Wetland Fields in the Maya Lowlands

Wetland Fields in the Maya Lowlands:

Archaeobotanical Evidence from Birds of Paradise, Belize

A thesis submitted to the

Graduate School

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

in the Department of Anthropology

of the College of Arts and Sciences

2019

Martha M. Wendel

B.A., University of Cincinnati, 2015

Committee: Susan E. Allen, Ph.D., Chair

Sarah E. Jackson, Ph.D.

David L. Lentz, Ph.D.

Abstract

Discoveries of rectangular canal patterns in the margins of wetlands in the ancient Maya lowlands of Guatemala, Belize, and Mexico shed light on a previously unknown agricultural practice: raised wetland fields. One example of wetland fields is found at the site Birds of

Paradise (BOP) in the Rio Bravo region of northwestern Belize. For my research project, I have analyzed macrobotanical remains from BOP to: 1) identify the plants that were growing in the canals, 2) identify the plants that were growing in the features identified as raised fields, 3) assess their ecological preferences, 4) assess changing frequencies of different types of plants over time, and 5) provide some insight on how the canals and fields were used. Because this is the first time any systematic macrobotanical analysis has been done at BOP, it makes an important contribution to understanding how the Maya were interacting with their landscape with the use of these features. Additionally, innovative recovery methods such as use of a sonicator and sorting through all geological sieve fractions allowed for more robust quantitative analysis of data. These methods have wide application for use at other sites conducting archaeobotanical research.

Acknowledgments

There are so many people whom I have to thank for loving me and encouraging me during this incredibly stressful time and have given me so much support to continue in the field of archaeology. First, I would like to thank Dr. Susan Allen, who has given me so many opportunities to explore the field of archaeobotany and whose interest and enthusiasm for what she does continue to inspire me every day. I would be lost without your guidance!

Second, I would like to thank Dr. David Lentz who has taught me a lot about Maya paleoethnobotany and provided me with many opportunities for this research project. Third, I would like to thank Dr. Timothy Beach and Dr. Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach for providing me funding and for providing the opportunity to conduct research at Birds of Paradise. I would also like to thank Dr. Sarah Jackson for being on my committee and for teaching most of what I know about the ancient Maya. Thanks to Dr. Alan Sullivan for giving me great advice about life and archaeology and for providing me with the opportunity to explore the Southwest.

Additionally, I would like to thank Venicia Slotten for all of her help with collecting flotation samples, assistance with identification, and just listening to me when I needed to vent.

Your friendship means so much to me. Thanks to Mariana Vazquez for help with identification of the plants collected from the survey. I would also like to thank the graduate students within my cohort at the University of Cincinnati, especially Emily Phillips and Ashley-Devon

Williamston. Thanks to my parents for their support and for trying to understand what I do.

Lastly, I would like to thank my partner, Rob Stambaugh, whose love and support gave me the strength I needed to complete one of the largest challenges in my life. Thank you for reading over chapters, listening to my ideas, and supporting my decisions.

Table of Contents Acknowledgments ...... i

Table of Contents ...... ii

List of Figures ...... iii

List of Tables ...... vi

Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 2: Methodology ...... 14

Chapter 3: Results and Discussion of Collected Taxa ...... 25

Chapter 4: Interpretations and Conclusions ...... 61

References Cited ...... 70

Appendix 1...... 78

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Map of BOP Wetlands in relation to other Maya sites. Photo from Beach et al.

2009...... 2

Figure 1.2 SubOp A, Lots 1, 2, and 3 in progress...... 10

Figure 1.3 Northwest baulk of SubOp B Lot 1, Closing...... 11

Figure 1.4 Southeast baulk of SubOp B Lot 3, Closing...... 12

Figure 1.5 SubOp A profile sketch showing stratigraphic layers and location of seeds from AMS dating. Image provided by Samantha Krause...... 13

Figure 2.1 View of south baulk of SubOp A canal after column sampling...... 15

Figure 2.2 BOP Field Season 2016 Images: a) Flote-Tech Model A flotation machine at

Programme for Belize, b) agitating the heavy fraction soil during the flotation process, c) heavy and light fractions drying after flotation, d) sorting the heavy fraction at Maya Research

Program...... 17

Figure 2.3 VWR Ultrasonic Bath Model 75T ...... 20

Figure 2.4 BOP 10025 sieve fractions after ultrasonic bath...... 20

Figure 2.5 Archaeobotanical remains recovered from sorting after ultrasonic bath...... 21

Figure 3.1 Absolute counts of Eleocharis sp., Cladium jamaicense, and Spilanthes cf. acmella and all other identified non-wood seeds in SubOp A Canal and Field...... 28

Figure 3.2 Absolute counts of Eleocharis sp., Cladium jamaicense, and Spilanthes cf. acmella and all other identified non-wood seeds in SubOp B Canal and Field...... 29

iii

Figure 3.3 Example of an E. prostrata achene found in only two flotation samples...... 32

Figure 3.4 Example of a Spilanthes cf. acmella achene from BOP...... 33

Figure 3.5 Example of a Celtis sp. fruit from BOP...... 34

Figure 3.6 Example of a Chenopodium ambrosioides seed from the canal of BOP...... 35

Figure 3.7 Example of a Cayaponia sp. seed from SubOp B...... 36

Figure 3.8 Example of a Carex polystachya seed from BOP...... 37

Figure 3.9 Example of a Cladium jamaicense seed from BOP...... 38

Figure 3.10 Example of a Cyperus sp. seed from BOP...... 39

Figure 3.11 Example of an Eleocharis sp. seed from BOP...... 40

Figure 3.12 Example of a Fimbristylis cf. dichotoma achene from BOP Canal...... 41

Figure 3.13 Example of a Scirpus sp. seed from BOP...... 42

Figure 3.14 Example of a Physalis sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) from SubOp

B...... 43

Figure 3.15 Example of a Solanum sp. seed recovered from BOP...... 44

Figure 3.16 Example of a Najas guadalupensis seed recovered from BOP...... 45

Figure 3.17 Example of a Juncus sp. seed found in two samples (BOP 10026 and BOP 10027) from SubOp A Canal...... 46

Figure 3.18 Example of an Andropogon sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) from

SubOp B Canal...... 47

Figure 3.19 Example of a Panicum sp. seed found in two samples (BOP 10015 and BOP 10017) from SubOp A Field...... 48

Figure 3.20 Example of a Paspalum sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) of SubOp

B ...... 49

Figure 3.21 Example of a Polygonum sp. seed recovered from BOP...... 50

Figure 3.22 Example of a Portulaca sp. seed recovered from BOP...... 51

Figure 3.23 Wood density from SubOp A flotation sample depths...... 53

Figure 3.24 Wood density from SubOp B flotation sample depths...... 53

Figure 3.25 Transverse (100x) and tangential (200x) section of Bucida buceras...... 55

Figure 3.26 Transverse (100x) and tangential (120x) sections of H. campechianum...... 56

Figure 3.27 Transverse (50x) section of Mimosa sp...... 58

Figure 3.28 Transverse (100x) and tangential (100x) sections of Licaria sp...... 59

Figure 3.29 Transverse section of Ficus sp. at 100x magnification...... 60

Figure 4.1 SubOp A: Relative frequency of seeds associated with wet, wet/dry, and dry ecological conditions...... 62

Figure 4.2 SubOp B: Relative frequency of seeds associated with wet, wet/dry, and dry ecological conditions...... 63

List of Tables

Table 1.1 List of 40 out of 44 identified herbarium specimens collected in 2016 qualitative field survey...... 7

Table 3.1 Radiocarbon dates from BOP SubOp A canal and field...... 26

Table 3.3 Analyzed hand-collected wood specimens with species, depth, SubOp, and context...... 54

Table 4.1 SubOp A species classified by ecological preferences: wet, wet/dry, or dry...... 61

Table 4.2 SubOp B species classified by ecological preferences: wet, wet/dry, or dry...... 63

Chapter 1: Introduction

The ancient Maya civilization spanned most of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador from 1800 BCE – 1530 CE (Coe and Houston 2015). The complex political and cultural organization of the Maya relied on a strong agriculturally based society adapted to a wide range of ecological and topographical settings. While their management was by no means uniform, they were able to adapt agricultural methods based on soil type, size of the land, location, etc. In order to sustain their growing population in the Late Classic Period (250 – 800

CE), the Maya used a variety of agricultural methods such as terracing, milpas, slash and burn, and small household garden plots (Lentz 1991; Beach and Dunning 1995). However, these forms of cultivation could not be used in all of the diverse environmental settings occupied by the ancient Maya, especially the swampy lowlands. Discoveries of rectangular canal patterns in wetland margins in the Maya lowlands of Guatemala, Belize, and Mexico shed light on a previously unknown agricultural practice: raised wetland fields (Turner and Harrison 1983;

Jacob 1995; Fedick 1996; Pohl et. al 1996; Beach et al. 2009). These narrow, rectangular plots, elevated above the low-lying, seasonally inundated land bordering rivers or bajos, enabled the

Maya to grow crops in these otherwise uncultivable areas (Coe and Houston 2015:20). The use of these wetlands allowed for the Maya to be resilient during droughts and other hardships and allowed for independence of smaller communities (Beach et al. 2009).

Throughout the Maya Lowlands, wetland agricultural use shows intensification contemporary with population increase of the ancient Maya, especially during the Classic period

(Beach et al. 2009). There are three types of wetland fields: raised, drained, and recessional

(Beach et al. 2009:1715). At Birds of Paradise (BOP) (Figure 1.1), features interpreted as raised fields and canals have been detected (Beach et al. 2009). Macrobotanical evidence provides one 1 avenue for testing the hypothesis that these features at BOP were used as raised agricultural fields. Whereas past research has focused on pollen and stable carbon isotope evidence to understand these features, this thesis aims to use macrobotanical analysis to address questions that have long been asked about BOP. Prior to this study, only a limited preliminary macrobotanical study had been undertaken at BOP (Goldstein 2007). Macrobotanical analysis, in contrast to pollen analysis, provides a more local index of vegetation changes which can help to support or refute the hypothesis that these features were managed fields.

Figure 1.1 Map of BOP Wetlands in relation to other Maya sites. Photo from Beach et al. 2009:1711.

The goals of this research are to: 1) identify the plants that were growing in the canals, 2) identify the plants that were growing in the features identified as raised fields, 3) assess their ecological preferences, 4) assess changing frequencies of different types of plants over time, and

5) provide some insight into how the canals and fields were used. The reported findings are based on 28 flotation samples and 14 hand-collected charcoal specimens. This research is significant because it marks the first time any standardized macrobotanical analysis has been done at BOP, and therefore makes an important contribution to understanding Maya interaction with the fields and canals and changes in land use over time. Moreover, the lab protocols adopted here provide a model for future studies where small seeds dominate the assemblage.

Thesis Organization

The first chapter will give an overview of the site Birds of Paradise, provide background information on the environmental settings at BOP and discuss past excavations conducted at

BOP. Additionally, it also includes information on archaeobotanical analysis in Mesoamerica and discusses the BOP 2016 excavation. The following chapter, Chapter 2, outlines the research methodologies that were used in the recovery, identification, and quantification of archaeobotanical remains from BOP. Chapter 3 presents the macrobotanical results and findings.

Chapter 4 discusses the implications of this research for BOP in particular and the outcomes of methodological practices implemented in this thesis and potential avenues for further research.

Appendix 1 includes a complete inventory of the plant remains.

Birds of Paradise Overview

BOP is a wetland field site located between three to five km of the large Maya center at

Blue Creek and Gran Cacao in northwest Belize. It occupies at least 1km2 of the savanna floodplain and more in the surrounding forest (Beach et al. 2015b:1622). The features identified as Maya wetland fields at this site are rectilinear areas with one to two m wide canals running east to west and north to south at interval of approximately ten m (Beach et al. 2015b:1622).

Timothy Beach and colleagues have been excavating at BOP since 2005 trying to understand the significance of these anthropogenic fields. On the basis of radiocarbon dates from the BOP wetland fields and canals, the site’s occupation is dated from the Classic (250 – 900 CE) to

Postclassic (900 -1200 CE) periods (Beach et al. 2009; Luzzadder-Beach et al. 2012). Dr. Beach and Dr. Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach propose that the use of raised fields was one way that people adapted to environmental change, specifically as a response to rising sea level and the attendant higher water table and lower water quality (Beach et al. 2009; Luzzadder-Beach et al. 2012;

Beach et al. 2015; Coe and Houston 2015). Understanding the archaeology behind wetland fields will add key insights to interpreting how humans have had to adapt to changing environments throughout time (Beach et al. 2009).

