new ones. Duck, turns, or interrupt one another. Turn-taking Rutt, Hoy and Strejc (1991) propose an rules also help to clarify conversational events approach that focuses specifically on everyday like hesitation pauses, switching pauses, simul­ talk, rather than talk recorded in laboratories taneous talk, and interruptions. One model or in other artificial settings. They also that has emerged from the study of turns is an attempt to correct three common errors in the economic one: conversation has its goods (the research: aggregating communication samples turn to speak) which entail certain costs and from different kinds of relationships; treating rewards and obligations. 'Market mechanisms' any instance of communication in a given adapted from economic studies helps to explain relationship as an indicator of the communica­ and predict the occurrences of turns in conver­ tion in the relationship as a whole; and treat­ sation (McLaughlin, 1984, p. 92). Finally, ing data gathered on a given day as equivalent alignment keeps turns on track by helping to data gathered in other circumstances (p. people to monitor or understand one another. 229). They proposed and tested the 'Iowa The process, consisting of verbal and nonverbal Communication Record,' a structured self­ cues, conveys understanding as well as syn­ report form that employs a diary technique in chronization. For example, nodding one's head which participants record a wide variety of and saying, 'uh-huh,' signals to the speaker to information about their day-to-day conversa­ continue; establishing eye contact may signal tions (p. 236). In the initial work Duck et al. the handing over of a turn to speak. Some­ note consistent gender differences in the qual­ times more formal alignments take place as ity and nature of conversations--'males are when someone summarizes a conversation, unaffected by details that could actually create repairs a fault ('Sorry, I thought you were change in the relationship' (p. 247). In addi­ finished'), or prefaces an utterance with a tion they also find that groups commonly disclaimer or explanation ('Usually I don't use clustered as 'intimates' for research purposes this kind of language .. .'). Alignment, in gen­ (close friends, best friends, lovers) show dis­ eral, refers to the ways speaking turns are tinctly different patterns of communication (pp. fitted together by the speakers; more alignment 247, 253). This work calls attention to the takes place where there is a likelihood or an real-world nature of conversation and the occurrence of misunderstanding (Nofsinger, impossibility of separating conversation from 1991, pp. 111-137). relationships. Ultimately conversational analysts attempt to carefully describe the mechanics of talk in Gender and Conversation order to specify the rules people implicitly Deborah Tannen, a sociolinguist, studies pre­ follow--rules which make communication cisely these things: everyday conversations and possible. Conversational structures can indeed their effects on relationships. In You Just be complex and forbidding despite the fact that Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conver­ even children have managed the process. This sation (1990), she provides a wonderfully empirically-based research sheds important readable guide to gender differences in conver­ light on human communication and, on a sational styles. She argues that women and

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 9 men often talk at cross-purposes, beginning can be cooperative or uncooperative. People with very different assumptions about the usually regard only the latter as interruptions world and about the nature and purpose of because such talk steals the turn away and talk. Writing of herself and her husband, she often changes the subject as well. Cooperative summarizes the differences: overlaps occur when people work together to recount an event, share news, or help the My husband was simply engaging the world conversation out. But individuals can fail in in a way that many men do: as an individual cooperative overlaps--here the data suggest in a hierarchical social order in which he was that we should all be more careful in taking either one-up or one-down. In this world, offense (pp. 192-200). conversations are negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the upper Over and over again Tannen reminds us hand if they can, and protect themselves that individuals differ in their style of speak­ from others' attempts to put them down and ing. One style is not necessarily better than push them around. Life, then, is a contest, a another. She concludes, 'Once people realize struggle to preserve independence and avoid that their partners have different conversa­ failure. tional styles, they are inclined to accept differ­ ences without blaming themselves, their part­ I, on the other hand, was approaching ners, or their relationships. The biggest mis­ the world as many women do: as an individ­ take is believing there is one right way to ual in a network of connections. In this listen, to talk, to have a conversation--or a world, conversations are negotiations for relationship' (p. 297). The ultimate benefit of closeness in which people try to seek and conversational analysis results from an give confirmation and support, and to reach consensus. They try to protect themselves increased understanding of what happens from others' attempts to push them away. implicitly in talk; knowing that, for example, Life, then, is a community, a struggle to frees people from letting arguments spiral out preserve intimacy and avoid isolation. (pp. of control due to the misunderstandings of 24-25) style that hide substance.

The distinction translates into different B. Nonverbal Communication conversational styles. Women seek what Tannen terms 'rapport-talk' while men prefer Knapp, M. L. 1978. Nonverbal Communication 'report-talk.' The former privileges private in Human Interaction (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, speaking--establishing connections, matching Rinehart & Winston. experiences, building a common world--while the latter favours public discourse, getting Burgoon, J. K., T. Birk, & M. Pfau, 1990. attention, arguing a point (pp. 76-77). Obvi­ 'Nonverbal Behaviours, Persuasion, and Credi­ bility', Human Communication Research, Vol. ously, women and men can choose either style 17, pp. 140-169. (and do, according to circumstances); in gen­ eral, women choose rapport-talk while men Burgoon, J. K., & J. B. Walther, 1990. choose the other. 'Nonverbal Expectancies and the Evaluative Tannen uses data generated by the kinds of Consequences of Violations', Human Communi­ conversational analysis presented by Mc­ cation Research, Vol 17., pp. 232-265. Laughlin and Nofsinger throughout her book. For example, in discussing interruptions, Burgoon, J. K., & D. A. Newton, 1991. 'Applying especially in talk between intimates, she notes a Social Meaning Model to Relational Message that interruption often transposes into ques­ Interpretations of Conversational Involvement: tions of power and dominance. 'Interrupting Comparing Observer and Participant Perspect­ carries a load of metamessages--that a partner ives', The Southern Communication Journal, Vol. 56, pp. 96-113. doesn't care enough, doesn't listen, isn't inter­ ested' (p. 189). Transcriptions indicate that Keeley-Dyreson, M., J. K. Burgoon, & W. Bailey, overlaps (the generic term for interruptions) 1991. 'The Effects of Stress and Gender on

10 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 Nonverbal Decoding Accuracy in Kinesic and emotions), regulators (actions which maintain Vocalic Channels', Human Communication or regulate interactive behaviour, such Research, Vol. 17, pp. 584-605. as nodding one's head to let the speaker know that the message is understood), and adaptors Background Work (actions which adapt to body or the environ­ ment, such as scratching Nonverbal communication complements, rein­ an itch or moving things on one's forces, or even contradicts verbal messages. desk). Similar categories of touch classify types of Since the work of Watzlawick and his associ­ touch and parts of the body commonly touched--such ates, interpersonal communication study has touching ranges from impersonal (a perfunctory examined nonverbal behaviour as a necessary handshake) to highly intimate (sexual touch); part of human interaction. Much of the basic hands are the most commonly touched research in nonverbal communication, which parts of the body (Knapp, 1978, pp. 250-252). occurred in the period of 1950 to 1975, exam­ Eye contact and ines somewhat self-contained areas of activity: vocal cues (intonation, pitch, volume, rate of environment and personal space; physical speaking, and so forth) primarily regulate communication appearance and clothing; gestures and other by signalling turn-taking. However, bodily movements; touching; eye behaviour; both also express emo­ tion (the long, loving and vocal cues (Knapp, 1978). Before address­ gaze or the angry tone). Much of the research tradition ing more specific studies, let us briefly review tries to inte­ grate these factors the commonly accepted terms and definitions. into studies of larger com­ munication interactions--family Humans, as territorial creatures, react to interaction, persuasion, and so environmental and spatial cues. on (Knapp, 1978, pp. 298- Although 305, 340-355). architecture does influence behaviour, personal space receives more explicit research attention. Nonverbal Communication Researchers have particularly studied conver­ in Interpersonal Settings sational distances which range from a few More current research inches to several feet; closeness of relationship has examined the nonverbal component of differing and culture strongly determine the exact interpersonal situations. Judee Burgoon distances (Knapp, 1978, pp. 123-124). Similar­ and her colleagues have published four studies ly, physical appearance and clothing styles that indicate some of the directions which scholars signal willingness to communicate--at least on have taken in this area. First, a stereotypical level. Many nonverbal studies Burgoon, Thomas Birk and Michael Pfau (1990) explored how look at perceptions of clothing or body shape in nonverbal behaviours interacted order to measure differing interpretations with credibility and persuasion. (Knapp, 1978, pp. 175-185). Since past theory held that nonverbal behaviours Traditional studies of gesture, movement, had little direct influence on persuasion, the group and touch classify these activities, often using looked for an inter­ vening effect. They found that an analogy to linguistics first proposed by nonverbal cues signalling composure, Birdwhistell in the 1950's (see Birdwhistell, sociability, and immedi­ acy influenced judgments 1970, for a summary). Others prefer classifica­ of credibility which in turn influenced the persuasion. tions that do not claim any kinship with lin­ In another study Burgoon guistic practice nor any particular inherent and Joseph Wal­ ther (1990) examined meaning for any gesture; these researchers expectations. 'Communi­ cation expectancies are cognitions divide movements only to facilitate further about the anticipated communicative research. Ekman and Friesen (1969) propose behaviour of speci­ fic others, as embedded within the most commonly used categories: emblems and shaped by the social norms for the (actions which have a direct verbal translation, contemporaneous roles, relationships, and context' (p. such as pointing to an imaginary wristwatch to 236). They asked a random sample of subjects ask the time), illustrators (actions which illus­ to report their impressions of trate speech, usually through accompanying photographs of different situ­ ations involving touch. gestures), affect displays (actions which exhibit Overall they found

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 11 •a•-'~•••-

that expected nonverbal behaviours were make the participants more sympathetic to judged positively by third-party judges; unex­ each other. They note that this area, because pected behaviours were judged variously de­ of its importance, should be further studied. pending on the attractiveness, status, and (Although it lies beyond the scope of this gender of the communicators. However, they review, the entire winter 1991 (56:2] issue of also raise the more general issue of reliance on The Southern Communication Journal observer impressions--do observers or partici­ addresses questions of nonverbal behaviours. pants better judge behavioral expectations? Several studies stress methodological issues Burgoon and Deborah Newton (1991) while others look to things as specific as head addressed precisely that question in a study movement and ageing.) which had observers rate the nonverbal behav­ Finally, Maureen Keeley-Dyreson, Burgoon, iours involved in five 2-minute videotaped and William Bailey (1991) examined how stress segments in which one of the participants can influence one's judgments of nonverbal varied the level of involvement (through pos­ behaviours. As one might expect, stress does ture, eye contact, gestures, facial animation, interfere with one's judgments; people have laughter and so forth). In addition, the partici­ greater difficulty judging vocal tone, inflection, pants themselves also rated the nonverbal and other paralinguistic cues than they do behaviours. The observers consistently rated gestures or bodily movements. The relatively the behaviours: 'the current results demon­ greater attention paid to overt behaviours may strate unequivocally that certain relational account for this difference. meanings are associated with the global con­ struct, conversational involvement, as well as These four studies demonstrate the range of with particular nonverbal cues .. .' (p. 108). topics which the interpersonal aspects of However, the participants tended to be more nonverbal behaviours cover. They also indicate favourable in their assessments than were the the difficulties in assessing how these behav­ observers. Burgoon and Newton suggest sev­ iours interact with others in communication. eral explanations, ranging from the differing As Bavelas noted in her reply to Motley, the cues available (participant vs. observer) to the Watzlawick group decided that--whatever the cooperative nature of conversation that would difficulty--nonverbal data could not be ignored.

