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PROTO-SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN The Common Origin of Sumerian and Dravidian Languages

PROTO-SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN THE COMMON ORIGIN OF SUMERIAN AND DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES

A. Sathasivamby

UNIVERSITY OF CEYLONM.A., Ph.D. AND UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

An artist's impression of the Sumerian city Uruk (Erech) built by King Gilgamesh beside the River Euphrates.

Siva ThiagarajaEdited by h

History and Heritage Unit Tamil Information Centre Kingston KT2 6PZ, U.K. 2017

PROTO-SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN THE COMMON ORIGIN OF SUMERIAN AND DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES

A. Sathasivamby

UNIVERSITY OF CEYLONM.A., Ph.D. AND UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Siva ThiagarajaEdited by h

History and Heritage Unit Tamil Information Centre Kingston KT2 6PZ, U.K. 2017

PROTO-SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN The Common Origin of Sumerian and Dravidian Languages

by A. SATHASIVAM M.A., Ph.D.

First published in the United Kingdom in 2017 by History and Heritage Unit, Tamil Information Centre 'Thulasi', Bridge End Close, Kingston KT2 6PZ.

ISBN 1 85201 024X

All Rights Reserved. No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Urim Cover picture show an artist's impression of the Great Ziggurat built by King Ur- Nammu in 2100 BCE, a temple for , the Moon God of Ur; and early inscriptions in Sumerian, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages.

Printed and bound in Sri Lanka by Unie Arts (Pvt) Ltd., No.48B, Bloemendhal Road, Colombo 13. CONTENTS

EDITOR’S NOTE vii

PROFILE OF THE AUTHOR xi

PAPER : ONE SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE 1 Preface 4 Foreword I 5 Foreword II 6 Introduction 7 1. The Sumerians 8 2. History of the Sumerian Language 13 3. Sumerian Alphabet 15 4. Bibliography 16 5. Abbreviations 18 COGNATE SETS 19

PAPER: TWO THE DRAVIDIAN ORIGIN OF SUMERIAN WRITING 95 Introduction 100 1. The Object 100 2. Sumerian 100 3. Decipherment of Sumerian 100 4. Sumerian Writing 101 5. Sumerian Script 101 6. Sumerian Phonetics and Phonemics 103 Sumerian and Comparative Dravidian 104 Sign 244 (from ODBW by George A. Barton) 104 Sign 281 105 Sign 322 105 Sign 131 106

v Sign 351 106 Sign 88 107 Sign 364a 108 Sign 149 109 Sign 180 111 Sign 182 113 Sign 17 114 Sign 80 114 Sign 387 115 Sign 531 116 The Parent Language 118 1. Sumerian and Proto-Dravidian 118 2. Proto-Dravidian Characteristics 118 3. The Original Home of the Parent Language 120 References 122 Bibliography 123

PAPER : THREE AFFINITIES BETWEEN DRAVIDIAN AND SUMERIAN 125 The Sumerians and their Language 127 Sumerian and comparative Dravidian phonology A. Sumerian Vowels 133 B. Sumerian Consonants 135 The Dravidian Development 141

PAPER : FOUR STUDIES IN SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY 147 Introduction 149 Sumerian 149 Dravidian 151 Vowels 152 Consonants 152

EDITOR'S NOTE

This book contains four pioneering research papers by Prof A. Sathasivam (University of Ceylon and University of California) written between 1964 and 1987 during his stay at the Universities of Pennsylvania and California in the United States and at the University of Ceylon in Sri Lanka investigating and documenting the close relationship between the extinct Sumerian language of Mesopotamia and the extant Dravidian languages of South Asia. From the close resemblance in the vocabulary, comparative phonology, composition and grammatical structure between the Sumerian and the Dravidian languages he came to the conclusion that Sumerian and the Dravidian languages descended from a common ancestral substrate language.

In the first paper Sumerian - A Dravidian Language Prof. Sathasivam has provided 501 cognate sets of words from Sumerian which have a similar vocabulary and meaning in some or all of the other nineteen members of the Dravidian language family and on the strength of this arrived at the conclusion that Sumerian belonged to the Dravidian family of languages and proposed it as the twentieth member of the family (at that time only 19 languages were identified as members of the Dravidian family).

It has been pointed out by scholars in linguistics that the determining factor of assigning a language to a particular family of languages is not only the vocabulary and its phonetics but more importantly its structure and the grammatical composition. Grammar is the science which analyses and explains the construction of the sentence. This is the reason why Rev. Robert Caldwell in 1856 produced A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages in order to assign the South Indian and some of the North Indian languages into the Dravidian family of languages on their grammatical concordance.

This induced Prof. Sathasivam to produce his second paper The Dravidian Origin of Sumerian Writing where he is analysing some of the grammatical structure and composition to show the similarities between the Sumerian and Dravidian languages. His third and fourth papers concentrates on comparative phonology, the comparative grammatical structure and composition of the sentence in Dravidian and Sumerian languages.

The resemblance between the Dravidian languages and the Sumerian language are found among several aspects including the vocabulary, comparative phonology, composition and grammatical structure. Some of the most important grammatical and phonological features pointed out are:

1. Both Sumerian and Dravidian are agglutinative in structure with a comparable phonological system.

2. Consonant clusters are avoided in the initial position of a word in both.

vii 3. The distinction between voiceless and voiced consonants is not observed in both Dravidian and Sumerian.

4. Both Dravidian and Sumerian do not employ grammatical gender, but recognize a distinction between personal and irrational nouns.

5. Words can be grouped into only two morphological categories: Substantives and verbs.

6. Some case suffixes of Sumerian have their counterparts in Dravidian.

7. Extensive use of participial construction is a feature common to Dravidian and Sumerian.

8. Prof Sathasivam has listed over 500 vocabulary items in Sumerian which has a strong resemblance in words and meanings to some or many of the members of Dravidian. Based on these he frames laws of phonetic correspondences between Sumerian and Dravidian which he traces to a common proto-Sumero- Dravidian language. He argues that these correspondences are not due to mere chance but based on a well defined system in their occurrence.

9. Sumerian possesses a phonological system of an early stage of Dravidian. Some of the features of Early Dravidian phonology, such as the absence of short o in Brahui can be explained by connecting Dravidian phonology with that of Sumerian which does not possess the short o. It would appear that the Sumerian language of the Ur dynastic periods of about 3500 to 2400 B.C. had preserved well its proto-Sumero-Dravidian elements.

10. The vocabulary items of these early Sumerian periods show that these are essentially Dravidian with very few foreign elements. On the basis of such resemblances Prof. Sathasivam makes an effort to reconstruct the Proto Dravidian of 3500 BCE.

He arrives at the conclusion that the Dravidian languages of South Asia as well as the ancient Sumerian language of Babylonia descend from a common substrate language. On the strength of this argument he considered Sumerian belonged to the Dravidian family of languages. He also named the common ancestral family and its descendants as the Kumari Family of languages. In this book we have labelled the common ancestral substrate mother language as 'Proto-Sumero-Dravidian'.

During the latter half of 1980's Prof. Sathasivam was involved in compiling an Etymological Dictionary of Sumero-Dravidian or the Kumari Family of Languages. This was not completed due to his untimely death in 1988.

During the 1980's Prof David McAlpin from the University of Pennsylvania demonstrated that Elamite, another ancient Mesopotamian language of West Asia was also related to the Dravidian language family through their correlation in phonology, lexicon, morphology and grammatical analysis. These two academic works remain the most significant research studies of the twentieth century in Dravidian linguistics since Caldwell's work in the nineteenth century.

viii During the turn of this century an unexpected support for a common origin of the ancient Mesopotamian languages Sumerian and Elamite of West Asia and the Dravidian languages of South Asia came through the Y-Chromosome DNA studies of the population geneticist Prof Luca Cavalli - Sforza of Stanford University. He came to the conclusion that the Dravidian languages was brought into South Asia and the Mesopotamian languages into West Asia by the same people who originally occupied a region somewhere to the East of Sumer (?Zagros) and spoke a common dialect.

DNA studies over the last two decades have confirmed that there was an actual migration of people from the region of Khuzistan and Zagros mountains in southern Iran (Ancient Elam) towards the west into Mesopotamia and towards the east to India by land (via the Indus Valley through the Bolan Pass) as well as by the sea during the late Upper Palaeolithic and Early Neolithic times. The Y- Chromosome DNA genetic marker M172 is found among 32 % of the men in Khuzistan, the lowlands of Elam in prehistoric times; 22 % of the Marsh Arabs of Iraq among whom are some of the descendants of the ancient Sumerians; 28% of the Brahui men in Baluchistan, who speak Brahui, a Dravidian language; 11.9% of the men in Pakistan; 11% among the Indo-Aryan speakers of North India and 19% among the Dravidian speakers of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In South India the distribution of the genetic marker M140, a subclade of M172 is 21% among the upper class Dravidians who form the agricultural farming communities.

In South Asia this genetic group M172 is associated with the ancestral proto-Dravidian speakers and the distribution pattern of this genetic group indicates that the movement of these people began in the Fertile Crescent, moved through Persia (Iran) to Baluchistan, and through Indus Valley into India. The high incidence of this marker in South India suggests another movement via the sea or along the coast during the Ice Age when the sea levels were low and the coastal strips were much wider accounting for its increased prevalence in the far south. For want of a more suitable name, the people who carried this marker in South Asia are now called the 'Proto-Sumero-Elamo Dravidians'. Outside South Asia and West Asia people carrying this genetic marker are found among the Jewish population and in many parts of Central Asia, Europe and North Africa.

An important hypothesis which is gaining acceptance in recent years is the association of the Y-Chromosome genetic marker M172 with the spread of Agriculture from West Asia into South-East Asia. The carriers of this genetic marker was responsible for bringing the knowledge of Irrigated Agriculture from the fertile crescent to Mehrgarh around 8000 BCE, from where it spread to the Indus Valley and from there it spread in two directions towards east into the Gangetic valley and towards south into the Deccan and South India. Another related hypothesis is that the proto-Dravidian languages spread throughout India along with the spread of Agriculture. The fact that all the words in relation to farming, agriculture and plants in the Indian languages have a Dravidian substratum lends credence to this view.

ix With this background knowledge of population genetics and human migratory patterns, the work of Prof. Sathasivam attains a much greater significance than previously realised. Unfortunately his work was not published in a book form until now and the typed manuscripts available only in a few libraries were not known to many of the scholars and students pursuing studies in Dravidian linguistics.

Prof Sathasivam's conviction was that the ancestral proto-Sumero- Dravidians migrated from a mountainous homeland called Kumer or Kumari. When they moved and settled in Mesopotamia from their homeland they called their new settlement too 'Kumer' which later became 'Sumer'. When these people arrived either by sea or along the coast and settled in the southernmost tip of India they called their new land 'Kumari', a name which has persisted to this day. In his incomplete unpublished later work 'An Etymological Dictionary of Sumero-Dravidian' (1988) he called them "The Kumari Family of Languages".

The publication of this work has two-fold aim. It will remain a permanent record of a significant research project undertaken during our time. It also will make this study widely available to the young academics and scholars who pursue a study in Dravidian linguistics providing a springboard to delve into further research in this field. What is needed in future is the construction of a Comparative Grammar of Sumerian and Dravidian Languages by someone competent in Sumerian and Dravidian grammar to confirm this basic correlation and shift this concept from the realm of hypothesis to be acceptable as an established fact.

In this respect it is important to note that the Sumerians did not leave behind any grammatical work in relation to their language. The Sumerian grammar composed by Stephen Langdon, Dietz Otto Edzard, Christopher Woods, Jeremy A. Black, Arno Poebel and others are comparatively recent works and they differ from each other in certain respects. This may be due to the fact that Sumerian lexical items exhibit a rich variety of regional and social dialects and as pointed out by Prof Sathasivam himself, the 'deciphered tablets exhibits idiosyncrasies of various types'. Hence it is not always possible to select a standard grammatical form for comparative study.

We are extremely grateful to Mrs. Thirugnaneswary Sathasivam, wife of Prof. Sathasivam and the copyright holder of these papers for granting us permission to bring this out in print and helping out with its publication. It was she who typed the first of these papers more than fifty years ago about a subject which is so relevant today as it was half-a-century ago. We are also thankful to Dr Ponnampalam Ragupathy and Subramaniam Visahan who had helped in the production of this book.

London Siva Thiagarajah October 2016

A LIFE REMEMBERED: A SHORT PROFILE OF PROFESSORA LIFE SATHASIVAM REMEMBERED: A SHORT PROFILE OF PROFESSOR SATHASIVAM

Prof. A. Sathasivam who had spent almost a quarter of a century between 1964-1988 with his research onProf. the relationship A. Sathasivam between who hadthe Sumerianspent almost and Dravidiana quarter languagesof a century. between 1964-1988 with his research on the relationship between the Sumerian and Dravidian languages.

Sometime during the year 1966, while I was an undergraduate student at the Medical College, Colombo, Sometime I heard during a talk the by year Dr 1966,Sathasivam while Idelivered was an undergraduate at the student at Colombo Tamil Sangam.the Medical On that College, occasion Colombo, the subject I heard he a spoketalk by was Dr aboutSathasivam the delivered at the Tamil literary classicColombo Silappathikaram, Tamil Sangam. its concept On that and occasion scope and the the subject ingenuity he spoke of was about the its author Ilango AdigaTamill, literarya subject classic far remote Silappathikaram, from the linguistic its concept studies and scope which and the ingenuity of consumed a good itspart author of his Ilango later academicAdigal, a subjectresearch. far But remote what fromimpressed the linguistic me studies which most was his well consumeddressed imposing a good partappearance of his later and hisacademic command research. of the ButTamil what impressed me language. He demeanourmost was was his more well dressedlike a well imposing- mannered appearance English and don his rather command of the Tamil than a Tamil scholarlanguage.. That wasHe demeanourthe only occasion was more I saw like him a welland -that man wasnered the English don rather image of him I havethan carried a Tamil with scholarme to this. That day. was It was the only only during occasion the yearI saw 2000, him and that was the while I was translatingimage the of Sumerianhim I have epic, carried The with Epic me of Gilgameshto this day. into It was Tamil only with during the year 2000, the help of Prof Andrewwhile I wasGeorge translating at the School the Sumerian of Oriental epic, and The African Epic of Studies,Gilgamesh into Tamil with London, I realisedthe the help full significanceof Prof Andrew of Prof George. Sathasivam's at the School life's of work Oriental in the and African Studies, field of Dravidian linguistics.London, I realised the full significance of Prof. Sathasivam's life's work in the field of Dravidian linguistics. Prof Sathasivam came from a learned respectable family in Vaddukoddai, Jaffna. Born in 1926, he Phadrof his Sathasivam primary and came secondary from a learnededucation respect at localable schools family in Vaddukoddai, and then sat his PunditJaffna. Examination. Born in 1926, Having he had successfully his primary gainedand secondary his Pundit education title at local schools and then sat his Pundit Examination. Having successfully gained his Pundit title

xi he joined Jaffna College, Vaddukoddai and entered the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya in 1948.

At the University he read Tamil for his Special Arts Degree Course and passed the Final Examination in 1952 securing First Class Honours. During the same year he joined the Department of Tamil as an assistant lecturer and began to work for his Master of Arts degree which he obtained in 1954. In 1954 he proceeded to the Oxford University in United Kingdom to study Modern Linguistics and pursue with his Doctoral research under the guidance of the reputed Dravidian linguist Prof Thomas Burrow. He did his research on the 'Structure of the Tamil Verb' and gained his Oxford D. Phil (known internationally as Ph.D.) degree. He was the first Tamil scholar from Sri Lanka to receive such a high accolade from the Oxford University. In 1965 he became the head of the Department of Tamil, and in 1970 the first Professor of Tamil at the Colombo Campus of the University of Ceylon. During the years 1981-1988 he served as the Professor of Tamil at the University of Peradeniya.

Between the years 1964-1965 he spent time at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of California, Berkley, researching the close relationship between the extinct Sumerian language of Mesopotamia and the extant Dravidian languages of South India, a subject which became his 'academic preoccupation' for the subsequent quarter of a century. During the years 1973- 74 he had spent time at the University of Oxford; and in 1985-86 at the Tamil University, Tanjavur, South India.

Prof Sathasivam had presented a number of research papers in Tamil Grammar, Dravidian Linguistics and Sumerian Studies at several International Conferences. He had published several books including The Structure of the Tamil Verb (1956) - his Ph.D. thesis; Karuthurai Kovai (Tamil, 1959); Arachi Kaddurai Ezhuthum Murai (Tamil, 1963); Sumerian: A Dravidian Language (1965); Anthology of Ceylon Tamil Poetry (Tamil, 1966); Tamil Mozhi Varalaru (Tamil, 1966); A Dictionary of Ceylon Tamil Usage Vols. I-V (Eng.& Tamil 1973); Origin and Development of Tamil Words (Tamil, 1986). The Etymological Dictionary of Sumero-Dravidian words which he was compiling since 1980 was not completed because of his untimely death in 1988, and remain unpublished.

The most significant of all his research is his hypothesis of a common origin of the ancient Mesopotamian language Sumerian of West Asia and the Dravidian languages of South Asia. He also gave this linguistic family the alternative name, The Kumari Family of Languages. The four pioneering papers in this publication are a lasting testament to his painstaking and meticulous research skills and the opening up of new frontiers in Dravidian linguistics.

Siva Thiagarajah

xii Paper 1

SUMERIAN A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE SUMERIAN A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE

by A. Sathasivam by UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON A. SathasivamAND UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON AND CopyrightUNIVERSITY ©2016 by OF Mrs. CALIFORNIA T. Sathasivam All rights reserved Copyright ©2016 by Mrs. T. Sathasivam All rights reserved

No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

August 1965 No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission1 of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

August 1965 2 The Early Dynastic Cities of Sumer Courtesy: Feather and Soul Production The Early Dynastic Cities of Sumer Courtesy: Feather and Soul Production

3 PREFACE PREFACE The present monograph embodies part of the fruits of my research carried out in The the presentUniversities monograph of Pennsylvania embodies and part Cali of forniathe fruits during of my the research academic carried year 1964out in-65. the Universities of Pennsylvania and California during the academic year

1964-65. For several years I have been engaged in reconstructing the prehistory of the Tamil For several language years using I have the beenearliest engaged extant in literary reconstructing records andthe prehistorysources. The of reconstructedthe Tamil language materials using were the broughtearliest toextant the University literary records of Pennsylvania and sources. and Themy findingsreconstructed were mcomparedaterials were with brought similar toattempts the University made in of thePennsylvania other and and better my knownfindings languages were compared of the Indo with-European similar attempts and Semitic made families. in the Thus, other itand is almostbetter byknown accident languages that I offound the Indothat -theEuropean Sumeri andan language Semitic families. as described Thus, in it Sumerian is almost grammarsby accident possesses that I found almost that identical the Sumeri characteristicsan language with as described those revealed in Sumerian by my reconstructiongrammars possesses of Prehistoric almost identical Tamil. The characteristics enquiry has with been those broadened revealed and by themy Comparativereconstruction Dravidian of Prehistoric data Tamil.are used The to enquiry identify has Sumerian been broadened as a Dra andvidian the language.Comparative It wasDravidian rather dataunexpected are used to tofind identify that theSumerian consevative as a DravidianDravidian dialectslanguage. have It waspreserved rather many unexpected lexical items to find of prehistoricthat the consevative origin. The Dravidian cognatesdialects have compared preserved in this many monograph lexical items show of that prehistoric the Sumerian origin. language The Dravidian fits in neatlycognates as thecompared twentieth in thismember monograph of the Dravidian show that family. the Sumerian language fits in neatly as the twentieth member of the Dravidian family. I will be failing in my duty if I do not record here the assistance I received from Imany will besources. failing Iin am my deeply duty if grateful I do not to record the authorities here the assistance of the University I received of Ceylon,from many particularly sources. Ito am the deeply Vice -gratefulChancellor to theSir authoritiesNicholas Attygalle of the University for having of providedCeylon, particularly me with theto thenecessary Vice-Chancellor facilities Sirand Nicholas encouragement Attygalle tofor engagehaving activelyprovided in mebasic with research. the necessary I also owe facilities a debt ofand gratitude encouragement to the United to engageStates Educationalactively in basic Foundation research. in I Ceylonalso owe for a selecting debt of gratitudeme for a toFulbright the United Research States AwardEducational and toFoundation the Conference in Ceylon Board for of selecting the Associated me for Researcha Fulbright Councils Research in WashingtonAward and forto theproviding Conference every Boardassistance of the I asked Associated for. Research Councils in

Washington for providing every assistance I asked for. I should also express my thanks to my teachers Prof. Henry M. Hoenigswald, I should Chairman also express of the Department my thanks of to Linguistics my teachers and Prof. Prof. Leigh Henry Lisker, M. ProfessorHoenigswald, of Dravidian Chairman Linguistics, of the Department both of of the Linguistics University and of Prof.Pennsylvania Leigh Lisker, for myProfessor training of in Dravidian the linguistic Linguistics, disciplines. both Prof. of the Murray University B. Emeneau, of Pennsylvania Professor for of Sanskritmy training and in General the linguistic Linguistics disciplines. at the UniversityProf. Murray of CaliforniaB. Emeneau, (Berkel Professorey) has of placedSanskrit me and under General deep Linguistics obigation at for the his University manifold of assistance California in(Berkel shapingey) hasthe presentplaced memonograph. under deep My obigationthanks are for also his due manifold to my wifeassistance Thirugnaneswary in shaping thefor typingpresent the monograph. manuscript My with thanks care. are also due to my wife Thirugnaneswary for typing the manuscript with care. It is hardly necessary for me to express my gratitude to my guru, Prof. Thomas It Burrowis hardly of necessaryOxford. I owe for himme toeverything. express my gratitude to my guru, Prof. Thomas Burrow of Oxford. I owe him everything.

A. Sathasivam

1912 Addison St. A. Sathasivam Berkley1912 Addison 4 St. California.Berkley 4 12thCalifornia. Aug. 1965. 12th Aug. 1965. 4 THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE PUSSEY LANE OXFORD Telephone 59272 10 August 1965

Connections between Dravidian and various other linguistic families have been proposed from time to time, but Dr. Sathasivam breaks new ground in seeking to relate Dravidian with Sumerian.

The method employed is to compare items in the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary with Sumerian words and some 500 of these have been selected for comparison. Some of the proposed equations look distinctly interesting, which suggests that further research in this direction might be fruitful. If it were to be accepted the theory would be of considerable importance for the prehistory of both Dravidian and Sumerian.

(Sgd.) T. Burrow

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS BERKELEY 4 CALIFORNIA 26 July 1965

FOREWORD

Dr. Sadasivan's work is a collection of about 500 sets of etyma, in which connections are proposed between Sumerian materials and Dravidian etymological sets (the latter are chiefly drawn from Burrow and Emmaneau's A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary). Attempts to make larger groupings of lnguages and language families must always be based on such collections, and Dr. Sadasivan's collection is the very useful and laborious preliminary to the critical analysis of this hypothesis that Sumerian and Dravidian are related. The analysis that he has already begun will be waited for with great interest, because of the most interesting historical and prehistorical implications of this hypothesis.

(Sgd.) M. B. Emeneau M. B. Emeneau Professor of Sanskrit and General Linguistics.

SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION

Aim and Scope: The plan of the present work is to provide the preliminary data necessary to establish my theory that Sumerian is a Dravidian language. The data is in the form of 501 cognate sets of items drawn from some or all of the nineteen Dravidian languages and from Sumerian, the twentieth member of the Dravidian family proposed here. The actual reconstruction of the proto-language will be published in a separate volume.

The Sumerian data has been gathered mainly from the writings of Edmund I. Gordon, Stephen Langdon, George A. Barton and Dynely Prince. It should be noted that care has been taken to present the basic data as they appear in these writings and no attempt has been made either to reinterpret these sources or twist them in order to get what is desired. The Dravidian cognates are drawn chiefly from 'A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary' by T. Burrow and M.B. Emaneau. Thus an attempt has been made in this monograph to place the data on a scientific basis.

Sumerian is an agglutinative language. This factor has been recognised by almost all the Sumerologists1. But no attempt has been made in the past to connect Sumerian with Dravidian, also an agglutinative language family. Stephen Langdon apparently felt that Sumerian might one day be connected with some agglutinative language. It may be appropriate here to record the remarks of Dyneley Prince in reviewing Langdon's Sumerian Grammar:

'In his preface he abstains wisely from any attempt to advance theories regarding the linguistic affinities of Sumerian, although he does leave the door partly open for the possible future acceptance of a theory that Sumerian may be connected with some known family of agglutinative languages. He states "-- as a negative result of my studies, I am convinced that it (Sumerian) has no affinity with either the Caucasin, Aryan or semetic groups".' 2

7 While no Sumerian scholar has made any serious attempt to connect the ancient Sumerian language with some known family of agglutinative languages, H.R. Hall, the historian in 1912 put forward the SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION

While no Sumerian scholar has made any serious attempt to connect the ancient Sumerian language with some known family of agglutinative languages, H.R. Hall, the historian in 1912 put forward the theory that the ancient Sumerians bear most resemblance to the Dravidian ethnic type of India (See the next few pages).

Thus, it appears the way has been paved in the past toward the attempt in the present work, and the works to follow in this series, to demonstrate the genetic relationship between Sumerian and the Dravidian languages.

1. The Sumerians

The history of the Sumerian people is known only through the interpretation of the records and monuments left by them in Babylonia 4000 years ago. This falls within the province of archaeology. The present writer does not pretend that he can speak with authority on such matters. As the subject matter of the present monograph requires a knowledge of the background of the people who produced the language, it is felt that reproduction of extracts from well known writers on Middle East Archaeology and writing would suffice for the present purpose.

"Sumer, the land which came to be known in classical times as Babylonia consists of the lower half of Mesopotamia, roughly identical with modern Iraq from the north of Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. It has an area of approximately 10,000 square miles.The people that inhabited it, the Sumerians, as they came to be known by the third millennium B.C., were endowed with an unusually creative intellect and a venturesome resolute spirit. In spite of the land's natural drawbacks, they turned Sumer into a veritable Garden of Eden and developed what was probably the first high civilization in the history of man."3 "Sometimes around the middle of the fourth millennium B.C., a people of unknown ethnic and linguistic affliation whom we know as the Sumerians entered the southern parts of Mesopotamia and conquered the area from its original inhabitants. From the last centuries of the fourth millennium, they were for 1500 years the dominant cultural group of the Near East, producing a highly developed literature and leaving8 behind records and documents of a large and complex system of law, administration, trade and religion.

"At sometime in the first five hundred years of their occupation, the Sumerians began to use the writing which eventually developed into the cuneiform. It is uncertain whether they actually invented it, its ultimate source may have been earlier Semitic inhabitants of the dominant cultural group of the Near East, producing a highly developed literature and leaving behind records and documents of a large and complex system of law, administration, trade and religion.

"At sometime in the first five hundred years of their occupation, the Sumerians began to use the writing which eventually developed into the cuneiform. It is uncertain whether they actually invented it, its ultimate source may have been earlier Semitic inhabitants of the land, or it may have been brought into Mesopotamia from some other place. The problem of its origin is complicated by the fact that the early Sumerian script bears resemblances of undetermined significance to the early linear script of the Elamites, to Egyptian hieroglyphic writing and to Indus Valley script."4

9 land, or it may have been brought into Mesopotamia from some other place. The problem of its origin is complicated by the fact that the early Sumerian script bears resemblances of undetermined significance to the early linear script of the Elamites, to Egyptian hieroglyphic writing and to Indus Valley script."4

Sumerian Tablet from Uruk c. 3600 BCE showing the early pictographic writing before the development of the Cuneiform. ______(Modern archaeological dating places the arrival of Sumerians in Mesopotamia during the sixth millennium BCE. The earliest city-settlement of Mesopotamia was founded in circa. 5400 BCE at ERIDU – known to the early marsh Arabs as ‘Tell Abu Sharain’ – meaning mound of the Father of the Crescent Moon – is situated close to the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Euphrates. Eridu was the southernmost of a conglomeration of Sumerian cities that grew around temples. Eridu was originally the home of the God Enki, the God of Water, who was believed to have given to all life on Earth. According to Sumerian legend his kingdom was the waters that surround the world and lay below it; and he along with the gods Anu and Enlil ruled the cosmos. In the Sumerian king list Eridu is the name of the city of the first kings. Ed.)

10 The Proto-Elamite script of 3200 BCE in a tablet from Susa, not yet deciphered. This has a strong resemblance to the Harappan and the early Sumerian pictographic script .

"Quoting probably some legend of the Sumerians themselves, the Old Testament says that 'the people journeyed from the East and came into the plain of Shinar (Babylon) and dwelt there,' and of recent years excavations so far away to the east as the valley of the Indus River have produced remains of an early civilizationwhich has certin elements in common with what we find in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians believed that they came into the country with their civilization already formed, bringing with them the knowledge of agriculture, of working in metal, of the art of writing ― saying 'since then no new inventions have been made' ― and if, as our excavations seem to show, ther is a good deal of truth in that tradition, then it was not in the Euphrates valley that the arts were born.5 "The earliest scenes of their own culture - development had perhaps not been played upon the Babylonian stage at all, but in a differentcountry, away across the Persian mountains to the eastward. The land of Elam, the latter Susiana, where till the end of a non- Semitic nationality of Sumerian culture maintained itself in usual independence of the dominant Mesopotamian power, was no doubt a 11 stage in their progress. There they left the abiding impress of their civilization, although the Elamites developed their art on a distinct line of their own. The Proto-Elamite script of 3200 BCE in a tablet from Susa, not yet deciphered. This has a strong resemblance to the Harappan and the early Sumerian pictographic script .

"Quoting probably some legend of the Sumerians themselves, the Old Testament says that 'the people journeyed from the East and came into the plain of Shinar (Babylon) and dwelt there,' and of recent years excavations so far away to the east as the valley of the Indus River have produced remains of an early civilizationwhich has certin elements in common with what we find in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians believed that they came into the country with their civilization already formed, bringing with them the knowledge of agriculture, of working in metal, of the art of writing ― saying 'since then no new inventions have been made' ― and if, as our excavations seem to show, ther is a good deal of truth in that tradition, then it was not in the Euphrates valley that the arts were born.5 "The earliest scenes of their own culture - development had perhaps not been played upon the Babylonian stage at all, but in a differentcountry, away across the Persian mountains to the eastward. The land of Elam, the latter Susiana, where till the end of a non- Semitic nationality of Sumerian culture maintained itself in usual independence of the dominant Mesopotamian power, was no doubt a stage in their progress. There they left the abiding impress of their civilization, although the Elamites developed their art on a distinct line of their own.

"The ethnic type of the Sumerians so strongly marked in their statues and reliefs, was as different from those of the races which surrounded them as was their language from those of the Semites, Aryans or others; they were decidedly Indian in type ... and it is to this Dravidian ethnic type of india that the ancient Sumerians bears most resemblance, so far as we can judge from his movements. He was very like a southern Hindu of the Dekkan (who still speaks Dravidian languages). And it is by no means improbable that Sumerians were an Indian race which passed, certainly by land, perhaps also by sea, through Persia to the valley of the two rivers. It was in the Indian home (perhaps the Indus Valley) that we suppose for them that their culture developed. There their writing may have been invented, and progreesed from a purely pictorial to a simplified and abbreviated form, which afterwards in Babylonia took on its peculiar 'cuneiform' appearance owing to it being written with a square-ended stylus on soft clay. On the way they left the seeds of their culture in Elam. This seema a plausible theory of Sumerian origins."6

2. History of the Sumerian Language Cultural Background The chief centres of Sumerian culture were the cities of Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Larsa, Lagesh and Nippur all situated in Southern Babylonia. The Sumerian settlement in Babylonia is generally dated to the period after the floods, i.e. about 4000 B.C.7 The earliest culture of the Sumerians springs from the sea-coast cities of Eridu and Ur, at the head of the Persian Gulf. Yet their oldest written document, dated 3500 B.C. comes from Uruk.8

Sumerian power and influence began to wane with the downfall of Ibi-sin, the last of the Sumerian kings from the Third Dynasty of Ur (2357 B.C.). After this period, the Sumerian throne passed to the Semitic rulers of Isin (2357 - 2132 B.C.). But 12the Sumerian language continued to be treated as a sacred medium for literary and religious purposes for about three hundred years by the Semitic rulers of Babylonia.

More than 3000 Sumerian tablets have been recovered from the buried cities of Sumerian civilization. Undoubtedly a major portion of these tablets belong to the last period of Sumerian history, especially to the era immediately after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur when Sumerian was no longer spoken in the palace. "The ethnic type of the Sumerians so strongly marked in their statues and reliefs, was as different from those of the races which surrounded them as was their language from those of the Semites, Aryans or others; they were decidedly Indian in type ... and it is to this Dravidian ethnic type of india that the ancient Sumerians bears most resemblance, so far as we can judge from his movements. He was very like a southern Hindu of the Dekkan (who still speaks Dravidian languages). And it is by no means improbable that Sumerians were an Indian race which passed, certainly by land, perhaps also by sea, through Persia to the valley of the two rivers. It was in the Indian home (perhaps the Indus Valley) that we suppose for them that their culture developed. There their writing may have been invented, and progreesed from a purely pictorial to a simplified and abbreviated form, which afterwards in Babylonia took on its peculiar 'cuneiform' appearance owing to it being written with a square-ended stylus on soft clay. On the way they left the seeds of their culture in Elam. This seema a plausible theory of Sumerian origins."6

Sumerian power and influence began to wane with the downfall of Ibi-sin, the last of the Sumerian kings from the Third Dynasty of Ur (2357 B.C.). After this period, the Sumerian throne passed to the Semitic rulers of Isin (2357 - 2132 B.C.). But the Sumerian language continued to be treated as a sacred medium for literary and religious purposes for about three hundred years by the Semitic rulers of Babylonia.