Environmental Setting of BOP

Geography

BOP is situated in northwestern Belize in an active floodplain near the confluence of three rivers (Rio Azul, Rio Bravo, and Booth’s River) within the Rio Bravo Conservation and

Management Area in Northwestern Belize (Beach et al. 2009). Near the borders with Mexico and

Guatemala, all three of these countries include well-drained upland karst ridge, bajos, river valleys, and the coastal plain (Beach et al. 2013). Topography in the Rio Bravo includes level and gently rolling areas, hills, and escarpments with deep ravines (Brokaw and Mallory 1993).

The local bedrock of this region is mostly limestone marl and clay, the surface of which is deeply weathered into a calcareous material known locally as sascab (Darch 1981). The floodplain and depressions are filled with Quaternary calcareous clays, marls, and peats, the upper portions of which contain abundant secondary carbonate and especially gypsum (Pohl et

4 al. 1990). In the canals and fields at BOP, the soil is composed of clay and moderate quantities of gypsum, carbonate, and organic matter (Beach et al. 2009). Gypsum in the soil is derived from a geological unit that the groundwater encountered in the Rio Bravo fault zone as it rose to this elevation (Luzzadder-Beach et al. 2012:3649).

Climate

BOP has a tropical wet and dry climate with an average annual temperature is 26.4°C

(79.52°F) and receives about 1500 mm (60 in) of precipitation annually, mostly during the rainy season between June and December (Beach et al. 2009; Beach et al. 2015b:1613). The highest rainfall occurs in June and September (Beach et al. 2009). Rio Bravo lies between 17° and 18° N latitude, in the outer- or sub-tropics. There is minor seasonal variation in temperature and strong seasonality of precipitation, which puts Rio Bravo in the subtropical moist life zone of the

Holdridge Life Zone System (Holdridge and Poveda 1975; Brokaw and Mallory 1993:5). Belize experiences a lot of humidity, due in part to the influence of the trade winds that collect moisture over the Caribbean Sea (Bridgewater 2012). The fluctuations in rain and temperature encourage the growth of vegetation in the general category of subtropical moist forests, with broadleaf, semi-deciduous forests (Brokaw and Mallory 1993). Because climate has not changed significantly for the past 3,000 years within Mesoamerica, modern conditions reflect a climate that is similar, with some fluctuations, to that during the occupation of the ancient Maya

(Markgraf 1989).

Vegetation

During the 2016 field season, Lentz, Wendel, and Slotten conducted a qualitative field survey of several habitats surrounding the BOP excavations, both to better understand the local

5 vegetation and to collect comparative materials for use in identifying materials recovered from flotation samples (Wendel et al. 2017). Two specimens of each plant were collected, with one given to the Belize herbarium in Belmopan and the other exported to the University of

Cincinnati. Plants were collected from the following zones: savanna, scrub forest or floodplain forest, riparian forest, and the wetland vegetations adjacent to Cacao Creek. When a plant was in flower or had fruits it was collected, identified, dried, and then pressed for mounting on herbarium sheets. Although collection took place during the dry season, few plants were in flower at the time. During survey, we recorded the coordinates, frequency, and a list of features

(habitat, flower color, bark texture, etc.) for each specimen collected. A total of 44 specimens were collected in the field and 40 were identified in the lab (Table 1.1). Five species (Bucida buceras, Cyperus sp., Ficus sp., Panicum sp., Solanum sp.) collected during our field survey were also found in the flotation samples at BOP.

Table 1.1 List of 40 out 44 identified herbarium specimens collected in 2016 qualitative field survey.

Collection number Species Family name Common name 4001 Ficus guajavoides Moraceae higo 4002 Hamelia patens Rubiaceae redhead, ix canan 4003 Luziola peruviana Poaceae water grass 4004 Ipomoea indica Convolvulaceae morning glory 4005 Guadua longifolia poaceae reed grass 4006 Hameilia patens Rubiaceae redhead, ix canan 4007 Lippia betulifolia Verbenaceae Mexican oregano 4008 Wedelia acapulcensis Asteraceae zexmenia 4009 Solanum sp. Solanaceae nightshade 4010 Desmodium sp. Fabaceae tick-trefoil 4011 Passiflora foetida Passifloraceae stinking passionflower 4012 Senna sp. Fabaceae candle tree 4013 Paullinia pinnata Sapindaceae fish poison 4014 Guazuma ulmifolia Malvaceae West indian elm 4015 Cyperus esculentus Cyperaceae yellow nutsedge 4016 Lonchocarpus sp. Fabaceae cabbage bark 4017 Inga limoncillo Fabaceae Spanish lime 4018 Lycianthes sp. Solanaceae pigeon egg 4019 Lonchocarpus minimiflorus Fabaceae white cabbage bark 4020 Cissus sp. Vitaceae bee rut 4021 Roystonea oleracea Arecaceae royal palm 4023 Panicum sp. poaceae panicgrass 4024 Inga vera Fabaceae guaba 4025 Ficus sp. Moraceae fig 4026 Acacia cornigera Fabaceae bullhorn acacia 4027 Piper aduncum Piperaceae wild pepper 4028 Calophyllum brasiliense Calophyllaceae guanandi 4029 Philodendron sp. Araceae philodendron 4030 Calathea lutea Marantaceae cachibou 4031 Passiflora biflora Passifloraceae passionflower 4032 Philodendron sp. Araceae guacamayo 4032b Guarea guidonia Meliaceae muskwood 4033 Desmoncus orthacanthus Arecaceae hanan 4034 Tabernaemontana sp. Apocynaceae cojoton 4037 Pachira aquatica Malvaceae provision tree 4039 Bucida buceras Combretaceae bullet tree 4040 Cyperus sp. Cyperaceae sedge 4041 Sclerocarpus sp. Asteraceae bonebract 4042 Justicia s p. Acanthaceae water willow 4043 Allamanda sp. Apocynaceae golden trumnpet

The vegetation surrounding BOP is largely old growth subtropical moist forest, with a small tract of wetland savanna (Beach et al. 2015b:1613). The two major forest types surrounding BOP are riparian forest and bajo swamp forest, which both occur along the temporarily flooded margins of the Rio Bravo.

Riparian forests tend to have a broken canopy, with much liana cover and occasional large emergent trees (Brokaw and Mallory 1993:5). Characteristic species found in riparian forests are Bucida buceras L., Pachira aquatica Aubl., Pterocarpus rohrii Vahl., Zygia peckii

(B.L. Rob.) Britton & Rose, and Vachellia spp. (Brokaw and Mallory 1993). Many of these species were seen during botanical survey conducted by Lentz, Wendel, and Slotten during summer 2016 excavation (Wendel et al. 2017) and also represented by charcoal recovered from samples from BOP.

Bajo swamp forest, also known as “scrub forest,” is found on clay soils that are seasonally waterlogged (Brokaw and Mallory 1993:4). It is a dense forest of small shrubs that are mostly three to five meters tall. Because of its unique growing conditions, many of the tree species grow only in the bajo swamp forest. This forest type usually has emergent vegetation characteristics by sedges (Cyperaceae) and sometimes also a dense presence of the genus

Cladium (sawgrass). One of the most prominent species found in the bajo forest is

Haematoxylum campechianum L. (logwood). This species was found in both survey and hand- collected samples from BOP.

Previous Environmental Archaeology at BOP

Pollen analysis conducted at BOP shows an abundance of herbs, tree crops and maize

(Zea mays L.) pollen, which indicates evidence for burning and agriculture (Beach et al. 2009;

Beach et al. 2011; Padilla et al. 2013). Microcharcoal was also abundant in the recovered pollen core. While pollen is a useful indicator of vegetation changes over time, there is some bias in using pollen as a proxy for local vegetation, because it provides a more regional picture. This is due to the varying distances that wind and water transported pollen can travel, as well as pollen identification typically being limited to a higher taxonomic level (Birks and Birks 1980). As a more local environmental proxy, macrobotanical evidence at BOP can contribute substantially to understanding local field management and plant cultivation and changes in these practices over time. In addition, waterlogged preservation of plant remains at BOP provides a unique opportunity to develop an accurate representation of local vegetation in and around these fields and vegetation changes from the time of occupation to abandonment.

Archaeobotanical Analysis

Macrobotanical analysis has only become a standard archaeological practice at Maya sites since the 1980s (Morehart and Morell-Hart 2013). For many years, researchers in

Mesoamerica thought that it was impossible to conduct archaeobotanical analysis because of issues with preservation of organic materials in a tropical environment. Numerous formation processes, both cultural and environmental, alter the paleoethnobotanical record and these should all be considered when conducting archaeobotanical research (Minnis 1981; Miksicek 1987).

While it can be challenging, recent paleoethnobotanical studies throughout Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico are proving that plant remains can be recovered and it is worthwhile to attempt to perform this type of analysis (Lentz 1991; Goldstein and Hageman 2010; Morehart and Morell-

Hart 2013; Cagnato 2018). The systematic archaeobotanical recovery at BOP that began in summer of 2016 contributes to this developing trend. This macrobotanical analysis is crucial for identifying the kinds of plants that were growing here and how the site was utilized. Exploring both charcoal and seeds allows for a more complete picture of vegetation diversity and plant use than would the analysis of seeds alone.

Excavation at BOP

During the 2016 field season, two trenches were opened. These trench locations were selected through pedestrian survey. The first, SubOp A (Figure 1.2), was a 7 m east-west x 2 m north-south trench. SubOp A was divided into three lots, Lot 1 was the west field, Lot 2 was the canal, and Lot 3 was the east field. This trench was excavated to a depth of 200 cm, when the water table was reached.

Figure 1.2 North baulk of SubOp A, Lots 1, 2, and 3 in progress.

The other was SubOp B (Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4), a 5 x 1 m trench located 50 meters east of SubOp A. Within SubOp B, Lot 1 (2 x 1 m unit) was excavated to a depth of 130 cmbs exposing the canal and field edge. Lot 3 (1.5 x 1 m) was excavated to a depth of 110 cmbs, exposing the elevated field. Lot 2, the central sector of this trench, was left unexcavated due to time constraints.

Figure 1.3 Northwest baulk of SubOp B Lot 1, closing.

Figure 1.4 Southeast Baulk of SubOp B Lot 3, closing.

BOP Stratigraphy

SubOp A followed the same general soil characteristics that are common within this type of wetland (Figure 1.5). The O horizon was a thin, 2 cm thick silty loam with many fine roots and dark organic material (Krause et al. 2017:163). Beneath the O horizon was roughly a 20 cm thick A horizon with increased clay content, more columnar structure, and vertisol characteristics

(Krause et al. 2017:163). Below the A horizon was a C horizon, where gypsum increases in all three Lots (Krause et al. 2017:163). In Lot 2 (canal) about 30-40% gypsum, and up to 70% gypsum within the field edges (Lot 1 and 3) (Krause et al. 2017:163-164). Below this is a darker zone that may represent a buried A horizon of almost pure grey clay material. At the top of this level in Lot 2, a dark organic and charcoal rich lens, probably marks the bottom of the ancient canal (120-123 cm). At around 140 cm within this buried A horizon, a thin, 3 cm lens of white,

12 thick, clay occurs and may represent a possible burnt or ashy activity layer (Krause et al.

2017:164).

Figure 1.5 SubOp A profile sketch showing stratigraphic layers and location of seeds from AMS dating. Image provided by Samantha Krause.

Chapter 2: Recovery and Lab Methodology

The focus of this chapter is on sampling and recovery methods used during excavation at

BOP in summer 2016 and analytical methods employed in the Mediterranean Ecosystem

Dynamics and Archaeology (MEDArch) and Paleoethnobotanical Laboratories at the University of Cincinnati.

Field Methods

Sample Collection

Twenty-six 8L and two 4L flotation samples were collected from canal and field contexts within the profiles of SubOp A and SubOp B using a column sampling recovery strategy (Figure

2.1). Column sampling is commonly implemented at archaeological sites in order to enable a clear interpretation of soil stratigraphy and to help assess change over time (Pearsall 1989;

Marston 2014). The fourteen samples collected from SubOp A were taken from the east and west edges of the south canal profile (Lot 2) and the northern profile of the west field (Lot 3). In

SubOp B, samples were collected from the northeastern and northwestern profiles of the canal

(Lot 1) and the northwestern and southeastern profiles of the field (Lot 3). Flotation samples were collected using a hand-pick to break up the clay and a trowel which was cleaned between each soil sample collection. A 2-liter milk jug was used for accuracy in measuring. Samples were placed in bags for storage.