Ill. Interpersonal Communication Situations

Interpersonal communication has also been The study of the family has grown in import­ studied within the context of common situ­ ance over the last· several decades, with ations where people interact. Since interper­ scholars from a host of disciplines examining sonal communication virtually defines personal this vital relationship. Initially the domain of relationships, some recent work on relational sociologists and psychologists, the family has communication in the family will be examined. drawn the interest first of systems-analytic Next comes marital communication. Finally, communication theorists. Much ofWatzlawick, because it is so common, conflict will be exam­ Beavin, and Jackson's early work, for example, ined. addressed treatment plans for dysfunctional children by concentrating on the communicat­ A. Family Communication ive interactions of their families. Other com­ munication teachers and scholars have Stephen, T. 1990. 'Research on the New Fron­ approached family communication as a nar­ tier: A Review of the Communication Literature rower context of the larger interpersonal com­ on Marriage and the Family.' Paper presented munication area. For example, Pearson's at the annual meeting of the International text, Communication in the Family Communication Association, Dublin, Ireland. (1989), treats the same topics as most textbooks in interper­ sonal communication but adds sections which

12 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 stress aspects more particular to the family (observation, laboratory experiment) almost (couples, roles, development of the family, impossible. ageing), children, and the home. Other inter­ personal topics such as self-disclosure, conflict, Lack of Theory in Family Communication and decision-making are also considered from Despite the richness of theoretical development the perspective of the family unit. regarding the family in other social sciences, Others focus on the family as a site of communication study has not as yet developed communication behaviour. Silverstone (1990) a strong theoretical base. Stephen reports that has investigated the ways in which communi­ some hold that it is too early for this kind of cation technologies are integrated into the formation, 'that it will not be possible to con­ family context. Similar research is reported by struct useful theories until a strong foundation Lull (1988) and discussed by Crain (1989). of descriptive findings has been laid' (p. 17). Studies of family communication have Others, including Stephen himself, hold that accelerated as more and more angles of study the descriptive research needs some focus: appear. In his review of the area Stephen The [communication] field's contextual organ­ (1990) notes the following themes: sibling ization (organizational, mass, interpersonal, interaction, parent-child interaction, marital group, etc.) may perhaps inadvertently and pre-marital pairs, child socialization, encourage the belief that once a context area parenting, and family use of the media (p. 4). has been delineated and formalized, normal However, he also notes a lack of coherence science proceeds by discovering the relevant among the studies of family communication, facts about communication taking place within it. Were the something that may be 'natural in a field field organized by theor­ etical position (for example, symbolic inter­ turning its attention in a new direction' (p. 7). actionist theories, exchange theories, psycho­ Stephen examined 116 articles on family logical theories, functional theories, informa­ communication published in major communica­ tion processing theories, etc.), it might be tion journals between 1915 and 1987; 72 of easier to coordinate research efforts toward these appeared between 1980 and 1986. He the development of a sensible and inter-­ divides the articles into calls for research, related knowledge base. (p. 18). proposals of typologies for classifying families, This lack of theoretical focus is reflected in investigations into decision making (including the fact that some question whether communi­ power, control, and conflict), explorations of cation in family settings is any different from family use of the mass media, studies of communication that occurs in other, less inti­ mother-infant interaction, and studies of par­ mate, settings. enting. In addition he notes some articles that However, some do argue that family settings seem to fit no category, being 'quite diverse, clearly differ from other areas where people ranging from a study of the effects of support­ communicate. Trying to describe those differ­ ive family communication in a diet manage­ ences has given rise to one interesting area of ment program to one of turn taking rigidity in theoretical development: the attempt of several families of drug addicts' (p. 14). scholars to create taxonomies of variables Stephen also observes that the studies influencing family communication. One report a wide range of research methods. A typology, developed by Mary Anne Fitzpatrick, little over one-third relied on questionnaires, classifies marital couples and will be discussed 20% used content coding, 12% included inter­ in the next section. Another, developed by views, and smaller numbers employed content Chaffee and McLeod (see Tims & Masland, analysis, experimental designs, or a mix of 1985), began in an attempt to understand methods. This is an important point because it media use patterns in children. Using indicates the relative newness of the area as measures of high and low 'concept-orientation' well as the inherent difficulty in studying the and 'socio-orientation,' they divided families family--the relatively close-knit qualities of into four groups. 'Concept-orientation families make traditional methods of study describes a communication environment in

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 13 which children are stimulated to express ideas to centre stage in modern marriage (Kidd, while socio-orientation describes an environ­ 1975).... [A]t least for middle class Americans, ment in which children are encouraged to "communication" means close, supportive and maintain harmonious personal relations and to flexible speech' (Fitzpatrick, 1988a, p. 1). This repress feelings on extrapersonal topics' interest in communication has drawn com­ (Stephen, 1990, p. 9). These basic orientations munication researchers to more critically both result from communication and influence examine marriage and the communication that the kinds of communication which takes place constitutes it. (One might ask whether good in the home. communication makes a marriage successful or Much remains for communication research whether a successful marriage creates good to do within the locus of the family. Stephen's communication. That question, seldom investi­ conclusion is well worth repeating: gated, will not be further discussed here except The promise of research on communication in to note that while most studies explore the link marriage and the family lies in the possibility between communication and marriage, they that it may further our understanding of basic presume a causal direction in that linkage: social processes. Among the more important of that good communication helps to create a good these processes are (a) those in which children marriage.) acquire knowledge of the world, (b) those related to the formation and maintenance of self, (c) Tannen's studies of gender differences in those related to the transmission of culture, (d) conversation, which apply to marital relation­ those related to physical, social, and ships as well as to conversation, will not be psychological well being, and (e) those related to repeated here. Patricia Noller (1984) examines important personal capacities (e.g., intelligence). the other building block of interpersonal re­ There would seem to be ample reason at this search--nonverbal communication--as it time to suspect that communication plays an appears in marriage. Mary Anne Fitzpatrick important, if not crucial, role in each of these (1988b) proposes a different approach, charac­ areas. The challenge for the discipline, there­ terizing couples according to their communica­ fore, is to begin to conceptualize and carefully tion styles. Finally Noller and Fitzpatrick, in research these basic issues. (p. 24) a jointly edited volume (1988), provide a wide-­ ranging look at communication in the context B. Marital Communication of marriage.

Noller, P. 1984. Nonverbal Communication and Nonverbal Behaviours Marital Interaction. Vol. 9, International Series in Experimental Social Psychology. Oxford: After sketching out a description of nonverbal Pergamon Press. communication (citing the Watzlawick et al. axiom regarding the impossibility of not com­ Fitzpatrick, M. A. 1988b. Between Husbands & municating) and reviewing the links between Wives: Communication in Marriage. Newbury marital communication and the marital rela­ Park, CA: Sage. tionship, Noller builds Nonverbal Communica­ tion and Marital Interaction around several Noller, P. & Fitzpatrick, MA. (Eds.). 1988. key questions: Cl) What kind of communication Perspectives on Marital Interaction. Monographs system does nonverbal communication provide in Social Psychology of Language, Vol. 1. Cleve­ for couples? (2) Do happy couples differ from don, Avon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. unhappy ones in their communication? (3) Do happy couples differ from unhappy couples in Researchers and counsellors have long their perception of each other's communication? regarded communication as an essential in­ and (4) How important is nonverbal couple gredient for a successful marriage (Karlsson, communication to marital satisfaction? (Noller, 1951; Bolte, 1975; see also Noller, 1984, ch. 2 1984, p. 30). for a summary of this tradition). 'The role of She reports that couples low in marital communication in marriage has undergone adjustment misunderstand one another's changes in that communication between hus­ nonverbal messages more than do other bands and wives has moved from the periphery

14 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 couples, thus supporting the idea that encode nonverbal messages (p. 167); females nonverbal communication does play a role in send more direct messages (messages agreeing the 'private' communication system of each in all channels) than do males (p. 168); males couple and in the satisfaction level of each are less likely to express themselves nonverb­ couple. Further, more misunderstandings ally (p. 169). seem to be related to encoding messages than Both men and women contribute to com­ to decoding them. Her second two questions munication problems in marriages. In sum­ also receive positive answers: couples rating marizing the research Noller found that in high on marital adjustment scales do tend to couples rating low in marital satisfaction, both have better nonverbal communication. In wives and husbands: addition some clear differences emerge in other 1. Are generally more negative in their areas as well. For example, wives are better interactions, and they not only send message senders than husbands; wives tend to more negative messages than other err in positive directions in decoding while spouses, but their negative messages husbands do so in negative directions. 'The seem to be more intense. nonverbal sending and receiving of husbands is 2. Send fewer positive messages than other spouses. more strongly related to marital adjustment 3. Send more discrepant messages ... than is that of wives, with low marital adjust­ 4. Are less able to predict whether the ment husbands making more errors in both spouse will decode their message accu­ sending and receiving than high marital ad­ rately. justment husbands' (p. 87). In some instances 5. Are less likely to look at the spouse low marital adjustment couples actually do when they, themselves, are listening, better at decoding the messages of strangers and are more likely to look at the spouse than those of their spouses--this implies that when they, themselves, are speaking... basic communication skill may not generalize 6. Show less reciprocity in their gaze patterns to the marital relationship (p. 101). and are less similar to one another, particu­ Noller also describes some more specific larly in their pattern of looking when they evidence for her conclusions. Discrepant mess­ are listening. 7. Decode their spouses less accurately ages (those in which a positive visual or than they decode strangers. (pp. 177- nonverbal meaning occurs joined to a negative 178) verbal or vocal one) happen more frequently in Despite the need for more theoretical work low marital adjustment couples. But on the exact relation of communication (verbal 'discrepant communications seem to be the and nonverbal) to marital satisfaction, the link preferred mode for sending negative messages, between the two cannot be denied. Behavioral by subjects of both sexes, whether high or low therapists could well make use of the wealth of in marital adjustment.' The negative com­ data Noller reports in helping distressed munication of unhappy couples is more direct couples with communication training. or intense in both verbal and nonverbal chan­ nels (p. 150). The differences between high Types of Married Couples and low adjustment couples also correlate with Fitzpatrick's Between Husbands & Wives gaze behaviour: the pattern of looking at each presents conclusions built up through almost other differs. 'Low marital adjustment couples 15 years of research into the interactions of tended to look more when they were speaking married couples. After reviewing models and and less when they were listening than other perspectives on marital interaction, she pres­ couples' (p. 164), particularly in the case of ents a typology of couples developed from negative messages. This suggests either a thousands of questionnaires and interviews. desire for confrontation or a need to monitor The typology, which helps to better understand the reactions of the spouse (p. 165). Finally, as the available data, has as its basis the Rela­ Tannen found with verbal messages, Noller tional Dimensions Instrument, a 77-question notes differences between the nonverbal behav­ form that asks spouses to agree or disagree iours of husbands and wives. Females better with statements on marital ideology, interde-