More than 3000 Sumerian tablets have been recovered from the buried cities of Sumerian civilization. Undoubtedly a major portion of these tablets belong to the last period of Sumerian history, especially to the era immediately after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur when Sumerian was no longer spoken in the palace. Literary Periods With the growth and decline of Sumerian power in Babylonia, their language also had passed through many phases. The 1500 years of Sumerian linguistic development may be divided into the folowing periods of major linguistic changes. (1). The Archaic Period: 3500 - 3000 B.C The tablets of this early period are pictographic in origin, archaic in character, and are mainly stone inscriptions. (2). The Ur-Dynastic Period: 3000 - 2400 B.C. The tablets of this period of the Three dynasties of Ur are in the main clay tablets written in the Cuneiform (i.e. 'wedge shaped') script developed from the earlier pictographic signs.9 The writing is mainly syllabic13 in character with separate signs for the four vowels. (3). The Sumero-Babylonian Period: 2400 - 2000 B.C. This period covers the dynasties of Isin (2357-2132 B.C.), Larsa and Babylon (2232-1928 B.C.).10 The characteristics of the Sumerian language during this Sumero-Babylonian Period had changed considerably and much Semitic influence is traced. Many of the Sumerian epics were composed during this period. The writing system shows that the cuneiform script had been fully conventionalized and its pictographic origin had been lost with the passage of time.

The Sumerian language of the Archaic (3500 - 3000 B.C.) and Ur- dynastic (3000 - 2400 B.C.) periods had preserved well its Proto- Dravidian elements. The vocabulary of these earlier periods shows that these are essentially Dravidian, with few, if any, foreign elements in it. The last phase of the Sumerian language exhibits some un-Dravidian characteristics especially in the areas of phonetics and compound- formation. Literary Periods With the growth and decline of Sumerian power in Babylonia, their language also had passed through many phases. The 1500 years of Sumerian linguistic development may be divided into the folowing periods of major linguistic changes. (1). The Archaic Period: 3500 - 3000 B.C The tablets of this early period are pictographic in origin, archaic in character, and are mainly stone inscriptions. (2). The Ur-Dynastic Period: 3000 - 2400 B.C. The tablets of this period of the Three dynasties of Ur are in the main clay tablets written in the Cuneiform (i.e. 'wedge shaped') script developed from the earlier pictographic signs.9 The writing is mainly syllabic in character with separate signs for the four vowels. (3). The Sumero-Babylonian Period: 2400 - 2000 B.C. This period covers the dynasties of Isin (2357-2132 B.C.), Larsa and Babylon (2232-1928 B.C.).10 The characteristics of the Sumerian language during this Sumero-Babylonian Period had changed considerably and much Semitic influence is traced. Many of the Sumerian epics were composed during this period. The writing system shows that the cuneiform script had been fully conventionalized and its pictographic origin had been lost with the passage of time.

Thus the Sumerian language of Dravidian origin gradually gave way to Semitic Babylonian, leaving its imprints deep in the sands of time.

3. Sumerian Alphabet

There are 18 alphabetic characters in the Sumerian language. Vowels (4): a, i, u, e. Stephen Langdon defines the vowel sounds as follows: "The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four vowel sounds, low back14 ā, high back ū with labial rounding, mid-palatal ē and front palatal ī. It is probable that, when a separate vowel sign was employed for any of these vowels, the long vowel was inserted. To express any of these sounds in combination with consonants separate syllabic signs had to be chosen.12

There was no contrast in vowel-length in Sumerian.

Consonants (14): k, g, g, t, d, p, b, m, n, r, l, , s, z. s and g are sometimes rendered into 'sh' and 'h' respectively. The phonemic characteŕ of these letters is yet to s̆be reconstructed. ̌ ́ ̳

The entry into Sumerian of elements of Semitic pronunciation may be due to the cosmopolitan population of the main Sumerian cities. According to Leon Legrain, at about 2200 B.C., "at Nippur three-fifths of the inhabitants were Sumerians and two-fifths Semites".11

Thus the Sumerian language of Dravidian origin gradually gave way to Semitic Babylonian, leaving its imprints deep in the sands of time.

3. Sumerian Alphabet

There are 18 alphabetic characters in the Sumerian language. Vowels (4): a, i, u, e. Stephen Langdon defines the vowel sounds as follows: "The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four vowel sounds, low back ā, high back ū with labial rounding, mid-palatal ē and front palatal ī. It is probable that, when a separate vowel sign was employed for any of these vowels, the long vowel was inserted. To express any of these sounds in combination with consonants separate syllabic signs had to be chosen.12

There was no contrast in vowel-length in Sumerian.

15 END NOTES

1 Arno Poebel: Grammatical Texts, The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1914, p.9

2 AJSL, Vol. 28 (1911), p.66

3 Samuel Noah Kramer: The Sumerians, their History, Culture and Character, The University of Chicago Press, 1963, p.3

4 David Diringer: Writing, New York, 1962, p. 35-36

5 Leonard Woolley: Ur of the Chaldees, New York, 1930, p. 19-20

6 H.R. Hall: The Ancient History of the Near East, London, 1913, p. 172-173.

7 Leon Legrin: Royal Inscriptions and Fragments from Nippur and Babylon, The University Museum, philadelphia, 1926, p.5

8 Stuart Piggot: The Chronology of Prehistoric North-West India, Ancient India, Vol.I, 1946, p.19

9 Geo A. Barton: The origin and Development of Babylonian Writing, Leipzig, 1913, p. xv

10 Stephen Langdon: A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, Paris, 1911, p.5

11 Leon Legrain: Royal Inscriptions and Fragments from Nippur and Babylon, p.4

12 Stephen Langdon: A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, Paris, 1911, p.33-34.

16 SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE COGNATE SETS COGNATE SETS COGNATE SETS SUMERIAN: A DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE Sumerian lexical items exhibit a rich variety of regional and social Sumerian lexical itemsCOGNATE exhibit SETS a rich variety of regional and social Sumerian lexical items exhibit a rich variety of regional and social dialects. A large number of deciphered tablets show that these are dialects. A large number of deciphered tablets show that these are personal Sumerian records lexical of merchants items exhibit and a richpriests. variety As ofsuch, regional they andnatural socially exhibit personal records of merchants and priests. As such, they naturally exhibit dialects.idiosyncrasies A large of numbervarious oftypes. deciphered In the absencetablets show of any that historical these are grammar idiosyncrasies of various types. In the absence of any historical grammar personalof Sumerian, records itof ismerchants not always and priests. possible As such,to select they natural a standardly exhibit form for idiosyncrasiesof Sumerian, of it various is not types. always In the possible absence ofto anyselect historical a standard grammar form for comparative study. In the present work, Dravidian cognates or ofcomparative Sumerian, it study.is not alwaysIn the possible present to selectwork, a Dravidianstandard form cognates for or correspondences, given for 501 selected Sumerian forms. Some of these comparativecorrespondences, study. givenIn thefor 501present selected work, Sumerian Dravidian forms. cognates Some or of these forms show a number of variants and where such variants are considered correspondences,forms show a number given for of 501variants selected and Sumerian where such forms. variants Some ofare these considered to be of phonetic interest, they are included in the list. formsto be showof phonetic a number interest, of variants they andare whereincluded such in variants the list. are considered to be of phonetic interest, they are included in the list. Though the selection of items is arbitrary, the list is expected to Though the selection of items is arbitrary, the list is expected to demonstrate Though thethe bselectionasic principle of items of isthe arbitrary, regularity the of list phonetic is expected change. to In the demonstrate the basic principle of the regularity of phonetic change. In the demonstratepast, Sumerian the b asicvowels principle were of thetreated regularity as of of phoneticunpredictable change. and In the changing past, Sumerian vowels were treated as of unpredictable and changing past,nature, Sumerian much asvowels were thosewere treatedin Assyrian. as of Thisunpredictable erroneous and view changing seems due to nature,nature, much much as as were were those those in Assyrian. in Assyrian. This Thiserroneous erroneous view seems view dueseems to due to too great a semantic approach. tootoo great great a asemantic semantic approach. approach. The Proto-Dravidian retentions, such as the kinship terms, numerals, The The Proto Proto-Dra-Dravidianvidian retentions, retentions, such suchas the as kinship the kinship terms, numerals,terms, numerals, and demonstratives, find a special place in this list of cognate sets. The andand demonstratives,demonstratives, find find a special a special place place in this in listthis of list cognate of cognate sets. The sets. The itemsitems areare arranged arranged in inthe thefollowing following order order based based in the in18 the Sumerian 18 Sumerian items are arranged in the following order based in the 18 Sumerian alphabeticalphabetic characters. characters. The The following following numbers numbers indicate indicate the initial the positioninitial position alphabetic characters. The following numbers indicate the initial position ofof the the items. items. of the items. a a : : 1 1 - 54- 54 u a : : 55 1 - 94- 54 u : 55 - 94 i/e u : : 95 55 - 108 - 94 i/e : 95 - 108 k/g, i/e ǵ : : 109 95- 176 - 108 k/g, ǵ : 109 - 176 t/d k/g, ǵ : : 177 109 - 239- 176 t/d : 177 - 239 p/b t/d : : 240 177 - 303 - 239 p/b : 240 - 303 m p/b : : 304 240 - 364 - 303 n m : : 365 304- 383 - 364 m : 304 - 364 r n : : 384 365 - 402- 383 n : 365 - 383 r r : : 403 384 - 409 - 402 r : 384 - 402 s ̆ r : : 410 403- 438 - 409 s r ̆ : : 439 403 - 483 - 409 s̆ : 410 - 438 z s ̆ : : 484 410 - 501- 438 s : 439 - 483 s : 439 - 48317 z : 484 - 501 z : 484 - 501

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TABLE

Su = Sumerian Ta = Tamil. Ma = Malayalam. Ka = Kannada. Ko = Kota. To = Toda. Tu = Tu u Kod = Kodagu. ḷ Te = Telugu. Ga = Gadba. Kol = Kolami. Nk = Naiki. Pa = Parji. Go = Gondi. Kon = Konda Kui = Kui Kuw = Kuwi Kur = Kurukh Malt = Malto Br = Brahui.

1 2 3 4 5 6 Elder Father Parent Mother Mother Mother Father Elder Woman Sumerian ab a a-a ag am dav abba ad aga-rin ama dam ad-da Tamil appu attan ai y a avvai appa attai aiya t ammai tavvai appi atti ayya tā ammammā Malayalam appun̳ ayyann̳ tayiāy amma appan accann̳ āyār n̳ Kannada apa atte aya yi amma avve appa ati ayya t ama avva appi ajja ā Kota ayn āYy amn av Toda eyi toy af in ā Tulu appa atte a ya t amma abbe ajje Kodagu appe ayye tāyi amme a vve Telugu appa a tta a ya t ama avva Gadba ta āyiya Kolami ayy āyi amma Naiki ā aāyma amma Parji ā iya avva Gondi po y awwal awhari Konda ā ātī ayaāyo Kui po ata aia ama aja ā ia Kuwi appa atta ya amma Kurukh ajjos a Malto ajji aī yya Brahui bav aiyō a

mmā

19 7 8 9 10 11 12 Suppli- Secret Grind Six Ditch Paste cation Sumerian a-ra-zu a-ra-a ara a a a asa Tamil a nku marai arai cai a akku ma aivu aravu s̆ aris̆ a u aṭakkam āru akaār i ā Malayalam aṭannuka marar̳ arekka u akir ṭṭ atakkukaṭ ma avu aki ṛ aṭakkam ār̳ akil Kota a g- marṛ arv- r avdḷ- asa aṭk- a arkaṛ m ā˙ aṛkm ṭ Toda o g ṭ ma are- o.r a - oṛ k- oḍ ̣ km r̳ ḍ Kannada ṛ ma e are agar asa aḍagu ma agu ari agur a u aadaṅguaku mar̳ahu āru ga te aḍ aka mar̳isu agi ṭṭ Tulu ḍ madepr̳ - arep- ji agaruṛ a u denguniḍ marer̳ Kodagu aadēvuniaka- mare ara a.riā ṇ ṭ Telugu a agu ma ugu u aga ta a u aḍ acu ma uvu daguḍ ṛ rācu ār̳ ḍ ṇ ṭ Kolami ḍ r̳ agul- a - Naiki - att- Gondi ḍ āng m rāk ār ṭ ḍ hāp akstā aritā hārum Konda margmakā- Sārung As- Kui sajārū

adāpapa rāga Malto aārpage masge arge asge aṭke Kurukh ṛ marna Kuwi ṛ rāẓa assali soyyē arkhnā assgnā 20 13 14 15 16 17 18 Sigh Direct Grace Lotus Reed Ocean Send Lily Tank Sumerian asir a annu am ama ab a er ag anir agis̆ Tamil aears̆ anuppu anpu amai ayar anu añar a i āmpal āvi a am Malayalam asati anuppu anpuṇ ama ayar ampuṇ Kannada sur ampaka a pu Āmpal āvi asa ayila̳ ṇ ābal Tulu r̳ Telugu asuru anupu āsaru ampu āmbalu

19 20 21 22 23 24 Rule Crab Weave Canal Strengt Cow Conque Net Sluice h r Sumerian al al a-lan al a ab al-tar al-lu al gal al lal par Tamil alava allu - a ai na ir vala a an aāḷ ar ña un̳ valai kāl a̳ ḷ ā ṇ ṭ naḷ i ṇ Malayalam ṇukaṭ ñaṇ tṭu vala -kal ḷḷ Kannada āḷ nalliṇ allu a a ā a la i bale klive a avi ān Kota aāḷ - nay val kāl ḷ ā v Tulu ṇ ḍ āri deñjiḷḷ bale ḷ āvu Kodagu a.lṇ ña ḷ i a˙ Telugu ālu, e ri kālive al vi Gondi ṇ ḍ ella ēlika ēlu ṇ ḍ 21 kāla a̳ āvu ēṭē lāv yantī 19 20 21 22 23 24 Rule Crab Weave Canal Strength Cow Conque Net Sluice r Sumerian al al a-lan al a ab al-tar al-lu al gal al lal par Tamil alava allu - a ai na ir vala a an aāḷ ar ña un̳ valai kāl a̳ ḷ ā ṇ ṭ naḷ i ṇ Malayalam ṇukaṭ ñaṇ tuṭ vala -kal ḷḷ Kannada āḷ nalliṇ allu a a ā a la i bale klive a avi ān Kota aāḷ - nay val kāl ḷ ā Tulu ṇ ḍ āri deñjiḷḷ bale ḷ āvu Kodagu a.lṇ ña ḷ i a˙v Telugu ālu e ri kālive al vi Gondi ṇ ḍ ella ēlu, ēlika ṇ ḍ kāla a̳ āvu ēṭē lāv yantī

22 25 26 27 28 29 30 What Who I Five Roar Blaze Which Whoever How, Why Sumerian a- aba a a a ar an, ta abi ma, mae ia ar ana, ta-a aba-am ga, gae i ene m ebi gin Tamil ai aral ,tā aintu a ai eyār, ār evayār̳ yān̳ ār Malayalam ēn̳ yāvan̳ nān̳ ai r̳ - aral entun̳ n̳ evann̳ añcu aracu Kota ennumyā, ēn evnyāvan ñānn ay, anj ārkkr- a c- Toda e-, in o n uz, uj, oy sf a Kannada a˙ ay ȧ aralṛ en, enna avame˙ o˙ aydu arcuo˙ s̳ Tulu yā, ā yāvanu ān ai araār - arlu- nān ainu - arate Telugu dā, dāne ēraneu yānu ay- a aru entaeñca, vā a yēnu aracuārk Kolami eē,- , ēmi enan emēva ḍ a*nēnu ayd ārcu ḍ t ned ēbiv ḍ nēnu aidē tand se- ȧ n e˙ Naiki e an, enta˙ a, ta tanen̳ ēn ān Parji o,ṭ na - nato cem Gadba ār̳ ēd ān cē argār -

Kodagu ennmēna evnēyn ḍ ānn ay, anj r Gondi enādin̳ saiyung ben a˙ hayyung a˙ bāh, bāng bōl anā Konda nāna Kui an-, ani ani singiyeīng anakiēm, ini embaiēn nān Kuwi ena, eneki ambasi nanu,ānu ma ārpa Kurukh endr Malto ikni nere en ārnai indrik nē, nēnē ēn Brahui antai, amaant, arā dēr ī dē 23 31 32 33 34 35 36 Way Foe Times Praise Heap Skin Enemy Turns Exalt Pile Sumerian ara ari ara ar ar ag ara ari ara Tamil u ari a ai cari a ai ār̳ tāri ār aārukku ṭṭ Malayalam attiṭ Kota r aṭg- Toda ārur sāri odg- Kannada arala˙ aṛ aku a e o˙ a a Tulu sāri aḍ i aṭṭe Telugu sāre aḍ aḍ a a sāri ṭṭ ṭṭ sāri ḍ ṭṭ

37 38 39 40 41 42 Servant Man One Carder Examine Strong Male of wool Investig- ate Sumerian as̆ as̆ as̆ as̆lak as̆-teg as̆er Tamil accu y al Malayalam āḷ āḷ accu ārā ār al āṇ ār̳r̳ Kota āḷl āḷl ārāyryek ār̳r̳ Kannada āṇ accu a˙ a˙ a˙ Kodagu āḷli āḷni ārāy ār Tulu u āṇu acci āke Telugu a˙ a˙ accu u Kur āḷ āḷ āraisu Brahui asit ārayu āṭ āl āl asi

24 43 44 45 46 47 48 Water Ear of Hand Spittle Desire Do Watery corn Vomit Love Make Sumerian a, me an a a a , aga a e, ami anu ag, aka ag, ak Tamil kai ǵ s̆ u akku ām kakkukāru akamār ayarāṭ Malayalam āl kai kāl aavāivu kakku Kota āl kay kāru akmṛ ākku Toda koy kak- arkyn Kannada - ka ki kay karkukār a kar āk ku kayi kakku arti āl ń akkaṛ e Tulu - kaṅ kai arka- Telugu ennu kakk- akkarar̳ āl vennu kāru Go sen kaicēyi kahe- Naiki - Ga ār cennu ki Kur amm, a khekkkī - ākk Malto amm qeqe qagre

49 50 51 52 53 54 Measur Call Cavity Sky Frost Lute e Cry Hole Sumerian ag ag ab an asugi al aga aka ana Tamil a a akavu a ai a cir r̤ akaval a cirai Malayalam aḷa- akiru- aḷa vān̳ r̳ yā Kota a v- a m r̳ Toda aḷ- oḷb vān Kannada aḷe ḷ Va˙n aykil ḷ ḷ banapo˙n Tulu aḷa bān Telugu alavi Kur ḷ alp 25 bāna vāna

49 50 51 52 53 54 Measure Call Cavity Sky Frost Lute Cry Hole Sumerian

Tamil ag ag ab an asugi al ̤ aga aka ana Malayalam aḷa akavu aḷai v ā n̳ ar̳ cir yār Kota akaval ar̳cirai Toda aḷa- akiru- aḷa vān Kannada aḷv- aḷ Va˙nm aḷ- oḷb po˙n Tulu aḷe bān aykil Telugu bana Kur aḷa bāna alavi vāna alp

26 55 56 57 58 59 60 Plough One That Daylight Pourout Fix Unanim- Yonder Heat Spit Plant ous Sumerian ur ur, uru ur udda ur, uru uru u u, ru ul u, ud us̆ Tamil uru u uru ugʹ u avu s̆ u utu uruppu tu u ōr, on̳ -r̳ ū, u ūnru r̤ oru,u on̳ n̳ ūru Malayalam u n̳ukan̳ orum uumbar - or̳r̳ a u - uru- Kota ugr̤ - ōr, onnu - umi- r̤ ūnnu- u t- oru, or̳r̳ r̤iy - Toda u f- or u˙n, u˙ḷ ufury- ūs u˙n ṛ osd̳ ̆ u˙r ut- u˙v Kannada urṣ ̤ wi˙r, wid̳ u˙ru ur̤ata o unne urpu ugur̤ ukke ōr, ondu ū, udu uruluuri ugarugi ūr̳ Kodagu - orgu - Tulu u u oggu unduulli - urau˙ḷ - ori, ondi uri uu˙r - Telugu dunnuḍ or, oñji uri ukālu ūru dunu oru u uralu ubbi ṇ ḍ orima uriyu ummi ūnu Kolami ur- oṇ ḍ - ul, u umiyu- ūdu Naiki urdukki- oka ūyu- Parji u - okko- ṭ uccu˙s -, u - ud- Gadba - ukokko- ūs - un up- Gondi uṛ na ok- ūd, ūr, ut urj uc- ṛ - uūḍ urj uskūc, us- ḍ uranaṛa̳ ōṛ , undī u - ursā Konda uḍ-āna ond,-, un uṇ ḍ i run urs- Kui uwa oko, unca ruta ṛiy uha, usa Kuwi ṛ or r̳i ṛ ro ō, oko Kurukh ruiyali rō- ū, hū urkh- ūhali usslunais ūmba uhinai ugtauinā or hū, hūda ullā ūdnā Malto usea̳ ōn hūs, hūr ulleorna urqe udu ōnd Brahui ort uthi hush- ond orthee ō, ōd ōng

27 61 62 63 64 65 66 Shear City Cry Be Strength Finger- Strip off Create nail Sumerian ur ur ul ur u um-bin gur uru uš ur kur uš Tamil uri uru- uran uruvu u aru u u uti ūr ulampuūli u u Malayalam uriyu- ḷi uḷ uramr̳ ukir uruka u a - ur̳ - Kota ūr ūḷ utḷ- orp- ḷ r̳ ṇ ṭ Toda us̆t- u˙r ōḷ u - u˙r Kannada uricu u ura u ugur ore u˙r uli uṭ u uūṇ u u˙r Kodagu ūr oliūḷ uḷ ṭ oy Tulu uṭṭ ṭṭ uguru uu˙ri - puḷḷ - Telugu (u)cu ūru uḷḷdu uridi u ṇ ḍ uliyu puṭṭu ukku Kolami uūḍ p- ūru ūla puṇ - gōṛ Parji puṭṭ- Gondi ḍ u˙r puṭṭ- go˙r Konda puṭṭ- gēri Kui ṭṭ gēre Kuwi ṭ gōru Kur ūg ulkh ogōrakh Malto o ku olge orgugōrū Brahui urnā buttā ṛ Malto ṛ Brahui ur us hōr

28 67 68 69 70 71 72 Loose Flesh Spell Body Hip Recite Trunk Sumerian u-gu u-zu us̆ ur ur u Tamil uku uccari u al u rai utampu ukkam ū otu ṭ ūtu ūn Malayalam ppun̳ u̳ rakka u alm ukkam otu Kolami ūkka- ū u̳ oṭ o ūṇ - Toda - ūn wi uxūc- u˙ ṛḷ ṛ u˙d Kannada uguūc ura o ṛaḷḷ u i u˙ṇa ggu o ambi so a u i Tulu uḍ alu oḍ a ūṭ ū oḍ alu soṇ ṭa ṇ ṇ Telugu uggadiūggu oḍ alu ṇ ṭ ūta Kui ōdu ḍ ṇ ṭ Kuwi ūcu ḍ ūju ūjū

73 74 75 76 77 78 Storm Red Roof Worm Side Dry up Blood House Spider Near Sumerian u ur us̆ ud ur ugu us lag uugʹs̆ usuugʹ Tamil kuruti ulu uri ular ucu ura- ularu Malayalam ūtu kuruti kūrai ulumpu uri ularuka Kota ūtai Toda ūttu kūra Kannad u˙d

Tulu ūdu Telugu ūbu Brahui ūdu ura ūdu

29 79 80 81 82 83 84 Move Goat At once Dog Wanting Wall Ascend Sheep Strength Protection Enclosure Sumerian ur u, uz ud ur u-lal u-bar udu Tamil uta u an ucci u al cuvar u a ci Malayalam ūr ḷ uṭan ur̤aluka cuvar r̤ r̳ cumar Kannada ūr odanṭ ucci ur̤al o a Kota ucg- r̤ Toda usk- ḍ Kodagu kevan

85 86 87 88 89 90 Marsh Drum Mould Dry up Cover Light Swamp Push Star Sumerian ub us̆ub ud uru ul Tamil umar- u u ural utir u ai o i umirumagʹ- uta u Malayalam umar- uṭu- ural utir- ur̳a oḷi Kannada udirr̳ o e u ku ṭ udaru r̳ uḷuku udur r̳ ḷ Tulu uduru- ore oḷi udaru Kota or ḷ Telugu udaru o a uduru Parji orar̳ Gadba udurp- Kur u Malt u e ullu ṭnā ṭ

30 91 92 93 94 95 96 Spirit Guard Behold New Speak House Mood Watch Moon Speech Sumerian ur ur u u-s̆a i, e in u-di in, en e, en u-dug eme e Tamil u ar ukk- ut e il uto uvavu illams̆ Malayalam uṇ ar ukk- u̳ uvā ennn̳ - il Kota in- Toda ṇ uvāvu in- Kannada o ar ukk- en ennu ṇ embu imbu Kodagu u enn- ill- emb- Tulu ukk- ṇ āv inp- illu Telugu illu in Kol in-, en ella Naiki ellaṭī Parji en- il Gadba in- Gondi - il Konda in- ilu indā in Kui inba i u ispa ḍ Kuwi in- illuḍ Kurukh e Malto Brahui ṛpā

31 97 98 99 100 101 102 Oil Ascent Drag Fire This Two Fat Lift Both Sumerian i, ia il il iz, giz ir min li ili gis̆ (ir) ni el gir nis Tamil i utu i u kiccu i vi utu u ici itu i ai, iru neyr̤ eēl u r̤ iramin, u īr Malayalam vir̤utu eēr̳u k- ṇr, iru ney r̤ ituīn̳ ra ṇ ṭu Kota nayr̤ ervr̤ - iīr̤v- tic ī ī Toda niy o f- ixy tic i, il ṇ ṭ isfḷ kic̆ i, ī im,i˙r, eyimud̳ Kannada ney ṛ kiccu i˙r, e˙d y u i kircu idu iru, era erbuēṛ eīr̤ e ittaī irmeīr, eradu nē ebbuēr̳ r̤ imme r̤ Kodagu ney r̤ titti ir e i illi imma Tulu neyi erpue˙ḷ iggui˙ḷ - kittu ī iru ḍ kiccu ra u Telugu neyyi ucu kittu ī iggu ciccu a iruḍ ḍ Kol ney llēcues- īḍ kis ī irīr-, indir Naiki neynēyi kicc ī ḍ ir- ī inding Parji ney lēp kic ī ir, i du Gadba ney kis ir, kiccu ī, id in iṛ Gondi - kis ir,ī, idiru -, ran Konda sisu runḍ i Kui nī īsāripa siso , ihti īr ḍ Kuwi ī ḍ nīju ḍ hi u ī rī, rīhe Kurukh netanīyu cicchīcu ī rī, ri ẓ ẓ Malto nenya iceīcnā cicu ir,īr, īsih iwr,irb, ē -ṛis Brahui si - īsna , ira

hēf 32 irāṭ 103 104 105 106 107 108 God Sweet Still Just- Seize Village King now Drag City Goddess Sumerian irres̆, ni gin inga i-de ir er erres̆ eri nir, in nin, im en Tamil i ai i i um i aiva i i ito ir̳aivi n̳ n̳ n̳ ītā īr cēri Malayalam r̳ n n̳ iniman̳ ini r̳ inpam Kota irā iītāy īru cēri Toda rān inm i f Kannada e e in inu ineḷ ke˙ry e eya ini innum ṣ ke˙ry er̳ati irpu īr kēri Kodagu r̳ innu ikka Tulu r̳ impu itte Telugu e a incu ke˙ri inka kēri Kolami r̳ īga seergēri Naiki Parji Gadba Gondi

idrā

33 109 110 111 112 113 114 Liquor Bind Land Fruit Dark Bowl Black Sumerian ka-ran kad kalam ka kan kan kas̆ kanag garan kam ga Tamil ka ka u ka am kalam s̆ ka ari ka i ka u Malayalam kaḷ kaṭṭu kalamḷ kāy kār kalam ka u ke u kaḷ i kan̳ i kar̳u Kota kaḷ kaṭ ṭ ka m kāy karpkār kalm Toda ḷḷ koṭṭ kolḷḷ n̳ kar̳ Kannada kalḷ kaṭ u kaḷa ka˙y kala ka u ṭ ka ṇa kaniko˙y kar̳e kallu ṭṭ ḷ kāy kār Kodagu kaḷḷi ke kaṇa karar̳ kala Tulu kali ka u kala ru kara Telugu kalluḷḷ kaṭṭu kaḷ amu ka˙y ṭṭ kalanu kaniyukāyi kakā a Kol kal kaṭ-ṭ kaḷaveḷ kaykāyu- kāru Naiki ka ka t- kalave - r̳ Parji kattṭ - kaliḷ kerkārī ḷ kaṭ k- kāyk Gadba ka - kalin karid Gondi kal kaḍt- ka ka ial kadda ṭ kariyal Konda ka u ṭ kaṛanā kāyā ṛ kala Kui kalu kalai krumu kali Kuwi ṛ kraṛ ka u kamkāu - kadia Kurukh kārū khalln̳ ū khanjkāiya- karakāria- Malto ḍ qalukalōmi qanje kale Brahui shahd khar kalan

ḍ

34 115 116 117 118 119 120 Soup See Eye Gnaw Cut off Limit Look Grind Reap Boundary Sumerian kam gan en gaz a ar kin gaza gaz Tamil kañci ka kaccu ariǵ s̆ kaǵ ai - aru Malayalam kaññi kān kaṇ ari- kaṭa ār- aru- Kota kaj- kān kaṇ arv- kaṭ ār- Toda koj ka˙n- koṇ koc- a f- kaṛ - ār ark- Kannada gañji ko˙ṇ- kaṇ karcu arir̳ kaḍ eĕ ar- kaccu a u ga e Tulu gañji kān - kaṇ u kaccu- arp- kaḍ e - r̳ gaḍ u Kodagu kañji kānu kaṇ niṇ ara- kaḍ e Telugu ganji kārnu kanu a u kaḍ a arka˙- ṇ kannuṇ ḍ Kol kana̳ - kan kacc- arkr̳ - ḍ Naiki kank- kan Parji ka dpḍ - kan kacc- ka a Gadba ka dp- ka Gondi ṇ kan kask- ḍ ṇ kaṇ kacc- Konda r y- ka Kui kanuṛ kasa Kuwi he̅ nai kannṇ kaca- ēra ka - Kurukh e̅ khannu̅ khass ẓ ẓ Malto erekhannā qanu qaswe asye Brahui khanērna - khan harr-

35 121 122 123 124 125 126 Growl Throat Red Gnaw Rob Stone Neck Grind Rock Sumerian ka-du kaxu gan gar gal ar kaxli gam gal sa ǵ Tamil kattu ka uttu ce- ka i kal kal cem ka i ka vu r̤ kem- ṭ Malayalam ka uttu cem- kar̳i- kaḷkkạ - kal cona ka u- ka avu kallu r̤ kem ṭ ḷ Kota ka tl ken kayr̳ - kaḷv- kal Toda ko- ko y- ko v- kas ṛ ṛ ḷ ka Kannada kattu kattu ke k ṛ i kaḷ kal ga alu kem k u ka vu kallul� ga lu keñci kara̳ ḍ ḷ Kod ṇ ṭ kem kaa̳ ṭ i kaḷ- kalli ṇ ṭ ken Tulu ka elu canna kaḍ e- kaḷavu kallu genda kaje- ṇ ṭ kem- ḍ ḷ Telugu kem- u kalla kallu cem ka i karacukāṭ Kolami ḍ Naiki Parji key kel Gadba ga li kan Gondi - Konda gaḍ li ka - kaluḍ Kui kallā Kuwi ḍ ṭ Kurukh kh ser kh so kāra kakāralia khalb e̅ e̅ kasnakhārnā kharnā Malto qasru qeso qareṭṭn̳ qale qa e Brahui gardan kh sun khal ṭ ı̅ 36 127 128 129 130 131 132 Guard Making Rites Ox Heart Customs Breast Sumerian gar gar, gag kar garzu ar gab kak (dam)kar kin ǵ Tamil kai k ai ka an ai i ka am Malayalam kā- ka̳ ṭa kaṭan kāḷa kara kavalkāval ankāṭi ṭ Kota kā kek a̳ ṭ y ṭ kāḷ karl ḷ Toda - kek ogoaṅṅāṭy Kannada ka˙v geyta angadianga˙d ka a karu ko˙f keyta d̳ Kodagu kā - key a ga i ḍ e kari ḷ Tulu kāhu- gai- angādii kara u ka˙ gey- ṇ ḍ kāḷ Telugu kā aṅgaḍ i ḷ