Figure 2.1 View of south baulk of SubOp A canal after column sampling. Photograph by Venicia Slotten.

In addition to these 28 flotation samples, a total of 105 hand-picked macrobotanical samples and 22 half-liter soil phytolith samples were collected during the 2016 BOP excavation.

This thesis focuses on the 28 flotation samples, but also included analysis of 14 charcoal samples from hand-collected macrobotanical samples. These were needed to supplement the few flotation charcoal IDs that were possible due to the small fragmented size. While other botanical materials collected from the site, such as phytoliths, are also important for understanding agricultural practices and vegetation in the wetland fields, their analysis was not conducted as part of this thesis.

Recovery Method: Water Flotation

Under the supervision of David Lentz, I collected and processed a total of 216 liters of soil during the summer 2016 field season, with help from Venicia Slotten. Flotation was selected

15 as the primary recovery method due to the availability of a Flote-Tech machine (Figure 2.2) at the nearby archaeological field camp, Programme for Belize and its prior use at other sites in the region. One benefit of the Flote-tech is that it recycles water, which is crucial in a lowland tropical rainforest, where water is scarce (Hageman and Goldstein 2009:2847). All samples were soaked overnight in 3 gallons of water and one-half cup of Epsom salts1 in order to soften the hard, compact sediment.

It was hoped that, because the same machine was used on excavations from the sites La

Milpa (Thomas Hart, personal communication), Say Kah (Jackson and Brown 2016), and

Guijarral (Hageman and Goldstein 2009), the results from BOP should be directly comparable.

However, the waterlogged soils at BOP differ significantly from those at the aforementioned sites, so it is important to take these differences into account. Although wet-sieving would likely have resulted in better recovery of plant remains, it was not possible to shift strategies at that point in the study.

To ascertain our recovery rate, a poppy seed test, a common form of evaluating the efficiency flotation devices, was employed (Pearsall 2000:93). Flotation samples 10014 and

10017 had 100 poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) seeds added to each to test the efficiency of the

Flote-Tech A1 device, and showed a low recovery rate of between 17% and 45%. Thomas Hart, who used this same Flote-Tech for samples excavated from terraces at La Milpa in 2018, had a similar recovery rate of 35% (Thomas Hart, personal communication 2019). This indicates that a poor recovery rate is a characteristic of the flotation tank, regardless of sediment characteristics.

1 The use of Epsom salt may have further contributed to low recovery rate. 16

Figure 2.2 (A) Flote-Tech Model A flotation machine at Programme for Belize, (B) Agitating the heavy fraction soil during the flotation process, (C) Heavy and light fractions drying after flotation, (D) Sorting the heavy fraction at Maya Research Program.

A. B.

C. D.

Each archaeological sample was deposited into the heavy fraction basket (.425mm opening) while flowing water and manual agitation were used to disarticulate the soil samples.

Light organic remains were allowed to float down into the light fraction platform, while heavier organic and inorganic materials remained in the heavy fraction basket. The average sample was floated for 20 minutes before it was collected using a fine mesh cloth (0.2 mm opening), labeled, and then hung up to dry. Once dry, the entire light fraction was packaged, wrapped in aluminum foil and placed into a brown paper bag. The heavy fraction was subsampled (200 ml each) due to time constraints and limited storage. Archaeobotanical remains found in the heavy fraction were

17 removed and packaged for later study. Once the samples arrived in Cincinnati, heavy fraction materials were joined with those from the light fraction samples.

Laboratory Methods

Sorting Plant Remains

All archaeobotanical samples were sorted, sieved and analyzed in the Paleoethnobotany

Laboratory (Lentz) and MEDArch Laboratory (Allen) at the University of Cincinnati. When the samples arrived in Dr. Lentz’s lab, they were given a new form number to allow for quick identification and a narrower context information compared to the field. The 28 flotation sample numbers range from 10001 through 10028 and are detailed in Appendix 1.

All plant remains were analyzed using a stereoscopic microscope at low magnifications

(6 - 50x). Samples were first prepared by sieving them using a series of geological sieves (2 mm,

1 mm, 0.5 mm openings, and the pan) to facilitate standardization of the recovery of charcoal and visibility of smaller items. Charcoal was only analyzed in the larger than 2 mm fraction. This is because charcoal smaller than 2mm is often too small for analysis, as it typically cannot be identified to higher taxonomic levels (Pearsall 2000:107). Because there was an abundance of small seeds found in both the 0.5 mm and pan fractions, all non-wood plant remains were removed from the entire volume of each fraction. This contrasts with the more common practice of simply scanning smaller fractions in order to reduce analysis time (Toll 1988).

The recovered plant remains were grouped and identified to the family, genus or species level, if ascertainable. All data was recorded in a binder where the scientific name, the description of the plant part, a description of the plant characteristics, the quantity and the weight were listed. Dr. Lentz’s comparative collection was used as a reference to confirm my

18 identifications. Additionally, I referenced technical descriptions of specimens within identification manuals (Martin and Barkley 1961; Delorit 1970; Lentz and Dickau 2005; Cappers and Bekker 2013). After the plant remains were identified, all taxonomic identifications were checked with Tropicos (a botanical search engine supported by the Missouri Botanical Garden) and The Plant List (2013) to confirm that the scientific name was still correct and had not been updated.

Images of plant remains were taken with either a Keyence VHX 1000E digital microscope in the Department of Chemistry’s Chemical Sensors and Biosensors Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati or with a Keyence VHX 6000 digital microscope in the MEDArch

Laboratory (Allen). These images helped to show the overall shape, size and morphological features of plant remains that would assist in an accurate identification.

Ultrasonic Bath Experiment

While flotation was able to remove most of the soil from the recovered light fraction samples, one flotation sample (BOP 10025) still contained a buildup of clay making it impossible to sort the sample with accuracy. Dr. Allen suggested that running the sample in a sonicator bath might be a good way to break up the soil without damaging archaeobotanical material.

For this experiment (Allen and Wendel in preparation), we used a VWR Ultrasonic Bath

Model 75T (Figure 2.3), which we hoped would agitate the soil and allow the botanical remains to be gently separated from the thick gley. Before we ran the BOP 10025 sample, we did a preliminary test on modern carbonized wood charcoal from the comparative collection in the

MEDArch laboratory to determine whether or not botanical materials would deteriorate from the

19 sonicator. The test included three taxa, representing both hard and softwoods: Salix sp.,

Juniperus phoenicea L., and Ulmus glabra Huds. The starting weight of the three taxa before we ran the test in the sonicator was 3.04 g. The test sample was divided into different size fractions using a series of geological sieves (2 mm, 1 mm, and 0.5 mm openings) before and after the experiment and weighed to record any alteration to the sample from the water pressure. The weights before the sonicator bath were 2.88 g (2 mm), 0.12 g (1 mm), and 0.04 g (0.5 mm) for a total weight of 3.04 g. The test sample was placed into a fine mesh cloth (0.2 mm opening) liner set within the device, which was run for 16 minutes. During the experiment, we mildly agitated the water around the walls of the device to keep charcoal from clinging to the sides. After the sonicator bath was finished, the sample was dried and re-sieved. The resulting weights were 2.87 g (2 mm), 0.13 g (1 mm), and 0.04 g (0.5 mm) for a total weight of 3.04 g. Significantly, almost no fracturing of the charcoal occurred, as was indicated by the minor increase in weight for the 1 mm size class.

Figure 2.3 VWR Ultrasonic Bath Model 75T. Figure 2.4 BOP 10025 sieve fractions after ultrasonic bath.

Since we had a successful preliminary test run, we placed a clean piece of fine mesh cloth

(0.2 mm opening) into the bath and ran sample BOP 10025 for 16 minutes. When the timer finished, the sample was divided into different size fractions using a series of geological sieves

(2 mm, 1 mm and 0.5 mm openings) (Figure 2.4). Once the sample dried, it could be more easily

20 sorted, such that an abundance of sub-millimeter archaeobotanical remains (Figure 2.5) were retrieved.

Figure 2.5 Archaeobotanical remains recovered from sorting after ultrasonic bath.

Analysis of Seeds

The main characteristics used to identify seeds are size, shape and texture (Pearsall

2000:135). Some other distinguishing features include specific attachments on seeds, coloration of uncarbonized seeds, the hilum and other surface features (Pearsall 2000). When counting seeds, they were either viewed as whole or fragmented. Whole seeds are those that were not destroyed in anyway and fragmented seeds had some form of deterioration.

Quantification of Seeds

In quantifying the recovered material, seeds were counted as fragmentary unless they were absolutely whole which follows protocols in the Lentz lab. In order to account for the abundance of fragmented seeds in the assemblage in absolute counts, a 2:1 ratio was applied. For every two fragmented seeds, one whole was counted. Any wood charcoal fragments larger than 2

21 mm were sorted from the samples and weighed to create comparable density measures for all samples.

Absolute counts of all recovered non-wood archaeobotanical material were utilized for the raw data. In addition to absolute counts, other quantification methods such as relative frequency, ubiquity and charcoal density were also analyzed. Using these different quantification methods is useful to address preservation biases and plant productivity.

Ubiquity

Ubiquity analysis helps to reduce the effects of biases in preservation, sampling and in archaeobotanical representation (Popper 1988). Ubiquity indicates the percentage of times each taxon was observed in each of the 28 samples. It helps to measure how often a specific taxon appears within a group of samples (Popper 1988).

Relative Frequency (Abundance)

Relative frequency looks at the relative abundance of specific taxa within a sample, a particular feature or site. In order to calculate the relative frequency, you divide the absolute count of each taxon by the total number of all known seeds within that sample, context or site. It is then represented as a percentage which indicates the relative abundance of different taxa or types within the specific context (Popper 1988).

Analysis of Wood

Wood charcoal was initially sorted using low power stereo-microscopy into broad taxonomic categories such as angiosperm (hardwood), gymnosperm (conifer), or monocot (i.e. palm) and then stored in a Sanplatec Dry-Keeper Desiccator to keep the samples in a dry

22 environment. Wood must be substantially dry to achieve a clean fracture for use in identification

(Pearsall 2000:175). Wood charcoal specimens were fractured by hand into transverse sections and, when possible, tangential sections, in order to observe features under a light microscope at magnifications between 10-100x.

Charcoal specimens selected for ESEM imaging were mounted on 0.5” aluminum holders using colloidal graphite (a liquid adhesive) and stored in cases which hold up to 12 specimens.

After cleaning each section using compressed air, specimens were coated in a thin layer of a conducting material (Pearsall 2000:177). In order to obtain high resolution images and enhance the contrast. For my analysis, I used gold applied with a Denton Vacuum Sputter Coater located in the Department of Chemistry’s Chemical Sensors and Biosensors Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati and operated by Dr. Neçati Kaval. Once specimens were coated and dried for a few days, they were taken for imaging with the ESEM in the Advanced Material Characterization

Center (AMCC), located at UC’s College of Engineering. Imaging was undertaken with a Philips

FEI XL-30 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope and a SCIOS Dual-Beam Scanning

Electron Microscope/ Focused Ion Beam, with assistance from Dr. Melodie Fickenscher. When the FEI XL-30 ESEM was down for repairs, the SCIOS Dual-Beam Scanning Electron

Microscope/ Focused Ion Beam was used.

Transverse section images were always taken at the standard 50x and 100x, but also occasionally at higher magnifications as needed. Tangential sections were taken at whatever magnification was needed to see key features. The use of standardized magnifications ensured that all micrographs could be easily compared to one another, as well as to images of specimens on the InsideWood (insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu) database. In order to identify wood charcoal, the following anatomical features were observed: size and arrangement of vessels, vessels per mm2,

23 presence or absence of parenchyma, the presence or absence of tyloses, size and arrangement of rays, rays per mm, resin canals and vascular bundles (Pearsall 2000:144–153; Hoadley 1990:28-

45).

Chapter 3: Results and Discussion of Collected Plant Taxa

This chapter presents the results of the macrobotanical remains recovered at BOP during the 2016 field season. Most of the non-wood remains recovered from flotation were small seeds

(<1.0 mm) and achenes of wetland and ruderal plant species, while a few were unidentified.

Contrary to our expectation, no domesticated species were found at the BOP site. These results were surprising given the pollen, phytolith, and δ13C results conducted in previous years at

BOP, which indicate an increase in C4 species contemporary with an increase in grass pollen, which together were interpreted as evidence for maize production (Beach et al. 2009; Beach et al. 2015a).