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 15 .....,_,~ --

pendence, and communication. Their answers These are valuable research results for allow the researchers to classify the couples as people working with married couples. At one Traditionals, Independents, Separates, or point Fitzpatrick and her colleagues examined Mixed. the Marriage Encounter programme from the Traditionals hold conventional ideological perspective of the marital typology. Although values about relationships' and show high somewhat critical of the programme because it interdependence and a high degree of shar­ does not teach communication skills in an ing. They tend not to avoid conflict, but the effective way, they proceeded with a in-depth conflict is usually issue oriented since they tend to rely on their common (usually study of leader couples. As expected there unspoken) ideology to ground their lives were a high proportion of traditionals in the together. Independents are just that: they group, but not any higher than in the general believe 'that relationships should not con­ population. However, there was a significantly strain an individual's freedom in any way. higher proportion of separates than in the The independent maintains companionship general population. They explain this by and sharing in marriage but does so while noting that the Marriage Encounter program preserving personal physical space and a provides an activity that the couple can do minimal common schedule. Independents together while maintaining their emotional report more assertiveness than traditionals and distance (p. 107). also do not avoid conflict. Fitzpatrick's final chapter goes beyond Separates seem to hold two opposing ideo­ validating the typology. In it she: logical views on relationships at the same demonstrate[s] the psychological reality of time. Whereas a separate is as conventional this typology by proving that certain proposi­ in marital and family issues as a traditional, tions about marriage cohere together. Such he or she simultaneously supports the values coherence in the minds of the members of upheld by independents and stresses individ­ this culture suggests the marital types are ual freedom over relationship maintenance. psychologically real categorizations of mar­ Separates have Jess sharing in their marriages, riage (p. 227). maintain psychological distance, and avoid Because there are competing conceptualiz­ open conflicts (p. 76). Pure couples feature ations of marriage, researchers should be marriages in which both partners are the same careful in generalizing about the behaviour of type; mixed couples consist of partners who married couples; marriage counsellors should belong to different types. realize that no one therapeutic course will Fitzpatrick reports a number of studies con­ prove effective. For example, happily married ducted by herself, her students, and her col­ separates value things and behave in ways leagues which have validated the Traditionals­ different from happily married traditionals. Independents-Separates-Mixed typology. The Mixed couples face perhaps greater difficulties typology helps to clarify other research as well: since they blend different ideas about mar­ on gender differences in marriage, on power, on riage. conflict, on persuasion, and on self-disclosure. Fitzpatrick's work offers benefits to those Past studies sometimes showed puzzling incon­ trying to understand more about marital com­ sistencies in data gathered on married couples. munication. The facts that it has a clear Fitzpatrick's approach of categorizing com­ theoretical sense, that it builds on a very large munication behaviour according to marital type data set, that it is supported by a consistent eliminates much of that inconsistency. The research agenda, and that it welcomes new different marital types have different perspec­ validation make it an important tool for further tives on marriage and on life and consequently research. react differently. Not all married couples find satisfaction or happiness in the same things; Research Studies not all happy married couples have high levels Noller and Fitzpatrick have jointly edited a of communication; not all married couples volume of studies: Perspectives on Marital value confrontation or avoidance. Interaction. The studies--research based and methodological m orientation--investigate

16- CRT Vol 12 No. 3 aspects of communication which discriminate these pass from partner to partner in the between different types of married couples, course of normal conversations. or different types of individuals (p. 323). The second section of the book surveys the By and large every study indicates that dis­ ways in which couples deal with emotion and tressed couples differ markedly from non-­ presents three differing perspectives: the first stressed couples in terms of their communica­ covers couples' cognitive appraisals of emo­ tion patterns. In addition the studies report tional situations; the second, their perceptions differences between male and female communi­ of each others' communication of emotion; and cation and male and female responses to mari­ the third, sex differences in the physiological tal stress, a link which deserves much more responses of men and women to emotional research (p. 344). situations. Part three of the volume presents Fitzpatrick provides a context for the two alternative ways of studying conflict resol­ research by reviewing various approaches to ution in marriage, one based on problem solv­ marital communication. Despite the centrality ing styles and the other on Fitzpatrick's of the quality of marriage to this research typology. The last section of the book situates tradition, that is not the only approach. marital communication in terms of other rela­ Others include linking individual characteris­ tionships, either in terms of comparing com­ tics in both biological and psychological pro­ munication patterns with spouses and stran­ cesses to the marital situation. Psychological gers or in terms of the effects of family and differences manifest themselves in cognitive, friends' input on couples' understanding of conversational, and affective models. These, their own relationships. particularly in the case of conversation, provide The variety of studies and methods significant windows through which to view the assembled by Noller and Fitzpatrick gives a marriage. Another approach to marriage good indication of the ways in which interper­ arises from theoretical models: some propose sonal communication research addresses larger co-orientation models; others (including Fitz­ social questions. It also illustrates that par­ patrick herse!D, typological models; and still ticular concerns of communication cut across a others, interaction models. The first of these variety of areas. This review of interpersonal focuses on the psychological processes by which communication concludes with a closer look at wives and husbands construct their common one such particular concern: conflict. world. The second, as noted above, categorises couples according to their beliefs or behaviours. C. Conflict The third explains interaction in marriage in terms of some exchange: behavioral exchanges, Hocker, J. L. & Wilmot, W.W. 1991. Interper­ social learning/reinforcement, or relational sonal Conf1ict (3rd ed.). Dubuque, lA: Wm. C. control, for example. Finally, another approach Brown. looks beyond the marriage to the larger social network of extended families, close relation­ Borisoff, D. & Victor, D. A. 1989. Conf1ict Man­ ships, and friends (1988a, pp. 1-20). agement: A Communication Skills Approach. Particular studies in the book are grouped Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. into four sections: communication as a means to manage everyday living in marriage; com­ Cahn, D. D. (Ed.). 1990. Intimates in Conf1ict: A Communication Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: munication of emotion; problem solving; and Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. coping with other relationships. The first section presents research into day-to-day Although most people do not like conflict, it communication. One project explores seems an unavoidable aspect of human life. dysfunctional patterns, especially the spirals in Conflict usually results from competing claims which each partner's communication seems to on scarce resources or from competing claims block any resolution. Another examines under­ for power; it may result from incompatible standing and misunderstanding--how is it that activities or from disagreements over values. couples can decode their messages? A third From a communication perspective, conflict looks at power and control and the ways that

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 · 17 is an expressed struggle between at least two party, the balance of power, the interdependent parties tactics and who perceive incom­ styles used by each party patible goals, scarce resources, in expressing the and interfer­ conflict, their perceptions ence from the other party in achieving of the other's tactics, their the patterns that goals (Hocker & Wilmot, 1991, p. 12). characterize the conflict, and possibilities for change Communication researchers who and resolution (pp. 173- explore 176). conflict usually do so with an eye to providing Hocker and Wilmot guidelines to resolve conflicts or at least to suggest three main approaches to transform them from destructive experiences resolving conflict. First, self­ into productive ones. regulation involves changing from the inside out by changing one's Joyce Hocker and William Wilmot have own (or the situation's) pub­ communication lished three editions of their text, Interpersonal patterns, altering one's ways of expressing conflict, and t Conflict, since 1974 and it still stands as an adjusting the concept­ ual patterns with which ' important summary and resource. The book the parties approach I conflict. Second, bargaining ' • first describes the components of conflict and and negotiation lead to particular then offers particular courses for conflict inter­ communication patterns and vention. behaviours which end in compromise. Finally, third-party intervention In depicting the chief components of conflict leads to changing the conflict from the outside; they call attention to common images of con­ this usually calls for a formal process of some flict (war, explosions, a trial, a struggle, a kind, most often adjudication, arbitration, mess, a game, an adventure, a bargaining mediation, or consul­ tation. table, a tide) which influence people's behav­ Interpersonal Conflict provides iour--toward destruction or collaboration. In a thorough overview of the conflict addition they note that, since conflict stems process and, among other things, the communication from incompatible goals, an understanding of dimensions of that process. It contains conflict requires specifying just what the goals many practical sug­ gestions as are; some goals are (to borrow Watzlawick, well as a 25-page bibliography for further reference. Beavin, and Jackson's language again) content goals and some, relationship goals. Because Communication goals -- and how people see them -- change Skills and Conflict Deborah Borisoff and throughout the conflict, Hocker and Wilmot David Victor offer a slightly different approach recommend clarifying one's goals in as concrete to conflict. Their Confiict Management (1989) a way as possible. A knowledge of the power focuses more particularly on communication dimension of conflict also helps to clarify the skills, calling attention to language, relationship aspect of the dispute. Finally, verbal strategies, and nonverbal strategies. First they describe conflict tactics and styles; these they propose a five­ step model for include avoidance, engagement, competition, conflict management (assess­ ment of the situation, acknowledgement threats, and even violence. . of the other party, adjustment The second part of Interpersonal Conflict of one's attitude to include a willingness to provides a manual for dealing with conflict. communicate, action to resolve the conflict, and Taking a systems theory perspective, they analysis of the pro­ cess). Seeking long-term advise identifying conflict patterns through change, they suggest verbal and nonverbal strategies noting metaphors, strategies, goals, and so to create a supportive communication forth. The 'Hocker-Wilmot Conflict Assessment environment, one in which conflict is not a destructive Guide' leads the reader through a series of element. For example, they suggest avoiding questions drawn from the analysis in part one. threats and hostile joking, generating It includes questions about the nature of the viable solutions rather than criticism, conflict, its triggering events, its historical and understanding the other party's perspective. context, the assumptions each party makes, the Conflict Management expression of the conflict, the goals each party also explores some specific contexts of identifies, any other content and relational conflict. Gender differences, as noted above, do affect goals, the attitudes toward power held by each communication style;

18 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 this, in turn, can affect conflict. Intercultural constructive responses take the form of voice communication also introduces particular (an active discussing, solving the problem) or difficulties that can lead to misunderstanding loyalty (a passive sticking it out); destructive and conflict. Finally, written materials and responses take the form of exit (an active writing styles can contribute to conflict. In leaving, terminating the relationship) or each situation Borisoff and Victor lead the neglect (a passive Jetting the relationship die). reader through their five-step model, calling In measuring the responses among friends, attention to communicative solutions to poten­ Healey and Bell found weaknesses in the tial conflicts. typology (namely that exit and neglect blended together) but found clear indications that I Research Studies investment theory did account for many friend­ Intimates in Confiict differs from the other ships--at least among college students (pp. 25- 1 treatments of conflict noted here: it collects 48). Their results have merit because so many empirical studies of conflict within the particu­ studies use the 'exit-voice-loyalty-neglect' lar setting of ongoing relationships: families, typology to examine conflict among intimates. friendships, and social networks. Dudley Dolf Zillmann reviews a great deal of Cahn, its editor, notes that: research on the interplay of cognition and interpersonal conflict between intimate part­ excitation in aggravated or violent conflict (pp. ners goes beyond differences regarding a 187-208). Citing statistics on domestic viol­ specific problem, issue, or argument because ence, he asks how disagreements breed anger of the emotional nature of their relationship leading to violence against intimates. Two (p. 1). factors seem to be at work: cognitive In his opening review he suggests that incapacitation (in which usual inhibitions do researchers view such conflict as a communica­ not work) and some triggering cause or tion process with multiple dimensions. excitation. While many things might act as Consequently, research might address ques­ trigger, the former might be caused by alcohol, tions such as these: habits of aggression, or reinforced strong Are patterns of conflict as a cause and as an effect both equally destructive in intimate emotions through escalation of the conflict relationships? ... itself. He concludes, 'The discussed research sensitizes us to critical events in the escalation Are the partners male or female? What psy­ of conflict and points to communicative inter­ chological gender and sex type are they? ... vention strategies' (p. 202). Among these strategies are (1) averting escalation of emo­ What are [the] social contexts that function tional arousal by communicating mitigating as antecedents in intimate conflict? (pp. 18- circumstances or by explaining how to cope 19) with an adverse situation; (2) cautiously disen­ Although each of the llessays in the collection gaging from argument with a person exhibiting sheds light on one aspect or another of the 'cognitive deficit'; and (3) 'stressing passive · problem, space only permits discussion of a inhibition by avoiding aggressive habits or few. aggressive actions' (pp. 202-204). Jonathan Healey and Robert Bell assess various responses to conflict in friendship. In his investigations of cultural diversity in Their work tests the applicability of two the­ intimate relationships, Guy Fontaine notes ories originally developed in studying romantic that: partners to relations among friends: invest­ in intercultural relationships one does ment theory and the 'exit-voice-loyalty-neglect' not interact with a nation, race, typology. Investment theory holds that every ethnicity, or culture on any macrolevel. relationship is held together by an exchange of One does so with specific people on the resources; one stays in a relationship if one has specific tasks required by the relation­ invested more than one hopes to get from ship (p. 211). alternative sources. The 'exit-voice-loyalty­ neglect' typology describes reactions to conflict:

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 19 .. ,

He stresses that people should not rely on conflict. generalized descriptions but instead work to Other essays in Intimates in Conflict deal develop 'intercultural microcultures' within with the reluctance to give voice to negative which individuals can negotiate, make deci­ matters, nonverbal conflict behaviours, the use sions, and communicate between their particu­ of humour in managing conflict, and the influ­ lar cultures as they themselves embody them. ence of social networks. This last study raises He suggests a number of practical communi­ the question whether having common friends cation strategies to accomplish this. For tends to help people resolve conflicts (steering example, people should match rituals--compare them away from terminating the relationship) what they usually do in given situations: have lest they lose their place in the social group. a cup of tea or have a beer (p. 219). From Other researchers report work on confrontation these, individuals can understand each other's behaviours, teaching the communication skills perspectives and better go about their com­ of interpersonal confrontation, and measuring munication in a way that avoids unnecessary the psychological reality of marital conflict.