Kolami kaykācu- kak aaṅgagaḍ i Parji kāvali a go Gadba key ṇ ḍ Konda kāp ki- ṇ ḍ Gondi kkāp - Naiki a i Kui e̅ pā- kivakīān a̅ giva ṇ gāṛ Kuwi kāt Kurukh - Malto qapekācali kīnai Brahui khāp - kann- kharas khad

khwāf

37 133 134 135 136 137 138 Wind Be reflect- Hasten Add Anus Storm Exist ion Buttocks Sumerian gal gal gal ka kud ku gallu sud Tamil kala karutu kas̆u u kun i u kali karuttu ka i- ku u kāl ka - ṭ kūṭ ṭ Malayalam kār̳r̳u karutu kaṭuk ṭuṭ kunkūti i ṇ ṇ ku u Kota kār̳r̳ kart ṭ kūṭ- ṭ kuṭ ṭ kūti Toda ka˙t kūr kuṭ- Kannada karu ka u kūr kundekūey kuṭa go e ḍ kurisukūdu Kodagu ka ip ṭ - goḷḷe ku - Tulu ka˙ti kaḍ u kūd ḷḷ Telugu kalu- ka u ṭ ku e ḍ kurcukūdu kūdi Kolami kal- ḍ kūdu ṭṭ Kuwi kalg Brahui sal

38 139 140 141 142 143 144 Sip Neck Write Pound Adore Horse Drink Throat Sketch Crush Worship

Sumerian ku gu gur kum gub kur gu gud gur gum gum Tamil ku i kural ku i kummu kutirai kumai kumpi u Malayalam kuṭi kural kur̳i kummu kūppu kutira kuma kump-ṭ Kota kuṭy kurr̳ kubkūppu- kudyr kumi e Toda kuṛ t ku y kum kub- - ṭ Kannada kuḍ i koral kurir̳ kummu kumbu kudire kora gu i gummu kūḍ kudure Tulu kuḍ kurelu guri kudure Kodagu ku i kora ḷ kurir̳ kumm kudire ḍ gurti Telugu kuḍ u- gu utu kummu kudira gummu gu amu Kolami ḍ r̳ gurram r̳r̳ Naiki ghurram Parji gurrol Gondi kurum Kuwi Brahui huli surgūrumi-

39 145 146 147 148 149 150 Mount- Cry Lord Food Ox Crane ain Bird Sumerian kur gu ku kur gu kur-gi gug gud Tamil ku - i kuruku ku u ko kokku Malayalam kunnur̳ kū kō kūr̤ kūḷ kuriyan kun̳ ur̳ kukukūvu- konn̳ kuru Kota kūvu kō kūr̤ y Toda kur̳ - ko k Kannada ko a ku˙ gūḷ kokku d̳ s̳ ku˙x ku˙ s̆ Kodagu kundiṇ ḍ kū - kūr̤ i Tulu gu e kukūgugu u korngu ku˙ kuku˙uḷ Telugu koḍ ḍ a kukūr u k -kuru ḷ kokkera Kolami ṇ ḍ kūka- ḍ ko̅ ḍ e̅ ko ga Naiki kūyu- Parji kondi kūg ko̅ ḍ dae̅ kulurn̳ kūg kokkal Gadba kūy kōc kondo̅ ṇ Konda kuluri Gondi ku u gūy - kōsu k ndae̅ korukukokkāle Kui s ru kūk k di kuluri ṛ kūss o̅ kohko Kuwi o̅ kūpka ko̅ di kongi Malto kukre Brahui hōru o̅ -

khuūr

151 152 153 154 155 156 House Nest Stab Water- Hollow Cut Slay Jar Sumerian gul gud gud kud u gur kud kud kur Tamil ku i u kuttu ku am kuǵ s̆ai ku ai ku il ku uvai ku i ku u ṭ kūṭ ṭ̣ kuyilṭ r̳ Malayalam kuṭi u kuttu kuṭam kur̤a kurer̳r̳ - ku il ku uva ku i Kota kuṭl kūṭ kut- kormṭ̣ korlr̤ korv- guṭy gud- ṭ r̤ Toda kusṛ gu˙ṛ kud- kurky ku y kwarf- kuṛ y ku kwic- Kannada gu i ku˙ḍu kuttu ko a kod̳ e ko e guṛ il guddu ku ike goṣ agu koreau Kodagu kuḍ i gūḍ ̣ i kutt- kuḍ ike kolḍ- r̳ Tulu guḍ i u kuttu- kuḍ ki kuḍ e kudu- ḍ gu˙ḍ guḍ ke guri Telugu guḍ i gūḍ ̣u guddu kuḍ aka k kuḍ gu ise guḍ aka kukki Kolami guḍ gūḍ ̣ ḍ ö Parji guḍ i a ḍ ku ub kud- Gadba guḍ iı̅ e ku up Gondi ḍ gūḍ ṛ Konda ḍ gūḍ gut- ṛ Kui gu i gūḍeā- kuta Kuwi kutti- graiyu Kurukh kuḍ kīṛ khokrāu krāpa Malto ku ya kūda gutye Brahui kuṛyāi khutt- ḍ rā ṛ ḍ

41 157 158 159 160 161 162 Stoop Below Cut Turn- Pig Foot Bottom Dig back Sumerian gun ki kin-da gi ki gir ki-ta nigi nigin s̆ Tamil k n ki u tiru- - k nu ki a- ke u Malayalam ku̅ nu- kīr kiṇ ṭu tiri kēr̤ kāl ku̅ ni kiẗu ṇ ṭ Kota u̅ - kīr- kejṇ -ṭ tiry- kāl Toda u̅ r̤- ko - tiry- Kannada kku˙nn ki˙ tiri ka˙l gku˙nnu ki˙ ḍ tiru ko˙l u̅ kekīr a kāl Kodagu u̅ kīr̤- tir- ḷ Tulu g nu ki˙ ce - tir- ka˙li ki˙dau Telugu gu̅ nu kīlu ceṇ ḍ u tiri gkārua kunuku kindakīḍ Kol gogu̅ - krī ṇ ḍ tirg- gei̳ṭṭ a kālu Parji kokor- ki i ṭaṭ

Naiki ṛ tirg- gegēṭ a Gadba kēl Gondi ki ṭ ṭ Konda kāl Kui kon- ḍ ḍ ī kāl Kuwi kokāl a Kurukh kiss khekādu kita ḍ ḍ Malto qonqekhōng kiyyā kin e kirekirnā kisu qe ḍuḍ Brahui - tirnā - ḍ ḍ kī kē

42 163 164 165 166 167 168 Ear Mon- Little Tree Bind Store- goose Child Join room Sumerian gi kilim gi gi gir kir ge gin ge ki gels̆ gen gi ke ge s̆ Tamil - s̆ ki s̆ u kitanku ci u s̆ ki ai ki anki Malayalam kātu kīri cicīr u kiṭṭi ki annu cer̳ u kiṭa ṭṭ Kota keyvkātu kīri kirr̳r̳ gi v ṭṭ ṭ Toda kify- kinr̳ ki f kiṭ- ki ṛ Kannada kivi kīri ki u giḍ a kiṭ u gi anki kimi kirdur̳ gi u gi u kittur̳ ḍ giṭuṭ ṭṭ ḍ kiduṭṭ Kodagu kevin kirke gi a kiṭ - ki e Tulu kebi ki˙ri kinni giḍ a kiṭṭu kiriṇ ṇ gi a ḍ ṭṭ Telugu ci u ṭṭ gi angi krepu Kolami kev r̳ ḍ ḍ Parji kekol kike Naiki kev kīke Gadba Gondi kawi kev Konda Kui kiru kirp- Kuwi kran u Kurukh Malto qethwukiriyū ḍ Brahui khafkhebdā-

43 169 170 171 172 173 174 Giddy Bolt Give- Multi- Hear Hair way tude Perish Sumerian gig gil gil ki ge ki gib kil kins̆ s̆ s̆ Tamil ki u- ki ai ki i Malayalam kir̳u- kīl kikīl i ḷ kēḷ Kota kīlam kir̤t ke - Toda r̳ kīlam kir̤ f ke - Kannada gi i ki˙l k ṛ ḷ ke˙l gi u ki˙s kittus̆ ḷ ke˙l Kodagu r̳ kīl ı̅r̤ Tulu gir̳i kīlu kile- - ki˙liu Telugu gir̳a kīlu kēṇ gi u- kīḷ Kolami r̳ kīlu kel- Naiki r̳r̳ keyil- - Kui kelu kēl ke u Gondi klām - kelku ḍ kēnj

44 175 176 177 178 179 180 Scor- Wing Aid Strike Rub Leave pion Help Hammer Abandon Sumerian gir gir da ta tag tag tir ta tag tab,ǵ dab tabǵ sagǵ Tamil ta u ta avu ta u tar- tallu ta a- tarutā ṭṭ ṭ ḷḷ Malayalam ta u taṭavu ta u- t r- tallu tartā - ṭṭ ṭ ḷḷ Kota ker- a̅ ta - ta k ta - - Toda tergy tata˙- toṭ ṛ - toḷ tata˙r ṭ tōḍ ḷ Kannada s̆ ta u ta avu ta u tto˙rr- ta u ta uku tartā ṭṭ ṭ ḷḷ Kodagu terake a̅ taṭ tavḷ - tar- Tulu ked tarta˙- taṭṭav- talpuḍ - ta u tallu Telugu taṭṭu ta avu talguḷḷ - ta incu tavu u ttēeccu ṭṭ ḍ Kolami ti or tēr ṭṭ ḍ Naiki ki or tiṭor Gondi ṭ ta ṭ tatt- Konda -ṛ a̅ dalsānā Kui tapa tattā - Kuwi - - Kurukh tāc ta Malto tāt ta ce ṛnā 45 ṛ 181 182 183 184 185 186 Bright Bind Walk Touch Strike Bright Shine Weave Stretch Seize Crush Glitter

Sumerian dag teg da, dag tag tag dag dal dab tab tab dam deb dab Tamil ta a- ta ai u taka- ta ukku tai-va- ḷ ḷ tavartāṇ ṭ tākku tākku Malayalam ḷ ta a tāvuu -

Kota ta - ḷ tāṇ ṭ- tākku- tākku dag Toda - - Kannada taṇa ta da˙ṭu tagaluta˙k dagg- talku ta i to˙ṭ u taguto˙k ḷ daḷ e dāṭ tāku Kod taḷeḷ tāṇ ṭ ḷ tāgu daḷe Tulu ta a- taleḷ da u tagar- daga ta ḷi dagga Telugu taḷa talagu ṇuṭ tagulu tākuni daga- ta uku ḷḷ tavalu Kolami ḷ dāṭ tāku Parji ḷ - tāpu Gadba da˙t- Naiki tāk Gondi tāk - Konda Kui tākā Kuwi - takitāka Kurukh tāka

Malto taketaknā takrnā

46 187 188 189 190 191 192 Abide Cut Head Fitting Burn Spread- Rest Strike Hair Suitable Blaze out Wide Sumerian dag dar daib te dar dal tag tar tar teg dal ten Tamil ta ku tar talai taku ta al takku ta i takku ta al Malayalam ń tari̳ tala taku r̤ tañcu- taṭi ṇ Kota tataṅṅalg- tayri̳ - tal tarcṭ - Toda tokṇ - tal takoo ta Kannada ta i tale tagu dakku ta e talas̳ takku Kodagu taṅgu tarir̳ tale takka Tulu dak- taripur̳ tare takka taja Telugu dakku ta ugu tala tagu tanuku akku targu tavu Kolami tak- targr̅ - tal tari- - ḍ tavv- Parji tel tar- tāḍ Gadba tal ta - Naiki tak- targ- tal tavv- ṛ Gondi tagg- ta - tāṛ - tarr- ta mi Konda ṛā talatalā tarmī tarā Kui ta - talau ḍ taht- Kuwi ṛā Kurukh - Malto tare talitrāju ta - Brahui tatārnā- tār n̳ ṛ ṛ

47 193 194 195 196 197 198 Thrust Ram Bind Egg Great Weak with horn He-goat Twist Strong Sumerian dag dar d r dar dad tar sag Tamil takar takar taa̳ karu ta a ta ar ta u ta i ta arvu Malayalam takaru takar- tar̳a karu taṭa taḷar- takark- tar̳ukka taṭi ḷ Kota tav- r̳ karv daṭ taḷar Toda tar̳ ṭ Kannada tagar ta i tatti daṭta ḷ tagaru tar̳u tetti da a Tulu tagaru tar̳a- tetti daṭa ta a- agaru r̳ ḍ ḍ da a- Kodagu r̳ ṭ taḷe Telugu tagaruṭ ta upu a ḷ a a ḷ Kuwi darir̳ dāṭ ḍ ḍ

199 200 201 202 203 204 Plan Bran Side Move Accum- God Plate Coarse- Walk ulate Moon flour Sumerian dal dabin da, ta di dirig di-gir di-di din-gir dimmer Tamil ta i tavi u ta u tiri tira tinka taka i tirakku tar̤ u ṭ ṭṭ ḷ ḷ Malayalam ta i r̤ tavi u tiri tira tinka taṭṭu tira u Kota tar̤ ṭ tirk- ter ḷ- tig ḷ Toda taṭ ṭ ṭṭ tigi Kannada taṭ e tavu u ta u tiri teraṇ tingaḷ ṭ tera u ḷ Kodagu taṭṭu ḍ ṭṭ tiri tinga ḷ Tulu ta u tau u tir- tirluḷ tingo u Telugu taṭṭa tav i ta u trimm- teralu Kuwi ṭṭ tavuḍ u ḷ ṭṭ ḍ ṭṭ48 ḍ 193 194 195 196 197 198 Thrust Ram Bind Egg Great Weak with horn He-goat Twist Strong Sumerian dag dar d r dar dad tar sag Tamil takar takar taa̳ karu ta a ta ar ta u ta i ta arvu Malayalam takaru takar- tar̳a karu taṭa taḷar- takark- tar̳ukka taṭi ḷ Kota tav- r̳ karv daṭ taḷar Toda tar̳ ṭ Kannada tagar ta i tatti daṭta ḷ tagaru tar̳u tetti da a Tulu tagaru tar̳a- tetti daṭa ta a- agaru r̳ ḍ ḍ da a- Kodagu r̳ ṭ taḷe Telugu tagaruṭ ta upu a ḷ a a ḷ Kuwi darir̳ dāṭ ḍ ḍ

49 205 206 207 208 209 210 Touch Revive Speak Finish Touch Die Seize Reform Slander End Take Sumerian di ti di til ti tig dig ti-i duttu tig dig tigǵ tin dittu teb tib Tamil u tiruntu ti u tekku u tiruttu tev tīṇ ṭ ṭṭ tīr tevvu Malayalam tīṭṭ u tiruttu- -

Kota tīṇ ṭ - tirt- tīr - tev

Toda ti˙ṇ ḍ tid- tī˙r Kannada u tirdu ti u tege tege ti˙t tiddu tī˙r tegu tegu Kodagu tīḍ - tidd- ṭṭ tīr Tulu tiddu- - teguni tekk- ti˙ṇ ḍ tī˙r teppuni Telugu diddu ti u ttīr tigiyu tegu tivu ṭṭ īru tivvu Kol tiv- tik- Naiki tivv- tikk-

50 211 212 213 214 215 216 Grow Torch Neck Judge- Strong Sleep up Flame ment Powerful Sumerian dig di tig di tin dug dib de din dim dim-ma Tamil timir cekil ti am ti u tī tīr tiṇ i tūnku tirmān̳ Malayalam timitu- tiṇ ṭ tūkkam tirmma ṇ Kota tī - tīru ṇ tūṅṅu- tūkkam Toda ti˙y- ti˙rp- tu˙g- ti˙rma Kannada ti˙y tegal ti˙rc ti a tu˙x ti˙rmo ti u Kod tī tīra ṇ ṇ tūgu- Tulu tīrmānarpu diṇ ḍ u tugatūnkui di e tu˙g - Telugu timuru titū - tī tinukuṇ ḍ ḍ tivuru sū tīrmāna ṇ ḍ tūng Kolami ṇ tīru- tūgu Konda tīrpu- - Naiki tīr Parji tīr dūṇ Gadba tu Gondi Kui ṇ Kuwi Kuruk tunguldrūnga Malto tinqe tumgletūngali Brahui tugh

tungān

51 217 218 219 220 221 222 Sleep Cloth Parts of Assem- Totality dress ble Crowd Be full Sumerian tu tu tun dug du du tu te dub dug dur tug tub dub tur s̆ tub Tamil tuñcu tu i tuppu tumpai tu u tuyil tukil tuppal turuppu turuval tuyiltūcu ṇ tuva u r̳ Malayalam tuñcu tu i tuppu turumpu tu u tuyil tuppal n̳ r̳ tu uku Kota - tuṇ y tub- turgr̳ - tumn r̳ Toda tugūṛ tuṇ y tuf- Kannada sundu dukula tumbu tu uku dugula ṇ tu aku Kod tu i tupptū - dumb- r̳ Tulu tūpu tuppe r̳ ṇ tumbu- Telugu tupu- tuppu Konda Parji tuñ tutt- tuyp- Gadba tuñ Gondi Kui sunja Kuwi hunjā Kurukh sūpa hūnja tuppalhūpali- Malto tupetuppnā tubnā tulgpe Brahui - truj-

tūf

52 223 224 225 226 227 228 Butt- Turn- Open Open Set Touch ocks back free Seize Thigh Return Sumerian dur tur tu ta tu du tur sig tab tug tu ǵ ǵ ǵ tuk Tamil tu ai tiri ti a tu a tu akku s̆ tirumpu tu a- tu ar ṭ r̳ r̳ toṭu Malayalam tu a titi ti r̳akka tutavṭ - tirumpu tu avu toṭu- Kota ṭ tirg- tervr̳ - to v- Toda twa tirk- ter̳- twa - twaṭ - Kannada to e tiri te a to e toṛ u ṛ tirigu ter̳avu r̳ toduḍ Kod toḍ e tir- torar̳ r̳ toḍ - r̳ Tulu toḍ e tirp- tera- torev- toḍ u- Telugu tu i tiri te a to agu to u toḍ a tirugu toragu toṭṭu Parji ṇ ṭ r̳ r̳ oṭṭ- Kol duḍ tirg- ḍ Naiki tirg ṭ ḍ Gondi ṭ - Konda tu h- Malt tirītā tisge taritā totōṛehāna Kur tisig- r̳ tu s- toṛs- Kui tihpatīrnā dari tuhpa ṛ Kuwi tuntu tipali tussali ṛ Brahui tu ing- -

ṛ tōn

53 229 230 231 232 233 234 Tremb- Enter Little Bore Rub Fly le Push in Dig Bee Sumerian tuku tu tur ul dub tum tub tur tul dun sub turra ṭ Tamil tu i tu u turumpu tura tu ai tumpi tu - tu ai tuvaṭ r̳ ṭ Malayalam tutḷi- u- turumpu turaḷ - tu ekka tumpi tu a-ḷ tu ayu- Kota turgtūr̳ - toy - ṭ tib Toda ḷ tuḷy- tuby Kannada i u- turiḷ to e tumbi tutūlu ubu turuvuḷ dumbi Tulu tudū ḍ tūr̳ turumpu turip- tuḍ e tumbi duḷ uku tūr̳ do p- Telugu du uku u tu umu tuḍ ucu tumm- ḍ u- tolcuḷ Kod ḍ tūr̳ r̳ ḍ tumbi Kol tonāku tursdūr̳ - Parji turri dumdi Gadba tur Gondi tull- Konda tu h- Kui dursānā trupka r̳ tuspa Kurukh tumbil Malto tuketurdnā turetūrnā tumbetumbā tukknā

54 235 236 237 238 239 240 Hollow Plenty Front Lip Pig Spread Top Sumerian dun tug dub tun dun par tun bar Tamil tuku yuti tu i to ti tūmpu ṭ parapāru ṇ pravapār pa ar Malayalam tuka para- paṭar Kota tūmpu tue pard- Toda parṭ Kannada bu tudi tu i pare tumbu para u tū ṭ perepu Kodagu para ḍ Tulu - tudi du i para- pa ar Telugu tūmb tokku tudi ḍ do i tuda paḍa tūmu parapāru- Kolami ṇ ḍ turre r̳ Parji tum turra parp-

Naiki turre Gondi o e pa - to parh- Konda ṭ ṭ rīt Kui ḍ aḍ ı̅ prah- Kuwi pressa- Malto tumb a toroṭōḍ tu ga ṛ n̳

55 241 242 243 244 245 246 Spread Bird Cuse to Split Order Say appear Break- Chant off Sumerian bar pa pa-e pad pa pad par pag bad pad bar Tamil u u - pa i u y pa al pa ai pari pa ipp- parai pavpā papār̳ai papāṭu papārii ṇ papāṭ - pampā par̳avai ṭ ṇ Malayalam par̳a ṭu parir̳ - pa i- n̳ukan̳ - par̳ava pa e- pa i pa ayu- Kota pāy parar̳ papāṭ- pary ṇ pāṭ - pākk r̳ ṭ payr̳ - r̳ Toda pa˙t - ṇ poṛ - pa y- po t pa˙rv- ṛ - Kannada po˙t papōr̳a- ṛ u par̳i panavuṇ po˙ru- pa e paridupo˙t pāsu r̳ papāḍ u r̳ pāḍ Kod paḍ - pari - ḍ pare Tulu - pa ika paḍ e- pari- pa pi- pareñcpa˙d - Telugu u pariyu panucu u pāy r̳ paḍucu pe uku pampuṇ Kolami papāḍ part- pank- pāḍ - Naiki par̳ r̳ pank- Parji paḍ - parng- pāḍ - Gadba parṛ- pay- pāṛ ḍ payk- papāḍe Gondi pār - Konda paja ṭ Kui pan a pārā Kuwi pass- panda- pār Kurukh pāspa parkh- ḍ Malto parge pāca Brahui pār - pāre pān pān pār

56 247 248 249 250 251 252 Balsam Panther Remote Tiger Pupil See Gum Snake past Leopard (Eye) Sumerian bar bar bar ur-barra bar pa, pad bar bad bar Tamil pacai pa u u uvai payi pa a vari pāntal paṇ amaiṭ pulir̤ pāvai pār Malayalam pacan̳ pāmpu paṛ u puli - paya parar̤ Kota pac pāmpu payṇ -ṭ puj pāva pār payd Toda pa˙b pa- uly paw pu y Kannada pagil po˙b pa a puli banke pa e s̳ bonke pāvu r̤ pāpe pār Kod par̤ i pa e Tulu paya pa˙mbi paraṇ ḍ pili pase paratuḷ Telugu banka hāvu p duvvu pāpe pār puli Kol banka pāmu r̳ā duva pāpa pāru pāta perpul Naiki bakka pa˙m pul Parji bam uvul Gadba pām perpul bāk ḍ Gondi bām duwwal berbullū Konda Kui puliyāl Kuwi Kurukh prādi Malto pathge paceprāi paī paccā

57 253 254 255 256 257 258 Food- Tank Abode Plump Shine Dis- ration Reservoir Shrine Stout cover Sumerian pad pa pan pe par pad bar bara s̆ Tamil pa i pa u pa a- ma u palli paru ṭ ṭ papārii pār ḷ pār Malayalam pa i pa ṭu paru pa a- paratu- ma u ḷḷ Kota paṭy maṭ v parḷ Toda po y ṭ po y Kannada paṛ i mar̳ u pa i pare ṛ ma a ḷ pa a- Kod ḍ padiḍ paḷḷi baraj- Tulu pa i ḍ pa i pariya ḷ paradu- Telugu pa i pa e palliḷḷ ḍ ma ugu ḷḷ pa a paragu- Kui ḍ ḍ pariparāgu parpākul- Kuwi ḍ pada- ḷ para- Br pa -

ṭṭ 259 260 261 262 263 264 Town Half Half Part Bridge Axe City Division Sumerian bar bar bar bar bar bal ma ba Tamil arai maru s̆ pa Malayalam pāti pāti ara pāl pālam maru papātamakam Kota pāti pāti ar pāl pālam ma t Toda ṭ ar mo t Kannada pa˙dy ara pa˙lm pa˙lm marcuṛ po˙dy pa˙lm pa˙lm maccus̆ Kod pādi pāl pāla matti Tulu are ma u Telugu pādiu ara pa˙li pa˙la maccu Parji pālu maḍ i pāḍ pāla 58 pēla ḍ 265 266 267 268 269 270 Bright- Prayer Bound- Side Enclo- Bright- ness ary Proxi- sure stone Glittering mity Sumerian barbar bar bar bar ba-run bar-gal Tamil pa apa a paravu varai va ai ve -kal pa irpa ir paracu varippu va aivu ḷ ḷ varampu vāram ḷ ṇ Malayalam paḷ apaḷ a parikka varampu pānku vaḷekka ve - varu va appu kallu Kota ḷ ḷ parc- var vayrvāram vaḷe- ṇ park- pānku ḷ Toda part- paḷ park- Kannada pa ak parasu bara baḷasu parake bare bari ḷ vare bavārai ḷ Kodagu parake bari ba - bonge- ḍ kallu Tulu parake barabu bari baḷe bo - parasu bare badi balepuni kallu balayuḷ ḷ Telugu palapala varuju bari vada

59 271 272 273 274 275 276 Wall Slander Earthen Stone Peak Enclo- vessel Rock Cliff sure Womb Sumerian bar bal ba bar bar ug-bar bad ba-e barag bar ban-ni s̆ ban s̆ Tamil matil pa i s̆ ai varai pacumpai pa ippu paral -pai Malayalam matil par̤i pānai pār̳ payimpa r̤ pāṇ ā paral -pai Kota par̤c pāna parpāra Toda - pāni Kannada madil paḷ i pa˙ny paralḷ par pasube pa˙k para pasumbe r̤ bāne basu u Kodagu pa i bāna ḷ bare pa e bāni para r̳ Tulu madilu ḷ pa˙nii pāre pasumbe madulu ḷ e parelu basuru Telugu maduru pāṇ pāde magulu pāṇ Gondi

Parji pāska

For Enclosure/Wall: See Column 84

60 277 278 279 280 281 282 Name Rod Change Strong Writing Off- Sceptre Cross- spring over Sumerian pa pa bal bal bar pa pad pad bala Tamil peyar va i u val vari u valu varai ṭ mār̳ vala pārppu Malayalam peyarpēr va i mār̳ur̳ val vara am valun̳ vari Kota ṭ mār̳ - val varv- pārppu pēr mār̳r̳- var Toda pe˙r ma˙r paly par Kannada pesar ba i ma˙tu bal bare po˙r ba e mo˙r bali bari Kodagu peda ḍ mār̳ bala bare pāpa Tulu baḍ u bala bare- Telugu ba i ma˙tu valanu baḍ ita mārdu baliyu vrata Kolami pēru baḍ ya mār̳ vrāyu pāpa Naiki ḍ Parji pidirpe˙r baḍiya varc- Gadba pidirpēr Gondi pa ṛ vara- pāp pediri pāp Konda ṛōl ba ga wallē Kui pa a Kuwi badgaḍ br brinai ḍ māska blaju- vrīsta Kurukh pinj- māska a̳ iyū Malto pinje Brahui pin balunbalē balē

61 283 284 285 286 287 288 Hole Pull Vessel District Carve Land- Cavity Pluck Bowel Land Bore measure Sumerian bur bu bur bu-lug bu-lug bur buru bur bu-gin puluk Tamil pu u pu i il po i pu i pu am puy pu il pulavu polivu pur̳air̳ pūy ṭṭ pulampūr̤ poḷlu ṭṭ Malayalam pur̳r̳u poriyu- puṭṭil pulam pularu- pur̤a poḷi Kota pur̳ r̳ poṭyṭ Toda witr̤- pu y ḷ Kannada puttuḷ buṭ ade pola po u huttu buddiṭ po e bur̳ i ḷḷ pu i Kodagu puttir̤ pori ṭṭ po i Tulu puñca porpu burudeṭṭ pula poliyu- bu i ḷ putti Telugu pu a puccu buṭṭ a polamu po ucu pu i punta buddi ṭṭ pur̳ir̳ ḍ ṭṭ Kolami pu a pus- polam Naiki pu a pus- ṭ Parji putkalṭṭ pucc- polub puṭṭa puyk- Gadba pu kal pusk- polub ṭṭ pucc- pollub Gondi ṭ puck- Konda pu hka Kui pusiputtī Kuwi purhī r̳

Kurukh pūci pudug- Malto ppūnjaute puce puttā

62 289 290 291 292 293 294 Water Yoke Burst Divide Scatter House River Entwine Rend Severe Spread Sumerian bur bir bir bir bir bi pur bit Tamil punal piri u pi viri ṭu punai puri piri pi a virivu vi uti pi ai pirivupīr̳ ḷ vīṭ pi u ḷ ṭ Malayalam pu a piriṇ u pi a viri u pu al purin̳ n̳ piri peli- vi uti punalr̤ pi a pīr̳ ḷ vīṭ ṇ pinnu ṭ Kota pey piryṇ - pi vi - pury piry pi pi˙r ḷ ṛ Toda pi piry- pi piry- Kannada ponal puriṇ hiri pi igu biri u popāwe peṇ e hiḷgu bircu bi avu ḷ biccu bīḍ Kodagu por̤e biriṇ - piri ḷ biri- ḍ i piri Tulu ḷ piri pulevu biriyu- bu˙uḍ puri bicc- bu u Telugu piri pridu- viriyu bīḍ u puri viccu ḍ pena prēlu vippu- vīḍ

Kolami - Naiki pēdu Parji pinna pilpēl- virng- Gondi pi pi - Kui pling- bring- Kurukh ṛā ṛā be Brahui pirghprīpa- pirghprīva- bi - pinn- r̳r̳nā ṭ

63 295 296 297 298 299 300 Anus Speak Great Increase Child Shine Buttock Stout Conceive Son Blaze Sumerian bid bi, be bi bi bila bi bi-i pi pi bir bir bid pes̆ pes̆ bil, pil Tamil u vi s̆ pis̆ a pi ai vi u vi ampu perus̆ pes̆ u vilank- pīr̳ viḷi periyapēr perukkur̳ ḷḷ piḷ ank- pūr̳ ḷ - r̳ Malayalam viḷamp- pi a pi a vir̳ - puram vipēcui periya pe u pūru ḷ - pēr r̳ ḷḷ ḷaṅn Kota ḷ - pe pervr̳ - ve g- Toda ppēcuily- pe pe p pe po - pe˙c pex- ḷ Kannada pi e per̳ pi ḷa bi ḷa perike pedda pilla be a r̳ pēr pēr, per r̳ ḷḷ beḷ ar Kodagu peri- per- boḷi Tulu peri ped- pi e belaguḷ - bul pedd- pu i biliḷ Telugu piridu vipērmeamp- pe u pillaḷḷ velugu pi ra pilucu pedda ḷḷ be aku ḷ peccupēru ṭṭ Kolami pirrar̳ perg- pe pilla velḷ- Naiki pirrapūḍ ā prēlu perg- pe pilla Parji peru pedṭ - vil- berto ṭṭ Gadba per- vil- berit Gondi biri- - ver- Konda pēnḍ ā per- pilā wēr Kui beripirrā Kurukh bile- Malto pērp bilbirnā- pēsnā bi ye Brahui piri- - ḍ 64 pillō

301 302 303 304 305 306 Box Catch Fail Vegeta- Off- Male Chest Fish Err tion spring Son Kid Sumerian pin pe pil-la ma ma ma pisan pe -de pel-la ma Tamil pe i pi s̆i pi ai maram mas̆ i maka pe akam s̆ pi akku makans̆ ṭṭ ṭ pir̤ampu r̳ ṭṭ picakur̤ Malayalam pe i pi i pir̤a maram mari makan pe akam pi ekka Kota ṭṭ piṭc- peckr̤ marm mayr mog ṭṭ Toda po y i y- r̤ ma y mox Kannada pe i piṛ i mara ma i maga peṭ ige ḍ me˙ṇ r̳ Kodagu poṭṭi puḍ i mara r̳ Tulu peṭṭige pi i- mara mari mage ṭṭ puḍ - mo˙ven Telugu peṭṭe piḍ - ma aka maga ḍ magadu Kolami ṭṭ piḍ ̣ - pirs- mānu r̳ Naiki Parji pe eya piḍ k- merimāk māg mayidmagvan Gadba marmāk maga Gondi ṭ ḍ a- ma Konda maran Kui pīḍ marahnuṛā maromarrī Kuwi marnu miresi Kurukh mann Malto manu maqe Brahui masir mār