None of the recovered seeds, achenes, and other fruits were carbonized, but were preserved due to the waterlogged setting. While most of the recovered wood was carbonized, wood that was not carbonized was also present in two of the flotation samples. Unfortunately, most of the wood recovered from flotation samples was too small or too fragmentary for analysis. Even when wood from flotation could be mounted for SEM analysis, it was typically too deteriorated for features to be seen clearly. In order to broaden the range of wood taxa at

BOP, fifteen hand-collected samples of charcoal were subsampled for analysis, resulting in the identification of seven taxa.

Even though the recovered seed and fruit remains were not carbonized, the relative lack of evidence for bioturbation suggests that the seeds are ancient. For example, the majority of the samples had few to no snail shells and the stratigraphy showed no indicators of disturbance by any type of animal. Although no artifacts were found during the 2016 field season, previous excavations at BOP recovered two Classic Period ceramic sherds from the canal-field interface

(Beach et al. 2009). Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating was performed on seeds or achenes from five selected depths from SubOp A (Table 3.1) to confirm the antiquity of the recovered plant materials and support their association with the ancient Maya.

Table 3.1 Radiocarbon dates from BOP SubOp A canal and field.

ICA Code Flotation Sample Material Type Depth Context Conventional Age Calibrated Age Cladium jamaicense - Cal 1450 - 1530 CE (47.7%) 18P/1222 10015 seed 10 - 30 cmbs Field 360 +/- 30 BP Cal 1540 - 1640 CE (47.7%) Cal 720 - 740 CE (2.9%) Spilanthes cf. Cal 760 - 900 CE (89.0%) acmella 18P/1223 10018 - achene 100 - 140 cmbs Field 1190 +/- 30 BP Cal 920 - 950 CE (3.5%) Spilanthes cf. acmella 18P/1224 10019 - achene 30 - 60 cmbs Canal 1150 +/- 30 BP Cal 770 - 980 CE Cal 690 - 700 CE (0.6%) Eleocharis sp. - Cal 710 - 750 CE (10.8%) 18P/1225 10021 seed 120 - 130 cmbs Canal 1210 +/ 30 BP Cal 760 - 900 CE (84.0%) Spilanthes cf. acmella 18P/1226 10027 - achene 170 - 180 cmbs Canal Sample failed Sample failed

The radiocarbon dating results show that the uncarbonized plant materials from SubOp A

30 – 140 cmbs, dated between 760 – 980 CE, can be broadly associated with the Late Classic period. The materials from 10 – 30 cmbs, dated between 1450 – 1640 CE, can be broadly associated with the Late Postclassic period.

A summary of the plant remains recovered by flotation is presented in Table 3.2. and a full inventory in Appendix 1. Both absolute counts and ubiquity measures, calculated as the percent of each taxon found in the 28 floatation samples, are included for the recovered non- wood materials.

Table 3.2 Summary of identified plant remains recovered from flotation samples during the 2016 field season at BOP, organized alphabetically by scientific name. C/F denote the context of recovery as Canal (C) or Field (F). Common Plant Abs. SubOp Taxonomic Name Name Part Count Ubiquity Presence Context Andropogon sp. broomsedge Spikelet 1 3.57% B C Carex sp. sedge Seed 2 7.14% B F Cayaponia sp. melonleaf Seed 1 3.57% B C Fruit, Celtis sp. hackberry Seed 3 7.14% A, B C, F Chenopodium ambrosioides Mexican tea Seed 2 7.14% A, B C Cladium jamaicense saw grass Seed 2,329 78.57% A, B C, F Cyperus sp. flatsedge Seed 15.50 10.71% A C Diphysa carthagenensis - Charcoal - 3.57% B C Eclipta prostrata false daisy Achene 5.50 7.14% A C Eleocharis sp. spikesedge Seed 1,252.50 42.86% A, B C, F Fimbristylis sp. fimbry Seed 0.50 3.57% A C Juncus sp. rush Seed 3 7.14% A C Najas guadalupensis water nymph Seed 278 35.71% A, B C Panicum sp. panicgrass Seed 4.50 7.14% A F Paspalum sp. crowngrass Seed 0.50 3.57% B C Physalis sp. groundcherry Seed 1 3.57% B C Polygonum sp. knotweed Seed 70 29.16% A, B C Portulaca sp. purslane Seed 1 3.57% B C Scirpus sp. bulrush Seed 4.50 7.14% A, B C, F Solanum sp. nightshade Seed 16 32.14% A, B C, F Spilanthes cf. acmella paracress Achene 2,095 96.43% A,B C, F

As shown in Table 3.2, a small number of species dominate the BOP assemblages. In particular, Cladium jamaicense Crantz, Spilanthes cf. acmella (L.) Murray, and Eleocharis sp. are all represented by more than 1,000 seeds and were recovered from both Field and Canal settings in SubOps A and B (Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.1 Absolute counts of Eleocharis sp., Cladium jamaicense, and Spilanthes cf. acmella and all other identified non-wood seeds in SubOp A Canal and Field.

Figure 3.2 Absolute counts of Eleocharis sp., Cladium jamaicense, and Spilanthes cf. acmella and all other identified non-wood seeds in SubOp B Canal and Field.

C. jamaicense and Eleocharis sp. have similar ecological preferences, as both thrive in wet environments, while Spilanthes cf. acmella tends to prefer disturbed settings with semi-dry soils (Nash and Williams 1976:320; Rejmankova et al. 1995). These three species (C. jamaicense, Eleocharis sp., and Spilanthes cf. acmella) were dominant in these locations during

29 the use period of the ancient Maya, with Spilanthes being especially prevalent in field contexts.

Other identified taxa recovered include Andropogon sp., Bucida buceras L., Carex polystachya

Sw. ex Wahlenb, Cayaponia sp., Celtis sp., Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Cyperus sp., Diphysa carthagenensis Jacq., Eclipta prostrata L., Ficus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Haematoxylum campechianum L., Juncus sp., Licaria sp., Mimosa sp., Najas guadalupensis (Spreng.) Morong,

Panicum sp., Paspalum sp., Physalis sp., Polygonum sp., Portulaca sp., Scirpus sp., and

Solanum sp.

In general, very similar suites of plant taxa are represented in both Field and Canal contexts. However, as discussed in Chapter 4, their frequency shows variation over time, as indicated by depth.

Ecology and Recorded Uses of Recovered Non-wood Taxa

The following section discusses the habitat, ecology, and uses for each plant taxon recovered from BOP, with taxa presented alphabetically by family name. For each plant, the parts recovered from BOP are listed in brackets following the scientific name. Although many of the recovered plants are known as useful foods, medicines, and other purposes in several indigenous cultures, there is no evidence from BOP to demonstrate their use for the purposes listed. Maya ethnobotanical sources that were consulted in this research include Williams (1981),

Alcorn (1988), Arvigo and Balick (1993), Berlin and Berlin (1996), Breedlove and Laughlin

(2000), Atran et al. (2004), and Balick and Arvigo (2015). However, as many of the recovered plants were not attested in these sources, additional sources from adjacent regions (Moerman

1998; Moerman 2000) were also consulted for information about uses recorded among other cultures in North America. Additional sources outside of ethnobotanical studies were also consulted for information on ecology of taxa, descriptions of taxa, etc.

ASTERACEAE

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. [achenes]

Eclipta prostrata (false daisy) was found in two BOP samples (10022 and 10025) both in

SubOp A Canal at 100-140 cmbs (Figure 3.3) It is likely that this species was a weed growing compatibly with domesticated species since it is a species commonly grown in a weedy, disturbed environment. A total of 5.5 achenes were found in the two samples.

E. prostrata is an herbaceous annual species. This plant has cylindrical, grayish roots.

The solitary flower heads are 6–8 mm in diameter, with white florets and stems which are white- hairy with a purplish color (Jeričević and Jeričević 2017). The achenes are compressed and narrowly winged. At the base of the main stem it develops several long stems, prostrate, rooting at the lower nodes. Leaves are opposite, linear, and oblong and are more acute at the base of the stem (Jeričević and Jeričević 2017). Inflorescence is white, rounded, solitary or with two heads on unequal axillary peduncles. Achenes are dark, wedge-shaped, glabrous, with no pappus

(Jadhav et al. 2009). E. prostrata occurs under both upland and lowland conditions. It is widespread in damp places, disturbed environments, near rivers and swamps (Krantz et al. 1977).

It is a common weed found near agricultural species.

There are numerous studies about the medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of false daisy in many countries, mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The plant has been used for its analgesic, antimytotoxic, antihepatotoxic, antibacterial, antioxidant, antihemorrhagic, antihyperglycemic and immunomodulatory properties (Jeričević and Jeričević 2017:106).

Figure 3.3 Example of an E. prostrata achene found in only two flotation samples.

Spilanthes cf. acmella (L.) Murray [achenes]

Spilanthes cf. acmella, (paracress) was found in twenty-seven of twenty-eight samples at

BOP. A total of 2,095 achene of this species were recovered, in both the Field and Canal contexts of both SubOps. Paracress was by far one of the most abundant and the most ubiquitous plant remains found in flotation samples. The achenes are unique with an ovoid shape, reticulate texture, and dark black color (Figure 3.4). Paracress found in BOP samples measured to about

1.0 mm to 1.5 mm in length and 0.4 mm to 0.6 mm in width.

Paracress is another herbaceous species in the Asteraceae family. It is most commonly found in damp thickets, open fields, disturbed areas and often found in marshy settings (Nash and Williams 1976:320; Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:248). S. acmella is a natural fertilizer and is often found in disturbed agricultural fields. It requires full sunlight in order to grow to its full potential. S. acmella is both edible and medicinal with flower heads, roots, and leaves being used. The most common and widespread medicinal use of Spilanthes cf. acmella for the modern

Maya is using the roots to treat toothache and throat and gum infections (Nash and Williams

1976:320-321; Paulraj et al. 2013). The Tzotzil Maya use paracress for blemishes on body and to cut fevers, they mix paracress with refined sugar and cold water (Breedlove and Laughlin

2000:248). The leaves are often added to soups or eaten raw in many cultures (Paulraj et al.

2013).

Figure 3.4 Example of a Spilanthes cf. acmella achene from BOP.

CANNABACEAE cf. Celtis sp. [fruit, seed]

Celtis sp. (hackberry) was found in samples from both SubOp A and SubOp B and in both Field and Canal contexts (Figure 3.5). Its presence is relatively surprising, given that it is not often associated with an open wetland environment. It was however a minor component of vegetation at BOP as indicated by the few seeds and fruits found in the samples. is a small tree often found in the understory of riparian forests throughout Mesoamerica. Not only are the small fruits edible and delightfully sweet, it also has medicinal properties (Balick et al. 2000;

Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:156). The Tzotzil Maya use the bark of Celtis iguanaea (Jacq.)

Sarg. for house lashing (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:156).

Figure 3.5 Example of a Celtis sp. fruit from BOP.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. [seeds]

Chenopodium ambrosioides (Mexican tea) was found in two flotation samples (BOP

10005 and BOP 10022) at BOP in both SubOp A and SubOp B in the Canal context (Figure 3.6).

A total of 2 seeds were recovered. The seeds were small and black, with a length of 0.3 mm and a width of .03 mm. It was surprising more seeds were not found in the samples, because C. ambrosioides is known for producing and dispersing a lot of seeds.

C. ambrosioides is an annual or short-lived perennial herb native to Central America,

South America, and southern Mexico. It is typically found near houses, in cornfields, and other disturbed sites (Arvigo and Balick 1993:100; Berlin and Berlin 1996:413). C. ambrosioides has a variety of uses from being a food source to medicinal uses (Alcorn 1984; Arvigo and Balick

1993; Berlin and Berlin 1996). The Huastec Maya use it as a condiment, pairing it with nopales and fish (Alcorn 1984:595). They also used C. ambrosioides to treat snake bites, pain after

34 giving birth, and internal parasites (Alcorn 1984:595). The Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya use the roots of C. ambrosioides as a treatment for worm infestations (Berlin and Berlin 1996:413).

Figure 3.6 Example of a Chenopodium ambrosioides seed from the canal of BOP.

CUCURBITACEAE

Cayaponia sp. [seeds]

Cayaponia sp. (melonleaf) was recovered from only one sample (10006) from the Canal context of SubOp B. The seeds are brown, flat, and relatively thick. The measurements for the seed recovered from BOP are 8.1mm long x 5.6mm wide x 1.4mm thick (Figure 3.7). It has a smooth surface with a small indent in the middle of the seed. Its presence was surprising because its large size contrasts with the small sub -mm size of the majority of seeds in the assemblage.

That fragments of similarly large seeds were not recovered suggests that their recovery was not biased due to fragmentation and the rarity of Cayaponia reflects its minor presence in surrounding vegetation.