Perspective

Many readers of Trends may not follow inter­ dutifully read about source-message-receiver personal communication, a fact that is not models of communication and note down the surprising considering only three issues of elements of Shannon and Weaver's information Trends since 1980 have touched on what might theory model. They take in a sender-based involve interpersonal topics while 40 issues idea of communication in which the key meas­ have addressed the mass media and related urable variables are audience size and audi­ topics. And yet the concerns with which inter­ ence characteristics; few question the notion personal communication deals probably touch and primacy of the sender. The transmission as much of people's lives as do the media. and information theory models exerted such This imbalance reflects both a sociological fascination that even the anthropological and approach to communication study and the social psychology backgrounds of interpersonal inability of interpersonal communication study attempted to adapt them. scholars to find a clear focus on their aspect of Interpersonal communication study has communication. Sometimes it seems that perhaps never been completely comfortable everything which is not mass communication with its pedigree. That background may well falls under the heading of interpersonal com­ have led to a long period in which it lacked a munication; that practice confuses the issue of sense of purpose. And that background did just what it is that they study. 'Of course, the inhibit theoretical development because it led communication discipline's contextual structure people to look in the wrong direction. Human is not haphazard. The lines of division actually beings are not machines nor do they imitate imply a simple theory of communication, technical systems when they communicate. which, at its most basic level, suggests that But all the theories began by describing tech­ audience size and intimacy are variables of nologically driven systems. paramount importance in understanding and Even this incomplete review of interpersonal predicting human communication' (Stephen, communication research suggests a change in 1990, p. 19). Forced to begin their research focus from those earlier days. Thought-provok­ with this reasoning about audience size, ing theoretical critiques invite scholars to scholars studying interpersonal communication re-examine their work and to re-think what we began with a transmission model better suited mean by communication between people. to mass audiences. Specific human areas of interaction call atten­ That transmission model has influenced tion to how different people are from their thinking about communication ever since. technical systems. Sustained thought about Students beginning classes in communication these differences begins to lead to new research

20 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 methods--methods better suited to understand­ Blumer, H. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspectives ing the complex interactions that constitute and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hal], Inc. day-to-day living. Bolte, G. L. 1975. 'A Communications Approach to Perhaps inevitably, and certainly most Marital Counselling', In A. S. Gurman, & D. G. welcome, Rice(eds.). Couples in Conflict. New York: Jason Aron­ interpersonal communication son. research is now in a position to shed new light Borisoff, D. & D. A. Victor, 1989. Conflict Management: A on mediated communication. Television view­ Communication Skills Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: ing, for example, often happens in an interper­ Prentice Hall. sonal context (Lull, 1988); people construct Borsoni, P. 1989. 'Metacomunicazione, disconferma, dop­ pio meaning from media messages as these are legame, nelle teorie di G. Bateson, R. Laing, P. Watzlawick [Metacommunication, filtered though their social networks--some­ Disconfirmation, and Double Connections in the Theories of G. Bateson, thing Katz and Lazarsfeld R. first suggested in Laing, and P. Watz]awick]', La Critica Sociologica, Vol. the 1950's (1955) but which seems forgotten by 90-91, pp. 206-221. subsequent investigators until recently. How­ Burgoon, J. K., T. Birk, & M. Pfau, 1990. 'Nonverbal Be­ ever, the questions about context will not go haviors, Persuasion, and Credibility', Human Communi­ cation Research, away now. And such questions may Vol. 17, pp. 140-169. be more Burgoon, J. K., & D. A. easily answered because Newton, 1991. 'Applying a Social the research tools of Meaning Model to Relational Message Interpretations interpersonal of study have found their way into Conversational Involvement: Comparing Observer and the kits of those more interested in mass Participant Perspectives', The Southern Communication communication. Journal, Vol. 56, pp. 96-113. 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Theory of Communication. Urbana, IL: University of Wowk, M. 1986. 'Talk in an Organisation: Organisation Illinois Press. in Talk'. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Shimanoff, S. 1988. 'Degree of Emotional Expressiveness International Sociological Association. as a Function of Face-Needs, Gender, and Interpersonal Yoshitake, K. 1991. (Japanese title unavailable)'[The Relationship', Communication Reports, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. advantage of active conformity as a communication 43-53. strategy for compatibility between self-assertion and Silverstone, R. 1990. 'The Household and the Domestic smooth interpersonal relationship]', Japanese Journal of Consumption of Information and Communication Tech- Psychology, Vol. 62, pp. 229-234.

Current Research on Interpersonal Communication

Australia Christina O'Sullivan (Department of Communication, Patricia N oiler (Dept. of Psychology, Univ. of Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6. Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072. Univ.Tel No. Univ.Tel. No.(604) 291-3111. Univ.Fax No.(604) 291- (07) 377-1111). Interests: marital communication. 4455). Interests: interpersonal communication, gender and communication. Belgium Jean-Pierre Meunier (Dept. Communication Sociale, Claude Tousignant (Service de la documentation, Univ. Catholique de Louvain, Place de l'Universite, Tele-universite, 2635 Hochelaga, 7e etage, Ste-Foy, B-1348 Louvain-La-Neuve. Univ. Tel No. (010) 43-21-11). Quebec GlV 4V9). Interests: interpersonal communica­ Interests: communication theory. tion.

Canada Croatia Janet Beavin Bavelas (P.O. Box 1700, Victoria, BC Pavao Brajsa (Zavod za Socijalni Rad, Zagreb). Inter­ VSW 2Y2). Interests: communication in relationships, ests: family communication. interpersonal interaction.

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 23 France (0521) 2041. Fax No. (0521) 207521. Denis Guigo (Centre recherche Tix. 530327). Inter­ gestion, Ecole ests: marriage and family communication. polytechnique, F-91128 Palaiseau Cedex). Interests: conversation. Japan Yuichi Iizuka (Fukuyama City Francis Jacques (Universit.e de Rennes Junior College for II, 6 ave. Women, Fukuyama). Interests: Gaston Berger, F-35043 Rennes Cedex. nonverbal com­ Univ.Tel. No. 99- munication, gaze, emotion. 33-52-52). Interests: conversation, discourse. Georgia Tetsuji Ito (Nagoya Univ., Furo-<:ho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya. Univ. Tel.No. (052) M. I. Harshiladze (Inst of 781-5111. Fax. No. (052) Psychology, Tbilisi). Inter­ 781-1754). Interests: ests: small group communication. nonverbal communication.

Germany Pedro Garcia del Valle y D. (Shizuoka-ken, Hamamatsu-shi, Takamachi 200-17, Alois Hahn (Universitat Trier. Postfach Abita 08-205, 432 3825. D-5500 Japan. E-Mail. gardaCwcs.shizuoka.ac.jp. Trier. Univ.Tel. No.0651 2011. Fax Interests: No. 0651 300519). desicion-making and Interests: discourse, conversation. relationship improvement. Minoru Wada (Tokyo Gakugei Angela Keppler (Sozialwissenschaftliche U, Tokyo). Interests: Fakultiit nonverbal communication. Fachgruppe Soziologie, Universit.at Konstanz, Postfach 5560, D-7750 Konstanz. Univ.Tel. No. (07531) 881. Fax Mexico No: (07531) 88-3688). Interests: conversation. Juan Jose Coronado Villanueva (Universidad ITESO; Apartado postal 31-175; Zapopan, Hubert Knoblauch (Sozialwissenschaftliche Jalisco; 45051 Mexico). Fakultat, Interests: interpersonal Universitiit Konstanz, communication theory, Postfach 5560, D-7750 Konstanz). integrating Interests: sociolinguistics. communication studies Y-ith humanistic perspectives, particularly drawn from philosophy and theology. Jan Kunzler (Inst. Soziologie, Bayerische.Julius Max:imilians-U niversitat, Sanderring 2, D-8700 Wurz­ The Netherlands burg. Univ.Tel. No. (931) 311: Fax No. (931) 15123). Uus Knops (Nijmeegse Interests: theory, language. Centrale dialect-en naamkunde Katholieke U Nijmegen, Comeniuslaan 4, POB 9102, NL-6500 HD Nijmegen. Univ.Tel. Micha Schack (Department of Sociology, No. 51-93-33. Fax University of (080) 564606. Tix. 48211 KUNM Kiel, Olshausenstr. 40, D-2300 NL). Interests: language Kiel). Interests: interper­ behaviour, sociolinguistics. sonal communication, gender and communication. Tuen A. Van Dijk (Univ. of Amsterdam, Michael Schenk (Inst. Sozialwissenschaften, Spui 21, 1012 WX Amsterdam. Univ.Tel. No. (020) Universitiit Hohenheim, Postfach 525 9111. Fax No. 70 05 62, D-7000 (020) 525-2136). Interests: Stuttgart 70. Univ.Tel. conversation, language and No. 4590). Interests: interaction social interaction. of mass communication and interpersonal communication. . Poland India Anna Zalewska Udaya Narayana (Uniwersytet L6dzki, 90-131 L6dz, Singh (Univ. Hyderabad, Central Narutowicza Univ. P.O., 65. Univ.Tel. No. 34-98-85. Fax No. Hyderabad 500134, Andhra Pradesh. 783958. Univ.Tel. Tix. 886291). Interests: self disclosure. No. 253901. Tlx. 0425-2050). Interests: con­ versation, discourse. Republic of South Africa C. Italy M. Nel (Inst. Kommunikasienavorsing, Private Bag X41, Pretoria 0001). Interests: Sergio Belardinelli (Facoltii interracial, intercultural Science Politiche, Univ. aspects of communication. degli Studi di Trieste, Piazzale Europa,!, I-34127 Trieste. Univ.Tel. No. (040) 56038: Tix. 460855). Interests: Russia communicative competence, Habermas. R. L. Krichevskiy and Ye. A. Sokolova (USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Franco Bonazzi (Inst. Sociology, (Scientific Research Inst Univ. degli Studi di of General & Educational Bologna, Via Psychology), Ul. Pogodinskaya Zamboni 33, I-40126 Bologna. Univ.Tel. 8, Moscow No.(051) 272933: 119905. Tel. No. 245-16-41). Interests: Tlx. 511650). Interests: nonverbal com­ conversation, munication, clothing. interpersonal status. Spain Laura Fruggeri (lstituto di Psico!ogia, Univ. degli Miguel Studi, Roiz Celix (Facultad Ciencias Informaci6n, Via Universita 12, I-43100 Parma. Univ.Tel. No. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Ciudad Universit­ aria, E-28040 Madrid. Univ. Tel. No. (4J 49-02-56. Fax 24 · CRT Vol 12 No. 3 No. 2438643. Tix. 22459). Interests: small groups, family John A. Daly (Dept. of Speech Communication, Univ. of communication, Palo Alto school. Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712. Univ.Tel. No. (512) 471-1232). Interests: interpersonal communication. F. Javier Sainz Sanchez (Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, E-28040 Madrid. Univ.Tel. Steve Duck (University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242. No. (4) 49-02-56. Fax No. 2438643. Tlx. 22459). Interests: Univ.Tel. No. (319) 335-3549). Interests: communication discourse. in relationships.