65 307 308 309 310 311 312 Deer Rub Be Shine Do Put Antelope Anoint Exist Build Place Sumerian ma mar mar ma ma mar me mal mar s̆ me s̆ mal Tamil ma i ma u meruku ma u u me uku manai maraimā mettur̤ n̳ n̳ ṇ ṇ māṭṭ Malayalam mān mer̤̤uku mannu- uka uka manayuvanai Kota mān mekr̤ - māṭ - māṭṭ met- m Toda ma˙v mo k- ma˙r - Kannada mare mettu- me e ma˙ṭu mo˙f s̆ merugu mo˙ḍ r̳ māḍ Kodagu mārke- Tulu mettu mere- bān a- mama˙dp- Telugu manu- m(r)egu manu me acu māḍ u mettu maniki me ugu malcuḷ Kolami - merpr̳ - mādi māṭ met- r̳ Naiki māg me˙g - merp- mett- Parji maemēgh- men marp- mett- med Gadba māv man- merc- Gondi ma hu- - Konda māu ṛ manmandā- Kui mav mmāca a manba Kuwi mannai merpu Kurukh māju rānḍ merkh Malto maku mene Brahui māk mash- mannmannā- mir-

313 314 315 316 317 318 Building Cart Sorcery Cattle Boat Other House Chariot Bewitch Ship Two Sumerian ma mar mar ma ma man mal ma Tamil am i u s̆u maram ma u ma ai il makis̆ i mañci ma ai māṭ panvanṭi māṭṭ māṭ̣ r̳ Malayalam n̳am vanṭi uṭ u mañci mar̳ur̳ ma ai ṭil ma u Kota manmāṭ - vanṭ y māṭṭ māṭ̣ marr̳ Toda mann̳ povanṭy to- vañci mar̳ r̳ Kannada bavaṇ ḍ i a ma˙ṛ ma u ma a ḍ momo˙ i mattur̳ manemāda ṇ ḍ māṭ mañji malar̳ Kodagu ḷ ḍ mari mane Tulu ma˙diu ba i a maru mane bha i i Telugu māḍ ugu baṇ ḍ i māṭ mañji ma u ṇ ḍ mōḍ malu Kolami māḍ ṇ ḍ marir̳

319 320 321 322 323 324 Sun-God Fra- Snow Shower Perish Perish King grance Dew Rain Sumerian man man mam mam ma mal Tamil ma ma am mañcu ma ai ma an ma u ma ku Malayalam mannann̳ maṇ am maññu mar̤̤a māy māḷ n̳ n̳ man̳ akkr̳ ṭ Kota ṇ mayr̤ māyu Toda ṇ moz ma - - Kannada maneya manj ma e- ma˙ymy ṣ mo˙z Kod mañju mar̤e mā māḷ Tulu maindu mary- māñju- māṇ mañji maḷe ma˙yan Telugu manniya mancu māyu māṇ āv manne ḷ mānāv 67 Kol manc māyu mālu manuvu 313 314 315 316 317 318 Building Cart Sorcery Cattle Boat Other House Chariot Bewitch Ship Two Sumerian ma mar mar ma ma man mal ma Tamil am i u s̆u maram ma u ma ai il makis̆ i mañci ma ai māṭ panvanṭi māṭṭ māṭ̣ r̳ Malayalam n̳am vanṭi uṭ u mañci mar̳ur̳ ma ai ṭil ma u Kota manmāṭ - vanṭ y māṭṭ māṭ̣ marr̳ Toda mann̳ povanṭy to- vañci mar̳ r̳ Kannada bavaṇ ḍ i a ma˙ṛ ma u ma a ḍ momo˙ i mattur̳ manemāda ṇ ḍ māṭ mañji malar̳ Kodagu ḷ ḍ mari mane Tulu ma˙diu ba i a maru mane bha i i Telugu māḍ ugu baṇ ḍ i māṭ mañji ma u ṇ ḍ mōḍ malu Kolami māḍ ṇ ḍ marir̳

68 325 326 327 328 329 330 Fat Vision A Dis- Friend- Wear- Strong dream weight tress ship out Sumerian ma ma ma mag mala ma mamu mana s̆ mamis̆ Tamil matar maya- malai r̤ku matan maca- malanku r̤uku i mamm mā mālimi mankumā Malayalam mad m maya- malekka mār̤ku madamatāḷ i mannu Kota a̳ mā magmā - Kannad masakaḷ mayamu malla ̤i mar̤a masagu maccu malla i maggu mamala r̤ manku Tulu madaku maikuni ṇ margu Telugu masagu maik- malayu- mraggu maidu maggu Gadba madinu ma kh Kurukh melg- ṛ

331 332 333 334 335 336 Hill Be full Chew Water Net Great Mountain Nibble Loom Mighty Sumerian mad mal ma me ma ma nad, lad mag Tamil malai mal mel ǵ u mali melku makkam māri māṭṭ malmā Malayalam mala malka mellu- u mā ṇ malika makkam pu Kota mal mek māri māṭṭ mā Toda ma ma n ma k māṇ Kannada male male malaku magga s̳ malyas̳ melḷ Tulu male malla magga Telugu mala malayu mekku u magga Gadba māṭ mānu Brahui mash māre 69 325 326 327 328 329 330 Fat Vision A Dis- Friend- Wear- Strong dream weight tress ship out Sumerian ma ma ma mag mala ma mamu mana s̆ mamis̆ Tamil matar maya- malai r̤ku matan maca- malanku r̤uku i mamm mā mālimi mankumā Malayalam mad m maya- malekka mār̤ku madamatāḷ i mannu Kota a̳ mā magmā - Kannad masakaḷ mayamu malla ̤i mar̤a masagu maccu malla i maggu mamala r̤ manku Tulu madaku maikuni ṇ margu Telugu masagu maik- malayu- mraggu maidu maggu Gadba madinu ma kh Kurukh melg- ṛ

70 337 338 339 340 341 342 Kindle- Back Rage Burn Call Dark fire roast Utter Sumerian ma mur mur mu mu mug mur mun mud mun Tamil u mutuku mu i mu ulu mural am ma u mu mu uk- mu ank- mamāṭṭtu mun̳ ai mur̳i mo i mūṭ̣ Malayalam ṭ mutu muniyun̳ ivu mur̳i murar̤ u- al ṇ ṇ ḷ murannur̤ ḷ moriyuḷ - mūṭ Kota - mo Toda mu y mi Kannada ma˙ṭ muni muru- moralṛv a mo˙ṭ munisu ḷ moḷ agu Kod mo i mōḍ Tulu munipu murlu r̤ a muri- ḷ Telugu u mu i munuku mūḍamu- ma u mucca mu a- mōḍ Kol māḍ mulkeḍ ḍ mumrōgu- Naiki ṇ ḍ mulke r̳ mu - mu us ḍ Gadba ṛ Parji Gondi m - muṭcul mung- - murcur Konda a̳ ṛgā muṛam Kui māsa mu re mu e- musaliṭ Kuwi ḍ ḍ Malto Brahui mukhmūr

71 343 344 345 346 347 348 Adore Beginning Three Face Top Be- Front getter Sumerian mu mun mu mu mu mu mug pe e s̆ s̆ ǵ ǵ Tamil mun s̆ mukam mu i s̆ u mukappu u mumū ṭ mūri Malayalam mun mū n̳ r̳ mukam mu i mūṭ r̳r̳ mūñci Kota mug- mun- mū mucl muṭy mūri mūnnu mūccu Toda mudk mu˙ muṛy mu˙ry mu˙nd̳ mix Kannada murgu mun mumu˙ d̳ mu˙n muṛ i muri morgu m k musu u mu u mogamūti ḍ Kod mun- u̳ ḍ Tulu mun r̳ muga u mu i muttmu˙ - mu˙dimusu u Telugu mokku muni mūji mogamuṇ muḍ i ṇ ṭ u Kol mut mū - muḍ i mugmūḍ - mokam Naiki mokk mund mu˙nd- mu˙ti ḍ mokam mo k- mund mūn mokommūti Parji mu d- muy Gadba mulkṛ - mūdu Gondi ṛ - mun- mu u mu i - muhkmūnḍ Konda mursā -ḍ r̳r̳ Kui morkā Kuwi mū Kurukh mrōnga munji Malto murgre mundi mūmbu Brahui mon musimūnd mu u- musi ṭ ṭṭ

72 349 350 351 352 353 354 Beget Bear Shut in Sprout Perfect Foot Originate Bring- Full Stem forth Sumerian mud mud mud mu mulu mu mulu mul

Tamil u muki u mu ai mu u mutal muy mu umai Malayalam mūṭu mukir̤ mūṭuka mulaḷ mur̤u r̤ mu ekka mu utu Kota mūṭ r̤ ucmū- ṭ r̤ Toda muc- mi ḷ r̤ Kannada u mugi - mo e modal mugu musuku molakeḷ mūḍ muccumūḍ ḷ Kod ḷ mucc- Tulu u muguru muccu- mule murka modelu Telugu u molaka modalu mūḍ muccu Kol mūḍ munmūyu- modal Naiki mus- modhal muy- model Gadba Parji - Gondi mu hu mo muccmūy - Konda ṛ ṛiyā Kui mogo Kuwi Kurukh muccmūsa- mundhmūca - Malto muce musg- Brahui must

73 355 356 357 358 359 360 God Cord Sight Vessel Throat Darkness Youth Seek Jug Neck Black Sumerian muru muk mulu mud mili mi mele Tamil muruku murarci mi i mu i mi a u muruka i r̤ ṭṭ ṭ r̳ mā n̳ vir̤ māi Malayalam murukan mi i- mu i mi a u mācu mi ila maimāl Kota r̤ ṭṭ miṭ r̳ māl Toda miṭ moy- Kannada meṛ re masi Kod ṛ masi Tulu murku mu i ṭ

Telugu muraje ṭṭ me a masimaji mā ḍ Gondi māgu Parji er or veḍ aga Konda murli veḍ ı̅ Kui veḍ Kuwi Kurukh mais kh- Malto melqemelkhā maq- Brahui likh mā

74 361 362 363 364 365 366 Dust Flash Bright Strong Drink Swallow Shine Powerful Lick Chew Sumerian mil mir mi mer nag nam mi Tamil mi s̆ mi ir nakku s̆ mi unku mi al mācu n̤ minḷ u ār n̤ Malayalam mā minnu- meṭ ukk- nakkuka minni mi aṭ Kota mācu minc- minr̤ - nak- Toda mic- ṭ nok Kannada ma˙c mi a misugu mi irḍ nakku agi minu mi uku nekku namalu mācu ṇ ḷ nemaru Kod minn- ḍ nakk- Tulu mi i- meli- nakku- aggi- ma˙j naum- Telugu māsu miṇ uku misa- namalu mi ugu misimi māsi minukuṇ nāku Kol ḍ - Naiki - minnal na˙k- Gadba nāk Parji - Gondi mirsa- nēk - mirka nāk māc mi s- nākā Konda - Kui ḍ Kuwi - nāk Kurukh māsi nāka Malto māh bin - nākali bīnkō ḍ

75 367 368 369 370 371 372 District Four Prince Bitch Winged- Foam Territory Ruler Dog insect Bubble Sun-God Fly Sumerian nag na (bu) nagiru nig u u nang na (bi) nergal lig num nam lam ningirsi nik ǵ ǵ lim nimgir ninda nigir Tamil u u i nu ampu nurai u nu al ḷ nāṭ nāl nāyir̳ ñamalinā nilampi nālu ñāyir̳ ñeñāliai ḷḷ Malayalam u u nurampu nura u ḷḷ Kota nāṭ nanāl nāyar̳ nāy nar ñāyir̳ Toda na˙ṛ ˙ng na˙y Kannada u u nusi nore no˙ṛ no˙ no˙r nayino˙y urku nāḍ nā nēsar̳ nāy no a Kod nāl noraju nere Tulu u nesaru ṇ nure na˙di na˙ na˙y urk- Telugu nāḍ u nālu nāyi nusuma nurugu nucci u Kol nāḍ nālugu nulle Naiki nali te ḷḷ na˙liṇ nettaa˙te nu ni Gadba ṇ ā Parji nāluk nette ṛ Gondi nalungnālig nainēte ney n le Konda nār nullē Kui u̳ urpa Kuwi nār nālgi nāju nālgi Kurukh nāju ūrhali naiyū naib Malto nākh ni u aleallā ture Brahui (h)uring ṛ 76 373 374 375 376 377 378 Seed Stand Shine Flesh Grow Supreme Sesamum up Perfect Sumerian numun nita nigin ni nir nir Tamil nil nikar ni am ni ai nilaiǵ nika ǵ ni nū ni u- ṇ ̣ nīlu r̳ Malayalam nūvu nilkka r̤ ni am nīn nir̳aaivu nilar̳ nīṭ ni ṇ nīluu r̳ Kota nil- nīr - r̳avu- nin- nīṭ - Toda neni˙ga ni˙r- nernerv- ni˙n- Kannada nil niga ṇ ni˙r nere- nilu nigi ni˙tu negar nīl Kod nill- nīḍ - nere - Tulu nil- nina ni˙d- neriyu- ni˙ṭu- Telugu - nilucu niganigāsu- nītu ne ayu nilaka nīḍ ni a nū nīlu r̳ Kol nūvu il- ninṇ ḍ - nuvvu Naiki nū il- ninḍ ̣ - nuvvu nunū nilp- ḍ nuvv Parji nitip- Gadba nil- Gondi nungnuvul nitana nin -

ḍ ā Konda nittāna ni - Kui nisanilāna- nehpa Kuwi n̳ r̳ - Kurukh ḍ rīnja nind Malto ilenīcali nindenenja ilnā

77 379 380 381 382 383 384 Be high Fly Fire Earth Male Noise Be erect Sumerian nim nim ne nil ni-tag ra-a de lil di ǵ Tamil ika neruppu nilam iralai a ai

nimir ī r̤ Malayalam nikaniva nerippu nilam ñerippu īcca Kota ignīru- nep nelm Toda ixnivir- nep neln Kannada nigur i˙p nela era e aracu nimir i˙py erale a icu ḷ rampa Kod nela r̳ Tulu nim- nela erale ramba niga- Telugu nigudu nippu irri a acu leti īga ampur̳ nivudu rampurajju Kol negay- ga nipp- razr̳ - ramp- Naiki negay- nini˙ṇga nikip- nir- nendil Gadba ṇ Parji nirik- Gondi nirwa-

Konda nik- ī nin vis Kui ninga vīja aspa

Kuwi ning- ī drē ṛ Kurukh viha niyur Malto vīha iralu Brahui ī ī hīlh 78 385 386 387 388 389 390 Bleat Woman Liquor Grant Engrave Over- Bark Dedicate Hammer whelm Sumerian zu-ra-a rag rag ru ru ra a-ru na-ru Tamil kurai ǵ ari ari aru a u niǵai na ukku ni a Malayalam kura aru- ari aruḷ ar̳u nir̳a narukkur̳ nirar̳ Kannad kure ḷ ar̳u ner̳ e Tulu kora- arag- Telugu arulu rakkur̳ ner̳a a u na ukku r̳ Brahui khurruk r̳ r̳

391 392 393 394 395 396 Run- Run Remove Inferior Throw Gnash away Haste Separate Low Rub Sumerian ru ri ri ru ru ra rig u-ru ub rad ur-rum ra-a Tamil u pari pari kuǵ u us̆ u pa i kuǵ um u ubu ǵ pār̳ kur̳ai r̳ Malayalam u pari parir̳ - kur̳utu r̳ pa i kur̳ayu Kannad pār̳u pari kur̳u r̳ kur̳ucu pār̳ guccur̳ Telugu u pari- kur̳u r ku uca pār̳ r̳ r̳uppuūvu apuācu Kol r̳ r̳uvvu- rāpu- rusir̳ r̳ Kui ruv rāk

Kuwi rāga rāpka rāza 79 397 398 399 400 401 402 Throw Spirit Seize One Remove Hammer Demon Flunder Sumerian ra rab ra ru ri ru ri rig ri Tel remmu ruttu ralpu rubbu Kol rālu- - rub- rap- Gondi rāl rāng ro- Naiki - - Konda el Kui rāl - ro uha rō r̳ rohe uhpa Kuwi ṛānja jel ro ṛ rūga- rennai rondi ṛ rūsa rezzarejali rūba

403 404 405 406 407 408 No Fat Mix Spread Wash Wash Not Strong Join Scatter Clean Clean Sumerian la lel lag lal la lu lib lag lug lig ǵ ǵ Tamil alaicu ka Malayalam alakku ka uku- Kannad alabu r̤uvu Telugu alamu kadugur̤

lē lāvu lāyu lēdu Kol lēka lēni Gondi lāv Parji Kui lāv Kuwi lāv lanzi- lānja

80 409 410 411 412 413 414 Shout Announce Smear Abun- Rain Low Sing Proclaim dant Lower Sumerian lil a ar ar ag ag ka li sa Tamil kali s̆ u s̆ s̆ callus̆ s̆ ca - Malayalam cār̳r̳u cāttu cāl uku cāy- n̳ r̳ cāraluka cāyvu Kota cār̳r̳- cāla- cār̳ cāy Kannad u cacāllur̳r̳ cāyal ca˙ruha ca˙g cale sār̳ savaru sāl u Kod sār̳ sāku cell- Tulu iyu- sadike calljār̳ - - Telugu carumu callu sār̳incu camuru sāku cācu cātu cālu cāṭ cāla jallu Kol cādu - javaru cal- Gadba sāl Parji - Gondi Kui jall Kuwi - zall-

hāl

81 415 416 417 418 419 420 Cut off Hunger Sharp- Splen- Intelli- Do Split point dour gent Make Shrewd Sumerian ab agar ar ar am a sar sag Tamil s̆ s̆ cakkais̆ s̆ caturs̆ ceys̆ catir ceyal Malayalam cāy catur- ceyka cāyal ceyal Kota - cek ccāy Kannada - cakke caduru cavr sakke a˙yu ceduru Kod sava Tulu sele cakke cadupu cekke ca˙y Telugu selagu cadur- celagu - Kol ākali sek cēyu cergu caduv cēta car cākol Gadba Parji Gondi Kui saki Kuwi sarrā hakki Kurukh calkh- carr- Malto calge care Brahui cal-

82 421 422 423 424 425 426 Inside Happi- Quick Buy Virgin- Blaze Heart ness Haste land Shine for cultivation Sumerian a ag-ga ar am umer ur ag sar sam sur Tamil s̆ cakkans̆ - carakkas̆ s̆ kumaris̆ cus̆ ar s̆ tam cara - c u cēku cakka- vānku cuṭ u cēkam am ṭṭ vānkal u̳ ṭ Malayalam c ṭuṭ ṭṭ cu u Kota cara vānnu u̳ ṭ Toda ṭṭ Kannada cakkan- sarakkṭ - kumari cu˙ṛ da saras- su u cēgu sosūduar Tulu cēge caccara kumeru suḍu suḍ aru Telugu - saraga suḍ u suḍ iyu Kod cēga jakkali cuḍ - Kol cēva cuḍ Gondi surrḍ - Kuwi ṛ

hūda

83 281A 267A 142A 143A Write Boundary Strike Worship Crush Sumerian ar ar um ub sar bar kum sub s̆ ar ǵ s̆ um gubs̆ bar gum Tamil ǵ karai kumaiǵ kump- kummu Malayalam vari kara kuma kump- varai- varai kummu Kota vara- kar kum- kub- vare varu Toda parvarv- kar kum- kub- Kannada bare karevar kummu kumbu bari bare gummu

Tulu bari- kare barabuvare Telugu kara kummu gummu vrāyu guppu varuju

84 427 428 429 430 431 432 Garment Pierce Wisdom Pure Chew Distress Bright Taste Affliction Sumerian ucub u u ub u-su ur sub sur Tamil cunkus̆ s̆ s̆ cokucus̆ s̆ s̆ al curcci cokku cūl al cucūrci cuvai cūr Malayalam cūr̳ cokkam cūr̳r̳ ṭ conku Kota cūluka cuva cūr Toda cuvekka Kannada cungu curcu soga- cuccu cokka Kod cūpu Tulu jungu cuccu- soga- cokka Telugu coccu sūkeiki sogasu cora- cokka- Kol cuṅgulu - cūḍ Naiki cuṅgu - june sōng Gadba sōn Parji - Gondi cōngi- Kui sōngpa Kuwi sōṛ ga Malto cuc- sōṛ cuyehūcali- hōḍ

85 433 434 435 436 437 438 Clean Channel Copper Bad Paste Ear Wipe Flow Evil Sumerian ib ita en es im i ze-er un s̆ s̆ sis̆ s̆ s̆ s̆ Tamil cilu- cempus̆ ce i

cī ṭ cevi Malayalam cīy cempu ce i cīvu ceppi Toda si ṭy cevi Kota cilk- cey Kannada cembu seragud̳ cigil ṛ cīpari Kod cembi jigil Tulu cembu se i jibbu Telugu cīpe ci uku cembu ce u cinka seraguṭṭ cikka Kol cīputu silkaḷ ḍ jigata cevi Naiki cīkili silka ci - Gadba Parji - si cēpid- cilva ṭ Gondi sēp silka ṭ Konda sipacēp - Kui saiyā Kuwi hepali herporisēpa Kurukh Malto cice cicnā

86 439 440 441 442 443 444 Move Perform- Roast Whip Sand Cord Advance well Goad Thread Sumerian sag sa sa sal sa ar sa sad, a Tamil camai camai caralǵ cara u ca ai cara s̆ cāy cātti cara ai ṭ Malayalam camayu camekka caṭṭa caralḷ cara u Kota - ḷ car Kannad sama caṭiṭ ṭ ca˙g sama u ja˙ṭ ḍ sāgu ṭ Tulu sāga r̳ cara e Telugu gu save i sāguni ṭ Kol cā savara jāṭ sāgu savaril sa˙ṭ 445 446 447 448 449 450 Plants Grow Drive Red Head Thrust Shrubs Thrive Chase Stretch Sumerian sar sar sar sa sag sag sir ser Tamil ce i ce i ce- cenni ce ippu cey campu Malayalam ceṭi cer̤u ce- cenni catukacātu cer̤ikka cekk- cekila Kannad ceṭ u r̤ ca- r̤ ce- Tulu ṭṭ canna cacusāgu- Telugu ce u cem cekku cagujagisu cenka sagu Kol seṭṭ Naiki se ṭṭ cand- carp- Gadba ṭṭ Parji sand sarp- Gondi saha- Kui sahpa Kuwi hah- Kur catch Malto caqle

87 451 452 453 454 455 456 Pour out Lip Flesh Pluck Carry Confuse Sprinkle Beak Separate Sumerian su, sur su su su sur su Tamil curai cu u cuma cural cori co u cukirǵ cuǵ u Malayalam cura cuṇ ṭu cūr cuma cural ṇ ṭ r̳r̳ Kannad suri cuṇ ṭ u sugicūru suri suttu Tulu ṇ ḍ su i- Telugu surivu cumm- su i- sōru- con ḷ Gadba ḍ Parji - cōrp ḍ Konda cōr- Kui sōrp su a Kurukh curkhsō - cokh- Malt curge ḍ coge Brahui curr- sunt

sū 457 458 459 460 461 462 Braids Spin Writhe Decision Hole Light Chignon Vow Cavity Hair Sumerian su ur sur sur sul sug sud sug Tamil curulǵ cural curi curi cu ar curu ai cura u curiyal cūḷ ṭ Malayalam curuḷ r̳r̳ cura - curi curiyal Kota cur -ḷ r̳ Kannad suruli so ar suruṭ e so aru Tulu sūru ḷ ḍe ḷ ḍ sūlu cūṭ

88 463 464 465 466 467 468 Lustrous Seize Weak Split Peel Dark Gem Cave in Feeble Tear Split Break Sumerian sud-am sig sig sir sil sig sib sila zil , zir Tamil akam cikku cikal cilu cu cinku cikku cūṭ cinku Malayalam ṭā cikku - Kota cik- - cīntu cil Kannad aga sikku sigi citlicilv- iga sigu sigisu sil sūḍ sirku sigu silu sūḍ silku Kodagu cikk- cikk- r̳ Tulu aga sikku- cirku sigursību - cilku- silku- silu cūḍ cilu Telugu igama cikku cikku citlu i cirugu cilu sūḍ simpucīru cīkaṭ Kolami sik- i cirng- cing- - citt- cikocīkaṭ cīkaṭ Parji cirk- ci g- cilk- Gadba cīk sit- sikaḍ Gondi - - sindṇ - i hilk- ṭi Kui sehpajirk sīrā siki sikāṭ sindu siri sīkaṭ

Kuwi sikku - cikku Konda sīp sika i Kurukh Brahui ṭ cīr cīr 89 469 470 471 472 473 474 Be born Give Whistle Straight Smell He-goat Sprout Scream Sumerian sig si sir si-di sim sig sid im si a zi sum s̆ ḳ ḳ Tamil ce- ceccai

cīr̤ cem- Malayalam cevvu ci cemmu Kannada cigi cīḷ seycev vu si u cigur ḷ cey sisīḷ u ṇ ḍ Kodagu cīḷ ci i Tulu ciguru ḷḷ u siguru ṇ ḍ Telugu ciguru jiḍ ḍ

Kolami - Naiki civuru - sī- Gadba sī Parji - Gondi cī sī Konda sīā- Kui hiyā sī Kuwi sīva Kurukh ciga cijīva cigi hīali Malto ciye

90 475 476 477 478 479 480 Throw Melody Bright small Reduce Garment Butt Sumerian si sir si sig sir sig sig sig sim Tamil cikka ci u ci Malayalam cīr civa cikki- cir̳ u cīrai cē cer̳ u silacīlai Kota cik- r̳r̳ cīla Kannad cimmu ciga r̳ cikka ciku sīre Kodagu cikk- cerye Tulu cikka Telugu cimmu ciki- Telugu ciru sīre cīra

91 481 482 483 484 485 486 Rush Light Blow Stone Shine Heights Fly Clean Sumerian sid sir sig za zal zag ir si zalag zalag er Tamil ces̆ i ḳ calli s̆ ṭ cintucivir̳ Malayalam cīntu u Kota cīntu Kannad sidi si il cīr̳r̳- si isu Tulu se i seḍ ilu sīn callijalli jagatii Kodagu ḍ - Telugu ḍ ḍ jagal hīnt - Kolami cīdu jalli jaggu jagati sīvir - jagile Kurukh Parji Malt cacejalub jag cācā

92 487 488 489 490 491 492 Run Run Side Strength Scratch Breath Flow Slip Sumerian za- a za zag zag ze Zi za zal ǵ ǵ Tamil caǵu cari

Malayalam car̳uka cariyu- cār cēku cī Kota - cāral Kannad r̳u sari cāra suy jarv sarecāry jār̳ sār cēgu cīru Tulu - sarakujari cēge civaru suyyusūy - tuyilusūlu Kod jāru- Telugu u jariyu jār cāce Kolami jār̳ jaragu- cēga cīru Kuwi zargi- cēva Malto jarāg

jarqe

93 493 494 495 496 497 498 Know Gold Scrape Squeeze Sweet Cater- Wisdom pillar Sumerian zu zu ze-er zi ze-eb zan zi-bin Tamil cinnam c u cimin u Malayalam cūr̤ cī , īy cīṇ ṭu cīvu ṭ Kannad cinna cīka cimucīṇ ṭ u i cīvukka cūpu sibacīvu u ṭ savi jar̳ili cīvvuu save jirle Tulu - cinna r̳ cimu- sabisamvi jir̳ sivar̳ hūpi tabi Telugu cinni- savi i - i Naiki cū civvu- cavi jer̳ sivv savvi jer̳r̳ Gondi sivv Parji ti il Konda tserrijerri ṛ

499 500 501 Anger Suppress Good Sumerian zi zib zib zig Tamil u citai cira ci a cecīr̳ u cīr Malayalam r̳ citaivu r̳ r̳ ci u Kannad cidaku cīr ciduku r̳ Telugu ci a Telugu cituku r̳r̳ ciduku Malto cithge

94 95 Paper 2 Paper 2

Paper 2 Paper 2

THE DRAVIDIAN ORIGIN OF THE DRAVIDIAN ORIGIN OF SUMERIAN WRITING THETHESUMERIAN DRAVIDIAN DRAVIDIAN WRITING ORIGIN ORIGIN OF OF

SUMERIAN WRITING SUMERIAN WRITING

by by A. Sathasivam M.A., Ph.D. M.A., Ph.D. A. Sathasivambyby

Copyright ©2016 by Mrs Thirugnaneswary Sathasivam A. Sathasivam M.A., M.A., Ph.D. Ph.D. Copyright ©2016A. Sathasivam byAll Mrsrights Thirugnaneswary reserved Sathasivam All rights reserved CopyrightCopyright ©2016 ©2016 by by Mrs Mrs Thirugnaneswary Thirugnaneswary Sathasivam Sathasivam All rights reserved All rights reserved

Paper presented at the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies heldPaper at presented Kuala Lumpur at the - FirstMalaysia, International April 1966. Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies held at Kuala Lumpur - Malaysia, April 1966. PaperPaperNo part presented presented of this at at workthe the First Firstmay International Internationalbe stored, Conferenceused Conference or reproduced Seminar Seminar of of inTamil Tamil any Studies Studiesmanner heldheldwhatsoeverNo atpart at Kua Kua oflala Lumpurwithoutthis Lumpur work -the Malaysia,- Malaysia,may written be April Aprilpermissionstored, 1966. 1966. used of orthe reproduced copyright holder, in any except manner in casewhatsoever of brief quotationswithout the embodied written permission in critical articles of the copyrightand reviews. holder, except in NoNo case part part of briefof of this thisquotations work work may embodiedmay be be stored, stored, in critical used used articles or or reproduced reproduced and reviews. in in any any manner manner whatsoeverwhatsoever without without the the written written permission permissionApril 1966 of of the the copyright copyright holder, holder, except except in in casecase of of brief brief quotations quotations embodied embodied in in criticalApril critical 1966articles articles and and reviews. reviews.

AprilApril 1966 1966

The Early Dynastic Cities of Sumer Courtesy: Feather and Soul Production

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT

B = Brunnow, Rudolph, E. :A classical list of all simple and compound Idiographs, Leyden. 1899. Br = Brahui. CS = Chinese and Sumerian. DED. = Dravidian Etymological Dictionary Ga = Gadba. Go = Gondi. Ka = Kannada. Ko = Kota. Kod = Kodagu. Kol = Kolami. Kur = Kurukh M = Meissner. Bruno. Seltene Assyrische Ideogramme. Ma = Malayalam. Malt = Malto. Nk = Naiki. ODBW = Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing. Pa = Parji. SBSL = Sumero-Babylonian Sign List. SGC = Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy. Ta = Tamil. Te = Telugu. To = Toda. Tot. Porul.= Tolkappiyam Poruḷatikāram. Tu = Tu u

Titles in italics referḷ to published works cited in the text. A bibliography appears at the end of the paper.

FRONTISPIECE

From George A Bartons's The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing p.177

99 THE DRAVIDIAN ORIGIN OF SUMERIAN WRITING

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE OBJECT The object of the present paper is to establish that:(a) The Dravidian languages of Greater India as well as the ancient Sumerian language of Babylonia descend from a common language (about 4000 (b) B.C.). The early Sumerian vocabulary, both of the Archaic (3500- 3000 B.C.) (c) and the Pre-Gudean (3000-2400 B.C.) periods is Proto-Dravidian. Phonetic and semantic values attributed to the same Sumerian sign, sound-value, or word in the early Sumerian language (3500-2400 B.C.) may also be attributed to the Dravidian cognates.

1.2 SUMERIAN The term 'SUMERIAN' is derived from s̆umer < Kumer meaning ‘land’, ‘cultivated land’. Originally, it probably designated the region 1 around the city of Nippur in Southern Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (DED). Babylonia and in later times it was used for the entire country from the Persian Gulf to Babylon. With sumer may be compared item (Ta.) — No. 1448 in the (Ka.) TAMIL Kumari: 'cultivation in hills'. (Tu.) KANNADA — Kumari : ‘a piece of ground in a jungle’.

TULU — Kumēru: 'a waste land cleared for cultivation'. 2 Probably the Tulu meaning 'a waste land cleared for cultivation' represents the original significance of the term. Compare the Semitic loan-word šumēru with Tulu Kumeru; the former is a palatalized form (K > š) of the latter. Thus the term 'šumer' originally denoted 'the waste lands cleared for cultivation' and extended its meaning to refer to the people who inhabited the lands of Southern Mesopotamia. The language spoken by the people of šumer is called 'Sumerian' (šumerian).