Cayaponia is the largest genus in the gourd family. The majority of the Cayaponia species are large perennial climbers growing in rainforests or along forest margins; fewer species occur in deciduous forest or scrubland (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:127; Duchen and Renner

2010). The majority of Cayaponia sp. have white or yellow-green flowers. It was originally pollinated by bats, but at least two shifts to bee pollination have occurred among some of its species (Duchen and Renner 2010). The Tzotzil Maya use pounded fruits of Cayaponia attenuata (Hook. & Arn.) Cogn. to produce a soap for laundering and shampooing (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:127). In El Salvador, C. attenuata stems were used for scrubbing dirt from clothes (Williams 1981:90).

Figure 3.7 Example of a Cayaponia sp. seed from SubOp B.

CYPERACEAE

Carex polystachya Sw. ex Wahlenb. [seeds]

Carex polystachya (sedge) was found in only two samples (BOP 10009 and BOP 10012) at BOP in SubOp B Field context. The seeds are triangular shaped, with a pointed apex and base

(Figure 3.8). They are a dark black color with a height ranging 1.2 mm long and a width of 0.08 mm. It is a perennial grasslike herb. The Klamath tribe of Oregon have been documented using leaves in basketry, weaving the leaves into mats, and using them to make rope (Moerman

1998:138). There are hundreds of different species of Carex throughout the world, but only

Carex polystachya is found in Belize (Balick et al. 2000). They typically have rhizomes, stolons or short rootstocks (Mohlenbrock and Nelson 1999). The culm is unbranched and usually erect.

It is usually distinctly triangular in section.

Figure 3.8 Example of a Carex polystachya seed from BOP.

Cladium jamaicense Crantz [seeds]

Cladium jamaicense (sawgrass) was found in both the Canal and Field in both SubOp A and SubOp B. It was the most abundant species found at BOP with a total of 2,329 seeds. It was also the second most ubiquitous species. Seeds found in samples were hard black balls with an ovoid-ellipsoid shape and have three distinct points at the base (Figure 3.9). It is on average 1.1 mm long and 1.0 mm wide. While we do not have knowledge on how the ancient Maya interacted with this species, modern Maya mash the lower stem and use C. jamaicense as household paint brushes (Balick and Arvigo 2015). Sawgrass roots have also been documented among the Mewuk tribe of California as useful materials for making baskets (Moerman

1998:166).

C. jamaicense is a large sedge which dominates many wetlands throughout Belize. It is often found growing in fresh and brackish-water swamps and marshes, preferring a wet or moist soil. C. jamaicense stems typically grow to 6 or 7 feet tall with the leaves growing from base to the lower stem of the plant (Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants 2018). The leaves are long and stiff, with margins that have saw teeth. Sawgrass has a large inflorescence which can grow several feet tall.

Figure 3.9 Example of a Cladium jamaicense seed from BOP.

Cyperus sp. [seeds]

Cyperus had a relatively low ubiquity, only being present in three out of twenty-eight samples, all from the SubOp A Canal context. The seeds recovered from BOP are very small, with a length of 0.8 mm and a width of 0.5 mm (Figure 3.10). It has a speckled texture with an elongated- triangular shape. The Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya are known for using Cyperus hermaphroditus (Jacq.) Standl. as a treatment for gastrointestinal conditions (Berlin and Berlin

1996). There is ethnographic evidence of a variety of Cyperus species being consumed by indigenous peoples in North America. The seeds are pulverized and made into mush, roots are ground up and added to other foods, and tubers can be eaten raw, baked, or boiled (Moerman

2010:97).

The genus Cyperus is made up of annual or perennial plants, which are mostly aquatic and growing in still or slow-moving water There are twenty-six different species of Cyperus in

Belize (Balick et al. 2000). Species vary greatly in size, with small species only reaching 5 cm tall, while others can reach 5 m in height. The stems are circular in cross-section in some, triangular in others. Stems are usually leafless for most of their length, with the slender grass-like leaves at the base of the plant, and in a whorl at the apex of the flowering stems. The flowers are greenish and wind-pollinated; they are produced in clusters among the apical leaves.

Figure 3.10 Example of a Cyperus sp. seed from BOP.

Eleocharis sp. [seeds]

Eleocharis sp. (spikerush) was one of the most abundant and most ubiquitous taxa found in both Canal and Field contexts of SubOp A and SubOp B. It was found in seventeen of the twenty-eight flotation with a total of 1252.5 seeds recovered. The seeds recovered from BOP were smooth with cellular reticulate texture and were triangular to ovoid in shape (Figure 3.11).

They were a light brown color with an average length of 1.3 mm and width of 1.0 mm.

Eleocharis is one of the largest genera in the sedge family, Cyperaceae. In Belize alone, there are at least 17 different species of this marshy plant (Balick et al. 2000). Eleocharis

39 marshes in Belize dominate areas with soil and water of high conductivity due to high content of gypsum and calcium carbonate (Rejmankova et al. 1995). Spikerushes grow in aquatic habitats and are a rather robust, large-spreading plants (Govaerts and Simpson 2007). Their flowers are borne on unbranched terminal spikelets at the apices of stems. Among the Huastec Maya and throughout Central America, Eleocharis elegana Roem. and Schult. culms are utilized in weaving petates used as mattresses (Williams 1981:104; Alcorn 1984:635). Moerman recorded the Paiute of the Great Basin using the bulbs for food and the Cheyenne of the Great Plains using spikerushes to make large baskets (1988:208).

Figure 3.11 Example of an Eleocharis sp. seed from BOP.

Fimbristylis cf. dichotoma (L.) Vahl.

Fimbristylis cf. dichotoma (forked fimbry) was found only in a single Canal sample

(10025) from SubOp A at 120-130 cmbs. Forked fimbry grows in wetland areas, such as swamps, marshes, and ponds in tropical and subtropical regions. It is capable of growing in nutrient poor soils. (Gonzalez et al. 1983; Balick et al. 2000:182; Zahoor et al. 2012). The achenes recovered have a broad-ovate shape with several longitudinal indentations running across the body of the achene (Figure 3.12). On average, the achenes exhibit a length and width of 0.7 mm by 1.0 mm. This sedge tends to be a dominant weed in heavily disturbed or tilled

40 areas, and it has a well-developed root system resulting in a drought tolerant plant (Zahoor et al.

2012:5).

Figure 3.12 Example of a Fimbristylis cf. dichotoma achene from BOP Canal.

Scirpus sp. [seeds]

Scirpus sp. (club-rush, bulrush) was found in both the Canal of SubOp A and Field of

SubOp B with a total of just 4.5 seeds. The recovered seeds were light brown, with a distinct point on their apices (Figure 3.13). It had a very low ubiquity only showing up in two of twenty- eight flotation samples. Overall it is a minor vegetation component at BOP.

Scirpus is a genus of aquatic, grass-like species. They have grass-like leaves, and clusters of small spikelets, often brown. Like most of the taxon in Cyperaceae, many of the species vary in size. Some species can reach a height of 3 m, while others are much smaller, only reaching

20–30 cm tall (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:279). Many species are common in wetlands and can produce dense stands of vegetation, along rivers, ponds, and marshes (Standley and

Steyermark 1958:180). It can survive unfavorable conditions like prolonged flooding, or drought, as buried seeds. Bulrush has some medicinal properties such as an orthopedic aid for weak legs.

The Costanoan tribe of Northern California are known for consuming the root raw or grinding

41 them into flour (Moerman 1998:523). The stalks are useful for a variety household purposes. The

Cahuilla use the stalks for roofing, bedding, mats and weaving materials (Moerman 1998:523).

Figure 3.13 Example of a Scirpus sp. seed from BOP.

SOLANACEAE

Physalis sp. [seeds]

Physalis sp. (groundcherry) was only recovered from one sample (BOP 10004) from

SubOp B Canal context at 80 – 100 cmbs giving it a minor vegetation component at BOP. The seed is obovoid with a small indent on the bottom. The surface is light brown and has reticulate texture (Figure 3.14). The average length is 1.5 mm with an average width of 1.2 mm. Physalis sp. (groundcherry) is a perennial herb commonly found in sandy field margins, open forests, and roadsides (Gentry and Standley 1974:82). Physalis is a food source, a medicinal application, a spice or flavoring, and a source of poison (Balick et al. 2000:125). A variety of Physalis have been documented ethnobotanically as a treatment for fevers, malaria, headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney pain, and “evil eye” for the Itza' Maya (Atran et al. 2004:128).

Figure 3.14 Example of a Physalis sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) from SubOp B.

Solanum sp. [seeds]

Solanum sp. (nightshade genus) is an edible herb commonly found both in forests and as an agricultural weed in milpas. A member of the nightshade family, this native Neotropical genus is large and includes several dozen species native to Belize (Balick et al. 2000). A total of

16 Solanum seeds were found among the macrobotanical samples collected in 2016. Solanum was found in both Field and Canal in both SubOp A and SubOp B. The recovered seeds from

BOP had an average width of 0.9 mm and a length of 1.6 mm, a reniform-globose shape, yellowish color and an alveolate surface texture (Figure 3.15). A variety of Solanum species were recorded as useful to the Huastec Maya. Some species were used to treat sores and boils, some were used an altar decoration, some Solanum berries were considered a snack (Alcorn

1984:793-797). For the Itza' Maya, the leaves are cooked in soups and are thought to help with both nutrition and to increase productivity and thought (Atran et al. 2004:128).

Figure 3.15 Example of a Solanum sp. seed recovered from BOP.

Seeds from the Solanum genus have been recovered from several Maya sites and from a wide range of contexts varying from ceremonial settings to wetland agricultural fields. Charles

Miksicek (1983) recovered Solanum at Pulltrouser Swamp, a site that has many similarities to

BOP, such as having waterlogged deposits. Miksicek (1983) considers all Solanum seeds at

Pulltrouser Swamp to be intrusive because they are all uncarbonized. However, in light of my research, wherein the seeds found in my samples were all uncarbonized and were shown to be ancient by their AMS dates, Miksicek’s conclusions warrant reconsideration. The preservation of uncarbonized ancient seeds in waterlogged deposits also was demonstrated at the San Andres site in Southern Mexico (Pope et al. 2001).

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Najas guadalupensis (Spreng.) Magnus [seeds]

Najas guadalupensis (water nymph) occurs in both SubOp A and SubOp B, but only in the Canal context. This is unsurprising, given that it is an aquatic plant which thrives in habitats such as ponds, ditches, and streams. With a total of 278 seeds, it is the fourth most abundant species in the 28 flotation samples. The seeds are small with an average length of 0.8 mm and

44 width of 0.5 mm. Uncarbonized, they are a caramel color with an alveolate texture (Figure 3.16).

The shape is lanceolate and incredibly narrow.

N. guadalupensis is a rather adaptable plant, able to grow in sand, loam, or clay soil. It produces a slender, branching stem up to 60 to 90 centimeters in maximum length. The leaves are lightly transparent with minute, unicellular teeth around the edges. Tiny flowers occur in the leaf axils; staminate flowers grow toward the end of the plant and pistillate closer to the base.

While there are no listed uses for humans, water nymph is an important food source for wildlife

(DiTomaso and Kyser 2013).

Figure 3.16 Example of a Najas guadalupensis seed recovered from BOP.

JUNACEAE

Juncus sp.

Juncus sp. (rush) only occurs in two samples of SubOp A in the Canal at very low depths below surface. This is logical given that it is a plant that thrives in a wetland environment. It had a very low frequency only having a total of 3 seeds recovered from BOP. The seeds are light

45 brown with distinct lines running horizontally (Figure 3.17). They are relatively small and oval shaped.

Figure 3.17 Example of a Juncus sp. seed found in two samples (BOP 10026 and BOP 10027) from SubOp A Canal.

Rushes are herbaceous plants that superficially resemble grasses or sedges. The flowers of Juncus comprise five whorls of floral parts: three sepals, three petals, two to six stamens (in two whorls) and a stigma with three lobes (Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants 2018). Unlike sedges which have a somewhat triangular stem in cross-section, the stems of Juncus are round in cross-section. The Isleta tribe of New Mexico are recorded using Juncus for thatch in building houses (Moerman 1998:282). The Costanoan tribe of Norther California use rush leaves in basketry and the stems and leaves as stuffing in mats, rugs, and bedding (Moerman 1998:282).