Carmen Caffarel Serra (Univ. Complutense, Madrid, Ray Fenton (Assessment and Evaluation; Anchorage E-28040). Interests: research methods in interpersonal School District; Anchorage, AK. Tel. No. (907) 269-2211; communication. Fax (907) 269-2222). Interests: how the school environ­ ment may be manipulated to provide positive interethnic Switzerland relationships. Michael Charlton and Klaus Neumann (Universite de Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg. Univ.Tel. No. (037) 21-91- Mary Anne Fitzpatrick (Center for Communication 11). Interests: interaction of mass communication and Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI interpersonal communication, family communication. 53706. Univ.Tel. No. (608) 262-1234. Tix. (608) 263- 5595). Interests: marital communication. Hans Geser (Soziologisches Instit, Universitat Zurich, Ramistr. 71, CH-8056 Zurich. Univ.Tel. No. (01) 257-11- Howard Giles (University of California at Santa 11). Interests: technology and personal communication. Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106. Univ.Tel. No. (805) 961-2311). Interests: language and social interaction, United States discourse, ethnolinguistics. Krystyna Strzyzewski Aune, Dept. of Speech, George Hall 329, 2560 Campus Road, University of Hawaii at Richard D. Halley (Dept. of Communication, Weber Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822. Univ.Tel. No. (808) State Univ., Ogden, UT 84408-1903. Univ.Tel. No. (801) 956-3322. e-mail: Krystyna@uhccvx. Interests: the area 626-7072). E-mail. Rhalley@l:c.weber.edu. Interests: of emotion expression, emotion management and how it theory of listening, relationship development, and com­ evolves throughout relationship development, behavioral munication via e-mail. study of experienced and expressed emotions in dating vs. marital relationships (expanding to include all levels of David Holquist (CAS Dept., Calvin College, 3201 relationship development). Burton St. S.E., Grand Rapids, Ml 49546. Univ.Tel. No. (517) 774-4000. Fax No. (517) 774-4499). Interests: Joe Ayres (School of Communication, Washington State interpersonal communication, gender and communication. University, Pullman, WA 99164-2520. Univ.Tel. No. (509) 335-3564). Interests: the relationship between communi­ Robert Hopper (Dept. of Speech Communication, Univ. cation anxiety, language use, nonverbal behaviour, of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712. Univ.Tel. No. (512) perceptions, and relational trajectories. 471-1232). Interests: conversational analysis, interper­ sonal communication. Judy Burgoon (University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721. Univ.Tel. No. (602) 965-9011). Interests: Mark Knapp (Dept. of Speech Communication, The nonverbal communication, interpersonal communication. University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712. Univ.Tel. No. (512) 471-1232). Interests: interpersonal Donald J. Cegala (Dept. of Communication, The Ohio communication, nonverbal communication. State University, 319 Neil Hall, 1634 Neil Ave. Columbus, OH 43210. Univ.Tel. No. (614) 292-6446). Interests: Jenny Mandelbaum (Rutgers University, P.O. Box understanding the relationship between cogni­ 2101, New Brunswick, NJ 08903. Univ.Tel. No. (210) tive/affective processes and message production. He 932-1766), Interests: conversation, language and social applies that roncern to communicative competence in interaction. various settings and is currently working on a model of competence that attempts to use thought/feeling protocols Deborah Socha McGee (Dept. of Communication, The to account for differences in communicative performance Ohio State University, 319 Neil Hall, 1634 Neil Avenue, among doctor-patient dyads. Columbus, OH 43210. Univ.Tel. No. (614) 292-6446). Interests: interpersonal communication, compliance­ John Crawford (Dept. of Communication, Arizona State gaining, impression management. University, Tempe, Arizona 85283. Univ.Tel. No. (602) 965-9011). Interests: conflict, negotiation, interpersonal Margaret McLaughlin (Dept. of Communication Arts communication. & Sciences, Univ ofS. California, Los Angeles, CA 90089. Univ.Tel. No. (213) 743-2311). Interests: conversation.

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 25 Kelly S. McNeilis (Dept of Communication, 319 Neil (415) 338-1111). Interests: rules, conversation. Hall, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210. Univ.Tel. No. (614) 292-6446. e-mail: Timothy J. Simpson (Department of Communication; [email protected]). Interests: broadly Barry University; 11300 N. E. Second Avenue; Miami interpersonal communication, ~ with a specific interest Shores, FL 33161-6695; tel: (305) 899-3453; fax: (305) within health communication--issues relating to 899-3451). Interests: the encoding process taking advan­ care-provider patient I:. communication. Currently, working tage of the information processing capabilities and on assessing physician and patient communication selective perceptions of the decoder. competence, student nurse socialization, and social support among families of haemopheliacs. Timothy Stephen (Dept. of Language, Literature, and Communication, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, Eugenia Meimaridis (Ph.D. student; Department of New York 12180. Univ.Tel. No. (518) 276-6000. Fax No. Communication; i The Ohio State University; Columbus, (518) 276-6003). Interests: interpersonal communication. OH 43210). Interests: interpersonal communication in health care, in particular pedagogical issues surrounding John Stewart (Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195. I the communication and psychosocial skills taught to Univ.Tel. No. (206) 543-2100). Interests: interpersonal medical students, interns, and medical residents. communication. Michael D. Miller (Dept. of Speech, University of Howard Syphes (University of Kentucky, Lexington, Hawaii, 2560 Campus Road, GRG 329, Honolulu, Hawaii KY 40506. Univ.Tel. No. (606) 257-9000. Fax No. (606) 96822. Univ.Tel. No. (808) 956-8111. Tix. 7238409). 257-4000. Tix. 204009). Interests: interpersonal com­ Interests: persuasion, social influence, compliance. munication.

Judy Pearson (Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701. Univ.Tel. No. (614-593-1000. Tlx.810-239-2992). Interests: Karen Tracy (University of Colorado at Boulder, interpersonal communication, gender and communication, Boulder, CO 80309. Univ.Tel. No. (303) 492-8908). family communication. Interests: language and social interaction. Rodney A. Reynolds (Dept. of Speech, 326 George Hall, Joseph B. Walther (Dept. of Communication Studies, 2560 Campus Rd, Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Northwestern University, 1815 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Hawaii 96822, Univ.Tel. No. (808) 956-8317). Interests: IL 60208-1340, Tel. No. (708) 491-7532. e-mail: Message effects and processing, interpersonal influence, [email protected]). Interests: interpersonal measurement and methods.. aspects of computer-mediated communication. His research in progress is exploring evidence for and exten­ Marshall Rosenstein (Dept. of Communication sions of a social information-processing theory of Sciences, Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269. computer-mediation effects on group interaction. Larger Univ.Tel. No. (203) 486-2000). Interests: interpersonal issues involve relational communication using different communication, nonverbal communication. verbal and nonverbal cue systems. Judith A. Sanders (Dept. of Communication, California Dennis Wignall (either: Metropolitan State College of State Polytechnic Univ. 3801 W. Temple, Pomona, CA Denver, Dept of Speech Communication, Cam.pus Box 34 91768. Univ.Tel. No. (714) 869-2000. e-mail: • Arts, 269, Denver, CO 80203, or Univ. of Denver, Dept JASANDERS(.dCSUPOMONA.EDU). Interests: interper­ of Human Communication Studies, Spruce Hall North rm sonal communication in the intercultural setting. She is 142,Denver, CO 80208. Univ.Tel. No. (303) 871-2000. Tix. examining how people from different cultures use com­ 910 931 0586. e-mail: bitnet%"DWIGNALL@DUCAIR"). munication to reduce uncertainties (Uncertainty Reduc­ Interests: the investigation of the role of language in tion Theory) in establishing relationships with culturally mediated messages and how it affects both the treatment similar and culturally dissimilar others. of messages and the relational concerns of the interactants. Susan Shimanoff (San Francisco State Univ. 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132. Univ.Tel. No. Additional Bibliography Journals. Many journals publish material on interpersonal Human Communication Research communication. Among those regularly publishing The Journal of Communication research reports dealing specifically with the topic Reseaux, Nov 1983: Communication interperson­ from the perspective of communication science are nelle. This special issue reviews work on the topic these: in France. Communication Quarterly The Southern Communication Journal 26 - CRTVol 12 No. 3 Western Journal of Speech Communication Sage Series in Interpersonal Communication: Norton, Robert. 1983. Communicator Style: Book Series Theory, Applications, and Measures. Beverly Hills, Communication Yearbook: CA: Sage, 1983. This series, published by various houses since 1978, is 'an annual review published for the International Craig, Robert T. & Karen Tracy (eds). 1983. Con­ Communication Association' as a reference work in versational Coherence: Form, Structure, and Strat­ the area of communication. It serves as 'a profes­ egy. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage,. sional forum for leading communication specialists' to share their work. Each year the volumes include McLaughlin, Margaret L. 1984. Conversation: sections on interpersonal communication, mass com­ How Talk is Organized. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. munication, organizational communication, [Discussed in this issue of Trends.] intercultural communication, political communi­ cation, instructional communication, and other Spitzberg, Brian H., & William R. Cupach. 1984. related fields. Only the volumes since the 1986 Interpersonal Communication Competence. Beverly review in Trends are included here. Hills, CA: Sage. Communication competence is the ability of commu­ McLaughlin, Margaret L. (ed.). 1987. Communi­ nicators to accomplish tasks successfully. The book cation Yearbook 10. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. reviews past research on the issue, sketches models, The interpersonal section deals with communication and proposes directions for future research. networks in adolescent friendship or romantic relationships and with pragmatic connectedness in Sypher, Howard E., & James L. Applegate. (eds.). conversation. 1984. Communication by Children and Adults: Social Cognitive and Strategic Processes. Beverly Anderson, James A. (ed.). 1988. Communication Hills, CA: Sage. Yearbook 11. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. The essays in this collection explore the relationship Sections address conversational analysis and its between social cognition and interpersonal com­ attendant methods and the "texts" of interpersonal munication. The first sections of the book address communication. questions of children and their communicative development; the latter sections examine the com­ Anderson, James A. (ed.). 1989. Communication munication processes in adults. Yearbook 12. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. The interpersonal section reviews discourse and Bavelas, Janet B., Alex Black, Nicole Chovil, & relationships: structures of power, coherence, Jennifer Mullett. 1990. Equivocal Communication. communication in young adult friendships, and Newbury Park, CA: Sage. second guessing. This research study focusses on contextualized nature ofcommunication through an examination of Anderson, James A. (ed.). 1990. Communication ambiguity and equivocation. Yearbook 13. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. The relevant section of this volume contains essays Interpersonal Commtexts Series: on interpersonal conversations, arguments, embar­ Nofsinger, Robert E. 1991. Everyday Conversation. rassments, and negotiations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Using a conversational analysis approach, this text Anderson, James A. (ed.). 1991. Communication discusses conversational action, turn taking, Yearbook 14. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. repairs, misunderstandings, and argument and The interpersonal influence section treats social story patterns. confrontation, strategies of reasoning in spontane­ ous discourse, and interpersonal attraction and Clark, Ruth Anne. 1991. Studying Interpersonal attitude similarity. Communication: The Research Experience. New­ bury Park, CA: Sage. Deetz, Stanley A. (ed.). 1992. Communication Beginning with everyday observations, this text Yearbook 15. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. leads the reader through the process of a systematic The 'interaction in the social context' essays deal empirical study of interpersonal communication with dominance-seeking language strategies, com­ with an emphasis on experimental methodology. It munication as the interface between couples and includes chapters on internal and external validity, culture, and articulation theory. treatment of subjects, dependent measures, describ-