1.3 DECIPHERMENT OF SUMERIAN Unlike the Indus script, the Sumerian script had been deciphered accurately during the course of the latter half of the 19th Century. "The decipherment of Sumerian actually came about through the de3 cipherment of Semitic Akkadian, known in earlier days as Assyrian or Babylonian, which like Sumerian, is written in cuneiform script." The discovery- of the trilingual inscriptions of King Darius, written in Akkadian, Elamite and old Persian about 700 B.C., made it possible to render the phonetic and semantic values of the cuneiform script with thorough 100

accuracy. Sumerian as a distinct language from Akkadian had not been treated until 1868. In that year, Jules Oppert correctly named the non-Semitic people who invented the cuneiform script and their language as 'Sumerian', basing his conclusionsSumerian on asthe a titledistinct 'King language of Sumer from and Akkadian Akkad' found had notin the been inscriptions treated until of some1868. of In the that early year, rulers. Jules4 OppertThe period correctly 1869 named-1940 themarked non- Semiticthe unearthing people whoof Sumerianinvented inscriptions the cuneiform in Southern script and Baby theirlonia, language and up asto now'Sum erian',more than basing 3000 his clayconclusions tablets have on thebeen title unearthed 'King of underSumer the and sandy Akkad' mounds found in in th thee moderninscriptions state of ofsome Iraq. Someof the of early the stone rulers. inscriptions4 The period of the 1869 earliest-1940 Uruk marked period the (3500 unearthing B.C.) are of stillSumerian undeciphered. inscriptions in Southern Babylonia, and up to now more than 3000 clay tablets have been unearthed under the sandy mounds in the modern state 1.4of Iraq.SUMERIAN Some of WRITING the stone inscriptions of the earliest Uruk period (3500 B.C.) are still undeciphered. The oldest written documents of the Sumerian people come from the city of Uruk and are dated about 3500 B.C.5 The following observations of Stephen 1.4 SUMERIAN WRITING Langdon as regards the Archaic Sumerian writing are of .great interest: The oldest written documents of the Sumerian people come from the city of Uruk“In andthe areJemdet dated Nasr about* tablets 3500 weB.C. possess5 The following the earliest observa largetions collection of Stephen of Langdontablets as regards made bythe the Archaic people Sumerian who invented writing the are originallyof .great interest: pictographic script used by the Sumerian people. As to the racial character of the people“In the who Jemdet invented Nasr* thetablets Sumerian we possess script, theas itearliest appears large in thecollection earliest of knowntablets stage made of developmentby the people on who the Jemdetinvented Nasr the tablets, originally and onpictographic a certain fewscript archaic used stone by thetablets Sumerian of the same people. period As fromto the Ni racialppur. Kishcharacter and other of the unknownpeople who sites. invented I express the the Sumerian opinion script, that theyas it areappears Sumerian. in the In earliest any caseknown the languagestage of development of these texts on is the Sumerian, Jemdet Nasr although tablets, the and grammar on a certain is infew such archaic a primitive stone tablets state ofthat the the same verbal period system from ofNi ppur.Sumerian Kish andhad othernot yetunknown been attained. sites. I express The signs the opinionhave the that same they sense are Sumas inerian. the Inlater any Sumeriancase the texts.language of these texts is Sumerian, although the grammar is in such a primitive state that the verbal system of Sumerian had not A good many new signs, unknown in later Sumerian, are present in yet been attained. The signs have the same sense as in the later this archaic script, and some of them are identical with signs of the Sumerian texts. Indus valley script."6 A good many new signs, unknown in later Sumerian, are present in The Sumerianthis archaic pictographic script, scriptand some of the of archa themic are period identical ran fromwith rightsigns to of left the as in the Induscase of valley the Indus script." script,6 and the pictographs stand upright and in a natural position.7 These characteristics are seen on the earliest of all known survivalsThe Sumerian of writing pictographic the pictographic script of thestone archa tabletic period of Kish. ran Laterfrom rightSumerian to left writingas in the clearly case showsof the theIndus script script, turned and 90the degrees pictographs to the stand left. uprightThis was and done in a tonatural facilitate position. rapid 7writing These characteristicsfrom left to right, are whereasseen on thethe originalearliest pictographsof all known weresurvivals written of from writing right the to leftpictographic in perpendicular stone position.tablet of8 Kish. Later Sumerian writing clearly shows the script turned 90 degrees to the left. This was done 1.5.to facilitateSUMERIAN rapid SCRIPT writing from left to right, whereas the original pictographs were written from right to left in perpendicular position.8 The earliest known Sumerian script of the Uruk period (3500 B.C.) is . These pictographic scripts are rude outlines of physical objects of pictographic1.5. SUMERIAN SCRIPT the natural world such as sun, moon, stars, mountains, water, trees, reeds, man and hisThe bodily earliest organs, known birds, Sumerian fishes scriptand other of the animals Uruk periodas well (3500 as artificial B.C.) is productspictographic of human. These activity pictographic such as scriptshouses, are nets, rude knives, outlines bows, of physicalvessels andobjects of the natural world such as sun, moon, stars, mountains, water, trees, reeds, man

and his bodily organs, birds, fishes and other animals as well as artificial products of human activity such as houses, nets, knives, bows, vessels and * This site is situated 17 miles North-east of Kish. 101 * This site is situated 17 miles North-east of Kish. implements of various kinds.9 Sentences in the earliest period were formed by arranging these pictures of objects one above the other in perpendicular columns. Approximately nine hundred different symbols were recorded in the earliest stage of the Uruk period.10 This, the earliest known stage of Sumerian writing is called 'logo-graphy' or word-writing. The earliest word-signs were limited to the expression of numerals, objects and personal names.11 The main drawback in this system of writing is its inability to express many parts of speech and grammatical forms. However, the intended meaning was understood through the 'context of situation'.12 The second stage of Sumerian writing is called ideography. Originally only concrete words were expressed through pictures, such as a sheep by a picture of a sheep, or the sun by a picture of the sun. But soon ideas associated with particular pictures were also expressed through those pictures. For example, in the secondary stage a picture of the sun represented the words ‘bright’, ‘white’ and later also ‘day’. Two pictures of women facing each other stood for the expression 'quarrel'. Similarly ideas were expressed also by combining pictures in whole or in part. The third stage of the Sumerian writing is known as the syllabic stage. During the Pre-Gudean period of Sumerian linguistic history (3000-2400 B.C.). original ideograms were conventionalized by the addition of few strokes to express phonetic complements. The script became cuneiform (from Latin cuneus 'wedge' and forma 'shape') or wedge shaped as it was written in clay. The following are the three main types of the Sumerian syllables: (1) VC (vowel + consonant) (2) CV (consonant + vowel) (3) CVC (consonant + vowel + consonant) Separate signs were used in Sumerian for the vowels (V). In this syllabic system of orthography the vowel is as unchanging as the consonant, a feature that distinguishes the Sumerian language from Semitic languages in which the stable element is the consonant, while the vowel is extremely variable. The Sumerian Syllabary and the systems derived from it consist of signs which usually represent monosyllables ending in a vowel or a consonant, more rarely disyllables of the same structure. The following 18 characters are derivable from the Sumerian syllables: vowels: 4: a, u, i, and e. consonants: 14: k. g, , : t, d, p, b, m, n, r; I; š; s; z.

ǵ

102 1.6 SUMERIAN PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS Vowels: Stephen Langdon defines the four Sumerian vowel sounds as follows: “The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four , high back u with labial rounding, mid- . It is probable that when a separate vowel sign was employedvowel sounds for lowany backof these ā vowels, the long vowel was intended.palatal To ē expressand front any palatal of these ī sounds in combination with consonants separate syllabic signs had to be chosen.”13

There was no contrast in vowel-length in Sumerian. The main feature of the history of Sumerian language is seen in the change of back vowels into mid- palatal and front palatal. Exx: a> e/i u>i/e Scribes of the later periods usually write 'e' for V and vice versa. Consonants: It is difficult to characterise the Sumerian consonants in modern linguistic terminology. What E. Norris had said of the cuneiform script of the Behistun Inscriptions may be partly applicable to Sumerian as well. He says: "In one or two points of phonography this alphabet resembles that used by the Tamils: there is no distinction made between the surd and sonant consonants at the beginning of a word, and in the middle of a word the same consonant must have been pronounced as a sonant when single and a surd when double."14

The language possesses at least three cerebral consonants in word-final position: These are d( ) r( ), and ( ).15 g and are peculiar Sumerian consonants and some times inaccurately rendered by h and sh respectively. ḍ ṛ Ị š 2. SUMERIAN AND COMPARATIVE DRAVIDIAN Data: In this section an attempt is made to compare the phonetic and semantic values of fourteen Sumerian signs with Dravidian cognates There were about 366 Sumerian signs in use during the Pre-Gudian periods of Sumerian linguistic history. Some of these signs have preserved their earliest version, i.e. rude pictures of objects. The following fourteen signs selected for detailed analysis may be considered as representative of the entire signs. An important feature of the Sumerian writing is "polyphony", that is, that one and the same sign could stand for more103 than one sound or value. There is no way of testing this "polyphony" nature of the primitive Dravidian writing, as no Dravidian language has preserved any records prior to 3rd century b.c. But the data assembled below shows that the same writing system was in operation 1.6 SUMERIAN PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS Vowels: Stephen Langdon defines the four Sumerian vowel sounds as follows: “The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four , high back u with labial rounding, mid- . It is probable that when a separate vowel sign was employedvowel sounds for lowany backof these ā vowels, the long vowel was intended.palatal To ē expressand front any palatal of these ī sounds in combination with consonants separate syllabic signs had to be chosen.”13

The language possesses at least three cerebral consonants in word-final position: These are d( ) r( ), and ( ).15 g and are peculiar Sumerian consonants and some times inaccurately rendered by h and sh respectively. ḍ ṛ Ị š 2. SUMERIAN AND COMPARATIVE DRAVIDIAN Data: In this section an attempt is made to compare the phonetic and semantic values of fourteen Sumerian signs with Dravidian cognates There were about 366 Sumerian signs in use during the Pre-Gudian periods of Sumerian linguistic history. Some of these signs have preserved their earliest version, i.e. rude pictures of objects. The following fourteen signs selected for detailed analysis may be considered as representative of the entire signs. An important feature of the Sumerian writing is "polyphony", that is, that one and the same sign could stand for more than one sound or value. There is no way of testing this "polyphony" nature of the primitive Dravidian writing, as no Dravidian language has preserved any records prior to 3rd century b.c. But the data assembled below shows that the same writing system was in operation during the earliest period of Dravidian lingusitic history. The Sumerian language became a dead language by about 1800 b.c., consequently, unlike the living languages of the family, Sumerian had not changed since then.

The Sumerian signs and values presented here are drawn from the pages of The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing (ODBW) by George A. Barton, and bear the serial numbers of the signs in that work. The following signs are selected for analysis: Signs Nos. 244; 281; 322; 131; 351; 88; 364a; 149; 180; 182; 37; 80; 387 and 531. The Dravidian items are drawn from A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (DED) by T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau and the item numbers refer to the serial numbers in that work.

2.2 Sign No. 244: The original picture represented a net, plus a motif for spread out Sum: par — spread out (B. 5531); tear down (M. 3872). par — a net (B. 5532). bara — spread out (B. 5534); extend (M. 3873). (1) Sum: Par — a net. Ta: valai — net; DED. 4326. Ma: vala — net; Ko: val; To: pal. Ka: bale — Kod: bale; Tu: bale. Among the Dravidian languages Toda alone has preserved the initial p; cf. Sum: par with To: pal 'a net', par > pal. (2) Sum: par, bara — spread out; extend. Ta: para — spread; expand; extend DED: 3255. par — expanse; paru — spread; Ma: parakka — to spread; Ko: part; To: par. Ka: pare; Kod: para; Tu: parapuni; Te: paravu, paru. Go: .

It is likely tparhānā — — 'spread', 'expanse', a form still in use in Tamil. he primitive root of the form pār 'spread', 'extend is pā (3) Sum: par — tear down.104 Ta: pari — cut asunder, separate; break off; DED. 3267. Tu: paripuni — to tear; rend; parte — tear; Te: pariyu. Kol: part; Pa: parng; Kui: paja; Kur: para; Malt: parge. Ta: pa i — torn apart; DED. 3317. Ma: pa i — tearing off. Ka: pa i — tear asunder. r̳ r̳ Sum: par — 'tear down' is represented in the other Dravidian languages by ṛ pari / pari. The phonetic values par / bara of the same sign No. 244 clearly prove that there was hardly any difference between p/b in the parent tongue. The same may be said of k/g and t/d. Therefore the terms for net par / pal / bal and val may be said of regional or dialectal varieties.

That fact that par means 'spread out' and 'teardown' and both these meanings are expressed by the same sign prove that there was only one system of writing for the entire family during the primitive period. during the earliest period of Dravidian lingusitic history. The Sumerian language becameduring the a deadearliest language period ofby Dravidianabout 1800 lingusitic b.c., consequently,history. The Sumerian unlike the language living languagesbecame a ofdead the family,language Sumerian by about had 1800 not changed b.c., consequently, since then. unlike the living languages of the family, Sumerian had not changed since then. The Sumerian signs and values presented here are drawn from the pages of The OriginThe and Sumerian Development signs and of Babylonian values presen Writingted here (ODBW) are drawn by George from the A. pagesBarton, of andThe bearOrigin the and serial Development numbers of ofBabylonian the signs Writing in that (ODBW) work. byThe George following A. Barton, signs andare selectedbear the forserial analysis: numbers Signs of Nos. the 244;signs 281; in that322; work.131; 351;The 88;following 364a; 149;signs 180; are selected182; 37; for80; analysis: 387 and Signs 531. Nos. The 244; Dravidian 281; 322; items 131; are 351; drawn 88; from 364a; A 149;Dravidian 180; Etymological182; 37; 80; Dic387tionary and 531.(DED) The by DravidianT. Burrow items and M.are B. drawn Emeneau from and A Dravidianthe item numbersEtymological refer Dic totionary the serial (DED) numbers by T. inBurrow that work. and M. B. Emeneau and the item numbers refer to the serial numbers in that work. 2.2 Sign No. 244: The original picture represented a net, plus a motif for spread2.2 Sign out No. 244: The original picture represented a net, plus a motif for spread out Sum: par — spread out (B. 5531); tear down (M. 3872). par — a net Sum: (B. par 5532). — spread bara — out spread (B. 5531); out (B. tear 5534); down extend (M. 3872).(M. 3873). par — a net (1) Sum: (B.Par 5532). — a net. bara — spread out (B. 5534); extend (M. 3873). (1) Sum: Par — a net. Ta: valai — net; DED. 4326. Ma: vala — net; Ko: val; To: pal. valai — net; 4326. vala — net; val; pal. Ka:Ta: bale — Kod: bale;DED. Tu: bale.Ma: Ko: To: Ka: bale — Kod: bale; Tu: bale. Among the Dravidian languages Toda alone has preserved the initial p; cf. Sum:Among par with the To: Dravidian pal 'a net', languages par > pal. Toda alone has preserved the initial p; cf. Sum: par with To: pal 'a net', par > pal. (2) Sum: par, bara — spread out; extend. (2) : par, bara — spread out; extend. SumTa: para — spread; expand; extend DED: 3255. par — para — spread; expand; extend 3255. par — Ta: expanse; paru — spread; Ma: parakkaDED: — to spread; Ko: part; To: par.expanse; paru — spread; Ma: parakka — to spread; Ko: part; To: par. Ka: pare; Kod: para; Tu: parapuni; Te: paravu, paru. Ka:Go: pare; Kod:. para; Tu: parapuni; Te: paravu, paru. Go: . It is likely tparhānā — — 'spread'It is ,likely 'expanse', tparhānā a form still in use in Tamil. — — 'spread', 'expanse',he primitive a form still root in useof the in Tamil.form pār 'spread', 'extend is pā (3) Sum: he primitive par — tearroot down. of the form pār 'spread', 'extend is pā (3) par — tear down. Sum:Ta: pari — cut asunder, separate; break off; DED. 3267. pari — cut asunder, separate; break off; 3267. Ta:Tu: paripuni — to tear; rend; parte — tear;DED. Te: pariyu. paripuni — to tear; rend; parte — tear; pariyu. Kol:Tu: part; Pa: parng; Kui: paja; Kur:Te: para; Malt: parge. Ta:Kol: pa ipart; — tornPa: apart;parng; DED. Kui: 3 317 paja;. Ma:Kur: pa para;i — Malt:tearing parge. off. Ka:Ta: pa i —— tear torn asunder. apart; DED. 3317. Ma: pa i — tearing off. Ka: par̳i — tear asunder. r̳ Sum: par — r̳'tear down' is represented in the other Dravidianr̳ languages by Sum: par — ṛ'tear down' is represented in the other Dravidian languages by pari / pari. Theṛ phonetic values par / bara of the same sign No. 244 clearly provepari / thatpari. there The phoneticwas hardly values any difference par / bara betwe of theen samep/b in sign the No.parent 244 tongue. clearly Theprove same that may there be was said hardly of k/g any and difference t/d. Therefore betwe theen termsp/b in for the net parent par / paltongue. / bal andThe valsame may may be saidbe said of regional of k/g and or dialectal t/d. Therefore varieties. the terms for net par / pal / bal and val may be said of regional or dialectal varieties.

That fact that par means 'spread out' and 'teardown' and both these meanings are Thatexpresse fact dthat by parthe meanssame sign 'spread prove out' that and there 'teardown' was only and one both system these meaningsof writing are expressed by the same sign prove that there was only one system of writing for the entire family during the primitive period. for the entire family during the primitive period. 2.3 Sign No. 281: The sign is a picture of a house. E. — house (B. 6238). bid — tu in Akkadian). According to Mercer16 the phonetic values for the pictogram —-house are bit/'t, pit and e.house Then (Bī four forms bid/bit/bit and pit are recorded as variants. Sum: bid /bit /bi / pit — house. Ta: tu — house, habitation, abode, DED 4419. Ma: u — house:ṭ Ka: u; Kod: i; Tu: u, u. vī It is importantvī ṭto note that Sumerianbīḍ orthographybu˙ḍ possessesbīḍ a specialbūḍ character as seen in bi — house, cf. Sum:bid/bi with Sum: Ud/ Ta: u an 'at once' d > t (Ud/U an). ṭ2.4 Sign No. 322:ṭ The sign is clearly a seriesṭ of mountain peaks.ṭ Sum:ṭ kur — mountain (M. 7396), kur — earth; land (B. 7392); country (B. 7394), kur — horse (M. 5359). (1) Sum: kur — mountain; land; country. Ta: ku u — hill; mountain, DED, 1548. Ma ku u hill. To: kuds — large rock; Ka: konda — hill; Kod: kundi — mountain. Go: kurun̳ r̳ — hill; Ta: ku iñci — hilly tract; DED. 1530, r̳ kuricci — village in the hilly tract; Ma: ku icci — hill country. Originalr̳ kur develops into ku -/ ku -/ ku /and kund-; r̳ r > > / ./nd. r> ṛ r̳ n̳ r̳ The semantic values 'earth' and 'land' are derived from the original 'hilly tract' as seen in Ta: ku icci — 'villageṛ r̳ n̳inr̳ the hilly tract'. d̳ s̳ 105 (2) Sum: kurr̳ — horse. Ta: kutirai — horse DED. 1423; Ma: kutirat Ka: kudyr. Ka: kudire; Kod: kudire; Tu: kudure, Te; kudira, gu amu. Kol: gurranu Nk: 'gfaurram; Pa; gurrol; Konda: gu am. Kuwi: rumi, gurrom. r̳ r̳ kur has the following variants in the Dravidian languages: r̳ r̳ kur > kutgū-/kud-/gur-/gu / r/ghur-, The following observations of C. J. Ball has relevance for the Dravidian r̳ gū languages also: k r (from Gur) — horse, written phonetically with last character (kur — mountain; hill, land, country, inhabited place). (CS. p. 96.) ú If kur develops from Gur, as Ball suggests, then the Ts-Kol-Nk-Pa-Konda-Kuwi group of the central Dravidian languages have preserved the earlier form with initial g-. Barton records the value 'mad' also for this mountain sign (ODBW. p. 167): compare mad with Go: matta — mountain, DED. 4151. Kol: me — hill: met — mountain; 'Nk: mett — hill, mountain. ṭṭā

2.3 Sign No. 281: The sign is a picture of a house. E. — house (B. 6238). bid — tu in Akkadian). According to Mercer16 the phonetic values for the pictogram —-house are bit/'t, pit and e.house Then (Bī four forms bid/bit/bit and pit are recorded as variants. Sum: bid /bit /bi / pit — house. Ta: tu — house, habitation, abode, DED 4419. Ma: u — house:ṭ Ka: u; Kod: i; Tu: u, u. vī It is importantvī ṭto note that Sumerianbīḍ orthographybu˙ḍ possessesbīḍ a specialbūḍ character as seen in bi — house, cf. Sum:bid/bi with Sum: Ud/ Ta: u an 'at once' d > t (Ud/U an). ṭ2.4 Sign No. 322:ṭ The sign is clearly a seriesṭ of mountain peaks.ṭ Sum:ṭ kur — mountain (M. 7396), kur — earth; land (B. 7392); country (B. 7394), kur — horse (M. 5359). (1) Sum: kur — mountain; land; country. Ta: ku u — hill; mountain, DED, 1548. Ma ku u hill. To: kuds — large rock; Ka: konda — hill; Kod: kundi — mountain. Go: kurun̳ r̳ — hill; Ta: ku iñci — hilly tract; DED. 1530, r̳ kuricci — village in the hilly tract; Ma: ku icci — hill country. Originalr̳ kur develops into ku -/ ku -/ ku /and kund-; r̳ r > > / ./nd. r> ṛ r̳ n̳ r̳ The semantic values 'earth' and 'land' are derived from the original 'hilly tract' as seen in Ta: ku icci — 'villageṛ r̳ n̳inr̳ the hilly tract'. d̳ s̳

(2) Sum: kurr̳ — horse. Ta: kutirai — horse DED. 1423; Ma: kutirat Ka: kudyr. Ka: kudire; Kod: kudire; Tu: kudure, Te; kudira, gu amu. Kol: gurranu Nk: 'gfaurram; Pa; gurrol; Konda: gu am. Kuwi: rumi, gurrom. r̳ r̳ kur has the following variants in the Dravidian languages: r̳ r̳ kur > kutgū-/kud-/gur-/gu / r/ghur-, The following observations of C. J. Ball has relevance for the Dravidian r̳ gū languages also: k r (from Gur) — horse, written phonetically with last character (kur — mountain; hill, land, country, inhabited place). (CS. p. 96.) ú If kur develops from Gur, as Ball suggests, then the Ts-Kol-Nk-Pa-Konda-Kuwi group of the central Dravidian languages have preserved the earlier form with initial g-. Barton records the value 'mad' also for this mountain sign (ODBW. p. 167): compare mad with Go: matta — mountain, DED. 4151. Kol: me — hill: met — mountain; 'Nk: mett — hill, mountain. ṭṭā The archaic character of the sign shows that the picture is really a hilly tract. It is interesting to note that the same sign denotes both the mountain and the horse. The horse was considered a mountain animal. The fact that there are no mountains in Babylonia and the horse was not indigenous to that country suggests that the term 'kur meaning mountain and horse, may have been brought by the Sumerian settlers from their place of origin. (Ball. CS. p. xi.)

2.5 Sign No. 131: The original picture represented a head surmounted by a cap of some sort. Sum: mu — top (B. 3667). Ta: mu i — crown of head; top as of mountain DED. 4030. Ma: muǵi — top knot; hair of head. Ko: mu y — hair, knot. To: muṭ y — beautifully shaped top. Ka: mu i — braid of hair. Kol: muṭ i — knot; Br: muttukh — knot. ṛ ṛ ḍ Tamil has retained the original signficance of the pictogram, i.e. 'crown of ḍ head' and 'top'. develops into , and . cf. Sum: ta — strike; Ta: ta u; DED: 2466; Ka: u, Kur: ta . Malt: ta ce. ǵ ṛ ṭ ḍ ǵ ṭṭ 2.6 Sign No.tā 351:ṭ The ṛoriginalnā pictureṛ represented a two-handled jar or jug. Sum: mud — a kind of vessel or jug (B. 8192; M. 6111). Ta: mu i — small earthen pot. DED. 4040, Ma; mu i — a vessel. Tu: mu ti — earthen pot. ṭṭ 106 ṭṭ The Sumerian word-final d is represented in the other Dravidian languages ṭ by , , or : exx. Sum: kad —-- bind; Ta: ka u; Ko: kat; Sum: kud — add. ṭ ṭṭ ṛ ḍ Ta: ttu; Ko: - ; Ka: u. ṭṭ 2.7 Sign No. 88:kū (Seeṭu. kū the pictographickūṛ , kū scriptṭ onKū ḍfrontispiece) The picture represents a bird sifting on an egg, or a bird and an egg, i.e. a nesting bird. (1) Sum: mud — bear (B. 2273); bear, of children (B. 2274). mud — enclosure; womb(?) (B. 2280). mud — some sexual word (B. 2275). mud — kin, family (B. 2276). mud — be impetuous; strong (B. 2279). mud — fright, terror (M. 1300); fear, be angry (B. 2272). Sum: mud—some sexual word

Ta: mu ai — egg: DED. 4048; Ma: mu a — egg: Ko: mo ; To: mu y. Ka: mo e; Kod:ṭṭ mu e — egg; testis. ṭṭ ṭ ṭ ṭṭ ṭṭ The archaic character of the sign shows that the picture is really a hilly tract. It is interesting to note that the same sign denotes both the mountain and the horse. The horse was considered a mountain animal. The fact that there are no mountains in Babylonia and the horse was not indigenous to that country suggests that the term 'kur meaning mountain and horse, may have been brought by the Sumerian settlers from their place of origin. (Ball. CS. p. xi.)

2.5 Sign No. 131: The original picture represented a head surmounted by a cap of some sort. Sum: mu — top (B. 3667). Ta: mu i — crown of head; top as of mountain DED. 4030. Ma: muǵi — top knot; hair of head. Ko: mu y — hair, knot. To: muṭ y — beautifully shaped top. Ka: mu i — braid of hair. Kol: muṭ i — knot; Br: muttukh — knot. ṛ ṛ ḍ Tamil has retained the original signficance of the pictogram, i.e. 'crown of ḍ head' and 'top'. develops into , and . cf. Sum: ta — strike; Ta: ta u; DED: 2466; Ka: u, Kur: ta . Malt: ta ce. ǵ ṛ ṭ ḍ ǵ ṭṭ 2.6 Sign No.tā 351:ṭ The ṛoriginalnā pictureṛ represented a two-handled jar or jug. Sum: mud — a kind of vessel or jug (B. 8192; M. 6111). Ta: mu i — small earthen pot. DED. 4040, Ma; mu i — a vessel. Tu: mu ti — earthen pot. ṭṭ ṭṭ The Sumerian word-final d is represented in the other Dravidian languages ṭ by , , or : exx. Sum: kad —-- bind; Ta: ka u; Ko: kat; Sum: kud — add. ṭ ṭṭ ṛ ḍ Ta: ttu; Ko: - ; Ka: u. ṭṭ 2.7 Sign No. 88:kū (Seeṭu. kū the pictographickūṛ , kū scriptṭ onKū ḍfrontispiece) The picture represents a bird sifting on an egg, or a bird and an egg, i.e. a nesting bird. (1) Sum: mud — bear (B. 2273); bear, of children (B. 2274). mud — enclosure; womb(?) (B. 2280). mud — some sexual word (B. 2275). mud — kin, family (B. 2276). mud — be impetuous; strong (B. 2279). mud — fright, terror (M. 1300); fear, be angry (B. 2272). Sum: mud—some sexual word

Ta: mu ai — egg: DED. 4048; Ma: mu a — egg: Ko: mo ; To: mu y. Ka: mo e; Kod:ṭṭ mu e — egg; testis. ṭṭ ṭ ṭ ṭṭ ṭṭ It is important to note that none of the Sumerian values directly refer to 'egg', whereas the pictogram clearly shows an egg. Does this indicate that the. Sumerian language has lost the original significance of the term 'mud'? (2) Sum: mud — enclosure. mud—shut in (Ball. C.S. p.107). muru — enclosure (M. 4794), sign No. 296. Ta: u — shut in; enclose, DED. 4132; Ma: uka — to be a — foetus born with a covering; Go: mūmuṭhu — to cover up. In Sumerian 'mud'mūṭ and 'niuru' are synonyms.covered; Cf. mūṭ Sum: muruṛ with Go: mu hu. Sum: mud/muru — enclosure; shut in. ṛ Ta: mu u — to surround; Ma: mu uka; Ko: mut; Ka:muttu — to enclose; encompass; shut in; Tu: muttuni — encompass. Te: mur̳r̳u — urround. r̳r̳ d/r >tt/ / ṭṭ

ṭṭ r̳r̳ (3) Sum: mud — strong. Ta: mu u — become hardened; mu al — strength, DED. 4117, Ma: mu uka.—- grow perfect; To: mut — become strong. r̳r̳ d > t/rr. r̳ r̳ r̳r̳ (4) Sum: mud — kin; family. 107 Ta: murai — relationship by blood, DED, 4115; Ko: moyr — relationship between kin; To: — relationship by blood or marriage; Tu: mude — consanguinity; Konda: mur — kinsman. Compare Sum: mud/muru — 'shutmīr̤ in', 'enclose' with Sum: mud, Konda: mur — kin. kinsman; Tu: mude. (5) Sum: mud — be frightened, be angry. Ta: mu ukku — be angry; mu ai — haughty; Ko: murk — sulk. To: mu (murq) — to become angry; Ka: mu uku — arrogance;r̳ Tu: par̳ — haughtiness; Kui: mursa — be regardless of danger.r̳ r̳ murtā These values express the original significance of the pictograph. Haughtiness and anger are the characteristics of a nesting bird. (6) Sum: mud — bear, bear of children. Ta: tu — origin, DED. 4133; Ka: mudu — originate, be produced; be born, come into existence; Tu: uni — be mūborn, mūḍ

It is important to note that none of the Sumerian values directly refer to 'egg', whereas the pictogram clearly shows an egg. Does this indicate that the. Sumerian language has lost the original significance of the term 'mud'? (2) Sum: mud — enclosure. mud—shut in (Ball. C.S. p.107). muru — enclosure (M. 4794), sign No. 296. Ta: u — shut in; enclose, DED. 4132; Ma: uka — to be a — foetus born with a covering; Go: mūmuṭhu — to cover up. In Sumerian 'mud'mūṭ and 'niuru' are synonyms.covered; Cf. mūṭ Sum: muruṛ with Go: mu hu. Sum: mud/muru — enclosure; shut in. ṛ Ta: mu u — to surround; Ma: mu uka; Ko: mut; Ka:muttu — to enclose; encompass; shut in; Tu: muttuni — encompass. Te: mur̳r̳u — urround. r̳r̳ d/r >tt/ / ṭṭ

ṭṭ r̳r̳ (3) Sum: mud — strong. Ta: mu u — become hardened; mu al — strength, DED. 4117, Ma: mu uka.—- grow perfect; To: mut — become strong. r̳r̳ d > t/rr. r̳ r̳ r̳r̳ (4) Sum: mud — kin; family. Ta: murai — relationship by blood, DED, 4115; Ko: moyr — relationship between kin; To: — relationship by blood or marriage; Tu: mude — consanguinity; Konda: mur — kinsman. Compare Sum: mud/muru — 'shutmīr̤ in', 'enclose' with Sum: mud, Konda: mur — kin. kinsman; Tu: mude. (5) Sum: mud — be frightened, be angry. Ta: mu ukku — be angry; mu ai — haughty; Ko: murk — sulk. To: mu (murq) — to become angry; Ka: mu uku — arrogance;r̳ Tu: par̳ — haughtiness; Kui: mursa — be regardless of danger.r̳ r̳ murtā These values express the original significance of the pictograph. Haughtiness and anger are the characteristics of a nesting bird. (6) Sum: mud — bear, bear of children. Ta: tu — origin, DED. 4133; Ka: mudu — originate, be produced; be born, come into existence; Tu: uni — be mūborn, mūḍ

2.8 Sign No. 364a: (See the pictographic script on frontispiece) The picture is that of a grasshopper. Sum: mul — vermin, grasshoppers of the field (M. 6534). mus —insect, fly (M. 6537) sur — insect, fly (M. 6535) sur — hole (M. 6536) sur — dwelling (M. 6541) sur' — call, cry, (M. 6543) kaz — cut, tear (M. 6540) As Barton points out, the phonetic values of this sign are the following (a) mul/mus, (b) sur, and (c) kaz. (1) Sum: mul — vermin, grasshopper, muš— insect, fly. Mud — a kind of fly, cognate mu — green wood-fly, (M. 6537). (Ball. CS. p. 107.) To: mu — grasshopper, DED. 3974;š Ko: mi — locust; Ka: mi ice, miducu — grasshopper; Tu: mo e — grasshopper; Te: mi ṭutaṣ ṇ — grasshopper; 108 ṭḷ Kol:ḍ mitte; Pa;mitaka; Ta: vittil — iocust;ṇ ṭ Ma: vittil, vettil — grasshopper,ḍ locust. Only Sumerian and Toda retain the primitive form with the medial vowel U, Cf. Sum: mus/mtid/mul with To: mu . In the other Dravidian languages u > i. Cf. Sum: mul with Ko: mi . This implies that the vowel of the proto- Dravidian form is an umlaut (u). ṭṣ ṇ ṭḷ (2) Sum: sur — insect; fly. Ta: curumpu — bee; drone, fly. DED. 2215; Kol: curund — bee; Nk: surund; Pa: curud; curdi — bee. Cf. Sum: sur > Ta: curumpu — fly; Sum: Sir > Ta: virumpu — desire. (3) Sum: sur — hole. Ta: curi — hole. DED. 2212; Ma: curi — hole. S > C. (4) Sum: kaz — cut; tear. Ta: kaccu — bite, DED. 920; To: koc — kaccu. karcu; Tu: kaccuni. Kol: kacc; Pa: kacc; Go: kas;-Kui: kasa; Kuwi: kacali; kazzinai (z = c) Kur: kassna; Malt: qaswe — nip off; Compare Sum: kaz with Kuwi: kazzinai. kaz > kaz. 2.8 Sign No. 364a: (See the pictographic script on frontispiece) The picture is that of a grasshopper. Sum: mul — vermin, grasshoppers of the field (M. 6534). mus —insect, fly (M. 6537) sur — insect, fly (M. 6535) sur — hole (M. 6536) sur — dwelling (M. 6541) sur' — call, cry, (M. 6543) kaz — cut, tear (M. 6540) As Barton points out, the phonetic values of this sign are the following (a) mul/mus, (b) sur, and (c) kaz. (1) Sum: mul — vermin, grasshopper, muš— insect, fly. Mud — a kind of fly, cognate mu — green wood-fly, (M. 6537). (Ball. CS. p. 107.) To: mu — grasshopper, DED. 3974;š Ko: mi — locust; Ka: mi ice, miducu — grasshopper; Tu: mo e — grasshopper; Te: mi ṭutaṣ ṇ — grasshopper; ṭḷ Kol:ḍ mitte; Pa;mitaka; Ta: vittil — iocust;ṇ ṭ Ma: vittil, vettil — grasshopper,ḍ locust. Only Sumerian and Toda retain the primitive form with the medial vowel U, Cf. Sum: mus/mtid/mul with To: mu . In the other Dravidian languages u > i. Cf. Sum: mul with Ko: mi . This implies that the vowel of the proto- Dravidian form is an umlaut (u). ṭṣ ṇ ṭḷ (2) Sum: sur — insect; fly. Ta: curumpu — bee; drone, fly. DED. 2215; Kol: curund — bee; Nk: surund; Pa: curud; curdi — bee. Cf. Sum: sur > Ta: curumpu — fly; Sum: Sir > Ta: virumpu — desire. (3) Sum: sur — hole. Ta: curi — hole. DED. 2212; Ma: curi — hole. S > C. (4) Sum: kaz — cut; tear. Ta: kaccu — bite, DED. 920; To: koc — kaccu. karcu; Tu: kaccuni. Kol: kacc; Pa: kacc; Go: kas;-Kui: kasa; Kuwi: kacali; kazzinai (z = c) Kur: kassna; Malt: qaswe — nip off; Compare Sum: kaz with Kuwi: kazzinai. kaz > kaz. 2.9 Sign No. 149: The sign is a picture of three stars. Sum: mul — a star (B. 3855) mulu — bright; shining (B. 3856) mulu — sight; aspect (M. 2522) mulu — seek (M. 2523) mulu — perfect (M. 2529) mulu — sprout; twig (M. 2535) mulu — an expression applied to the heavens (M. 2540) mulu — a sandal (M. 2536) mulu — foot (M. 2537) mulu — glow (M. 2534). This sign provides certain clues for the reconstruction of the phonetic changes that occurred in the individual languages of the family. (1) Sum: mulu — perfect. 109 Ta: mu u — all; whole; mu umai — perfection, DED. 4095; Ma: mu u -— whole. Tu. murkar̤ — full, PDr: rootr̤ appears to be mur (Tu: murka) r̤ mur > mulu in Sum. mur > mu u in Ta. & Ma. mur > murka in Tu. r̤ (2) Sum: mulu — sprout. Ta: mulai — sprout; shoot. DED. 4100; Ma: mula; To: , mil.