POACEAE

Andropogon sp. [spikelet]

Andropogon sp. (broomgrass) was found in one sample (BOP 10004) of SubOp B Canal context at 80-100 cmbs. Only a single spikelet was found making it a rare species at BOP in both

46 ubiquity and absolute count. Andropogon sp. has nine different species throughout Belize (Balick et al. 2000). Broomgrass spikelets are 2 flowered with 2 glumes, lower floret sterile/staminate, upper floret pistillate/bisexual (Sylvester 2017). Spikelets frequently paired in long-short combinations. This genus is a primarily herbaceous grass of tropics and sub-tropics, but also in temperate regions. The spikelet is a yellowish color with an elongated shape and narrow width

(Figure 3.18). it is 3.0 mm long and 0.6 mm wide. It has a hairy pointed apex and a square base.

1 mm Figure 3.18 Example of an Andropogon sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) from SubOp B Canal.

The Tzotzil Maya used the leaves of Andropogon sp. for thatch and packsaddles

(Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:255). A variety of species have many known ethnographic uses from medicinal purposes to fibers used in household items (Moerman 1998). The Cherokee of the Southeastern Woodlands use the stems to make a yellow dye (Moerman 1998:72).

Panicum sp. [seeds]

Panicum sp. (panicgrass) was recovered from SubOp A, but only from the Field context

(Figure 3.19). Only a total of 4.5 seeds were recovered so overall it is a pretty minor vegetation component at BOP. The seeds are ovoid to ellipsoid with glabrous surfaces and an average length of 1.7 mm. Panicum sp. (panicgrass) is one of the most abundant genera in Belize (33 species) and considered the 4th and 5th most speciose Angiosperm genera in Belize (Balick et al.

2000:3). They are often large, annual or perennial grasses, growing to 1–3 m tall. The flowers are produced in a well-developed panicle often up to 60 cm in length with numerous seeds, which are 1–6 mm long and 1–2 mm broad. The fruits are developed from a two-flowered spikelet.

Only the upper floret of each spikelet is fertile; the lower floret is sterile or staminate. Both glumes are present and well developed.

Panic grasses are often found in forests, meadows, and along the banks of rivers, lakes, and aguadas from elevations of about 1350 meters down to sea level (Atran et al. 2004:113;

Lentz and Dickau 2005). The genus contains species often used as thatch for field houses, ornamentals, and also as fodder by the Tzotzil Maya (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:255).

Figure 3.19 Example of a Panicum sp. seed found in two samples (BOP 10015 and BOP 10017) from SubOp A Field.

Paspalum sp. [seeds]

Paspalum sp. (crown grass) was only recovered in one sample (10004) from SubOp B

Canal context at 80 – 100 cmbs. Only one fragmented seed was recovered from BOP. The seed was a yellowish-brown color with thin vertical lines in the middle of seed (Figure 3.20). The base was square and unfortunately the apex was broken so the shape could not be obtained. It had an ellipsoid to ovoid shape with a length of 1.6mm and a width of 0.7mm.

Paspalum is a genus with 34 different species found in Belize (Balick et al. 2000,

Sylvester 2017). It is often found in wet open ground, in areas with moist soil. The spikelets are ovoid/elliptical and distinctly plano-convex (Sylvester 2017). The glumes have either a short acute tip or a blunt apex and a smooth lemma surface. The Tzotzil Maya are known for using

Paspalum as fodder for grazing animals (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:263).

Figure 3.20 Example of a Paspalum sp. seed found in only one sample (BOP 10004) of SubOp B.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum sp. [seeds]

Polygonum sp. (smartweed, knotweed) was found in the Canal context of both SubOp A and SubOp B. A total of 70 seeds were recovered from BOP. The seeds are 3-sided with a pointed apex and base with curved wings, not sharp points (Figure 3.21). They are a light yellowish-brown color. The seeds are on average 1 mm long and 0.63 mm wide. Different species have a variety of recorded uses. The Huastec Maya use some Polygonum species topically to help with general sickness (Alcorn 1984:757).

Polygonum sp. is an herbaceous plant with three known species in Belize (Balick et al.

2000). Knotweed is known for having swollen nodes where the leaves meet the stems. Leaves are alternate, with a narrow, lance shape and the leaf bases form sheaths that surround the stem

(Center for Aquatic and Invasive Species 2018). Knotweed flowers are small and pinkish or white and grow in terminal spikes that typically are several inches long (Center for Aquatic and

Invasive Species 2018).

Figure 3.21 Example of a Polygonum sp. seed recovered from BOP.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca sp. [seeds]

Portulaca sp. (Purslane) is a common annual herb found in Central America and around the world in tropical regions at elevations of 2400 meters or lower (Standley and Steyermark

1946:212). Only a single purslane seed, from a Canal context in SubOp B at 10-20 cmbs, was recovered (Figure 3.22). The seed is a dark brown/blackish color with an obovate shape. The surface has a puncticulate texture and it is 2.0 mm long and 2.0 mm wide. The weedy herb grows naturally in disturbed environments, moist fields, roadsides, and stream banks (Arvigo and

Balick 1993:168).

Figure 3.22 Example of a Portulaca sp. seed recovered from BOP.

The plant has several uses from food source to medicinal purposes. It is highly valued among the Huastec Maya and the Acoma of New Mexico as a food source often cooked with meat and eaten like spinach or seasoned with salt, pepper, or butter (Alcorn 1984:759; Moerman

1998:434). Many parts of the plant can be consumed, such as the fleshy plant tops and leaves.

The Itza' and Huastec Maya use the leaves medicinally, by rubbing them on the body to treat

51 wounds, swelling, and chronic coughs (Alcorn 1984:760; Atran et al. 2004:122, Balick and

Arvigo 2015:433). Purslane is also used for urinary ailments, anemia, a blood cleanser, and to treat worms (Balick and Arvigo 2015).

Recovered Wood Charcoal and its Ecology and Recorded Uses

While the majority of the wood from the flotation samples could not be identified given its poor preservation, all wood from >2 mm sieve was collected from the 28 flotation samples and weighed. Volume-based >2 mm charcoal densities for each SubOp and Context (Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24) were used to assess changes over time. Overall, flotation samples had low charcoal weights and densities, with the exception of the Canal context at 80-100 cmbs in SubOp

B with a total of 2.83 g (Figure 3.24). Using density measure clarified that the higher charcoal weight reflects a greater proportion of wood charcoal per liter as compared with other samples.

In SubOp A, there is a smaller spike in the Field context at 30-60 cmbs (Figure 3.23).

While it is only 0.4 g, this is significant compared to the other densities in the flotation samples from SubOp A. This spike could be an indicator of field burning for replenishing the soil after a minor reoccupation during the Early Postclassic period. It could also be an indicator of the same environmental stresses such as drought or marsh fires.

SubOp A Charcoal Denisty from Flotation Samples

0.45 0.4 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.11 0.1 0.07 Hardwood Weight Weight inGrams 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.02 0 60-100 cmbs 100-140 cmbs 10-30 cmbs 30-60 cmbs 60-100 cmbs 100-140 cmbs Canal Field Depth and Context

Figure 3.23 Wood density from SubOp A flotation sample depths.

SubOp B Charcoal Density from Flotation Samples 3 2.83 2.5 2 1.5 1

Weight Weight inGrams 0.5 0.19 0.16 Hardwood 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01 0 10-30 cmbs 30-60 cmbs 60-80 cmbs 80-100 100-130 10-30 cmbs 30-60 cmbs cmbs cmbs Canal Field Context and Depth

Figure 3.24 Wood density from SubOp B flotation sample depths.

Due to the small fragment size and species uniformity of wood from the flotation samples, 14 out of the 105 hand-collected samples were selected for additional analysis (Table

3.3). These samples were chosen randomly in order to expand the range of woody taxa. These

53 samples come from SubOp A (12 samples) and SubOp B (2 samples). Out of the 14 hand- collected samples, 5 species were identified, with one species (Bucida buceras) found twice.

Because these samples were hand-collected and do not have an associated sediment volume, density could not be calculated.

Sample Number Species Depth SubOp Context BOP 20001-001 Mimosa sp. 10-20 cmbs A Field BOP 20002-001 Unknown 20 cmbs A Field BOP 20002-002 Unknown 20 cmbs A Field BOP 20003-001 Haematoxylum campechianum 30-40 cmbs A Field BOP 20004-001 Unknown 32 cmbs A Field BOP 20004-002 Unknown 32 cmbs A Field BOP 20004-003 Licaria sp. 32 cmbs A Field BOP 20005-001 Unknown 40-50 cmbs A Field BOP 20008-001 Bucida buceras 180-185 cmbs A Field BOP 20009-001 Unknown 10 cmbs A Canal BOP 20010-002 Unknown 5-10 cmbs A Canal BOP 20010-003 Ficus sp. 5-10 cmbs A Canal BOP 20013-001 Unknown 98 cmbs B Canal BOP 20016-003 Bucida buceras 116 cmbs B Field Table 3.3 Analyzed hand-collected wood specimens with species, depth, SubOp, and context.

COMBRETACEAE

Bucida buceras L. [charcoal]

Commonly known as the bullet tree or bully tree in English and puk te in Yukatek

Mayan, Bucida buceras is an erect tree, which grows between 8-27 m tall, with tiered and often thorny branches. They have small greenish-white spike flowers, which may be staminate or perfect and a single seeded drupe. B. buceras is typically found in swamps, bajos, aguadas, along rivers and lakes, sometimes with mangroves, but occasionally in upland forest. It is salt- tolerant and grows well in coastal swamps, wet inland woods and on riverbanks (Orwa et al.

2009). It is also capable of growing in limestone rich areas, which is the case at BOP. It is a component of the climax community of dry forest and grows as a sub climax tree in excessively drained areas of the moist forest (Orwa et al. 2009). Analysis using Scanning Electron

Microscopy revealed that the specimen exhibits solitary and paired vessels, about 5-20 vessels per mm2, less than 12 rays per mm, which are 1 to 3 cells (Figure 3.25). Scanty parenchyma is present in the specimen.

Figure 3.25 Transverse (100x) and tangential (200x) section of Bucida buceras.

B. buceras is said to be one of the hardest lumbers and will sink in water (Balick and

Arvigo 2015). It is generally used as charcoal, for construction, and as fuelwood. Because it is able to maintain durability when wet, it is ideal for outdoor construction, for purposes such as house posts, bridge timbers and railroad ties (Balick and Arvigo 2015). The bark, galls and leaves are high in tannin that stains pavements, vehicles, white roofs and other surfaces (Orwa et al. 2009)

FABACEAE

Haematoxylum campechianum L. [charcoal]

H. campechianum (logwood), also known as ek’ tiinta che’ in Yukatek Mayan (Atran et al. 2004) is a lowland species which grows in bajos and along slow rivers, wetlands, and occasionally in savannas. In survives particularly well in clay-rich soils, which were present at

BOP (Orwa et al. 2009, Atran et al. 2004:108). Archaeologically, it was found at Pulltrouser

Swamp, which is a site that mirrors BOP in several ways (Miksicek 1983). The bark is light gray, smooth and slightly fissured with small, shaggy scales (Brokaw et al. 2016). The flowers are yellow in racemes and the fruit is a thin, flat pod.

Using SEM, the specimen exhibits between 20-40 vessels per mm2, that are less than 50 to 100 μm in size (Figure 3.26). The specimen has banded parenchyma and about between 10-12 rays per mm most being made up of one to two cells. At BOP it was found in SubOp A at 30-40 cmbs in a Field context.

Figure 3.26 Transverse (100x) and tangential (120x) sections of H. campechianum.

Logwood is one of the most important early economic species of Belize. The wood was one of the most important construction timbers of the ancient Maya because of its strength and durability (Lentz and Hockaday 2009). Evidence for the use of logwood also was found at the

56 nearby Late Classic Maya site of Lamanai (Lentz et al. 2016). It was valued as a dye for the clothing industry during the 16th and 17th century. It was also thought that the ancient Maya used it to color textiles and other artifacts (Turner and Miksicek 1984; Lentz 1999:12). Soaking it in water for several days creates the dark red dye (Standley and Steyermark 1946:139). While it was crucial during the time period, with the development of synthetic dyes in the 18th century, the tree’s popularity decreased, causing its price to drop (Balick and Arvigo 2015).

Mimosa sp. [charcoal]

Mimosa sp. (sensitive plant) has eight native species in Belize (Balick et al. 2000).

Mimosa species have a variety of uses from medicinal and cultural significance. For modern

Maya, Mimosa bahamensis is considered an indicator of “good soil” (Balick and Arvigo

2015:318). While Mimosa hondurana is considered a hazard because it cuts people. Mimosa pudica has many known medicinal properties, from curing fever with the leaves and branches, to relieving toothaches with the root (Balick and Arvigo 2015:319). M. pudica is thought to help cure insomnia by placing bunches of leaves in a cross formation under the pillow (Balick and

Arvigo 2015:320). Alcorn observed the Huastec Maya using Mimosa pigra as milpa ash in slash and burn agriculture (1984:707).