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 27 ing data sets, describing association, and gener­ Conference papers from the 1987 Paris conference alizing from a sample to a population. on conversational analysis and ethnomethodology, this collection introduces the French reader Gudykunst, WilliamB. to the 1991. Bridging Differences: main themes of conversation, verbal Effective action, and the Intergroup Communication. Newbury theory of ronversational interaction. Park, CA: Sage. This text describes a rommon process underlying Coronado, Juan Jose. 1992. rommunication La comunicaci6n between people of different groups; interpesonal mas alla de la apariencia. it emphasizes Zapopan, practical applications and includes Jalisro (Mexico): Universidad Iteso. self-assessment questionnaires. A communication textbook, this volume provides an overview of the communication process as well as material more specific Textbooks to interpersonal relationships. Written from an interdisciplinary This selection of current textbooks used for college­ perspective, the text differs from others by level interpersonal rommunication courses notes providing a philosophic as well as a scientific book which summarize much current research from foundation. Each chapter includes a list of further the perspective of U.S. rommunication studies. readings. DeVito, Joseph A. 1992. Messages: Building Cosnier, J. & C. Kerbrat-Orrechioni. (eds.). 1991. Interpersonal Communication Skills. (2nd ed.). Decrire la conversation. Lyon: Presses Univer­ San Francisco: Harper & Row. sitaires de Lyon. The edited volume deals with methods of conver­ Knapp, Mark L., & Anita L. Vangelisti, 1992. sational analysis. Interpersonal Communication & Human Relation­ ships (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Durand, Jacques. 1981. Les fonnes Baron. de la commu­ nication. Paris: Dunod. In this overview of communication one section Mader, Thomas F., & Diane C. Mader. 1990. treats interpersonal rommunication and situates it Understanding One Another: Communicating Inter­ within the larger field of communication study personally. Dubuque, as IA: William C. Brown. envisioned in a French academic rontext. Pearson, Judy, & Brian H. Spitzberg. 1990. Inter­ Ferder, Fran. 1986. Words Made Flesh: personal Communication: Scripture, Concepts, Components, & Psychology & Human Communication. Contexts. Notre Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown. Dame, IN: Ave Maria Press. Beginning from the perspective of spirituality and Trenholm, Sarah, & Arthur D. Jensen. 1992. using Biblical texts as introductions, Ferder Interpersonal Communication takes (2nd ed.). Belmont, the reader through reflections on listening, CA: emotion, Wadsworth Publishing. anger, ronflict, and self-disclosure.

Franc;ois, Frederic. (ed.). 1990. La Communication General Books Inegale: Heurs et malheurs de /'interaction Boden, Deirdre, verbale. & Don H. Zimmerman (eds.). 1991. Lausanne: Delachaux et Niestle. Talk & Social Structure: Studies in By exploring asymmetrical communication situa­ Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis. tions (parent-child, native-immigrant, etc.), the Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. essays in this rollection attempt to describe the The contributors to this collection discuss the ways mechanisms of control and cooperation active in in which conversational mechanisms generate daily communication. structures of society and structures of social action. Frey, Siegfried. 1984. Die nonverbale Kommuni­ Charvin, Franc;ois & Jean-Pierre Marhuenda. 1991. kation. Stuttgart. Communication et Entreprises. Paris: Eyrolles. Gilgun, Jane F., Kerry Daly, & Gerald Handel. Conein, Bernard, Michel De Fornel, & Louis Quere. (eds.). 1992. Qualitative Methods in (eds.). 1990-1991. Family Re­ Les formes de la conversation. 2 search. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. vols. Paris: CNET, Collection Reseaux. Although not aimed exclusively at communication research, this guidebook takes the reader through 28 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 a variety of techniques to gather data about fami­ munication Research. Sage Annual Reviews of lies and family interaction, including interviews, Communication Research, Vol. 14. Newbury Park, observations, document analysis, and other qualita­ CA: Sage. tive and quantitative methods. This collection provides an overview of a wide range of interpersonal topics: uncertainty reduction, Hernandez-Pinz6n, Fernando Jimenez. 1991. La communicating emotion, interpersonal dynamics, comunicaci6n interpersonal: Ejercicios educativos conflict, social interaction, social penetration, and (3rd ed, rev.). Madrid: Publicaciones I.C.C.E. the breakdowns in friendships. [Instituto Calasanz de Ciencias de la Educaci6n]. The 37 exercises assembled here cover various Scharry, Leo. 1989. Etude comparative de las aspects of interpersonal communication and group communication interpersonnelle entre personnes dynamics; the focus tends towards business agees. Montreal: Universite de Montreal. communication. Siegman, A. W. & S. Feldstein. (eds.). 1987. Knapp, Mark L., & Gerald R. Miller. (eds.). 1985. Nonverbal Behavior and Communication (2nd ed.). Handbook of Interpersonal Communication. Bever­ Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ly Hills, CA: Sage. An interdisciplinary look at nonverbal communica­ The 15 essays collected here present a sweeping tion, the book includes studies of physiological overview of research and issues in interpersonal processes, coding bodily movement, gestures, facial communication study. Chapters deal with meth­ expression, pupillary behaviour, and paralanguage. odological issues as well as address specific aspects It addition several essays explore the functions of such as communication codes, nonverbal signals, nonverbal behaviours. and basic processes of conversation and social influence. Stewart, John (ed.). 1989. Bridges Not Walls: A Book About Interpersonal Communication (5th ed.). Maffesoli, Michel. 1990. Au creux des apparences: New York: McGraw Hill. Pour une ethique de l'esthetique. Paris: Pion. Stewart has collected essays about interpersonal Within a philosophical framework of epistemology, communication to provide a reader for an under­ this study explores the impact of various nonverbal graduate course in the area. Sections address basic and cultural features on communication, thought, aspects of interpersonal communication (language, and public life. Of particular interest here is the verbal codes, nonverbal cues), listening, self-disclo­ section on proximity. sure, conflict, and gender.

Melendo, Maite. 1985. Comunicaci6n e integraci6n Touliatos, J., B. F. Perlmutter, & M. A. Straus. personal (3rd ed.). Santander, Spain: Editorial Sal (eds.). 1990. Handbook of Family Measurement Terrae. Techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Drawn from the author's experiences as a counselor, The handbook not only guides researchers but the lectures collected in this book have a practical provides basic information on available measure­ orientation. Among the topics addressed are ment instruments. interpersonal relationships, dialogue, openness, and family communication. Van Dijk, Teun A. 1987. Communicating Racism: Ethnic Prejudice in Thought and Talk. Newbury Pueblito Canada, Inc. 1981?. La comunicaci6n Park, CA: Sage. interpersonal: Manual practico. Santa Domingo: Based on research in Holland and the U.SA., Van Editora Corripio C. Dijk's study analyzes how racism is produced and As an illnstrated text designed to accompany a reproduced in daily talk. Chapters address how distance education program, the seven units cover ethnic attitudes are represented in memory and basic themes in interpersonal communication: the discourse, how they are interpreted by in-groups nature of communication, verbal and nonverbal through interpersonal communication, and how communication, interpretation, motivation, personal they are diffused to groups beyond the level of a characteristics of the communicator, and the process single interpersonal conversation. of communication. Each unit includes practical exercises. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1985. How Conversation Works. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Roloff, Michael E., & Gerald R. Miller. (eds.). 1987. Wardhaugh provides a general introduction to Interpersonal Processes: New Directions in Com- discourse analysis and examines--among other

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 29 things--social context, cooperation in talk, turn­ Bgazhnokov discusses the social and cultural taking, topics, termination, and doing things with contexts of interpersonal communication from a language. theoretical perspective, noting the importance of considering gestures, customs, metaphors, and even Wilkinson, Louise Cherry, & Cora B. Marrett. (eds). etiquette. 1985. Gerukr Influences in Classroom Interaction. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Bonazzi, Franco. 1981. 'Moda e comunicazione nei This research report features 11 essays on aspects processi socio-culturali [Fashion and Communica­ of classroom interaction; while many of them go tion in Sociocultural Processes]', Studi di Sociologia, beyond interpersonal communication, the set does Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 319-330. address some basic interpersonal communication Starting from a consideration of contemporruy questions such as peer interaction, student-teacher fashion, Bonazzi examines the relationship between interaction, and small group interaction. The age fashion and myth systems in order to better under­ group discussed is primarily elementary school stand how fashion works as a medium of interper­ . children. sonal communication .

Journal articles Borsoni, Paolo. 1989. 'Metacomunicazione, discon­ This section lists resources or studies published ferma, doppio legame, nelle teorie di G. Bateson, R. primarily in non-English language journals. While Laing, P. Watzlawick [Metacommunication, not complete, it does give a sense of the breadth of Disconfirmation, and Double Binds in the Theories the topic. English language materials can be found of G. Bateson, R. Laing, and P. Watzlawick]', La by consulting the bibliographies included in any of Critica Sociologica, Vol. 90-91, pp. 206-221. the books listed above. The theories of Bateson, Laing, and Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson are used to ground a view of Andrade, V. M. 1991. 'O mundo interno como afeto interpersonal communication which takes meta­ e representacao: Uma descricao metapsicologica da communication as a fundamental aspect. This communicacao interpessoal como um processo de relational communication brings with it issues of identificacao [The Internal World as Affect and power, identity, and autonomy. Representation: A Metapsychological Description of Interpersonal Communication as a Process of Brajsa, Pavao. 1991. 'Interpersonalna komunikacija Identification],' Revista Brasileira de Psicanalise, u obitelji [Family Interpersonal Communication]', Vol. 25, pp. 467-484. Socijalna Psihijatrija, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 161-168. A theoretical essay, it proposes a link between This study of 468 Serbian teenagers asked ques­ intrapersonal and interpersonal communication tions regarding different aspects of family commu­ based on the Freudian concept of affect and the nication, including communication as system activ­ ability of interlocutors to identify with bodily ity, as a relational act, and as an adaptive action. manifestations of affective experiences. Caffarel Serra, C. 1986. 'Algunos metodos clasicos Avello Florez, Jose. 1986. La comunicaci6n inter­ en investigacion social y su posibilidad de aplicacion personal como objeto: problemas para su analisis y a la comunicacion interpersonal [Some Classic modelizaci6n [Interpersonal Communication as Methods of Social Research and the Possibility of Object: Problems in Its Analysis and Modeling]', Applying Them to Interpersonal Communication]', Revista Internacional de Sociologia, Vol. 44, No. 1, Revista Internacional de Sociologia, Vol. 44, pp. pp. 35-56. 65-80. This theoretical piece evaluates traditional interper­ The author reviews and evaluates functionalist, sonal models and proposes alternatives drawn from formalist, and structuralist social science models for more recent work in the social sciences, particularly their applicability to interpersonal communication. from semiotics and communicative competence and from the work of Benveniste, Bakhtin, Habermas, Guigo, Denis. 1991. 'Les Termes d'adresse dans un Bateson, and Goffman. bureau parisien [How Colleagues Address Each Other in a Parisian Office]', L'Homme, Vol. 31, No. Bgazhnokov, B. Kh. 1987. 'Obshchenie glazami 3, pp. 41-59. etnografa [Interpersonal Communication: The This conversational study classed usage in eight Ethnologist's Point of View]', Vestnik Akademii categories: friendly, amicable, American, student­ Nauk SSSR, Vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 87-97. like, polite, respectful, military, and distant.