2.9 Sign No. 149: The sign is a picture of three stars. Sum: mul — a star (B. 3855) mulu — bright; shining (B. 3856) mulu — sight; aspect (M. 2522) mulu — seek (M. 2523) mulu — perfect (M. 2529) mulu — sprout; twig (M. 2535) mulu — an expression applied to the heavens (M. 2540) mulu — a sandal (M. 2536) mulu — foot (M. 2537) mulu — glow (M. 2534). This sign provides certain clues for the reconstruction of the phonetic changes that occurred in the individual languages of the family. (1) Sum: mulu — perfect. Ta: mu u — all; whole; mu umai — perfection, DED. 4095; Ma: mu u -— whole. Tu. murkar̤ — full, PDr: rootr̤ appears to be mur (Tu: murka) r̤ mur > mulu in Sum. mur > mu u in Ta. & Ma. mur > murka in Tu. r̤ (2) Sum: mulu — sprout. Ta: mulai — sprout; shoot. DED. 4100; Ma: mula; To: , mil.

Ka: moje;mī Tu:ḷ mu iyuni; Te: mo aka; Go: mo — to sprout. Probably the Go: form mor — is closer to the PDr. mur. (3) Sum: mulu — glow.ḷ ḷ ṛiyānā Ta: mu i — be scorched; bum, DED. 4099. m l — to kindle; catch fire; stirred up. DED. 4143; Ma: mu i To: ly. ḷ ụ In Tamil 'mulari' means both lotus and fire; i.e. mu > mu ai — sprout, ḷ mū lotus; mul > mu i — glow as fever or fire, mu ari — fire. ḷ ḷ (4) sum: mulu — sight; aspect; seek; bright; shining. ḷ ḷ Ta: mi i, vi i — gaze, shine; Ma: mi ikka — to look at: cast looks; mi i — eye. r̤ r̤ r̤ Apparently mur > mir > mi > mi i > vi i. r̤ Cf. Sum: mulu — sprout; To: mil. Cf. Ta: mu unku > mi unkur̤ > vi unkur̤ —r̤ to swallow. Cf. Sum: mul — grasshopper; To: mu ; Ko: mir̤ ; Ta: —Ma:r̤ vi il. r̤ ṭṣ ṇ (5) Sum: mul — a star; muluṭ ḷ— bright: shining.ṭṭ Go: mi ko, mi kos — star. DED. 3994 , mi . mi — ‘to flash: Te: mi ugu. mi ugu — to glitter. Tu: miṛ uku, minukuniḍ — to shine: ;Ka: mirsalnā m na, miniṛ kānā — shining. ḍstānā ḍ ṇ To: mi.n — star; mic-(mic-) — to flash; Ko: n— star; mine — glitter;ṇ Ta: — star; mi — flash; glitter.ị mi˙ mur > mir > mi > mi . mīn̳ n̳ Go: forms mir-/mir-/mi — are interesting. r̤ ḍ Cf. Sum: mul/ muš/ mud — grasshopper. To: mu ; Ko: mi . ḍ ṭṣ ṇ u > i. ṭḷ 110 (6) Sum: mulu — sky: heaven; mulu — bright; shining. Ta: meruku — glitter: lustre, DED. 4163; Ka: mi ugu — shine; mi u/me e —shine. Tu: mereyuni — to shine; Te: me ugu — shine. Kol: merp; Nk merp; Pa: med; Ga: mere; Kur: r̳ — sky, heaven.r̳ r̳ r̳ merkhā mur > mir > mer. For u > e cf: Sum: tu, tug. tuk, tukul. te — cloth. Ta: tukil. For tu > te cf: Sum: muqa — goat, (M. 8375); sign No. 496. Ka: ke — she-goat, DED. 4174; Te: ka — goat. Kol: ke — goat; Ga: ge: Go: m . mē mē For r > l cf: me˙ mē ekā Sum: mili, mele — throat, neck. Kur: . DED. 4168; Malt: melqe Ta: mi aru, DED. 3971: Ma: mi ila: Ko: mi . To: melkkā; Ka: metre; Te: me a. ṭ ṭ ṛ PDr. mur > mi in Ko, To etc. The analysis of this sign shows that u > i > mīṛ ḍ e was a feature of the primitive Dravidian and also establish the regularity of phonetic change.ṛ

2.10 Sign No. 180: The sign originally pictured a section of the stalk of a plant split apart. Sum: tu — open, of the mouth (M. 3013) du. tu — split, tear asunder, (M. 3015). (B. 4488) du ǵ— press, with the hand, (M. 3018) du. tuǵ — be abundant, abundance (M. 3000) du — turn, of eyes. (M. 3009) du — ǵlift up, of eyes. (B. 4484) (5) Sum: mul — a star; mulu — bright: shining. Go: mi ko, mi kos — star. DED. 3994 , mi . mi — ‘to flash: Te: mi ugu. mi ugu — to glitter. Tu: miṛ uku, minukuniḍ — to shine: ;Ka: mirsalnā m na, miniṛ kānā — shining. ḍstānā ḍ ṇ To: mi.n — star; mic-(mic-) — to flash; Ko: n— star; mine — glitter;ṇ Ta: — star; mi — flash; glitter.ị mi˙ mur > mir > mi > mi . mīn̳ n̳ Go: forms mir-/mir-/mi — are interesting. r̤ ḍ Cf. Sum: mul/ muš/ mud — grasshopper. To: mu ; Ko: mi . ḍ ṭṣ ṇ u > i. ṭḷ

(6) Sum: mulu — sky: heaven; mulu — bright; shining. Ta: meruku — glitter: lustre, DED. 4163; Ka: mi ugu — shine; mi u/me e —shine. Tu: mereyuni — to shine; Te: me ugu — shine. Kol: merp; Nk merp; Pa: med; Ga: mere; Kur: r̳ — sky, heaven.r̳ r̳ r̳ merkhā mur > mir > mer. For u > e cf: Sum: tu, tug. tuk, tukul. te — cloth. Ta: tukil. For tu > te cf: Sum: muqa — goat, (M. 8375); sign No. 496. Ka: ke — she-goat, DED. 4174; Te: ka — goat. Kol: ke — goat; Ga: ge: Go: m . mē mē For r > l cf: me˙ mē ekā Sum: mili, mele — throat, neck. Kur: . DED. 4168; Malt: melqe Ta: mi aru, DED. 3971: Ma: mi ila: Ko: mi . To: melkkā; Ka: metre; Te: me a. ṭ ṭ ṛ PDr. mur > mi in Ko, To etc. The analysis of this sign shows that u > i > mīṛ ḍ e was a feature of the primitive Dravidian and also establish the regularity of phonetic change.ṛ

(1) Sum: tu —open. Ta: ti a — to open, tu appu — a key. DED. 2667; Ma: tu akka — open:ǵ Ko: terv-; To: ter-: Ka: te e: Kod: tora-: Te: tera; Kur: tisigna;r̳ Malt: tisge:r̳ Br: tu ing-. r̳ tug > tu - > tu a > ti a > te a; tur̳ > tura > tora. ṛ Historically u > i is earlier than u > o. Sumerian retention of the form ṛ r̳ r̳ r̳ ǵ tug clearly proves that the PDr. vowel was u pronounced u. u > i > e 111 u > o Compare the other form for 'open'. Sum: ta , tab — open: Go: . DED. 2667: Kui: dari. ǵ (2) Sum: du, tu — be abundant, abundance. tarītānā Ta: tuku — gather in a mass, DED. 2861; Ma: tuka — sum, ǵwhole amount, collection; Ta: tu u — full; press or crowd, DED. 2770. Ma: tu u — a heap; Ko: turg-; turk — to pushr̳ through; Ka: tu ugal — mass; tukku — to crowd; Te: tu e heap; Ta: lira)r̳ — abound, grow thick; DED.2654; Ma: tira — mass; Ko: ter —r̳ become plump; Ka: tera — a mass; Tu: tirluṭṭ — a mass; Te: teralu to abound. ḷ ṇ It is interesting to note that tu — to open, to abound develops in Te: as te a — open; teralu — to abound. u > e. ǵ r̤ Sum: tug and Ko: turg, show remarkable agreement in phonetic details. The development of dialectal variants of the original form tug may be traced as follows: (a) tu > tur/ tur- (b) tu > tir-/ ter/ ter- ǵ (c) tu > turg-/ turk-> tuk- cf: Sum:ǵ tu — to be abundant, with Sum:ǵ tuk — to be abundant (M. 8626. B. 11239) sign No. 515. Ta: Ma: ǵ tuku — abound; gather in a mass. (3) Sum: du — turn. Ta: tiri — turn, DED. 2655; Ma: tin — turn; Ko: tirg-: tirk-. To: tirx; tirk-; Ka: tiri; Kod: tir-; Tu: tirig-; Te: tiri. Kol: tirg-; Nk: tirg-; Go: tiritana; Kui: tihpa; Kur: . Barton did not record a form tu meaning "turn', but the majority of the tīrnā Dravidian languages indicate the existance of such a form; du > tug > tirg. Even on analogy of the- Sumerian formsǵ du, tug — abundant, tug can be reconstructed from du — to turn.

(1) Sum: tu —open. Ta: ti a — to open, tu appu — a key. DED. 2667; Ma: tu akka — open:ǵ Ko: terv-; To: ter-: Ka: te e: Kod: tora-: Te: tera; Kur: tisigna;r̳ Malt: tisge:r̳ Br: tu ing-. r̳ tug > tu - > tu a > ti a > te a; tur̳ > tura > tora. ṛ Historically u > i is earlier than u > o. Sumerian retention of the form ṛ r̳ r̳ r̳ ǵ tug clearly proves that the PDr. vowel was u pronounced u. u > i > e u > o Compare the other form for 'open'. Sum: ta , tab — open: Go: . DED. 2667: Kui: dari. ǵ (2) Sum: du, tu — be abundant, abundance. tarītānā Ta: tuku — gather in a mass, DED. 2861; Ma: tuka — sum, ǵwhole amount, collection; Ta: tu u — full; press or crowd, DED. 2770. Ma: tu u — a heap; Ko: turg-; turk — to pushr̳ through; Ka: tu ugal — mass; tukku — to crowd; Te: tu e heap; Ta: lira)r̳ — abound, grow thick; DED.2654; Ma: tira — mass; Ko: ter —r̳ become plump; Ka: tera — a mass; Tu: tirluṭṭ — a mass; Te: teralu to abound. ḷ ṇ It is interesting to note that tu — to open, to abound develops in Te: as te a — open; teralu — to abound. u > e. ǵ r̤ Sum: tug and Ko: turg, show remarkable agreement in phonetic details. The development of dialectal variants of the original form tug may be traced as follows: (a) tu > tur/ tur- (b) tu > tir-/ ter/ ter- ǵ (c) tu > turg-/ turk-> tuk- cf: Sum:ǵ tu — to be abundant, with Sum:ǵ tuk — to be abundant (M. 8626. B. 11239) sign No. 515. Ta: Ma: ǵ tuku — abound; gather in a mass. (3) Sum: du — turn. Ta: tiri — turn, DED. 2655; Ma: tin — turn; Ko: tirg-: tirk-. To: tirx; tirk-; Ka: tiri; Kod: tir-; Tu: tirig-; Te: tiri. Kol: tirg-; Nk: tirg-; Go: tiritana; Kui: tihpa; Kur: . Barton did not record a form tu meaning "turn', but the majority of the tīrnā Dravidian languages indicate the existance of such a form; du > tug > tirg. Even on analogy of the- Sumerian formsǵ du, tug — abundant, tug can be reconstructed from du — to turn.

112 SumSum DED. (4) : du, tuǵ — split; tear asunder. DED. (4) Ma:Ma: : du, tuǵ — split; tear asunder. Ka: Te: Te: ter̳i ter̳i —— to brust asunder, split; break, cut to brust asunder, split; break, cut Sum: Te: 2829, 2829, 2830.2830. ter̳ikka — to cut off; Sum: tir̳i — to cut; Te: t(r)egu — tear, cut. ter̳ikka — to cut off; tir̳i — to cut; t(r)egu — tear, cut. It is interesting to note the change tuǵ > t(r)egu. It is interesting to note the change Sum: tuǵ > t(r)egu. Sum: Ta: DED. (5) Ta: du — press, with the hand. DED. (5) du — press, with the hand.Ko: tuṭakku — Ko: to catch hold of. tie: totu — to touch, 2865 Ka: tuṭakku — to catch hold of. tie: totu — to touch, Kur: 2865 Ka: and 2703; torv — to put arms around. Kur: and 2703; torv 'Sum: — to put arms Kur: around. tuḍu — to join; put on: tuṭakku 'Sum: —Kur: grasp; tuḍu — to join; put on: tuṭakku — grasp; Sign No. 182: The original picture was a doubled arrowtuṛsg — to touch; du (tug); tuṛsgThis -. suggested co- operation, help, aid, etc.Sign No. 182: The original picture was a doubled arrowtuṛsg — to touch; du (tug); tuṛsgThis -. suggested co- operation, help, aid, etc.2.11 . 2.11 Sum: . Sum: daǵ , taǵ — help, assist (M. 3055) daǵ , taǵ — help, assist (M. 3055) help, aid tāvu; g > v (b).leap over.Sum: Sum: Ta: Compare tag/To: ta 'give' may be compared with taǵ with tāgu. Historically tāgu is earlier maǵ/ than mā tāvu; Sum: 113 Sum: Ta: tāgu > tāvu; g > v (b).'great' (Sign No. 56). tag/To: ta 'give' may be compared with maǵ/ mā

'great' (Sign No. 56). 2.12 Sign No. 17: The sign is a picture of 'water in the mouth'. 2.12 Sign No. 17: The sign is a picture of 'water in the mouth'. Sum: nag — sip (B. 870); drink (B. 872) Sum: nag — sip (B. 870); drink (B. 872) gu — beverage (B. 871). (1) Sum: naggu — — beverage sip; drink. (B. 871). (1) Sum: nag — sip; drink. Ta: nakku — to lick, DED. 2945; Ma: nakkuka — lick: Ta: nakku — to lick, DED. 2945; Ma: nakkuka — lick: Ko: nak-. Ko: nak-. To: nok-; Ka: nakku; Kod: nakk-: Tu: nakkuni: Te: ku. To: nok-; Ka: nakku; Kod: nakk-: Tu: nakkuni: Te: ku. Kol: k-: Nk: k-: fti: nek-; Gtf: nak-; Go: . Kol: k-: Nk: k-: fti: nek-; Gtf: nak-; Go: nā . Konda: k-; Kiti: ka: Kiwi: kali. nā Konda: na˙ k-; Kiti:nā ka: Kiwi: kali. nākānā na˙ nā nākānā Sumerian wordnā-final -g developsnā intonā -k- in word medial position - g > -k- Sumerian wordnā-final -g developsnā intonā -k- in word medial position - g > -k- (2) Sum: gu — beverage; drink. (2) Sum: gu — beverage; drink. la: kuti — to drink; n — beverage, DEO. 1378, Ma: la: kuti — to drink; n — beverage, DEO. 1378, Ma: kuti — to drink. kuti — to drink. Ko: ku y; To: ku t-; Ka: ku i; Kod: ku i; Tu: Ko: ku y; To: ku t-; Ka: ku i; Kod: ku i; Tu: ku cuni; Te: ku ucu. kuṛ cuni; Te: kḍu ucu. ḍ ḍ ṛ g > k. ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ g > k. ḍ ḍ ḍ 2.13 Sign No. 80: (See the pictographic script on frontispiece) Picture of a young2.13 Sign bird No. in 80: process (See theof being pictographic hatched script from anon egg.frontispiece) Picture of a young bird in process of being hatched from an egg. Sum: maš (ires- No. 32) Sum: maš (ires- No. 32) bir (AV. Syl. 78) bir (AV. Syl. 78) a kid; (B. 2030) a kid; (B. 2030) lamb; young child (B. 2025) lamb; young child (B. 2025) cattle (B. 2026) cattle (B. 2026) young; offspring (B. 2027). young; offspring (B. 2027). sprout; offspring (B. 2028). sprout; offspring (B. 2028). (1) Sum: maš — a kid, Iamb, young child; cattle; young; off- (1) Sum: maš — a kid, Iamb, young child; cattle; young; offspring, sprout. Ta: maspring,i — sprout. young of sheep, DED. 3901; Ma: ma i — Ta: ma i — young of sheep, DED. 3901; Ma: ma i — offspring, the young of animals; Ko: mayr — young of offspring,r̳ the young of animals; Ko: mayr — youngr̳ of animals.r̳ r̳ To: animals.ma y — young of animals and birds; Ka: ma i — To: ma y — young of animals and birds; Ka: ma i — the young of any animal; a young child, a shoot: ther̤ young of any animal; a young child, a shoot:r̤ sapling.r̤ r̤ Tu: marisapling. — a young animal; Te: maraka — a kid: Tu: mari — a young animal; Te: maraka — a kid: Co: — son. 114 Br: Co: r — son;— son.boy, lad; mat — he-goat (Bray, Brahui, p. 203). Br: rmarrī — son; boy, lad; mat — he-goat (Bray, Brahui, p. 203). marrī mā mā 2.12 Sign No. 17: The sign is a picture of 'water in the mouth'. Sum: nag — sip (B. 870); drink (B. 872) gu — beverage (B. 871). (1) Sum: nag — sip; drink. Ta: nakku — to lick, DED. 2945; Ma: nakkuka — lick: Ko: nak-. To: nok-; Ka: nakku; Kod: nakk-: Tu: nakkuni: Te: ku. Kol: k-: Nk: k-: fti: nek-; Gtf: nak-; Go: . nā Konda: k-; Kiti: ka: Kiwi: kali. na˙ nā nākānā Sumerian wordnā-final -g developsnā intonā -k- in word medial position - g > -k- (2) Sum: gu — beverage; drink. la: kuti — to drink; n — beverage, DEO. 1378, Ma: kuti — to drink. Ko: ku y; To: ku t-; Ka: ku i; Kod: ku i; Tu: ku cuni; Te: ku ucu. ṛ ḍ ḍ ḍ g > k. ḍ ḍ 2.13 Sign No. 80: (See the pictographic script on frontispiece) Picture of a young bird in process of being hatched from an egg. Sum: maš (ires- No. 32) bir (AV. Syl. 78) a kid; (B. 2030) lamb; young child (B. 2025) cattle (B. 2026) young; offspring (B. 2027). sprout; offspring (B. 2028). (1) Sum: maš — a kid, Iamb, young child; cattle; young; offspring, sprout. Ta: ma i — young of sheep, DED. 3901; Ma: ma i — offspring, the young of animals; Ko: mayr — young of r̳ r̳ animals. To: ma y — young of animals and birds; Ka: ma i — the young of any animal; a young child, a shoot: r̤ r̤ sapling. Tu: mari — a young animal; Te: maraka — a kid: Co: — son. Br: r — son; boy, lad; mat — he-goat (Bray, Brahui, p. 203). marrī

mā The original significance of the pictograph namely 'young of birds' still survives in Toda. All the semantic ranges of the Sumerian form mas are found in the various languages of the family. For s > r, cf. Sum: muš — 'three'; Ka: u.

(2) Sum: bir — offspring, child, youngmū ofr̳ any animal; bila — son. offspring; child, young (Ball. CS. p. 82). Ta: pi ai — child, son, youth, daughter, young of many animals; Ka: pi e, pilla — child, young of any animal ḷḷ Tu: pi e — child, baby; Te: pilla — child, baby; young ḷḷ of any animal; Koi: pilla — baby; Go: pila — child, young of an animal.ḷ ḷ Compare Sum: bir/bila with Go: ; bila > p . -. cf. Sum: bir — rend, tear, cut (B. 8095) Sign No. 342. pilā ilā Ta: piri/pi /pila — tear, cut DED. 3455 and 3446. For bir/pilā The meaning of the pictograph is given by Barton as 'chick emerging from ḷ egg' — from which all the other meanings developed. It is important to note that the ancient grammarian Tolkappiyar gives the meaning 'young of birds' for the term pillai' (TW. Pond. 559). Compare Te: pi a — bird; Kol: pi e — young bird, chick; Go: pi e, pi e. ṭṭ ṭṭ bir > pi e, pi e — 'chick'. ṭ ṭṭ 2.14 Sign No. 387:ṭ (Seeṭṭ the pictographic script on frontispiece) Picture of a two-winged insect. Sum: turn — (sa vi. 11) — a fly (B.9030). num —- fly, nim — fly; high (B. 9016) turn (also read num. nim). flies, winged insects. (Ball. CS. p. 141). nim. num. turn (Mercer. SBSL. p. 6.) (1) Sum: mm — a fly. Ta: tumpi — bee; dragon-fly. DED. 2731; Ma: tumpi — bee; dragon. Ko: tib; To: tuby; Ka: tumbi. tumbe; Kod. tumbi; Tu: tumbi. Pa: dund; Kur: tumba; Malt: tumbe. (2) Sum: num — a fly. 115 Ta: nu ampu, nu al — gnat, eye-fly, mosquito, DED. 3077. Ma: nu ampu; Ka: nusi, nola — a fly, insect; noraju — ḷ ḷḷ gnat; an eye-fly; Te: nusuma; Kol: nulle; Pa: r̤ nu ñi; Go: . Malt: nuto. ṛ nullē Probably nur (Pa: nu ñi) is the original of num 'fly', nur > num.

ṛ The original significance of the pictograph namely 'young of birds' still survives in Toda. All the semantic ranges of the Sumerian form mas are found in the various languages of the family. For s > r, cf. Sum: muš — 'three'; Ka: u.

(2) Sum: bir — offspring, child, youngmū ofr̳ any animal; bila — son. offspring; child, young (Ball. CS. p. 82). Ta: pi ai — child, son, youth, daughter, young of many animals; Ka: pi e, pilla — child, young of any animal ḷḷ Tu: pi e — child, baby; Te: pilla — child, baby; young ḷḷ of any animal; Koi: pilla — baby; Go: pila — child, young of an animal.ḷ ḷ Compare Sum: bir/bila with Go: ; bila > p . -. cf. Sum: bir — rend, tear, cut (B. 8095) Sign No. 342. pilā ilā Ta: piri/pi /pila — tear, cut DED. 3455 and 3446. For bir/pilā The meaning of the pictograph is given by Barton as 'chick emerging from ḷ egg' — from which all the other meanings developed. It is important to note that the ancient grammarian Tolkappiyar gives the meaning 'young of birds' for the term pillai' (TW. Pond. 559). Compare Te: pi a — bird; Kol: pi e — young bird, chick; Go: pi e, pi e. ṭṭ ṭṭ bir > pi e, pi e — 'chick'. ṭ ṭṭ 2.14 Sign No. 387:ṭ (Seeṭṭ the pictographic script on frontispiece) Picture of a two-winged insect. Sum: turn — (sa vi. 11) — a fly (B.9030). num —- fly, nim — fly; high (B. 9016) turn (also read num. nim). flies, winged insects. (Ball. CS. p. 141). nim. num. turn (Mercer. SBSL. p. 6.) (1) Sum: mm — a fly. Ta: tumpi — bee; dragon-fly. DED. 2731; Ma: tumpi — bee; dragon. Ko: tib; To: tuby; Ka: tumbi. tumbe; Kod. tumbi; Tu: tumbi. Pa: dund; Kur: tumba; Malt: tumbe. (2) Sum: num — a fly. Ta: nu ampu, nu al — gnat, eye-fly, mosquito, DED. 3077. Ma: nu ampu; Ka: nusi, nola — a fly, insect; noraju — ḷ ḷḷ gnat; an eye-fly; Te: nusuma; Kol: nulle; Pa: r̤ nu ñi; Go: . Malt: nuto. ṛ nullē Probably nur (Pa: nu ñi) is the original of num 'fly', nur > num.

ṛ For r > m cf. Sum: tur, turn — thigh, waist. Ta: tu ai; To: twa . cf. Sum: nam — province, district (B. 2099); Sign No. 85. Ta: ṭu; Ko: r;ṛ Go: r. ‘r’ usually changes into a nasal ‘n’ or ‘m’ in word-final position in Sumerian. nāṭ na˙ nā cf. Sum: kan — dark, black; Ta: r. karu. Sum: kurun — blood; Ta: kuruti. kā (3) Sum: nim — fly. Kol: nga — fly; Nk: nga — fly, DED. 453; -ga of suffix, ga = ninga. (4) Sum: nimni˙ — high, be high.nī nīnga is a Ta: nimlr —nīm to grow + tall; DED. 2382, 3033. niva — to rise high; Ka: nimir — grow high; Konda: nin — to rise; Kui: ninga — to rise. (5) Sum: turn — abundance. Ta: tumpai — assembly; crowd, DED. 2739; Ka: tombe — multitude. Ko: tumn — full; Ka: tumbu — abound; Kod: dumb — to become full.

Compare Sum: turn — 'a fly', 'abundance' with Ta: tumpi -— fly; tumpai — abundance.

2.15 Sign No. 531: The sign is a picture of a hog, Sum: kiš — some quadruped, a hog; (B. 11937) pis — a hog. (1) Sum: kiš —-a hog. kiš —- a swine, hog, pig. (Ball CS. p. 93.) Kur: kiss — pig. DED. 1275; Malt: kisu — pig: Ta: al — pig.

kēr̤ The root of ki / —116 r > ki / — to dig. Digging the ground is the characteristic of this animal. š kiss/kisu/kēr̤ is probably kī ḷ kīr̤ For kiš/ r — cf. Sum: kiš — hair of the head. Go:kē kelk — hair. Kui: kelu, kedu. cf. Sum: kiš/kil/kin — multitude. Ta: ki ai — host; multitude. (2) Sum: piš — pig. piḷ (bi : from an older ba ?); a wild boar; vid — ki — the other value of the character š (Assyrianš — loan wordš piazu — swine, hog seems to be a trilit imitation of baz =š bas) (Ball. CS. p. 119). For r > m cf. Sum: tur, turn — thigh, waist. Ta: tu ai; To: twa . cf. Sum: nam — province, district (B. 2099); Sign No. 85. Ta: ṭu; Ko: r;ṛ Go: r. ‘r’ usually changes into a nasal ‘n’ or ‘m’ in word-final position in Sumerian. nāṭ na˙ nā cf. Sum: kan — dark, black; Ta: r. karu. Sum: kurun — blood; Ta: kuruti. kā (3) Sum: nim — fly. Kol: nga — fly; Nk: nga — fly, DED. 453; -ga of suffix, ga = ninga. (4) Sum: nimni˙ — high, be high.nī nīnga is a Ta: nimlr —nīm to grow + tall; DED. 2382, 3033. niva — to rise high; Ka: nimir — grow high; Konda: nin — to rise; Kui: ninga — to rise. (5) Sum: turn — abundance. Ta: tumpai — assembly; crowd, DED. 2739; Ka: tombe — multitude. Ko: tumn — full; Ka: tumbu — abound; Kod: dumb — to become full.

Compare Sum: turn — 'a fly', 'abundance' with Ta: tumpi -— fly; tumpai — abundance.

kēr̤ The root of ki / — r > ki / — to dig. Digging the ground is the characteristic of this animal. š kiss/kisu/kēr̤ is probably kī ḷ kīr̤ For kiš/ r — cf. Sum: kiš — hair of the head. Go:kē kelk — hair. Kui: kelu, kedu. cf. Sum: kiš/kil/kin — multitude. Ta: ki ai — host; multitude. (2) Sum: piš — pig. piḷ (bi : from an older ba ?); a wild boar; vid — ki — the other value of the character š (Assyrianš — loan wordš piazu — swine, hog seems to be a trilit imitation of baz =š bas) (Ball. CS. p. 119).

Kuwi: pazzi (z = j); pajji — pig. DED. 3326; Kui: paji. Ta: pa i, va i; Ma: panni; Ko: paj; Ka: pandi; Kod: pandi. Tit: panji;n̳ r̳ Te:n̳ Pandi;r̳ Pa: pend: Ca: pan : Go: paddi. Konda: pan i. ḍ It is likely that the original form was ba — ba , as Barton suggests. r̳ Ba /baz > pazzi in Kttwi: The change of the back vowel 'a' to the front vowel ‘i’ (paz > pis) was due to the phonetic habitsš of žthe Semitic people, and thisš feature is generally observed in the Sumerian language of the Post-Gudean period (2400-1800 B.C.).

3. THE PARENT LANGUAGE 3.1 SUMERIAN AND PROTO-DRAVIDIAN Is Sumerian a Pre-Dravidian language? This question will naturally be raised by students of Indo-European linguistics familiar with Hittite records. Hittite is generally considered a Pre-Indo-European language as it shows certain un-Indo-European characteristics that are not reconstructable for the family as a whole. On the other hand. Archaic Sumerian as seen in the Pre- Gudean records does not show any un-Dravidian characteristics. From what has been shown in section 2 above, it is clear that both Sumerians and Dravidians spoke the same language and probably lived in some mountainous region for a long time before being separated from each other. The importance of the Archaic Sumerian language lies in the fact that it has preserved the earliest literary records of the family. A comparison of the vocabulary of that language with that of the Dravidian languages shows that the phonetic habits of those who spoke them were essentially the same. Therefore, it is easier to conclude that Archaic Sumerian had retained many features of the parent language which in varying degrees are shared by the spoken languages of the family. 117 3.2 PROTO-DRAVIDIAN CHARACTERISTICS The following, it is submitted, are some of the main characteristics of the parent or proto-language: • Vowels: Originally a three vowel system prevailed in the proto- language. The four Sumerian vowels — a, u, i and e may be reduced into a, u, and i. The back vowels a and u were extensively used in the earliest period of Sumerian linguistic history. There was no contrast in vowel length in Sumerian. This feature may be reconstructed for the parent language. Cf. Sum: mud; Ta: u, mu ai etc. (see 2.7). An umlauted vowel u should be reconstructed for the parent language (see 2.8; 2.10 etc.). mūṭ ṭṭ • Consonants: No distinction was made between the surd and sonant consonants either in word-initial or final position in the parent language. Compare the Dravidian cognates for 'cloth'.

