An Exploration of How Schools Cope Psychologically with a Critical
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AN EXPLORATION OF HOW SCHOOLS COPE PSYCHOLOGICALLY WITH A CRITICAL INCIDENT, CONSIDERING SUPPORT PROCESSES, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO DECISION-MAKING REGARDING OUTSIDE SUPPORT, ESPECIALLY SUPPORT AVAILABLE FROM A LOCAL AUTHORITY C.I.R.T. (CRITICAL INCIDENT RESPONSE TEAM) by Anthony O’Brien Atwell A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham in part fulfilment for the degree of Professional Doctorate in Educational Psychology Ed Psych D School of Education College of Social Sciences University of Birmingham October 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract A Critical Incident (C.I.) is a traumatic event which typically occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, often resulting in serious injury or a death. This thesis explores how schools cope psychologically with a C.I. from the perspectives of the school decision-makers. It considers support strategies in the short, medium and long-term and at a whole-school, group and individual level. The process of support is interpreted in terms of its role towards enabling normalisation. The exploration makes particular reference to decision-making factors for schools regarding outside support post-Critical Incident, especially that which is available from a Local Authority Critical Incident Response Team (C.I.R.T.). Eleven schools participated, creating two data sets balanced between those requesting C.I.R.T. support and those that did not. Decision-makers, most of whom were head teachers, were interviewed and subsequently the resultant data was interpreted through the process of thematic analysis from an interpretivist perspective. This arose from the researcher’s nominalist constructivist epistemological stance. Overall the themes revealed that schools coped psychologically through a pastoral response available for staff, young people and families, leading to reduced stress and whole-school normalisation. There are systemic limitations and pressures; however schools which requested external support through C.I.R.T. experienced useful outcomes, particularly a strengthened staff and an enhanced sense of preparedness. Decision-making regarding external support was influenced by the initial impact of the C.I. (Critical Incident), circumstantial factors and situational need whereby schools evaluated their own capacity to cope. i The thesis discusses how schools were generally able to cope effectively psychologically post-C.I.; however, some decision-makers did request support from C.I.R.T., which schools perceived as being beneficial. ii Dedication To my parents, Gloria Eileen Atwell and Ivor Edson Atwell, for their unwavering encouragement, support and strong belief in education and to whom I shall always be grateful. iii iv Acknowledgements My thanks go to my local authority for their generosity in part-sponsorship of my doctorate. I am very grateful to the schools who participated in my research, for their time and commitment. I wish to sincerely acknowledge my tutor Dr Jane Leadbetter for her outstanding expertise, guidance and supervision throughout my doctoral research. My thanks go to my wife Hazel for her sound support, words of encouragement and dedication to my research, including proof-reading and constructive appraisal. v vi Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 Literature Review................................................................................................ 9 2.1 Definitions ............................................................................................... 9 2.2 Psychological Perspectives ................................................................... 12 2.3 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder .............................................................. 21 2.4 Psychological Debriefing ...................................................................... 24 2.5 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy ............................................................... 32 2.6 Psychological First Aid ......................................................................... 33 2.7 Other Therapies ..................................................................................... 37 2.8 Post-traumatic Growth .......................................................................... 39 2.9 School Context ...................................................................................... 43 2.10 Educational Psychology and C.I.s ......................................................... 48 Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology .................................................................. 53 3.1 Aims and Purpose ................................................................................. 53 3.2 Ontology and Epistemology .................................................................. 54 3.3 Research Questions ............................................................................... 55 3.4 Research Priorities and Constraints ...................................................... 56 3.5 Theoretical Perspective ......................................................................... 57 3.6 Focus of the Research ........................................................................... 61 3.7 Ethical Issues ......................................................................................... 62 3.8 Audience ............................................................................................... 64 3.9 Method .................................................................................................. 64 3.10 Reliability, Validity and Generalisability ............................................. 75 3.11 Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 81 Chapter 4 Findings and Analysis ....................................................................................... 93 4.1 Findings of all participating Yes Schools ............................................. 94 4.2 Findings of all participating No Schools ............................................. 129 4.3 Discussion of similar themes that emerged across Yes School(s) and No School(s) ................................................................................. 160 4.4 Discussion of Yes School(s) only themes ........................................... 167 4.5 Discussion of No School(s) only themes ............................................ 170 4.6 Participants’ Reflections ..................................................................... 173 vii Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................ 179 5.1 Research Process Overview................................................................. 179 5.2 Discussion of Findings in Relation to Literature and Practice ............ 184 5.3 Key Findings........................................................................................ 201 5.4 Research Justifications and Limitations .............................................. 206 5.5 Questions, Recommendations for Practice and Suggestions for Further Research .................................................................................. 209 References ............................................................................................................................... 217 Appendix 1 .............................................................................................................................. 231 Letter of Invitation to Participants ................................................................... 233 Information Sheet for Participants .................................................................. 234 Informed Consent Form .................................................................................. 236 Pilot Interview Questions ................................................................................ 237 Yes School Interview Questions ..................................................................... 239 No School Interview Questions ....................................................................... 241 Appendix 2 .............................................................................................................................. 243 Coding Grids ................................................................................................... 245 Thematic Sorting ............................................................................................. 267 Pilot Interview Transcript ................................................................................ 278 Appendix 3 .............................................................................................................................. 283 Interview Transcripts: Participants 2 - 12 viii List of Illustrations Yes Schools Thematic Maps: Figure 1 Question 1a ........................................................................... 90/95