Mimosa sp. are known for having very showy flowers that normally range from pale pink or purple to white in color (Arvigo and Balick 1993:211). The flowers are wind and insect pollinated. The fruit consists of clusters of 2–8 pods from 1–2 cm long each, these being prickly on the margins. The leaves of Mimosa trees are known for their ability to close up when touched.

SEM revealed that the specimen has mostly solitary and paired vessel arrangements with the majority of the vessels being 50-100 μm in size (Figure 3.27). There are 5-20 vessels per

57 mm2. Rays were difficult to see even with SEM analysis. Mimosa sp. was only found in thus far in the Field context of SubOp A at BOP at 10-20 cmbs. Given the depth and context, it is likely that this species would have been present during the Early Postclassic period.

Figure 3.27 Transverse (50x) section of Mimosa sp.

LAURACEAE

Licaria sp. [charcoal]

Licaria sp. (timbersweet, laurel) known as tzo otz né in Mayan has five species native to

Belize (Balick et al. 2000). Its bark is multi-colored and scaly, and it leaves are densely hairy on the underside. Timbersweet flowers are extremely small and in panicles. Its fruit is a dark black berry. It is commonly found in upland moist forests. Licaria is a very resilient, durable wood.

The Huastec and other Maya groups use the trunk in construction and as a fuel source (Alcorn

1984:688; Balick and Arvigo 2015). The leaves are also tied into bundles tied to wiil, which allows for a sturdy roof which can last up to 30 years (Alcorn 1984:688). The Tzotzil Maya use

58 the trunks of L. peckii for threshing platform posts and for the drums of the elders (Breedlove and Laughlin 2000:175).

SEM revealed that the specimen has mostly paired and radial vessels arrangements

(Figure 3.28). There are 20-40 vessels per mm2 with the vessels being between 50-100 μm in size. Parenchyma is present. There are 1 to 3 cells per ray with >12 rays per mm. Licaria was only found thus far in one sample from the Field context of SubOp A at 32 cmbs.

Figure 3.28 Transverse (100x) and tangential (100x) sections of Licaria sp.

MORACEAE

Ficus sp. [charcoal]

Ficus sp. (fig) is a large tree found in a variety of vegetation environments, from forests, open fields, hillsides, and river sides (Standley and Steyermark 1946:39; Arvigo and Balick

1993:105). There are 22 documented species of fig in Belize (Balick et al. 2000). SEM revealed that the specimen had between 10-15 vessels per mm2 that are less than 50 to 100 μm in size

(Figure 3.29). There are about 12 – 14 rays per mm with heterogeneous cells in rays and banded parenchyma throughout the specimen. At BOP, Ficus sp. was found in the Canal context of

SubOp A at a depth of 5-10 cmbs. Given this range it is likely modern or could date to the Late 59

Postclassic range of the ancient Maya. While in the field near the BOP site, Ficus sp. was observed while conducting a plant survey.

Figure 3.29 Transverse section of Ficus sp. at 100x magnification.

Different species of Ficus have a variety of purposes ranging from being a food source, to medicinal use, and even having cultural significance. The fruits are edible, but mostly eaten by birds, mammals, and fish when the fruits fall in the water, rather than humans because of the taste (Standley and Steyermark 1946:40; Balick and Arvigo 2015). In order to relieve headaches and back pain, modern Maya cut the trunk of the tree and spread the latex inside on the affected area (Balick and Arvigo 2015). For rotten teeth, the latex can be used to remove the tooth by breaking it into pieces (Balick and Arvigo 2015). To heal wounds, leaves can be boiled and used cool as a bath twice daily (Balick and Arvigo 2015). Additionally, the roots can be cut as an immediate water source. The flowers of the fig tree have cultural significance for modern Maya people. They believe that the flower is only visible at noon by virgin children during Holy Week of Easter season (Balick and Arvigo 2015:397). The flower is considered a good luck charm but

60 must be stolen from the “spirit” of the tree by a child (Arvigo and Balick 1993:105; Balick and

Arvigo 2015:397).

Chapter 4: Interpretations and Conclusion

Interpreting BOP

The ancient Maya’s use of wetland fields throughout the lowlands changed their interaction with the landscape. The construction of raised fields and canals allowed the Maya to increase the amount of land surface area that could be cropped, providing support for the growing population. This is largely because, unlike other field settings, wetlands could be cultivated during the dry season because of the large source of water from the canals, thereby increasing the number of crops grown in a year (Morse 2009). From the recovered plant remains from the BOP 2016 field season, it is clear that some species are more predominate than others in a wetland setting.

In order to examine depth-related patterns in the data, species were grouped into three categories based on their preferred growing conditions: wet, wet/dry, or dry (Table 4.1 and Table

4.2). Relative frequency is a measure of the percentage of a sample represented by the remains of a specific taxon within a given sample, context, preferred soil conditions, or other indicators

(Miksicek 1987; Popper 1988).

Table 4.1 SubOp A species classified by ecological preferences: wet, wet/dry, or dry.

Wet ecology Wet/Dry ecology Dry ecology Cladium jamaicense Eclipta prostrata Celtis sp. Cyperus sp. Polygonum sp. Chenopodium ambrosioides Eleocharis sp. Panicum sp. Fimbristylis sp. Solanum sp. Juncus sp. Spilanthes cf. acmella Najas guadalupensis Scirpus sp.

SubOp A Relative Frequency 100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50% Wet/Dry 40% Wet Dry 30%

20%

10%

0% 30-60 60-100 100-140 170-180 10-30 30-60 60-100 100-140 cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs Canal Field

Figure 4.1 SubOp A: Relative frequency of seeds associated with wet, wet/dry, and dry ecological conditions.

As shown in Figure 4.1, samples from SubOp A Canal show an increase in species that are more closely associated with wet conditions as depth increases, while those from the Field show an increase of species that thrive in a dry ecology as depth increases. This pattern indicates a managed landscape, because the field would likely have otherwise been continuously waterlogged. The canal sequence in SubOp A from 100-140 cmbs shows that it is significantly wetter than the field sequence from 100-140 cmbs, which dates to Late Classic Period, cal 760 –

900 CE (ICA Sample #: 18P/1223 and 18P/1225). Additionally, the field sequence from 10-30 cmbs shows an increase in wet species and unmaintained field compared to 100-140 cmbs, where drier species dominate, at the time when the ancient Maya were actively maintaining the field.

Table 4.2 SubOp B species classified by ecological preferences: wet, wet/dry, or dry.

Wet ecology Wet/Dry ecology Dry ecology Carex sp. Andropogon sp. Celtis sp. Cladium jamaicense Cayaponia sp. Chenopodium ambrosioides Eleocharis sp. Physalis sp. Solanum sp. Najas guadalupensis Polygonum sp. Spilanthes cf. acmella Paspalum sp. Portulaca sp. Scripus sp.

SubOp B Relative Frequency 100% 90% 80% 70% 60%

50% Wet/Dry 40% Wet 30% Dry 20% 10% 0% 10-30 30-60 60-80 80-100 100-130 10-30 30-60 80-100 cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs cmbs Canal Field

Figure 4.2 SubOp B: Relative frequency of seeds associated with wet, wet/dry, and dry ecological conditions.

Figure 4.2 shows a relatively similar pattern to SubOp A, where for field samples, plants that prefer more dry conditions are more abundant at lower depths. In contrast, however, to the pattern seen in SubOp A, a clearly distinct post-management phase is not represented in the Field for SubOp B. This could be due to the lower seed count or the greater diversity of taxa in SubOp

B. While no AMS dating was performed in SubOp B, curve-matching (Birks and Birks 1980)

64 can help to assess similarities in depths from SubOp A and SubOp B to correspond with dates.

The sections from 60-100 cmbs are likely to correspond to the Late Classic sequence documented in SubOp A, as wetland species dominate the canal flotation samples and dryland taxa dominate the field samples.

By far the most predominant species were Cladium jamaicense, Spilanthes cf. acmella, and Eleocharis sp. All three of these taxa were abundant in the Canal and Field contexts of both

SubOp A and SubOp B. Another predominate species was Najas guadalupensis with 278 seeds being recovered from the Canal context of SubOp A and SubOp B. Given its habitat preferences, this is unsurprising that it would only be recovered in this context. The fourth most commonly recovered taxon was Polygonum sp. with 70 seeds in total from the Canal context from SubOp A and SubOp B.

Many of the species recovered from BOP seem to play a minor role in the vegetation landscape. Out of the 19 identifiable non-wood species recovered from flotation samples, thirteen species had 6 or less seeds recovered and the majority of them were from the Canal context of SubOp B (Table 3.2). This is significant because it demonstrates the relatively high species diversity among Canals and Fields even within a small distance of SubOp A and SubOp

B. Given these patterns, it is highly possible that multiple economic species with different field requirements may have been growing in SubOp A versus SubOp B.

For example, drier species dominating in the SubOp B Field context may reflect maize cultivation, since it requires a drier setting compared to other crop species, such as manioc

(Manihot esculenta Crantz) and malanga (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott). In contrast, the water-loving species that are dominant in SubOp A Field may reflect its use for growing crops that thrive in a wetter environment, such as manioc. Past pollen and phytolith studies at BOP

65 indicate a presence of maize and species from the family Marantaceae (arrowroot family) (Beach et al. 2009). Although it was therefore surprising that no maize was recovered from BOP samples, some pollen types have the ability to travel long distances. Maize pollen in particular is anemophilous, being transported by the wind (Astini 2007). However, due to its large size (100 microns in diameter) it typically does not travel far from where it was cultivated (Astini 2007).

Some explanations for its presence could be that pollen was transported through water from the canals, making it unclear whether or not maize was actually cultivated in the vicinity of the wetland.

Significant Outcomes at BOP

Field Use and Land Management at BOP

The data recovered through analysis of the macrobotanical samples from the BOP 2016 field season have answered many questions but leave others unanswered. The patterns discussed in the previous section of Chapter 4 indicate human management over the fields and canals, it is puzzling that no crop species were found. As such, it is impossible to know from macrobotanical evidence what kinds of crops the Maya were growing in the BOP fields. The abundance of ruderal seeds which are associated with disturbed soils and agricultural fields (e.g., Panicum sp. and Spilanthes cf. acmella) supports the hypothesis that some form of agriculture was practiced in the canals and raised fields. However, by looking at changes in their abundance at different depths, these weedy seeds can also be used as an indicator of when the fields were beginning to go out of use. During the end of the Classic Period, the canals were no longer managed and started to ﬁll, and their original intents were abandoned in the beginning of the Early Postclassic

(Beach et al. 2009:1722). However, there was evidence from later Postclassic period, where reuse of the same features occurred (Beach et al. 2009:1722). This is shown by the increase in

66 seeds that prefer dry conditions that occurs at 30-60 cmbs and 10-30 cmbs in SubOp A. The date of this shift (10 -30 cmbs), provided by a direct date on a Cladium jamaicense seed (ICA Sample

# 18P/1222) corresponds to the very end of the Late Postclassic Period where the fields and canals at BOP begin their final cycle of abandonment (Beach et al. 2009).

Visible charcoal was abundant during excavation of both the Field and Canal contexts of both SubOp A and SubOp B but was a very minor component of the flotation samples.

Explanations for its abundance could be due to various reasons. Researchers know that during the period of Maya occupation of the Rio Bravo area, large areas of forest were cleared (Brokaw and Mallory 1993:8). Although it was often largely controlled so that favored arboreal species could thrive in their natural environment (McNeil 2011). The remains of useful forest species are frequently found in archaeological household middens, which shows their significance in everyday Maya life. Reasons for clearance include population growth, expansion of agriculture, and harvesting wood for timber and fuel sources (Lentz et al. 2014). However, in the 1,000 years since the decline of the Maya, forests have regrown over the landscape, such that the distributions and abundances of different tree species today reflect patterns set in motion by

Maya land use strategies prior to and during the early reestablishment of forest (Brokaw and

Mallory 1993:8; Lentz and Lane 2017).