30 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 Employees kept to a general pattern of correct Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychol­ distance with one another. ogy, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 147-154. This study investigated the interaction of nonverbal Hahn, Alois. 1991. 'Rede und Schweigeverbote (eye) behaviour, emotional messages (friendly or [Prohibitions of Speech and Silence]', Koiner Zeit­ hostile, intense or weak), and the sex of the schrift fur Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Vol. 43, receiver. No. 1, pp. 86-105. Based on conversational analysis, this study focus­ Ito, T. 1991. (Japanese title.) '[The Characteristics ses on aspects of communication taboos and notes of Unit Nonverbal Behaviors in Face-to-face Inter­ the ways that speech is prohibited through turn­ action]', Japanese Journal of Experimental Social taking, rhythms of speech synchronization, and the Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 85-93. social standing of listeners. Ito examined nonverbal behaviours during conver­ sation, attending particularly to sequences of Harshiladze, M. I. 1990. (Russian title.) '[Influ­ actions. The study focusses on smiles, head nods, ence of Interpersonal Communication on the gaze, lean, bodily movement, and gestures. Effectiveness of Group]', Voprosy Psikhologii, No. 5, pp. 144-149. Ito, Tetsuji. 1991. (Japanese title.) '[An Exami­ In performance tests of small groups, the groups' nation of Fundamental Dimensions of Expression of success on tasks varied according to two factors: the Nonverbal Behavior]', Japanese Journal of Experi­ type of task and the interpersonal relationships mental Social Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 1-11. among the group members. Based on videotapes of conversations, this study catalogues 16 nonverbal behaviours, comparing their frequency between groups of acquainted and Hoeflich, Joachim R. 1988. 'Kommunikations­ unacquainted, male and female dyads. regeln und interpersonale Kommunikation; Aus­ gangspunkte einer regelorientierten Kom­ Fruggeri, Laura. 1991. 'La ricerca psicologica sulle munikationsperspektive', Communications, Vol. 14, dinamiche familiari prima e dopa l'introduzione de! No. 2, pp. 61-83. divorzio. Bibliografia ragionata [Psychological This paper introduces the rules approach to com­ Research on Family Dynamics Before and After the munication and uses it to account for some aspects Introduction of Divorce: Annotated Bibliography]', of interpersonal communication (especially coordi­ Eta evolutiva, No. 39, pp. 114-126. nating action and meaning). Compiled by a researcher at the Institute of Psy­ chology in Parma, Italy, the annotated bibliography Hoeflich, Joachim R., & Georg Wiest. 1990. 'Neue notes titles from 1960 to 1988 on family communi­ Kommunikationstechnologien und interpersonael cation and family dynamics in families experiencing Kommunikation in Organisationen', Publizistik, divorce. Vol. 35, pp. 62-79. Both positive and negative effects result from the Joseph, Isaac. 1987. 'Les Convictions de la coquette introduction of new communication technologies [The Convictions of the Coquette]', Communications, into organizations. The authors sketch out a Vol. 46, pp. 221-228. theoretical model to account for those effects. Flirting is a specific kind of communication, charac­ terized by irony, manners, play, acting, and double Huls, Erica 1990. 'Communicatiepatronen in deception. Turkse gezinnen; een case study [Communication Patterns in Turkish Families; a Case Study]', Katori, Atsuko. 1984. 'Ragin no komyunikeishon Sociologische Gids, Vol. 37, pp. 351-371. shisutemu [Communication System of the Elderly]', A qualitative study of two Turkish families in the Soshioroji, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 83-104. Netherlands indicates that turn-taking patterns A study of interpersonal and mass media use compare with those of lower socioeconomic Dutch among elderly residents of Tokyo indicated that families and not with the highly patriarchal hierar­ those living alone watched the most television while chies stereotypically assumed to be common in those living with spouses or with children watched Turkish families. progressively less and had more interaction with others. Iizuka, Yuichi. 1991. (Japanese title.) '[On the Relationship of Gaze to Emotional Expression]', Keppler, Angela. 1987. 'Der Verlauf von Klatsch­ gesprachen [The Sequential Organization of Gos-

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 31 sip]', Zeitschrift fur Soziologie, Vol. 16, pp. 288-302. Ne!, C. M. 1989. 'Wit-Swart kommunikasie onder verskillende houndingstoestande [White-Black This discourse analysis of gossip notes three com­ Communication under Different Attitudinal Condi­ mon stages: preliminary (a negotiation of interest tions]', Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrifvir Sosiologie [The between the parties), story (the account), and South African Journal of Sociology], Vol. 20, pp. conclusion (generalizations acrording to social types. 38-46. The entire activity occurs within an interpretive The author, writing from tbe Institute for Com­ frame that situates the individuals and their munication Research in Pretoria, reports a study in activity within social and moral rules. which interracial groups interacted and later completed semantic differential measures to deter­ mine the extent of stereotypes, prejudice, ethno­ Kepplinger, Hans Mathias, & Verena Martin. 1986. centrism, and authoritarianism. 'Die Funktionen der Massenmedien in der Alltags­ kommunikation', Publizistik, Vol. 31, pp. 118-128. Neumann, Klaus, & Michael Charlton. 1989 . . An empirical study of the ways in which the topic 'Massen- und Interpersonale Kommunikation im of the mass media appears in conversation showed Alltag van Kind und Familie. Ergebnisse der that it occurs frequently as a well-integrated aspect Freiburger Langsschnittuntersuchung zur Medien­ of conversation; this phenomenon lends support to rezeption von Kindern [Mass and Interpersonal both the uses and gratifications and agenda-setting Communication in Children's and Families' Every­ functions of the media. day Life. Results of tbe Freiburg Longitudinal Study of Children's Media Reception)', Koiner Knops, Uus. 1988. 'Een verwaarloosd thema in de Zeitschrift fur Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Vol. sociolinguistiek: het taalgedrag van en tegenover 30 (supplement), pp. 364-378. ouderen [A Neglected Topic in Sociolinguistics: Lan­ This article presents the results of a five-year study guage Behavior of and Toward Elders)', Gramma, of six preschool children and their use of mass and Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 85-99. interpersonal communication. It focussed especially A review of the literature (primarily from English­ on the coordination of action, power and self-asser­ speaking countries) indicates that the language tion, and emotional regulation of relationships. difficulties of elderly stem not only from physio­ logical causes but also from psychological and social Roiz Celix, Miguel. 1986. 'Modelos psico­ factors. sociologicos y antropologicos de la comunicacion en los pequenos grupos [Psychosociological and Anthro­ Krichevskiy, R. L., & Ye. A. Sokolova. 1990. pological Models of Communication in Small (Russian title) '[Dialogic Communication as a Factor Groups)', Revista Espanola de Investigaciones in Interpersonal Status in a Collective of Older Sociologicas, Vol. 33, pp. 121-142. Students]', Novye lssledovaniya v Psikhologii i Roiz Celix compares theoretical concepts of inter­ Vozrastnoi Fiziologii, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 65-69. personal and small group communication, arguing Using questionnaire data from 362 10th grade that interpersonal communication can be subsumed students, Krichevskiy and Sokolova compared in group communication. Among the models conversational ability with various status indica­ addressed are interactionism, systems theory, and tors, including peer evaluation, classroom relation­ anthropological-cultural theory. He also addresses ships, and classroom activity. the impact of new communication technologies on group interaction. Meunier, Jean-Pierre. 1990. 'Nouveaux modeles de communication, nouvelles questions [New Models of Roiz, Miguel. 1989. 'La familia, desde la teoria de Communication, New Questions]', &cherches la comunicacion de Palo Alto [The Family, according Sociologiques, Vol. 21, pp. 267-288. to the Theory of Communication of Palo Alto]', Beginning with a critique of the Saussurean and Revista Espanola de Investigaciones Sociologicas, sender-message-receiver models of communication, Vol. 48, pp. 117-136. this essay argues for a more complex model which This essay provides an overview of family commu­ incorporates coproduction of meaning as well as the nication theories based on the work of Bateson, links between verbal and nonverbal communication Ruesch, and Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson; it practices. The proposed model also accounts for also reviews contributions from cybernetics and public communication and participatory discourse. systems theory. Some key concepts developed include metacommunication, double binds, and homeostasis.

32- CRTVol 12 No. 3 Roiz, Miguel. 1989. 'La teoria de la comunicaci6n Siddiqui compares commonly accepted concepts de Palo Alto y sus posibilidades y limitaciones from interpersonal communication research (in­ teoricas [The Palo Alto Theory of Communication cluding small groups) with a communication model and Its Theoretical Possibilities and Limitations]', based on the texts of the Qur'an. Revista Internacional de Sociologia, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 87-98. Somlai, Peter. 1982. 'A csaladi stabilitas kapcsolati The author sketches the communication theories szemlelete [Relationship Concepts and Family associated with Gregory Bateson and his followers, Stability]', Szociologia, Vol. 4, pp. 503-520. arguing that the integration of perspectives drawn The author, writing from Hungary, discusses the from cultural anthropology, psychiatry, cybernetics, relative merits of consensus theories and conflict systems theory, information theory, and small theories in accounting for family stability. He group theory provides a good grounding for inter­ suggests that the empirical evidence supports personal communication study but not for mass neither and proposes that an examination of rela­ communication study. tionship oontexts provides a better theoretical basis.

Wada, Minoru. 1991. (Japanese title.) '[A Study of Schenk, M. 1989. 'Massenkommunikation und Interpersonal Competence: Construction of interpersonale Kommunikation [Mass Communica­ Nonverbal Skill Scale and Social Skill Scale]', tion and Interpersonal Communication]', Koiner Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychol­ Zeitschrift fur Soziologie und Sozialps-ychologie, Vol. ogy, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 49-59. 30 (supplement), pp. 406-417. This essay reports a study of nonverbal interper­ This essay reviews theoretical connections between sonal skills based on self-reports of communication interpersonal and mass communication, beginning and interpersonal competence. with Lazarsfeld's identification of opinion leaders and the 'two-step flow of communication' and Yoshitake, K. 1991. (Japanese title.) '[The Advan­ including later theories proposed by network analy­ tage of Active Conformity as a Communication sis methodologies. Strategy for Compatibility Between Self-assertion and Smooth Interpersonal Relationship]', Japanese Siddiqui, Mohammad A. 1988. 'Interpersonal Journal of Psychology, Vol. 62, pp. 229-234. Communication: Modeling Interpersonal Relation­ Yoshitake oonducted an experimental, comparative ship, an Islamic Perspective', The American Jour­ study of Japanese undergraduates to gauge the nal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 239- differences in satisfaction between assertion and 246. agreement as communication strategies.