Kuwi: pazzi (z = j); pajji — pig. DED. 3326; Kui: paji. Kuwi:Ta: pa pazzii, (z va = j);i; pajjiMa: panni; — pig. Ko: DED. paj; 3326; Ka: pandi;Kui: paji. pa i, va i; panni; paj; pandi; Ta: Kod: pandi. Ma: Ko: Ka: pandi. Tit: Kod:panji;n̳ r̳ Te:n̳ Pandi;r̳ Pa: pend: Ca: pan : Go: paddi. panji;n̳ r̳ n̳Pandi;r̳ pend: pan : paddi. Tit:Kon da: pan i. Te: Pa: Ca: Go: Konda: pan i. ḍ It is likely that the original form was ba —ḍ ba , as Barton suggests. It is likely thatr̳ the original form was ba — ba , as Barton suggests. Ba /baz > pazzi inr̳ Kttwi: The change of the back vowel 'a' to the front vowelBa /baz ‘i’ (paz> pazzi > pis) in wasKttwi: due The to the change phonetic of thehabitsš back of žthevowel Semitic 'a' topeople, the front and thisvowelš feature ‘i’ (paz is generally> pis) was observed due to the in thephonetic Sumerian habitsš language of žthe ofSemitic the Post people,-Gudean and periodthisš feature (2400 is- generally1800 B.C.). observed in the Sumerian language of the Post-Gudean period (2400-1800 B.C.). 3. THE PARENT LANGUAGE 3. THE PARENT LANGUAGE 3.1 SUMERIAN AND PROTO-DRAVIDIAN 3.1 Is SumerianSUMERIAN a AND Pre -PROTODravidian-DRAVIDIAN language? This question will naturally be raisedIs Sumerianby students a Preof Indo-Dravidian-European language? linguistics This familiar question with will Hittite nat urallyrecords. be raisedHittite byis studentsgenerally of considered Indo-European a Pre lingui-Indostics-European familiar language with Hittite as itrecords. shows Hittitecertain isun -generallyIndo-European considered characteristics a Pre-Indo that-European are not reconstructable language as it forshows the certainfamily asun -aIndo whole.-European On the characteristics other hand. Archaicthat are Sumerian not reconstructable as seen in th fore Pre the- familyGudean as records a whole. does On not the show other any unhand.-Dravidian Archaic characteristics. Sumerian as seen From in what the Pre has- Gudeanbeen shown records in sectiondoes not 2 showabove, any it unis clear-Dravidian that both characteristics. Sumerians andFrom Dravidians what has beenspoke shown the same in sectionlanguage 2 above,and probably it is clear lived that in bothsome Sumerians mountainous and region Dravidians for a spokelong time the beforesame languagebeing separated and probably from each lived other. in some The importancemountainous of region the Archaic for a longSumerian time beforelanguage being lies separated in the fact from that each it other.has preserved The importance the earliest of the literArchaicary Sumerianrecords of languagethe family. lies A comparisonin the fact ofthat the it vocabulary has preserved of that the lan earliestguage with liter thatary recordsof the Dravidian of the family. languages A comparison shows th ofat thethe vocabularyphonetic habits of that of lanthoseguage who with spoke that ofthem the wereDravidian essentially languages the same.shows Therefore, that the phonetic it is easier habits to conclude of those thatwho Archaic spoke themSumerian were had essentially retained the many same. features Therefore, of the it parent is easier language to conclude which that in Archaicvarying Sumeriandegrees are had shared retained by the many spoken features languages of the of parentthe family. language which in varying degrees are shared by the spoken languages of the family. 3.2 PROTO-DRAVIDIAN CHARACTERISTICS 3.2 The PROTO following,-DRAVIDIAN it is submitted, CHARACTERISTICS are some of the main characteristics of the parentThe or following, proto-language: it is submitted, are some of the main characteristics of the parent or proto-language: • Vowels: Originally a three vowel system prevailed in the proto- • language.Vowels: Originally The four a Sumerianthree vowel vowels system — prevailed a, u, i and in ethe ma protoy be -reduced intolanguage. a, u, and The i. Thefour back Sumerian vowels vowels a and u — were a, u, extensively i and e ma usedy be reducedin the earliestinto a, u, period and i. ofThe Sumerian back vowels linguistic a and history. u were Thereextensively was no used contrast in the in vowelearliest length period in of Sumerian. Sumerian Thislinguistic feature history. may be There reconstructed was no contrast for the in parentvowel lengthlanguage. in Sumerian. Cf. Sum: mud; This Ta:feature mayu, mu be reconstructedai etc. (see 2.7). for theAn umlautedparent language. vowel Cf.u should Sum: mud; be reconstructed Ta: u, mu for theai etc. parent (see language 2.7). An (see 2.8;umlauted 2.10 etc.). vowel u should be reconstructedmūṭ forṭṭ the parent language (see 2.8; 2.10 etc.). mūṭ ṭṭ • Consonants: No distinction was made between the surd and sonant • consonantsConsonants: either No distinctionin word-initial was or made final positionbetween in the the parentsurd and language. sonant consonantsCompare the either Dravidian in word cognates-initial or for final 'cloth'. position in the parent language. Compare the Dravidian cognates for 'cloth'.

Sign No. 481 b: A garment (It was a cloth with two stripes across it).

Sum: tu. tug — garment (B. 10551); tuk — garment; tukul — garment; tugini — garment (M. 3305) Sign No. 204. Ta: tukil, tuyil — fine cloth. DED. 2687; Ma: tukil, tuyil — fine cloth; Ka: dukula, dugula — fine cloth. The primary root of the Sumerian forms tu, tug, tuk, tukul and tugini is undoubtedly 'tu'. This primary root 'tu' develops into 'tug' and 'tuk' in Archaic Sumerian and 'tugini' and 'tukul' in the post-Gudean period of the Sumerian language. These illustrations clearly118 show that the medial -k-/g in the Dravidian languages was once a final consonant in the parent language, as seen in the Archaic Sumerian records. There was no phonemic opposition between k/g, t/d and p/b. Kannada d- in word-initial position (dukula) is not accidental. Sumerian illustrations are many to show that there existed no distinction between the surd t- and sonant d- in word-initial position, exx: Sign No. 427: Sum: dun — a kind of garment (B. 9881). Ta: tu i — cloth; Ma: tu i — cloth; Ko: tu y — cloth; Kod: tu i — cloth. ṇ ṇ ṇ ṇ For the Sumerian d- (dun), the Dravidian languages show t- (tuni). The initial k/g variant may be seen from the following illustration: Sign No. 101: Sign originally represented a loin cloth. Sum: gad — garment; cloth. Ta: kantai — loin cloth, DED. 991; Te: kanduva; upper garment. Kol: khandva — cloth; kandva — garment; Nk: khanda — garment. Pa: ganda — garment; Ga: garnda — garment. In these illustrations Sumerian g- is represented by g- / kh- and k-in . Thus the distinction' k/g, t/'d. and p/b in the various languages of the family was originally of phonetic and not of phonemic nature. This feature is reconstructed for the parent language.

(3) Agglutination: Sumerian is an agglutinative language and recognized as such by almost all the Sumerologists.17 Thus it differs in its fundamentals from the Indo-European and the Semitic languages. The agglutinative principles in operation during the Pre-Gudean period of the Sumerian linguistic history were the same as those in Dravidian. The Archaic Sumerian was a language of simple roots often of monosyllabic structure. As Langdon points out, the grammar was in such a primitive state that the verbal system of later Sumerian had not yet been attained (see 1.4). It is clear that there was no barrier between morphological and syntactic structures in the parent language.

Sign No. 481 b: A garment (It was a cloth with two stripes across it). Sum: tu. tug — garment (B. 10551); tuk — garment; tukul — garment; tugini — garment (M. 3305) Sign No. 204. Ta: tukil, tuyil — fine cloth. DED. 2687; Ma: tukil, tuyil — fine cloth; Ka: dukula, dugula — fine cloth. The primary root of the Sumerian forms tu, tug, tuk, tukul and tugini is undoubtedly 'tu'. This primary root 'tu' develops into 'tug' and 'tuk' in Archaic Sumerian and 'tugini' and 'tukul' in the post-Gudean period of the Sumerian language. These illustrations clearly show that the medial -k-/g in the Dravidian languages was once a final consonant in the parent language, as seen in the Archaic Sumerian records. There was no phonemic opposition between k/g, t/d and p/b. Kannada d- in word-initial position (dukula) is not accidental. Sumerian illustrations are many to show that there existed no distinction between the surd t- and sonant d- in word-initial position, exx: Sign No. 427: Sum: dun — a kind of garment (B. 9881). Ta: tu i — cloth; Ma: tu i — cloth; Ko: tu y — cloth; Kod: tu i — cloth. ṇ ṇ ṇ ṇ For the Sumerian d- (dun), the Dravidian languages show t- (tuni). The initial k/g variant may be seen from the following illustration: Sign No. 101: Sign originally represented a loin cloth. Sum: gad — garment; cloth. Ta: kantai — loin cloth, DED. 991; Te: kanduva; upper garment. Kol: khandva — cloth; kandva — garment; Nk: khanda — garment. Pa: ganda — garment; Ga: garnda — garment. In these illustrations Sumerian g- is represented by g- / kh- and k-in . Thus the distinction' k/g, t/'d. and p/b in the various languages of the family was originally of phonetic and not of phonemic nature. This feature is reconstructed for the parent language.

119 ExamineExamine the the following following examples: examples: a-ra-zu "supplication" (Langdon, 203). Sum:Sum: a-ra-zu "supplication" (Langdon,SGCP. SGCP. 203). a anku "supplication" a akku. Ta:Ta: a anku "supplication" a akku. a annuka; a akkuka. Ma:Ma: a annuka; a akkuka. ṭṭ ṭṭ Ko- arg, - ark- Ko- arg,ṭ - ark- ṭ a ṭangu. a aku,ṭ a agu, a acu. Ka:Ka: a angu. a aku, a agu, a acu. Te; a agu, a acu. Te; aḍ agu, a ḍacu. ḍ ḍ ḍa ge. ḍ ḍ ḍ Malt:Malt: a ge. ḍḍ ḍḍ aa--rara--zuzu inin SumerianSumerian isis aa compoundcompound ofof threethree primaryprimary roots:roots: aa-- 'in','in', 'inside','inside', ṛṛ rara-- 'go'go\\ 'get'get in',in', kuku >> zuzu —— 'towards','towards', 'direction'.'direction'. ThusThus aa--rara--zuzu meansmeans 'get'get inside',inside', 'be 'be obedient', obedient', 'be 'be submissive' submissive' etc, etc, TheThe KannadaKannada formsforms aa akuaku && aa acuacu areare thethe cognatescognates ofof thethe SumerianSumerian formform arazuarazu (a(a--rara--zu).zu). TheThe originaloriginal rr (ra)(ra) changeschanges intointo t/d/rt/d/r inin thethe variouvariouss ḍ ḍ languageslanguages of of the the family. family. ḍ ḍ TheThe factfact thatthat thethe orderorder ofof thethe threethree wordswords aa-- rara-- zuzu isis retainedretained inin thethe secondarysecondary rootsroots ofof almostalmost altalt thethe languageslanguages ofof thethe DravidianDravidian familyfamily isis aa clearclear proof of their former unity in the distant past. proof of their former unity in the distant past.

3.33.3 THE THE ORIGINAL ORIGINAL HOME HOME OF OF THE THE PARENT PARENT LANGUAGE LANGUAGE TheThe classificationclassification ofof ArchaicArchaic SumerianSumerian asas aa DravidianDravidian languagelanguage hashas justjust begun.begun. InIn thethe presentpresent statestate ofof SumeroSumero--DravidianDravidian studies,studies, itit isis tootoo earlyearly toto inquireinquire intointo thethe originaloriginal homehome ofof thethe parentparent oror protoproto--language.language. However,However, aa fewfew tentative hints are offered below 10 guide further research in this field: tentative hints are offered below 10 guide further research in this field: (1)(1) TheThe SumeriansSumerians werewere notnot anan indigenousindigenous racerace inhabitinginhabiting thethe BabylonianBabylonian plains.plains. TheyThey werewere immigrants.immigrants. TheThe evidenceevidence ofof archaeologyarchaeology showsshows thatthat ProtoProto--EuphrateansEuphrateans oror UbaidiansUbaidians werewere thethe originaoriginall inhabitantsinhabitants ofof 18 southernsouthern Babylonia.Babylonia.18 SumeriansSumerians conqueredconquered thethe aboriginesaborigines andand establishedestablished theirtheir kingdomkingdom firstfirst inin thethe seasea coastcoast citiescities ofof thethe PersianPersian Gulf. Gulf. (2)(2) SumerianSumerian traditions traditions as as enshrined enshrined in in the the Old Old Testament Testament reveal reveal thatthat they they journeyed journeyed from from the the East East an andd emigrated emigrated into into Baby Babylonia.lonia. The The followingfollowing remarks remarks of of Sir Sir Leonard Leonard Woolley Woolley are are of of interest:interest: "Quoting"Quoting probably probably some some legend legend of of the the Sumerians Sumerians them themselvesselves the the Old Old TestamentTestament sayssays thatthat 'the'the peoplepeople journeyedjourneyed fromfrom thethe EastEast andand camecame into the plain of (which is Babylon) and dwelt there', and of into the plain of ShinarShinar (which is Babylon) and dwelt there', and of recentrecent years years excavations excavations so so far far away away to to the the East East as as the the Valley Valley of of the the IndusIndus riverriver havehave produced produced remainsremains ofof an an earlyearly civilizationcivilization whichwhich has has certaincertain elementselements inin commoncommon withwith whatwhat wewe findfind inin Mesopotamia.Mesopotamia. TheThe SumeriansSumerians believedbelieved thatthat theythey camecame intointo thethe countrycountry withwith theirtheir civilizationcivilization alreadyalready formed,formed, 120bringingbringing withwith themthem thethe knowledgeknowledge ofof agriculture,agriculture, ofof workingworking inin metal,metal, ofof thethe artart ofof writingwriting 'since'since then'then' said they 'no new inventions have been made'."19 said they 'no new inventions have been made'."19 Examine the following examples: Sum: a-ra-zu "supplication" (Langdon, SGCP. 203). Ta: a anku "supplication" a akku. Ma: a annuka; a akkuka. ṭ ṭ Ko- arg, - ark- ṭ ṭ Ka: a angu. a aku, a agu, a acu. Te; a agu, a acu. ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ Malt: a ge. ḍ ḍ a-ra-zu in Sumerian is a compound of three primary roots: a- 'in', 'inside', ṛ ra- 'go\ 'get in', ku > zu — 'towards', 'direction'. Thus a-ra-zu means 'get inside', 'be obedient', 'be submissive' etc, The Kannada forms a aku & a acu are the cognates of the Sumerian form arazu (a-ra-zu). The original r (ra) changes into t/d/r in the various languages of the family. ḍ ḍ The fact that the order of the three words a- ra- zu is retained in the secondary roots of almost alt the languages of the Dravidian family is a clear proof of their former unity in the distant past.

3.3 THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE PARENT LANGUAGE The classification of Archaic Sumerian as a Dravidian language has just begun. In the present state of Sumero-Dravidian studies, it is too early to inquire into the original home of the parent or proto-language. However, a few tentative hints are offered below 10 guide further research in this field: (1) The Sumerians were not an indigenous race inhabiting the Babylonian plains. They were immigrants. The evidence of archaeology shows that Proto-Euphrateans or Ubaidians were the original inhabitants of southern Babylonia.18 Sumerians conquered the aborigines and established their kingdom first in the sea coast cities of the Persian Gulf. (2) Sumerian traditions as enshrined in the Old Testament reveal that they journeyed from the East and emigrated into Babylonia. The following remarks of Sir Leonard Woolley are of interest: "Quoting probably some legend of the Sumerians themselves the Old Testament says that 'the people journeyed from the East and came into the plain of Shinar (which is Babylon) and dwelt there', and of recent years excavations so far away to the East as the Valley of the Indus river have produced remains of an early civilization which has certain elements in common with what we find in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians believed that they came into the country with their civilization already formed, bringing with them the knowledge of agriculture, of working in metal, of the art of writing 'since then'

19 said they 'no new inventions have been made'." (3) H. R. Hall goes farther than Sir Leonard Woolley and identifies the Sumerian skulls as that of the Dravidian. Says he: "and it is to this Dravidian ethnic type of India that the ancient Sumerian bears most resemblance, so far as we can judge from his monuments. He was very like a southern Hindu of the Dekkan (who still speaks Dravidian languages). And it is by no means improbable that the Sumerians were an Indian race which passed, certainly by land, perhaps also by sea, through Persia to the valley of the Two Rivers. It was in the Indian home (perhaps the Indus valley) that we suppose for them that their culture developed. There their writing may have been invented and progressed from a purely pictorial to a simplified and abbreviated form, which afterwards in Babylonia took on its peculiar 'cuneiform' appearance owing to its being written with a square-ended stilus on soft clay."20

(4) The similarity between the undeciphered script of the IndusValley and the partially deciphered Archaic Sumerian script of the Jemdet Nasr sites, clearly points to the unity of both the scripts at a date about 3500 b.c. (see 1.4).

(5) The fact that the Semitic influence found in the Post-Gudean period (2400-1800 B.C.) of the Sumerian language is entirely absent in the Dravidian languages of India shows that the Indian Dravidians were the native inhabitants of their own country. It is to be noted that Brahui shows some features of the language of the Post-Gudean period. Therefore, it may be concluded that there existed a closer unity between the later Sumerian language and Brahui than between the former and the other Dravidian languages which had been cut off from the Sumero- Brahui group at an early date.

(6) The phonetic and the semantic values attributed to the early Sumerian signs, sound-values or words are also attributed to their Dravidian cognates. This points to the strong unity that existed in the parent language before its disintegration into various dialects.

(7) Taking into consideration the evidence of the archaeology and legends of Sumer, the script, the system of writing, and the vocabulary of her language, it is probable that the Indian Dravidians moved towards Babylonia and Asia Minor at a date prior to 3500 B.C. 121

END NOTES

1. Langdon, Stephen: A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, Paris. 1911, P- 2. 2. Ibid., p. 3. 3. Kramer, Samuel Noah: The Sumerians, their History, Culture and Character, Chicago, 1963, p. 6. 4. lbid., p. 21. 5. Piggot, Stuart: “Chronology of Prehistoric North-west India”. Ancient India, vol. I, 1946, p. 19. 6. Stephen Langdon: “The Indus Script” in Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization by Sir John Marshall, London, 1931, vol. 11, p. 453, 7. Ibid, pp. 427-454. 8. Ibid., p. 454. 9. C. J. Ball: Chinese and Sumerian, Oxford University Press. 1913, p. vii. 10. David Diringer: Writing, New York, 1962, p. 36. 11. Gelb, I.J.: A Study of Writing, The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn. 1963, p. 65. 12. Ibid., p. 66. 13. Langdon, Stephen: A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, pp. 33-34. 14. Norris, E.: "Memoir" on the Scythic version of the Behistun Inscriptions, J.R.A.S. (G.B.), vol. 15 (1852), pp. 6 - 7. 15. Langdon, Stephen: A Sumerian Grammer and Chresiomathy, p. 40. 16. Mercer, A.B. :Sumero-Babylonian Sign List, New York, 1981, p. 5. 17. Poebel, Arno: Grammatical Texts, The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1914, p.9. 18. Kramer, S.N.: The Sumerians, Their History, Culture and Character. The University of Chicago Press, 1963, p. 41. 19. Woolley, Leonard: Ur of the Chaldees, New York, 1930, pp. 19-20. 20. Hall, H.R.: The Ancient History of the Near East, London 1913. pp. 172-173.

122 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BALL, C.J. : Chinese and Sumerian, Oxford University Press, 1913

BARTON GEORGE A.: The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing, Leipzig, 1913.

BRAY, DENYS: The Brahui Language, pts. II & IH, Delhi, 1934.

BURROW, T. and EMENEAU, M. B.: A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961.

DIRINGER, DAVID: Writing, New York, 1962.

GELB, I.J. : A Study of Writing, The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn., 1963.

HALL, H.R.: The Ancient History of the Near East, London, 1913.

KRAMER, SAMUEL NOAH: The Sumerians, their History, Culture and Character, Chicago, 1963.

LANGDON, STEPHEN: A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy. Paris, 1911.

MERCER, S.A.B.: Sumero-Babylonian Sign List, New York, 1918.

NORRIS, E.: "Memoir" on the Scythic Version of the Behistun Inscriptions, JRAS (G.B.), vol. 15, 1852.

PIGGOT, STUART: "Chronology of Prehistoric North-West India". Ancient India, vol. I, 1946.

POEBEL, ARNO: Gramarical Texts, The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1914.

WOOLLEY, LEONARD: Ur of the Chaldees. New York, 1930.

123 124 Paper 3

Paper Paper 33

Paper 3

AFFINITIES BETWEEN DRAVIDIANAFFINITIESAFFINITIES AN BETWEENBETWEEND SUMERIAN AFFINITIES BETWEEN DRAVIDIANDRAVIDIAN ANAN DD SUMERIANSUMERIAN DRAVIDIAN AN D SUMERIAN

by A. Sathasivambyby

UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON A.A. SathasivamSathasivamby AND UNIVERSITYUNIVERSITYUNIVERSITYA. Sathasivam OF OFOF CALIFORNIA CEYLONCEYLON ANDAND CopyrightUNIVERSITYUNIVERSITYUNIVERSITY ©2016 by OFOF OF Mrs. CALIFORNIACALIFORNIA CEYLON T. Sathasivam All rightsAND reserved CopyrightCopyrightUNIVERSITY ©2016©2016 bybyOF Mrs.Mrs.CALIFORNIA T.T. SathasivamSathasivam AllAll rightsrights reservedreserved Copyright ©2016 by Mrs. T. Sathasivam All rights reserved Paper presented at the Seminar on Dravidian Linguistics II held at

Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu; 14th - 16th November 1969. Paper Paper presentedpresented atat thethe SeminarSeminar onon DravidianDravidian LinguisticsLinguistics IIII heldheld atat Annamalainagar,Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu;Tamilnadu; 14th14th -- 16th16th NovemberNovember 1969.1969. Paper presented at the Seminar on Dravidian Linguistics II held at Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu; 14th - 16th November 1969. No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in NoNo case partpart ofof briefthisthis workwork quotations maymay bebe embodied stored,stored, usedused in critical oror reproducedreproduced articles and inin anyany reviews. mannermanner whatsoeverwhatsoever withoutwithout thethe writtenwritten permissionpermission ofof thethe copyrightcopyright holder,holder, exceptexcept inin No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner casecase ofof briefbrief quotationsquotations embodiedembodied inin criticalcritical articlarticleses andand reviews.reviews. whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. November 1969 NovemberNovember 19691969 November 1969

125

126

AFFINITIES BETWEEN AFFINITIESAFFINITIES BETWEENBETWEEN DRAVIDIAN AND SUMERIAN DRAVIDIANDRAVIDIAN ANANDD SUMERIANSUMERIAN

1. The Sumerians and their language. 1. The Sumerians and their language. 1.2. TheSumerian Sumerians and Comparative and their language. Dravidian Phonology. 2. Sumerian and Comparative Dravidian Phonology. 2. SumerianA. Sumerian and Comparative Vowels. Dravidian Phonology. A. Sumerian Vowels. B.A. SumerianSumerian ConsonantsVowels. . B. Sumerian Consonants. 3. The DravidianB. Sumerian Development. Consonants . 3. The Dravidian Development.

The Sumerians and their Language. The Sumerians and their Language. The Sumerians and their Language.

1.1 There are three well-known language families of agglutinative structure 1.1 There are three well-known language families of agglutinative structure 1.1 knownThere are to history.three well These-known are Sumerian,language families Ugro-Finnish of agglutinative and Dravidian. structure known to history. These are Sumerian, Ugro-Finnish and Dravidian. Attemptsknown to havehistory. been These made are earlier Sumerian, to connect Ugro -theFinnish ancient and Sumerian Dravidian. language Attempts have been made earlier to connect the ancient Sumerian language withAttempts the Ugro have-Finnish been made group earlier without to connect success. the1 The ancient linguistic Sumerian affinities language with the Ugro-Finnish group without success.1 The linguistic affinities betweenwith the UgroSumerian-Finnish and group Dravidian without have success. not been1 The the linguistic subject of affinities any paper between Sumerian and Dravidian have not been the subject of any paper knownbetween to Sumerian the author. and Dravidian have not been the subject of any paper known to the author. known to the author.

The aim of the present paper study is to frame laws of phonetic The aim of the present paper study is to frame laws of phonetic correspondences The aim of the of present Sumerian paper and study Dravidian is to frame vocabulary laws of and phonetic establish that correspondences of Sumerian and Dravidian vocabulary and establish that thesecorrespondences correspondences of Sumerian are not and matters Dravidian of mere vocabulary chance but and there establish is some that these correspondences are not matters of mere chance but there is some systemthese correspondences in their occurrence. are notIt is mattersevident ofthat mere Sumerian chance possesses but there ais some system in their occurrence. It is evident that Sumerian possesses a phonologicalsystem in their system occurrence. of an early It is stageevident of thatDravidian. Sumerian No attemptpossesses is madea in phonological system of an early stage of Dravidian. No attempt is made in thisphonological paper to comparesystem of the an grammaticalearly stage of or Dravidian. structural No correspondences attempt is made as in this paper to compare the grammatical or structural correspondences as thethis available paper to datacompare in Sumerian the grammatical itself does or not structural show any correspondences uniformity in the as the available data in Sumerian itself does not show any uniformity in the morphologicalthe available data and in syntactic Sumerian structures itself does of notArchaic show Sumerian any uniformity (3500 inB.C.) the and morphological and syntactic structures of Archaic Sumerian (3500 B.C.) and themorphological language of anthed postsyntactic-classical structures period of (2000 Archaic-1800 Sumerian B.C.). “The (3500 grammar B.C.) and of the language of the post-classical period (2000-1800 B.C.). “The grammar of thethe languagelanguage ofof thethe Archaicpost-classical pictographic period Inscriptions(2000-1800 fromB.C.). Jemdet“The grammar Nasr is inof the language of the Archaic pictographic Inscriptions from Jemdet Nasr is in suchthe language a primitive of the state Archaic that the pictographic verbal syste Inscriptionsm of Sumerian from had Jemdet not yet Nasr been is in such a primitive state that the verbal system of Sumerian had not yet been attained.such a primitive The signs state have that the the same verbal sense syste as min ofthe Sumerian later Sumerian had not texts.” yet been2 attained. The signs have the same sense as in the later Sumerian texts.”2 attained. The signs have the same sense as in the later Sumerian texts.”2

1.2 The affinity between Sumerian and Dravidian ethnic type has been 1.2 The affinity between Sumerian and Dravidian ethnic type has been 1.2 Thethe affinitysubject betweenof a theory Sumerian by H.R. Hall.and Dravidian He states: ethnic type has been the subject of a theory by H.R. Hall. He states: theThe subject ethnic of type a theory of the by Sumerians, H.R. Hall. soHe strongly states: marked in their statues andThe reliefs,ethnic typewas asof thedifferent Sumerians, from those so strongly of the markedraces which in their surrounded statues themand reliefs, as was was their as languagedifferent fromfrom thosethose ofof thethe Semites,races which Aryans surrounded or others; themtheythem were asas waswas decidedly theirtheir languagelanguage Indian infromfrom type……a thosethose ofndof thethe it is Semites,Semites, to this Dravidian AryansAryans oror ethnic others;others; theythey werewere decidedlydecidedly IndianIndian inin type……atype……andnd itit isis toto thisthis DravidianDravidian ethnicethnic 1 Bobula, ida Miriam: Sumerian Affliations, Washington, 1951, p. 7. 1 1 Bobula, ida Miriam: Sumerian Affliations, Washington, 1951, p. 7. 2 S. Langdon: 'The indus Script' in Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization by John 2 2 Marshall,S. Langdon: Vol 'The II, 1931, indus London,Script' in p.Mohenjo 453 --daro and the Indus Civilization by John Marshall, Vol II, 1931, London, p. 453 127 type of India that the ancient Sumerian bears most resemblance, so far as we can judge from his monuments. He was very likely a southern Hindu of the Dekkan (who still speaks Dravidian languages). And it is by notype means of India improbable that the ancient that the Sumerian Sumerians bears were most an Indian resemblance, race which so far passed,as we can certainly judge from by land, his monuments.perhaps also He by wassea, verythrough likely Persia a southern to the valleyHindu ofof thethe TwoDekkan Rivers. (who It stillwas speaksin the Indian Dravidian home languages). (perhaps theAnd Indus it is by valley)no means that im weprobable suppose that for the them Sumerians that their were culture an Indiandeveloped race. Therewhich theirpassed, writing certainly may byhave land, been perhaps invented also and by sea,progressed through from Persia a purely to the pictorialvalley of tothe a Twosimplified Rivers. and It was abbreviated in the Indian form home- which (perhaps afterwards the Indusin Babyloniavalley) that took we supposeon its peculiar for them “cuneiform” that their appearance culture developed owing .to There its beingtheir writingwritten may with have a square been-ended invented stilus and on progressed soft clay. On from the a way purely they leftpictorial the seeds to a simplifiedof their culture and abbreviated in Elam. This form seems- which a plausible afterwards theory in of SumerianBabylonia origins. took on3 its peculiar “cuneiform” appearance owing to its being written with a square-ended stilus on soft clay. On the way they This theoryleft the of seeds H. R. ofHall their finds culture support in Elam. in the This numerous seems alinguistic plausible theory of correspondencesSumerian origins. of words3 denoting physical and cultural anthropology.

1.3 TheThis history theory ofof theH. R. Sumerian Hall finds people support is known in the numerous only through linguistic the interpretation of thecorrespondences of words denoting physical and cultural anthropology. records and monuments left by them in Babylonia 4000 years ago. Until 1850 1.3 noThe one history suspected of the theSumerian unearthing people of thousandsis known only of clay through tablets the and interpretation stone of theinscriptions left behind under the sandy mounds of Southern Babylonia by theserecords people and monuments who probably left built by them the first in Babylonia high civilization 4000 years in the ago. history Until of 1850 man.no one In suspected1850, Edward the unearthing Hincks, the of Irish thousands pioneer of of clay Near tablets Eastern and Archeology, stone firstinscriptions expressed left the behind belief under that the the Semitic sandy mounds people were of Southern preceded Babylonia in by Mesopotamiathese people who by another probably people built whothe first invented high civilization the cuneiform in the system history of of writing.man. In 1850,Basing Edward his argument Hincks, on the the Irish fact pioneer that in theof Near Semitic Eastern languages Archeology, the stablefirst expressed element isthe the belief consonant that the while Semitic the peopvowelle iswere extremely preceded variable, in he said thatMesopotamia it seemed byunnatural another the people Semites who should invented invent the cuneiforma syllabic system system of of orthographywriting. Basing in whichhis argument the vowel on seemedthe fact thatto be in as the unchanging Semitic languages as the the consonant.stable element The isdistinction the consonant between while soft the and vowel hard is palatals extremely and variable, dentals ishe a said significantthat it seemed feature unnatural of the Semiticthe Semites languages, should the invent cuneiform a syllabic syllabary system did of not expressorthography this distinction. in which the The vowel great seemed majority to ofbe the as unchangingsyllabic values as the for cuneiformconsonant. signs The distinctionseemed to gobetween back to soft words and orhard elements palatals for and which dentals no is a Semiticsignificant equivalent feature ofcould the beSemitic found. languages, Therefore the he cuneiform argued, the syllabary cuneiform did not systemexpress of this writing distinction. was inven Theted great by majoritysome non of-Semitic the syllabic people values who for had precededcuneiform the signs Semites seemed in Babylonia.to go back 4to In words 1869 or Jules elements Oppert for declared which nothat these peopleSemitic and equivalent their language could be should found. be Therefore called Sumerian, he argued, basing the cuneiformhis conclusions onsystem the title of writing “King of was Sumer inven andted Akkad” by some found non- inSemitic the inscriptio people whons of had some of thepreceded early rulers. the Semites5 in Babylonia. 4 In 1869 Jules Oppert declared that these people and their language should be called Sumerian, basing his conclusions on the title “King of Sumer and Akkad” found in the inscriptions of some of the early rulers.5

3 H.R. Hall: The Ancient History of the Near East, London 1913, p. 172. 4 On the Language and mode of writing of the ancient Assyrians; Report of the 20th meeting of the British association for the advance of Science held in Edinburgh, 3 H.R.London, Hall: 1850 The .Ancie nt History of the Near East, London 1913, p. 172. 54 OnSamuel the Language Noah Kramer: and mode The Sumerians,of writing ofTheir the history,ancient cultureAssyrians; and character,Report of Chicagothe 20th 1963,meeting p.21. of the British association for the advance of Science held in Edinburgh, London, 1850. 128 5 Samuel Noah Kramer: The Sumerians, Their history, culture and character, Chicago 1963, p.21. A century of excavations in the ancient Sumerian cities of Ur, Eridu, Erech, Kish, Lagash, Nippur etc had unearthed numerous clay tablets and stone inscriptions, statues and steles.