The abundance of charcoal at BOP may be the result of slash/burn of nearby trees to help fertilize the fields during the ancient Maya occupation. Another reason could be due to marsh fires, which are relatively common in Belize. In modern times, marsh fires are either accidentally set during the burning of sugar cane fields before harvest or intentionally set to gather stunned fish or turtles fleeing the fire (Rejmankova et al. 1995). Another possibility could be due to the extremely dry environment during drought season. BOP is similar to other wetland sites where

67 the ancient Maya cut and burned swamp forest vegetation, as indicated by the abundant charcoal from swamp forest trees (Pohl et al. 1996).

The charcoal recovered from BOP comes from trees that are found in a variety of forests types, namely lacustrine, bajo, and riparian forests. Lacustrine swamp forests occur on the seasonally flooded margins of aguadas (small ponds) and lakes (Brokaw and Mallory 1993).

While, riparian forest occurs along the temporarily flooded margins of the Rio Bravo (Brokaw and Mallory 1993:3). Bajo swamp forests are a seasonally wet swamp forest, occurring in clay- filled, poorly drained, slight depressions that are scattered over Rio Bravo (Brokaw and Mallory

1994:16). Bucida buceras, and Haematoxylum campechianum which are all present in the hand- collected assemblage are located in both the lacustrine and bajo forest. Ficus sp. is found in lacustrine and riparian forest types. The presence of these taxa indicates that most of the wood was coming from the surrounding area of BOP, providing some support for its deposition via field clearance and burning.

Methodological Significance

This research demonstrates the significance of complete sorting of all geological sieve fractions for quantitative assessment of vegetation change. Many of the seeds recovered in the

BOP samples were found in the <1 mm and pan sieve. In most studies, samples are scanned rather than fully sorted, due to the length of time involved in full sorting (Toll 1988). If each fraction had not been fully sorted, the BOP dataset would not only have been significantly smaller, but also would not have been suitable for quantitative analysis to aid in its interpretation.

A second methodologically significant outcome from this analysis is the demonstration that the use of a sonicating bath is incredibly beneficial for thick clay rich or gley soils. It allows

68 for the breakup of soil without causing any damage to macrobotanical remains. Without the use of the sonicator, sample BOP 10025 would have been interpreted as macrobotanically sparse, when in actuality it was an abundant sample with 197 identifiable seeds. Having this knowledge will help other archaeobotanical studies in the future.

In addition, although imprecise, the use of curve matching (Birks and Birks 1980) allowed correlation of the direct-dated sequence from SubOp A with the undated one from

SubOp B, allowed for interpretation of the SubOp B sequence from depths associated with the ancient Maya. Using ecological preferences of wild seeds provided a means for comparison and curve-matching the sequences of SubOp A and SubOp B, resulting in interesting interpretations.

Future Research at BOP and Beyond

Because this is only the second time archaeobotanical analysis has been conducted at

BOP, additional macrobotanical studies would be beneficial. Furthermore, pollen and phytolith samples collected during the 2016 field season should be analyzed and compared with the macrobotanical results from the same season. While some charcoal analysis was conducted for this thesis, more material is available for additional analysis. A surprising number of species with moderate ecological diversity was identified from the hand-collected samples. More analysis might indicate whether there are any additional economic or crop species and help to clarify the origin of the charcoal.

One large issue during the collection of the material for this thesis was that the Flote-

Tech used had a poor recovery rate. While many seeds were recovered during the 2016 season, it is quite possible that a large portion of macrobotanicals were missed due to issues with the Flote-

Tech. Future research conducted at BOP, should opt for a recovery method that involves wet

69 screening combined with the use of an efficient flotation tank. Given the thick gley soil and waterlogged setting, recovery should be improved with the addition of wet screening. As such, more time should be factored in to the next field season to allow for this kind of recovery.

Additionally, because of lack of storage space, the heavy fraction was not sorted in its entirety resulting in material remains which may have been lost in the heavy fraction. Many heavier plant materials (charcoal and fruits) do not float into the light fraction, especially when thick gley soil is helping to weigh them down, which can also create a bias in recovery. One interesting thing observed during the analysis of archaeobotanical remains is that very little charcoal was recovered in flotation samples, which is vastly different to what was hand-collected in the field.

It is possible for the 2016 field season that the majority of flotation charcoal was still in the heavy fraction sediment.

Not only should more archaeobotanical analysis be done at BOP, but more archaeobotanical research in the Maya lowlands needs to be conducted to clearly understand what the full diversity of the Maya diet and how the environment has changed over time. While the idea of preservation issues causes some archaeologists to forgo archaeobotanical analysis, this study demonstrates the utility of archaeobotanical research in waterlogged settings in the

Maya culture area, where plant preservation is excellent. If we want to know how expansive the

Maya diet and agricultural strategies truly were this research needs to be done, and archaeobotanical analysis is the cornerstone of archaeological fieldwork with these goals in mind.

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Appendix 1 Complete List of Plant Materials Recovered from 28 Flotation Samples

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10001 Asteraceae Achenes 45.5 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Celtis sp. Fruit 1.5 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Cladium jamaicense Seeds 25.5 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Dicot Charcoal 0.04 g B 10 cmbs Canal NE Najas guadalupensis Seeds 1 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Solanum sp. Seeds 2 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 2 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Unidentifiable (10 species) Seeds 18.5 B 10 cmbs Canal NE Sample 10002 Asteraceae Achenes 98 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Cladium jamaicense Seeds 8.5 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Dicot Charcoal 0.03 g B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Solanaceae Seeds 3 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Solanum sp. Seeds 2.5 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 11 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Unidentifiable (3 species) Seeds 23 B 30-60 cmbs Canal NE Sample 10003 Asteraceae Achenes 0.5 B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Cladium jamaicense Seeds 146.5 B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Dicot Charcoal 0.01 g B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Polygonum sp. Seeds 4 B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 21.5 B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Unidentifiable (4 species) Seeds 9 B 60-80 cmbs Canal NE Sample 10004 Asteraceae Achenes 5 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Andropogon sp. Seeds 1 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Cladium jamaicense Seeds 3 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Dicot Charcoal 0.04 g B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Paspalum sp. Seeds 0.5 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Physalis sp. Seeds 1 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 78 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE Unidentifiable (4 species) Seeds 4 B 80-100 cmbs Canal NE

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10005 Asteraceae (2 species) Achenes 19.5 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Chenopodium ambrosioides Seeds 1 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Cladium jamaicense Seeds 21.5 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Dicot Charcoal 0.15 g B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Portulaca sp. Seeds 1 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Solanaceae Seeds 1 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 2 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Unidentifiable (4 species) Seeds 5.5 B 10-20 cmbs Canal NW Sample 10006 Asteraceae Achenes 46 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Cayaponia sp. Seeds 1 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Celtis sp. Seeds 1 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Cladium jamaicense Seeds 134 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Dicot Charcoal 0.03 g B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Eleocharis sp. Seeds 2.5 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Polygonum sp. Seeds 4 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Spilanthes cf. acmella Achenes 71 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Unidentifiable (1 species) Fruits 15.5 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Unidentifiable (6 species) Seeds 15.5 B 30-70 cmbs Canal NW Sample 10007 Asteraceae (3 species) Achenes 98 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Cladium jamaicense Seeds 1418.5 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Eleocharis sp. Seeds 5 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Dicot Charcoal 2.83 g B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Najas guadalupensis Seeds 2 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Polygonum sp. seeds 25 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Solanum sp. seeds 0.5 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 59.5 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 14 B 70-100 cmbs Canal NW Sample 10008 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 3 B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW Cladium jamaicense seeds 80.5 B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW Eleocharis sp. seeds 3.5 B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW Dicot charcoal 0.16 g B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW Najas guadalupensis seeds 4 B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 77 B 100-130 cmbs Canal NW

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10009 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 3.5 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Carex sp. seeds 1 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Cladium jamaicense seeds 1 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Dicot charcoal 0.01 g B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 10.5 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Unidentifiable (1 species) fruits 5 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Unidentifiable (5 species) seeds 4 B 10-30 cmbs Field NW Sample 10010 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 2.5 B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Dicot charcoal 0.01 g B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Eleocharis sp. seeds 1 B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Scirpus sp. seeds 3.5 B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 231 B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 4 B 30-70 cmbs Field NW Sample 10011 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 5 B 70-100 cmbs Field NW Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 5 B 70-100 cmbs Field NW Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 1 B 70-100 cmbs Field NW Sample 10012 Carex sp. seeds 1 B 10-30 cmbs Field SE Dicot charcoal 0.01 g B 10-30 cmbs Field SE Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 4 B 10-30 cmbs Field SE Unidentifiable (1 species) fruits 1 B 10-30 cmbs Field SE Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 3.5 B 10-30 cmbs Field SE Sample 10013 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 10 B 30-70 cmbs Field SE Eleocharis sp. seeds 2 B 30-70 cmbs Field SE Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 192.5 B 30-70 cmbs Field SE Sample 10014 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 18.5 B 80-110 cmbs Field SE Cladium jamaicense seeds 1 B 80-110 cmbs Field SE Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 12 B 80-110 cmbs Field SE Unidentifiable (2 species) seeds 1.5 B 80-110 cmbs Field SE

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10015 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 31.5 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Cladium jamaicense seeds 53 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Dicot charcoal 0.02 g A 10-30 cmbs Field N Eleocharis sp. seeds 2 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Panicum sp. seeds 3.5 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Solanum sp. seeds 2 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 3 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Unidentifiable (2 species) fruits 2 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Unidentifiable (2 species) seeds 9 A 10-30 cmbs Field N Sample 10016 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 22 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Cladium jamaicense seeds 0.5 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Dicot charcoal 0.40 g A 30-60 cmbs Field N Eleocharis sp. seeds 5.5 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Solanum sp. seeds 1 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 2.5 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 6.5 A 30-60 cmbs Field N Sample 10017 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 8 A 60-100 cmbs Field N Celtis sp. seeds 1 A 60-100 cmbs Field N Cladium jamaicense seeds 5.5 A 60-100 cmbs Field N Dicot charcoal 0.02 g A 60-100 cmbs Field N Panicum sp. seeds 1 A 60-100 cmbs Field N Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 19.5 A 60-100 cmbs Field N Sample 10018 Asteraceae (2 species) achenes 12 A 100-140 cmbs Field N Cladium jamaicense seeds 4.5 A 100-140 cmbs Field N Dicot charcoal 0.1 g A 100-140 cmbs Field N Eleocharis sp. seeds 4.5 A 100-140 cmbs Field N Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 78 A 100-140 cmbs Field N Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 1 A 100-140 cmbs Field N Sample 10019 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 150.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 4.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 29.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 23 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10020 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 41 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 8 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 6.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Euphorbiaceae seeds 1 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Scirpus sp. seeds 1 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 65 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (2 species) seeds 4.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Sample 10021 Asteraceae (3 species) achenes 10.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 120.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 952 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 90 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Polygonum sp. seeds 21 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 205.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 0.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Sample 10022 Asteraceae (4 species) achenes 18 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Chenopodium ambrosioides seeds 1 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 4 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Eclipta prostrata achenes 1 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 65 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 80 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Solanum sp. seeds 3 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 532.5 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 107 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Sample 10023 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 23.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 1 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 1.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 2.5 A 30-60 cmbs Canal S

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10024 Asteraceae (5 species) achenes 46 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 168.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Dicot charcoal 0.11 g A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 26.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 6 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Polygonum sp. seeds 2 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 250.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) fruits 2.5 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (3 species) seeds 7 A 60-100 cmbs Canal S Sample 10025 Asteraceae (5 species) achenes 8.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 117 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Dicot charcoal 0.06 g A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Eclipta prostrata achenes 4.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 15 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Fimbristylis sp. seeds 0.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 10 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Polygonum sp. seeds 13 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Solanum sp. seeds 2 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 35 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (2 species) fruits 5.5 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (2 species) seeds 19 A 120-130 cmbs Canal S Sample 10026 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 1.5 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Cyperus sp. seeds 11.5 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Dicot charcoal 0.01 g A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 142.5 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Juncus sp. seeds 2 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 44 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Polygonum sp. seeds 1 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Solanum sp. seeds 3 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 40 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 1 A 130-150 cmbs Canal S

Taxon Parts Quantity Weight SubOp Depth Context Wall Sample 10027 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 1 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Cladium jamaicense seeds 2 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Cyperus sp. seeds 2 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 7 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Juncus sp. seeds 1 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 5 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 43 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) fruits 1 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 1.5 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Sample 10028 Asteraceae (1 species) achenes 1 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Cyperus sp. seeds 2 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Eleocharis sp. seeds 10.5 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Najas guadalupensis seeds 36 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Spilanthes cf. acmella achenes 14 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) peduncle 1 0.09g A 170-180 cmbs Canal S Unidentifiable (1 species) seeds 2 A 170-180 cmbs Canal S