AFTERWORD

By W. E. Biernatzki, SJ Editor, Communication Research Trends

A Widely Useful Topic Some hypotheses in the field which have been In a sense, all our knowledge of communication called into question by later researchers neverthless begins with our primordial experiences of interper­ can be worth thinking about because of the insights sonal communication. It is the first kind of com­ into concrete communication problems which they munication we know, and even radio or television may suggest. broadcasts to mass audiences follow something of The axioms of Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson the patterns observable in face-to-face conversa­ (1967), for example, are highly suggestive. 'One tions. cannot not communicate' raises the question, what Consequently, our understanding of the process of does someone 'in the news' communicate when he or interpersonal communication is basic to any serious she says 'No comment'? In some situations, it can investigation of other forms of communication. be an admission of 'guilt'. Attempts at cover-ups - Even those concerned with the most sophisticated whether in politics, business, or religion - eventual­ technologies of mass communication need to pay ly fail if the issue is of sustained interest to the some attention to what goes on at the interpersonal mass media; and the embarrassing facts will level. become public knowledge, often with more damag-

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 33 ing consequences than if they had been discussed social, cultural and ideological environment we are fully and truthfully from the start. trying to evaluate will, to that degree, make our 'Every communication has a context and rela­ evaluations less accurate. tionship aspect such that the latter classifies the Contemporary theorists in interpersonal com­ former.' One cannot say exactly the same thing munication - as in mass communication and many with exactly the same meaning to different people, other sub-disciplines of communication studies - since differing relationships with them affect and have generally abandoned the so-called 'infor­ alter the meaning of the message's content. This mation-theory model' of communication, suggested applies, with even greater force, to mass media by Shannon and Weaver (1949) for electronic messages, which often are understood by their communications. Its description of a one-way flow audiences in ways vastly different from that from source through message to receiver ignores the intended by the producer or editor. complex webs of feedback and dialogue which typify 'Interaction sequences, like word sequences, cannot interpersonal communication. Less mechanical, be understood as a string of isolated elements.' A more 'hermeneutic' methods of analysis are held, by sermon will be differently received by someone who many, to be the best direction in which future went to church direct from a family argument and analyses of interpersonal communication should by one who did not. A priest in the confessional move. might say things to one penitent occasioned by his Lannamann (1991) suggests that research should encounter with the previous penitent. move away from its preoccupation with the More could be drawn out of the axioms, but the individual and towards a more meaningful focus on above examples will serve to illustrate how the the social relationships among individuals; that it simple act of reading discussions of the process of should pay more attention to social and material interpersonal communication can provide stimuli to influences on individual action; that it should help us see new and different dimensions of our recognize that much human behavior is not really particular communication situation. Although this intentional or autonomous; and that research must is mainly true of our own interpersonal communica­ become more historical in order to ferret out the tion it is not limited to it, since the insights can emerging relationships between the interpersonal easily begin to involve other kinds of communica­ · communication of individuals and the larger struc­ tion, as well. If we are engaged in work with the tures of societies and cultures. All these sugges­ mass media, they will almost certainly encompass tions - except possibly the last - can be carried too that, too. far, resulting in a self-destructive relativism, but their moderate application can help rectify mistakes caused by extreme emphasis on their contraries. Postmodern Insights Although an uncritical acceptance of the whole Feminist Studies programme of postmodernism would amount to Feminist studies have alerted us to the danger of intellectual suicide, the perspectives of decon­ creating stereotypes, a danger which exists even in structionism and postmodernism have yielded the assignment of arbitrary categories - such as insights to which all should pay attention. For 'male' and 'female' - in the analysis of research example, they stress 'the fundamental relatedness data. Uncritical use of such categories can create of human beings in the world', the social origins of false perceptions of differences among groups, much of the way we experience ourselves, and the defined a priori, which do not in fact reflect the consequent futility of studies of interpersonal most salient distribution of those differences in communication which are limited to data drawn society. from individuals, not from the living context of real interaction among persons. Humans are immersed Conversational Analysis in the world, and have difficulty making judge­ Conversational analysis can give us heightened ments which are not influenced by their social, sensitivity to the various 'rules' which govern cultural and ideological milieux. This problem is conversations - sequencing, turn-taking, alignment, not as insurmountable as the deconstructionists etc. - which can make an individual a more effective would have us believe, but transcending it remains communication partner and thereby make others exceedingly difficult. Accordingly, the real state of more receptive to his or her ideas. The same thing communication relationships is equally difficult to can be said about the analysis of the communicative fathom. Furthermore, those relationships are dimensions of nonverbal behavior. Burgoon and constantly changing. So any deficiency in our Newton's (1991) finding that participants judged recognition that we are fully a part of the changing nonverbal behavior more favorably than did third 34 - CRT Vol 12 No. 3 party observers should be taken into account by bargaininwnegotiation, and third-party intervention counsellors or others involved in mediating and - do not go very far by themselves towards yielding 'peacemaking' roles. practical solutions to concrete cases.

Family and Marriage Mass Media Two of the most important and most practical Finally, the findings of interpersonal communi­ areas of interpersonal communication research are cation research can throw light on mass media those of family and marital communication. The behaviour. A recent trend towards more research intensity of family interactions and the fact that on reception analysis contains an implicit acknowl­ they are inescapable and seemingly interminable, edgement that mass media almost always are make these areas arguably different from other received in reference to some sort of interpersonal forms of interpersonal communication. Despite the situation. Even if there is no actual viewing or weakness of the theoretical side of family communi­ listening group, the interpersonal dimension at cation studies, various research findings promise to least functions in informal discussions of yield useful insights into 'family problems' and can programmes and in the total interpersonal be of use to counsellors. experience which has done so much to shape the Differences in a family's 'culture', such as high and psychology of the viewer or listener. low 'concept-orientation' and 'socio-orientation' studied by Chaffee and McLeod (Tims and Masland BOOK NOTES 1985), can give clues to the ways family members Hahn, J. G., and H. Hoekstra (eds.). In gesprek over film communicate and the ways they deal with conflicts. en televisie: Ouer de theorie en de praktijk van 'het The differing sensitivities of men and women to mediagesprek' (In discussion about film and television: different kinds of verbal and nonverbal Jues (Noller Concerning the theory and practice of 'the media discus­ 1984) could help solve some kinds of marital prob­ sion'). Kampen: Uitgevermaatschappij J. H. Kok, 1991. lems when called to the attention of the couple. pp.200. ISBN 90-242-6818-4. Research into communication differences between Six authors, including the editors, deal with differ­ well-adjusted and poorly adjusted couples also could ent aspects of 'the media discussion' which are assist marriage counsellors, clergy and others, as relevant for teachers and lay religious workers in well as the spouses themselves, in working to the Netherlands. The book is intended for use by improve marital harmony. Typologies of expecta­ both Catholics and Protestants. Two of the authors tions of marital 'ideology', independence and com­ are from the Dutch Reformed Church and the other munication, such as that developed by Fitzpatrick four, including the editors, are Catholics. (1988b) might be developed to the point where they The 'media discussion' concerns the new audio­ can predict the success or failure of a proposed visual language, which appeals to the contemporary marriage with some accuracy; but generalizations person. It is shaping the whole environment of are especially problematic in this field, and spouses human communication and must be taken into with apparently conflicting styles may sometimes account and used in religious education if that actually complement each other. Fitzpatrick's education is to be effective. criticism of the lack of effective communication skill The fundamental elements of the 'discussion' are teaching in the Marriage Encounter movement the characteristics of the audio-visual product, might well be considered by leaders of that move­ dialogue about the media within groups, religious ment in their efforts to improve the programme's belief and spirituality, pedagogical methods, and effectiveness. supervision - the ways in which the discussion is led or guided. as its fundamental elements. After Conflict introducing relevant communication theory, the Conflict studies are another area of interpersonal book presents practical approaches useful for communication studies with obvious practical teachers, catechists and other religious workers at applications. As with the findings of family and the parish level. A list of television programmes marital communication studies, the conclusions of and films pertinent to various aspects of religious the conflict researchers are valuable but must be teaching is provided, including such pop treatments applied with discretion and sensitivity to particular of religion as Madonna's Like a Prayer. circumstances which may involve many complex Nieske Witlox and interwoven variables. Models like that of Hart, Andrew. Understanding the Media: A Practical Hocker and Wilmot (1991) are useful in suggesting Guide. London/New York: Routledge, 1991. Pp. xvi, potential avenues to solving all kinds of conflicts; 267. ISBN 0-415-05712-4 (HB.) £35.00; ISBN 0-415- but their three approaches - self regulation, 05713-2 9

CRT Vol 12 No. 3 - 35 Although a considerable number of media education and 1991. Pp. 243 (plus two foldout tables). (No ISSN. No media studies books are in.print, the author, a lecturer in Price.) Education in the School of Education, University of This volume represents one of the few attempts to tackle Southampton, finds many of them 'either too inaccessible the thorny but critical issue of quality in television. It for teachers or too detached from any coherent concepts grew out of an international joint research project begun and theories about both the media and about teaching'. by NHK in 1990, which included leading scholars in In this book he strives to provide 'both a grasp of the Sweden, Canada, Britain and the United States, as well issues and practical guidance in a way which is easy for as Japan. Senior authors of papers in the volume from teachers to select from and follow'. It is based on a BBC those oountries are Karl Erik Rosengren, Marc Ra.boy, Radio 4 series and draws on the experience provided by Timothy Leggatt, Jay Blumler, Bradley S. Greenberg and the wide use which has been made of those programmes Sakae Ishikawa. and related notes in various teacher-training contexts. W. E. Biernatzki, S.J. After a brief introduction to the rationale for media awareness education, a chapter gives practical advice to the teacher a9<)ut how to get started - incluqing the ever­ present question of how to fit media edu~tion into the curriculum. Later chapters deal with medl'a audiences, the formation of facts (the ways media filter and distort information about real events), the forms of media fiction, promotion and persuasion, and how new developments in media technology, forms and structures may affect the role of the teacher. The text is illustrated by both photographs and diagrams, and each chapter is followed by several 'teaching ideas' as guidance for actual classes. Appendix COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS I gives practical sources for help in media teaching Published four times a year by the Centre for the available to teachers in the U.K. Appendix II provides Study of Communication and Culture ISSN 0144-4646 questions for group study of each chapter. A substantial Publisher: Kevin F. Kersten, S.J. bibliography contains mostly British references. Editor: William E. Biernatzki, S.J. Assoc. Editor for Latin America, Spain & Craggs, Carol E. Media Education In the Primary Portugal: Jose Martinez Terrero, S.J. Assistant Editor: Maria Way School. London/New York: Routledge, 1992. Pp. x, 185. Subscription: ISBN 0-415-06370-1 9 (hb.) £35.00; ISBN 0-415-06371-X Annual Subscription US$28.00 (UK£!5.00) (pb.) £9.99. Student US$20.00 (UK£11.00) This book, like the one by Andrew Hart, also reviewed in Set of Volumes this issue of Trends, is a response to a felt need, in Nos. 7-12 US$75.00 (UK£40.00) Britain, for 'a clear, practical guide for teachers on how to Set of Volumes approach media education'. Hart's lx>ok is targeted more Nos. 1-6 US$65.00 (UK£35.00) broadly, at all educational levels, while Craggs aims Complete set and Vol.13 US$130.00 (UK£70.00) specifically at the primary school level. Her book is Payment in US$, UK£, International Money Order or especially intended as a response to the new National Giro Transfer 52 596 0805. Address all correspondence to: Curriculum, which calls for serious teaching about the Communirotion Research Trends mass media in schools, particularly in the English 221 Goldhurst Terrace Fax No: +44-71-372-1193 curriculum. The author, who has taught for twenty London NW6 3EP,England Tel No, +44-71-328-2868 years, presents detailed methods for media education E-Mail: [email protected] which will both fulfil the aims of the National Curriculum Printing: Roebuck Press, Mitcham, Surrey, England and show the way for individual teachers to go beyond its The Centre for the Study of Communication and bare requirements. Culture is an international service for communication Chapters deal with teaching visual literacy, news research established by the Jesuits in 1977. advertising, representations of reality, and media Director: Kevin F. Kersten, S.J. institutions. An appendix discusses the relationship of Documentation: Simone Donnelly, O.P. International Board of Advisors: Brendan each chapter to the National Curriculum. An extensive Callaghan, S.J .(London), Jean Bianchi (Lyon), Thomas annotated bibliography 'is an attempt to provide a Connelly (Glasgow), Nim Gonzalez, S.J. (Manila), balanced reading list representing the various schools of Henk Hoekstra,O.Carm. (Amsterdam), Raymond thought'. Parent, S.J. (Rome), Carlos Valle (London), Robert A. White, S.J. (Rome) Ishikawa, Sakae, and Yasuko Muramatsu (eds.). Studies of Broadca.sting: An International Annual of Broadcasting Science. Special Issue: Quality Assessment ofBroadcast Programming. Tokyo: Theoretical Research Center, NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute,

36 - CRTVol 12 No. 3