The subject matter of these Sumerian documents vary; some are literary texts; others are administrative, economic and legal in character, consisting of inventories of all types and sizes, promissory notes and receipts, deeds of sales, marriage contracts, wills and court decisions. These documents also contain place names, names of deities and persons. A few Sumerian Grammatical Texts also have come down to us.

1.4 The linguistic history of Sumerian may be divided into the following periods:

1. The Archaic Period: 3500-3000 B.C.

The tablets of this early period are pictographic in origin archaic in character. The pictographic Inscriptions from Jemdet Nasr and the pictographic stone tablets of Kish may be said to belong to this period. These are not fully deciphered yet. According to Langdon, “though the language of these texts is Sumerian, the grammar is in such a primitive state that the verbal system of Sumerian had not yet been attained.”

2. The Ur-Dynastic Period: 3000-2400 B.C.

The tablets of the period of the Three Dynasties of Ur are in the main clay tablets written in the cuneiform (that is, ‘wedge-shaped’) script developed from the earlier pictographic signs.6 The writing is mainly syllabic in character with separate signs for the four vowels a, i, e, and u.

3. The Sumero-Babylonian Period: 2400-2000 B.C.

This period covers the Dynasties of Isin (2357-2132 B.C), Larsa and Babylon (2232-1928 B.C).7 The characteristics of the Sumerian language during this Sumero-Babylonian period had changed considerably and much Semitic influence is traced. Many of the Sumerian epics were composed during this period. The writing system shows that the cuneiform script had been fully conventionalized and its pictographic origin had been lost with the passage of time.

______6 Geo. A. Barton, The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing, Leipzig, 1913, p. XV.

7 Stephen Langdon, A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, Paris, 1911, p. 5.

129 The Sumerian language of the Archaic (3500-3000 B.C) and Ur-dynastic (3000-2400 B.C) periods had preserved well its Proto-Dravidian elements. The vocabulary of these earlier periods shows that these are essentially Dravidian, with few, if any, foreign element in it. The last phase of the Sumerian language exhibits some un-Dravidian characteristics especially in the verbal structure. The entry into Sumerian of elements of Semitic pronunciation may be due to the cosmopolitan population of the main Sumerian cities.

Sumerian continued to be the language of Royalty and living literary vehicle till about 2100 B.C after which it became the ‘church language’ of the Semitic priests and disappeared altogether from use by about 1800 B.C.

1.5: The Sumerian language, as come down to us today, represents the language of written documents. It is not a single standard uniform language. The records come from different places and widely separated times – Archaic Sumerian was more distant in time from Neo-Babylonian Sumerian. The documents record a number of variants for each linguistic forms in usage. Barton lists 366 signs with 507 variants for the Archaic period but 342 signs with 190 variants for the latest period of Sumerian history. It is evident that with the standardization of linguistic forms in usage, the variants disappeared altogether. In the study of a dead language, it is not always easy to differentiate the variant from the standard form, especially in Sumerian it is most difficult as the written records were the works of Semitic scribes. One should bear in mind the following words of warning given by S. N. Kramer:

Sumerian is studied and analyzed as if it were a written mass of unspoken words which the scribe treated as his particular domain; he added vowels or removed them, assimilated them or allowed them to remain unchanged, wrote or neglected to write consonants, without any regard to the living, spoken language.

What makes it so difficult for the student to rid himself of this misguided and misleading approach is the fact that the basis for the decipherment of Sumerian rests largely upon the works of Semitic scribes who themselves treated Sumerian as a dead, literary tongue, and who were no longer aware of the finer nuances, grammatical and phonetic, which had governed the living language, and who, moreover, for pedagogic reasons, found it practical to neglect some of them.

A clear recognition of the distinction between the Sumerian’s pronunciation of Sumerian and the Semite’s pronunciation of that language is of crucial importance.8

______8 S. N. Kramer, ‘Studies in Sumerian Phonetics’ Archiv Orientalni, Vol VIII, No I, May 1936. p. 21 & 25. 130

1.6: The Sumerian language as represented in the Cuneiform system of writing consists, according to Delitzch, eighteen alphabets.9 These are: a, i, e, u; b, p; g, k; d, t; l, r; m, n, g; z, s, s.

The vowels: Stephen Langdon in his Sumerian Grammar defines the four vowels thus:

The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four vowel sounds, low back a, high back u with labial rounding, mid-palatal e and front palatal i. It is probable that, when a separate vowel sign was employed for any of these vowels, the long vowel was intended. To express any of these sounds in combination with consonants separate, syllabic signs had to be chosen.10

There was no contrast in vowel-length in Sumerian. The four vowel sounds derived from the cuneiform signs may be reduced to three vowel phonemes. a, i/e and u. There is no situation where a meaning hinges on the differentiation of i and e as separate vowel phonemes. Despite the possible phonetic difference between these two varieties of high front vowel characterized by the conventional transliteration of cuneiform signs with i and e, there was no phonemic distinction between them. At any event, no case of minimal contrast is available and there is evidence of fluctuation between the two.

The consonants: The fourteen consonants b, p; g, k; d, t; l, r; m, n, g; z, s; s may be reduced to about ten phonemes. There was no case of minimal contrast among the three series of stops b/p; g/k; d/t and the sibilants s/z.

The phonemic character of these letters is yet to be reconstructed.

1.7: Sumerian roots are monosyllabic in character. Ex: V a ‘I’ ‘in’ ‘father’ Ta n Ka n ‘I’ e ‘house’ Ta. il u ‘roar’ ‘create’ Ta. .yā u ‘roar’.ā

VC ad ‘father’ Ta. attan as ‘desire’ Ta. acai el ‘bright’ Ta. el

CV gu ‘a cry’ ‘a call’ Ta. ba ‘half. Ta. pati kū ______

9 Dynelley Prince, Review of Delitzsch’s Sumerisches Glossar, AJSL, Vol XXX, p. 161. 10 ibid footnote 7: p. 33-34.

131

CVC kud – ‘cut into two’ ‘kill’ Ta. kuttu kur ‘mountain’ Ta. kuriñci tuk ‘cloth’ ‘garment’ Ta. tukil tum ‘a fly’ Ta. tumpi

Bisyllabic words are few in number. VCV ara ‘grind’ Ta. arai aka ‘cry’ ‘howl’ Ta. akavu uru ‘city’ Ta. ur, uru

CVCV buru ‘hole’ Ta. purru

CVCVC kurun ‘blood’ ‘red’ Ta. kuruti Nitag ‘stand Go. nitana Ta. nil

1.8: The structure of the Sumerian language has been defined thus: Sumerian is an agglutinative language; its most characteristic feature, therefore, is that it strings together, by simple juxtaposition, a number of words intended by the speaker to convey a certain idea. Each such chain of words is governed by a chief idea to which all the other words joined to it atand in the relation of modifiers. There are, on the whole, only two classes of words which can govern such a chain, namely, substantives and words conveying a verbal idea.11

Ex: a – na ‘how’ ‘what’ Br. ant Ta. enna a – ba ‘whoever’ ‘whom’ Ta. evar kin-da ‘dig’ Ta. kintu ka – du ‘to cry’ ‘growl’ Ta. kattu kud – da – ag.a ‘tax’ Ta. kuttakai a – ra – zu ‘supplication’ ‘submission’ Ka. adacu, a agu Ta. a akka ḍ In the field of grammar, Sumerian likeṭ Dravidian has no grammatical gender, but recognizes a distinction between the Personal and the Irrational. No Sumerian word begins with two consonants as in Tamil.

______

11 Arno Poebel, Grammatical Texts, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 9

132

Sumerian and Comparative Dravidian Phonology*

A. Sumerian Vowels.

2. 1: Sum Initial. Sum. al. a; ‘to Dr. rule; a/ā conquer’. DED. 341. Ta ‘to rule’ Ma luka. Ka. al Kod l- Tu u Sum. ab ‘cow’. DED. 283. Ko. a.v Ka. avu,. Teāḷ vu. Ta , n Sum. ā. ab ‘cow’. DED. 312.. ā Ta.. arāḷ ‘shout, roar’. Ma r- Ko. a. r. Ka. ar Kod. ara- Tu. ar-- Te. Arcu Pa. ā. ar-- Kui. ā. āar. Sum. a—ra—za ‘supplication, submission’. DED.. ā 56 Ka. adagu, adaku, adacu, Te. Adagu, adacu Ta. a ku, a akku – to submit be subdued’ Ko. a g—Kui pa Malt. A ge, a ke. Sum. ab/ab—ba ‘edler,ṭaṅ father’ṭ DED. 133. Ta. appu, appan – father.ṛ Ma. appan. āṛ Ka. apa,ṛ appaṛ Tu. appa. etc. Sum. am/ama ‘mother’ DED. 154. Ka. ama, amma ‘mother’ Te. Ama, amma Ta. Kol , Br .

ammā . Ammā . ammā 2. 2: Medial. Sum. kad ‘bind, tie’ DED 961. Ta. ka u ‘to tie bind’. Ma. ka u. Ko. ka – Ka. ka u Te. ka u Kol. ka — Pa. ka k—ka — ṭṭ Sum. kalam,ṭṭ ‘Land,ṭ country,’ṭṭ DED. 1160.ṭṭ Ta. kaṭam, ka an ‘place; open space; threshingḍ floor,ṭṭ battle field’ Ma. kalam Ka. ka a Tu. kala Kur. khall – field, piece of landḷ suitableḷ for tillage. Sum. pad, bad, bar—‘see’ DED. 3366. Ta. par ‘see, look at’ Ma. parḷ —Ka r Tu, para Te ruva.

. pā . pā 2. 3: Final Sum. ara ‘grind’ DED. 191. Kod. ara ‘grind’ Ta. aria Ma. arekka Ka. are Ko. arv— Sum. ama ‘reed’ DED. 144. Ma. ama ‘a reed’. Ta. amai Sum. inga ‘still’ DED. 351. Te ga ‘still farther’, ‘hereafter’, ‘henceforth.’ Ta. innum ______. inka, īka, ī

* The Sumerian words cited in the following pages are chiefly drawn from 1) Geo. A. Barton, The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing, heipzig. 1913. 2) Edmond. 1. Gordon, Sumerian Proverbs, the University Musewn, Philadelphia, 1959. 3) Stephen Langdon, A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, Paris, 1911. The Dravidian words are drawn from T. Burrow and M.B. Emeneau, A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary. Oxford, 1961.

133 2. 4: Sum. u, Dr. u/u 2. 4: Sum. u, Dr. u/u Initial Initial Sum. ur, uru ‘city’ DED. 643. Ta. r – ‘village town, city Sum. ur, uru ‘city’ DED. 643. Ta. r – ‘village town, city Ma r Ko. u. r. To. u. r Ka r Kod. u. ri Tu ru Te ru Ma r Ko. u. r. To. u. r Ka r Kod. u. ri Tu ru Te ru Kol. u.r. Nk r ū Kol. u.r. Nk r ū Sum. ū. ur, uru, u u, ‘one’ DED.. ū 834. Konda. un. ūri ‘one’,. ū Sum. ū. ur, uru, u u, ‘one’ DED.. ū 834. Konda. un. ūri ‘one’,. ū Go , undi. ū Ta. or, oru, onru, Ma. or, oru Ko. or, od Go , undi. ū Ta. or, oru, onru, Ma. or, oru Ko. or, od To. wir, os Ka. os̆r, orgu, Tu. or, oru To. wir, os Ka. os̆r, orgu, Tu. or, oru Sum. undī ur, uru, u – ‘fix, plant’ DED. 650. Ka. ru ‘fix’ Sum. undī ur, uru, u – ‘fix, plant’ DED. 650. Ka. ru ‘fix’ Kod. u.r- Tu runi Ta. u Ma. unnuka Te nu Kod. u.r- Tu runi Ta. u Ma. unnuka Te nu Kui. uha, usa s̆ ū Kui. uha, usa s̆ ū . ū ūn̳ r̳ . ū . ū ūn̳ r̳ . ū 2. 5: Medial 2. 5: Medial Sum. gud ‘nest’ DED.1563. Ka. g du ‘nest’ Kod. gu.di Tu u Sum. gud ‘nest’ DED.1563. Ka. g du ‘nest’ Kod. gu.di Tu u Te. g du Pa. g da Ga e Go Kuwi da Ta u Te. g du Pa. g da Ga e Go Kuwi da Ta u Ma u. Ko. gu.r To. ku.d ū . gūḍ Ma u. Ko. gu.r To. ku.d ū . gūḍ Sum. kud,ū gud ‘stab,ū slay’. gū DED.ḍ 1429.. gū Taḍ ā. kuttu .‘stab, kū bore’. kū ṭ Sum. kud,ū gud ‘stab,ū slay’. gū DED.ḍ 1429.. gū Taḍ ā. kuttu .‘stab, kū bore’. kū ṭ Ma. kūkuttukaṭ Ko. kut- To. Kut- Kod. kutt- Konda. gut- Ma. kūkuttukaṭ Ko. kut- To. Kut- Kod. kutt- Konda. gut- Kui. kuta Br. khutting Kui. kuta Br. khutting Sum. kur ‘horse. DED. 1423. Ta. kutirai ‘horse’. Ma. kutira Sum. kur ‘horse. DED. 1423. Ta. kutirai ‘horse’. Ma. kutira Ko. kudyr Ka. kudire, kudire Kod. kudire Te. kudira, gurramu Ko. kudyr Ka. kudire, kudire Kod. kudire Te. kudira, gurramu Kol. gurram Nk. ghurram Konda. gurram Kuwi rumi Kol. gurram Nk. ghurram Konda. gurram Kuwi rumi Sum. kurun, gurun ‘blood; red’ DED. 1489 Ta. kuruti ‘blood, red’ Ma. Kuruti Sum. kurun, gurun ‘blood; red’ DED. 1489 Ta. kuruti ‘blood, red’ Ma. Kuruti . gū . gū 2. 6: Final 2. 6: Final Sum. buru ‘hole, cavity’ DED. 3556. Ta. purru ‘hole, anthill’ Sum. buru ‘hole, cavity’ DED. 3556. Ta. purru ‘hole, anthill’ Ma. purru Ka puttu, putta Kod. putti Te. putta Kol. pu a Ma. purru Ka puttu, putta Kod. putti Te. putta Kol. pu a Nk. pu a Go Konda. purhi Kui. pusi, Kuwi. ci Nk. pu a Go Konda. purhi Kui. pusi, Kuwi. ci Kur. Malt. pute ṭṭ Kur. Malt. pute ṭṭ Sum. Muluṭṭ - ‘perfect’. Puttī full’ DED. 4095. Ta. m u ‘all,p entirẹ ū ’, murumai ‘perfection’, Sum. Muluṭṭ - ‘perfect’. Puttī full’ DED. 4095. Ta. m u ‘all,p entirẹ ū ’, murumai ‘perfection’, Ma. muruputtā Tu. murka. Ma. muruputtā Tu. murka. Sum. uzu ‘flesh. DED.626. Kui ju ‘flesh’ Kuwiụ ṛ Sum. uzu ‘flesh. DED.626. Kui ju ‘flesh’ Kuwiụ ṛ Ta. u, un, Ko. u Ta. u, un, Ko. u . ū . ūyū . ū . ūyū 2. 7: Sum 2. 7: Sum Initial Initial Sum.. iri/e; ‘this’ Dr. DED.351 i/ī; e/ē Kur - s ‘this man’- Malt ‘ir, ih Sum.. iri/e; ‘this’ Dr. DED.351 i/ī; e/ē Kur - s ‘this man’- Malt ‘ir, ih Ta , itu, in, Ka . Ta , itu, in, Ka . Sum. ir ‘seize, drag’ DED. 461. īr īTa r ‘to drag, pull, draw, Sum. ir ‘seize, drag’ DED. 461. īr īTa r ‘to drag, pull, draw, Ma. ī ruka Ka. ir,. i, Pa ī rp- Ga r- Ma. ī ruka Ka. ir,. i, Pa ī rp- Ga r- Sum. iress, eres ‘God, Goddess, king. ī DED.448. Ta. irai Sum. iress, eres ‘God, Goddess, king. ī DED.448. Ta. irai ‘Supreme. ī god, king;. ī iraivan. ,ī iraivi Ma. ir n Ka. ere, ereya ‘Supreme. ī god, king;. ī iraivan. ,ī iraivi Ma. ir n Ka. ere, ereya Te era Te era ā ā 2. 8: Medial 2. 8: Medial Sum. kil, gil, gi ‘bolt, bar’ DED. 1346. Ta lakam Sum. kil, gil, gi ‘bolt, bar’ DED. 1346. Ta lakam ‘bolt’ Ma lam Ko. ki.l Ka la Tu lu Te lu ‘bolt’ Ma lam Ko. ki.l Ka la Tu lu Te lu Sum. kis ‘pig’ DED.s̆ 1275. Kur. kiss ‘pig’ Malt. kīl,. kīkisu Ta .al Sum. kis ‘pig’ DED.s̆ 1275. Kur. kiss ‘pig’ Malt. kīl,. kīkisu Ta .al Sum. bi ,. bitkī ‘house’ DED, 4419. kīl, kīlu,. Ka kī u ‘house,. kīlu, kīabode’ . kī Sum. bi ,. bitkī ‘house’ DED, 4419. kīl, kīlu,. Ka kī u ‘house,. kīlu, kīabode’ . kī . kēr̤ 134 . kēr̤ ṭ . bīḍ ṭ . bīḍ Kod. bu. i Tu. bi u Ta u Ma u Ko.vi - Te u

Sum. mili,ḍ mele ‘throat,ḍ u, būḍ neck’. vīDED.ṭ 3971,. vīṭ 4168 Kurṛ .vīḍ ‘throat, neck’ Malt. melqe Ta. mi aru Ma. mi a u Ko. mi To. mir Ka. me re Te. me a . melkhā Sum. Ge ‘hear’ DED. 1677. Ta ṭ l ‘to hear’ Maṭ ṛ kk ṛ Ko.ke.l- Ka. k lṭ Kod. ke- - ḍ Tu. ke uni Kui kelpa Go ś . kē . kēḷ ạ ē ḷ ṇ . kēnjānā 2. 9: Final Sum. ari, ara – ‘Foe, enemy’ Ta. ari – enemy. Sum. i-de ‘just now’ DED. 351. Tu. itte ‘just now’ Ta. it , ito Ma Go Ko. i y Ka. ine Sum. kaxli ‘throat, neck’ DED. 1151. Ta. ka uttu ‘neck,ā throat’ Ma. itāka uttu. idrā Ko. ka tlḷ Ga. ga li Konda. ga li r̤ r̤ ṛ ḍ ḍ

B. Sumerian Consonants.

2. 10: K/g/g Initial. Sum. kum/gum ‘pound, crush’ DED. 1536 Ta. kummu ‘to pound in a mortar’ kumi ‘over pund’ kumai ‘to beat or pund’. Ma. kummu Ko. kum- To.kum- Ka.kummu, gummu, Te. kummu, gummu Kod. kumm- Go Sum. kis/ke /gir ‘bind, join’ DED. 1287. Ta. ki u ‘to draw near, tie, bind Ma. ki a To. ki - Ka. .kurumānā ki u, gi u, gi u Kod. ki - Tuś. ki a, gi a Te. ki u, gi u ṭṭ Sumṭ . gun ‘stoop,ṭ bend’ṭṭ DED.ṭṭ 1605ṭ Ta ‘bend, curve; ‘ nu- ‘bend down’ Ma. nukaṭ ṭ Ko.ku.nṭ-ṭ To.ku.nṭṭ Kaṭṭ , ṭṭ nu Tu nu, Te nu. .kūn̳ kū Sumkū . gar ‘boundary, limit’ DED.. kū 929.n̳ kūnu, Ta.katai gū ‘end, limit, boundary’ Ma. ga u Ko.gū. Ka To. .gūka o Ka. ka e, ga a, ga i Kod. kade Te. ka a, ga uvu Kur.ka na Malt. ka e ḍ ṛ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ 2. 11. Medial ḍ ḍ ṭṭ ṭ Sum. u-gu ‘loose. ‘DED.480 Ka. ugu ‘to become loose. Ta. uku Ma. ukka Ko. u.c- Te cu Pa. uy- uv- Sum. digir, dingir ‘God’ DED. 2626. Ta. tinka . ‘moon’ (god). Ma. tinkal Ko. tig - To.ū. tigil Ka. tinga Kod. tinga ‘month’. Tu. tingolu ḷ Sum. sugur ‘Braids,ḷ chignon (hair) DED.ḷ 2211. Ta. curiyal, curul, curu ai ‘curl (as hair) Ma. curu Ko. cur - Ka. surku ‘to contract’ surul- Tu. suru uni Te. surugu ‘shrink’ ḷ Sum. aka ‘cry, howl’ḷ DED. 11.ṭ Ta. akavu ‘call, summon, ‘sound. ṇ ṭ Ma. akiruka ‘to roar, bellow

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2. 12. Final Sum. tug, tuk ‘garment, cloth’ DED. 2687. Ta. tukil, tuyil ‘fine cloth’ Ma. tukil, tuyil Ka. dukula, dugula. Sum. mu ‘top’ DED. 4030, Ta. mu i ‘top as of mountain, knot’ Ma. mu i Ko. mu y To. mu y Ka. mu i Te. mu i Kol. mudi Br. mu ukh. ǵ ṭ Sum. nagṭ ‘drink, lick’ṛ DED. 2945ṛ Ta. nakkuḍ ‘to lick’ḍ Ma. nakkuka ṭṭ Ko. nak- Ka. nakku, Kod. nakk- Tu. nakkuni, Te ku Kol. na.k Nk. nak- Kui ka . nā . nā 2. 13: t/d Initial Sum. tur/tu /dur ‘buttocks, thigh’ DED. 2704. Ta. tu ai, to ai ‘thigh’ Ma. tu a To. twa Ka. to e Kod. to e Tu tu e Kol. dut. Kuwis̆ . tuntu ṭ ṭ Sum. ti/tig/teg/dig/dig/tibṭ ṛ ‘touch,ḍ take’ DED.ḍ 2804ḍ Ta. tekku ‘to receive, take’ tevvu-to get, take. Tev, tevvu, tevu ‘taking’ Ka. tege, tegu, tegi Tu. teguni, deppuni Te. tigiyyu, yu, Kol. tiv Nk. tivv- Sum. tig/dig ‘die’ DED. 2802. Ka. tege, tegi, tegu ‘to tigusu,put out’ tiviyu, extinguish’ tivvu, tivu, Tu tī tekkuni Te. tegu ‘to die’ Kol. tik- Nk. tikk-

2. 14: Medial Sum. ad/ad-da ‘father, elder’ DED. 121. Ta. attan ‘father, elder’ Sum. nitag ‘stand’ DED. 3043. Go ‘to set up’ ‘to make to stand’. Kui nisa ‘to stand’ Ta. nil, ni uvu Ka. nil, nilu . nittānā, nitana, nitānā, nilānā Sum. di/di-di ‘move, walk’ DED. 2655. Ta. tiri ‘wander about, move’ Ma. tiri Ka. tiri Te. tirugur̳ Go

2. 15: Final . tiritānā Sum. ud ‘at once’ DED. 798. Ta. u a ‘at once’ Ma. u an Ka. o an, o am, o a ‘as soon as’. Sum. mud ‘shut in’ DED. 4132. Taṭ ṇ u ‘to cover, shutṭ in’ ḍ ḍ ḍ Ma. mu uka Ka ige ‘a quiver Go. mu ‘to cover up’. Sum. dad ‘great, strong’ DED. 2449.. mū Taṭ. ta a, ta am, ta a ‘greatness, largeness’ tati ‘becomeṭ stout’. mū Maḍ . ta a, ta i ṛhuttānā Ko. da Ka. da a, da a Tu. da a Te. daṭ amu.ṭ Kui. ṭ a a ‘strength’ strong Sum. kud ‘cut into two; killṭ destroy,ṭ DED Ta. ku ai ‘ to cut’ Ma. kurekkaṭ Toṭṭ. kwarḍfḍ- Ka. kore,ṭ ko i Tuṭ.ṭ kudupuni ḍPaṭ. kud-ku - r̳ 2. 16: p/b r̳ ḍ Initial Sum. par/bar/bara ‘spread out’ DED. 3255. Ta r ‘expanse’, Ma. parakka, Ko. pard- To. par Ka. pare Kod. para- Tu. parapuni Te. parapu Go. parhana. para Kui ‘to. prahpa spread’; paravu, pā Sum. bar ‘town, city’ DED. 3347. Ta i ‘town, city, hamlet’

. pāṭ 136 Ma. ti Ka di Kod. pa.di Te du Sum. pad ‘food ration’ DED. 3187. Ta. pati ‘fixed daily allowance for food’ Ma. pa i pāKo. pa y,. pā To. po y Ka. pa i .Tu pā. pa i Te. pa i ‘a measure of capacity’. ṭ ṛ ṛ ḍ ḍ 2. 17: Medial ḍ Sum. ubar ‘enclosure, wall’ DED. 1644. Ta. cuvar ‘wall’ Ma. cuvar, cumar Sum. aba/abi/ebi ‘who, whoever. DED. 4228. Ka ve ‘who’ Ta. va eva , va . Te. eva bi a, evi Kol. e.v. Sum. nabu/nabi ‘four’ DED. 3024, Kur. naib ‘four’. ā n kh ‘four things’yā n̳ Ta. n̳ e̅ n̳ nku.ḍ u,Kui ē ḍ lgi Comp. Sum. Daib. ‘head’ Ta. talai Tu. tare ā Sum.nāl, dabin nālu, ‘course nā -flour,. nā bran’ DED. 2537 Ta. tavi u ‘bran’ Ma. tavi u Ka. tavu u Kod. tav i Tu. tau u Te. tavu u ṭ ṭ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ 2. 18: Final Sum. dug/dub/tub ‘throw out, spit’ DED. 2725 Ta. tuppu ‘to spit’ Ma. tuppuka. To. tuf in- Ka pu Kod. tupp- Te. tupukku Kur. tupp a Malt. tupe, tupgle. ‘spittle’ Kui pa, Kuvi. pali. . tū Sum. sir/sibn̅ ‘spli . sū vu ‘scrapehū off’ Ma vuka Ka vu/civvu ‘to cut htin’, peel’. sigur, siba u, siva u – rind. Te. t,civvu. tear’ DED. 1343, 2140. Ta. cīy ‘cut down’; ci ‘to scrape’, cī Sum. gub/gum . ‘worship,cīka/cī adore’. cīDED. 1458 & 1574. Ta. kump-i u ‘worshipr̳ ’ Ma. kumpr̳ -i uka. Ko. kub-ir To. kub-i Ka. kumbu Ta. kuppu ‘join hands as in worship’ Ma. kuppuka ṭ ṭ ḍ

2. 19. m Initial Sum. mur ‘back, back side’ DED. 4058. Ta. mutuju ‘back’ Ma. mutu/mutuku Pa. mutus Go. mu cul, mu cur Konda. mu am Kui. musali Kuwi. muressi ‘back bone’ Sum. mulu ‘sprout’ DED. 4100. Ta. muṛ ai ‘sproutṛ as shoots’ ṭ Ma. mula To. mil Ka. mo e Tu. mu iyuni, mu e Te. molaka. Go. mo iyana ‘to sprout’ ḷ Sum. ma ‘cattle’ DED. 3932ḷ . Ta ḷ u ‘ox, cattleḷ ’ Ma u Ko. ma.ṛ s̆ . māṭ . māṭ 2. 20: Medial. ṛ Sum. uma ‘marsh, swamp’ DED. 3932. Ta. umari, umiri ‘marsh samphire. Ma. umari Sum. numunǵ – ‘seed, sesamum’ DED. 3081. Ta vu ‘sesamum’ Te. vu, nuvvu ‘gingily seed’, Kol. nu Nk. nuvv- Pa. nuvul. Go. nung . nū Sum.nū ama ‘wild ox’. Ta ‘wild cow’vvū etc.

. āmā 137 2. 21: Final Sum. tum ‘Fly, bee’ DED. 2731. Ta. tumpi ‘bee, fly’ Ma. tumpi Ko. tib To. tuby Ka. tumbi, tumbe, dumbi Kod. tumbi Tu. tumbi Te. tummeda. Pa. dumdi Kur. , tumbil Malt. tumbe. Sum. kam ‘soup’ DED. 927 Ta. kañci ‘rice-water’ Ma. kaññi ‘rice-gruel’ Ko. kaj Ka. ganji Kod. kañji Tu ganji Tetumbā. ganji Sum. sim ‘throw, butt’ DED. 2099. Ka. cimmu ‘butt, gush out’ Te. cimmu ‘to throw’

2. 22. n Initial Sum. nim ‘Fly’ DE nga-‘Fly’ Ta. Te ga Sum. nim ‘be highD. – DED.453. Kol. 2382. ni.nga Ta. nimir/nimir‘Fly’ Nk. nī ‘stand upright, grow tall’ Ma. nivir,ī Ka.. ī nimir Tu. nimuruni Te. nigu u, nivu u Pa. nikip. Sum. nam ‘swallow’ ‘chew’ DED. 2970. ḍKa. namaluḍ ‘to chew’ Tu. nauntuni. Te. namalu.

2. 23: Medial Sum. an/ana/ene ‘what, how’. DED. 4228 Br d ‘which Kui. An ‘what’ ananju, anaru ‘what man’ adj. ani. Ta , n, enna, ennai ‘why’ ‘what’ Ka. n, enna. . ant ‘what’ ; arā, arā Sum. kin-da ‘cut, dig’ DED. 1290. Ta. kin u ‘dig. yā upē ’ Ma. ki uka Teyā,. ce ā, ēu ‘to cut’ Go. ki Malt. kin e Sum. an/anu ‘ear of corn’ DED. 2300 Teṭ. ennu, vennu ‘anṇ ṭear of corn’ Kol. cen. Nk. senṇ ḍ Pa. cen Ga. cennuḍ ḍ ī Go. sen ˙ḍ

2. 24: Final Sum. gan/gam ‘red’ DED. 1607. Ko. ken ‘red’ Ka. ke; kem Kod. kem- Tu. kem-, canna Ta. cem, cevv- Ma. ce, cem Te. cem; ke-kem- Sum. dun ‘dig, of the earth’. DED. 2927. Ta u ‘to dig, bore’, to u ‘to dig’. Ma. to uka Ko. to. - To. twi - Ka u Kod. to.d- Tu. toduni, tuda ‘bored’ Te. todu. tō Gaṇ ṭ. to ṭ Sum.ṇ ṭ tun ‘lip’ DED.ḍ 2193; ṛ2698.. Tatōḍ. tuti ‘lip’ Ko. tuc Ka. tuti Tu. du i Kui. toda. Malt. toro Ta. cu u, co u ‘bill,ṇ lowerḍ lip’ Ma. cuntu Ka. cu u Kui. Su a. Sum. kanḍ ‘black’, be dark’ DED. 1073,ṇ ṭ 1253,ṇ ṭ1175 Ta r, karu, karu ‘black, dark’ Ma r, karuṇ ḍ Ko. kar, katal,ḍ ka. r Ka. u, kare . kār, kā . kā kār, kạ̄ ṛ, kāḍ

138 2. 25: r Initial Sum. ru ‘one. DED. 834. Kui. ro, rohe ‘one’ Kuwi. ro, rondi ‘one’ Sum. ru ‘throw’ DED. 617. Te. uvvu, ruvvu, ppu, ruvu ‘to throw, fling, toss’ Kol. ruv- ‘to throw’ r̳ r̳ū Sum. ra/ra-ag ‘noise’ DED. 269 & 4237 Ka. race ‘noisy’ Te. rajju Kol. raz- Kui. raspa. Sum. ra/rad/ra-a ‘gnash, rub’ DED. 191. Te cu, cu ‘to tub’; ju ‘to be rubbed’ Kol k- Kui ga Kuwi a ǵ . rā r̳ā rā 2. 26: Medial. rā . rā . rāẓ Sum. ru/a-ru ‘grant, dedicate’ DED. 190. Ta. aru ‘grant, bestow’ Ma. aru Ko. ar Te. arulu Sum. ur/ u ‘to plough’ DED/ 592. Ta. uru ‘to plough,ḷ dig up’ Ma. u ugaḷ To. ḷusf- Ka. r Kod. u. l Tu. u uni Kol. ur- Nk. ur- Pa. r- Gaụ ṛ. u - Go. u ana, u ana Kur Malt. use Sum. r̤ bur/buru ‘land measure’ṳ DED. 3499.ḍ Ta. pu i ‘measure of capacity’, ‘land measure’ụ (8 toḍ 11 ½ ṛacres) ḍ Te. pu i . uinā/uynā ṭṭ ṭṭ 2. 27. Final Sum. kur ‘mountain. DED. 1530 & 1548 Ta. ku inci ‘hilly tract. Ma. ku u ‘hill’. Kod. kundi, Go. ku u ‘hill’ Sum. dar/tar/dal ‘burn, blaze’ DED. 2542. Kol.r̳ tari- ‘to glow’ Nk. tarr̳-Pa. ta - Go. tarmi Ta. t al,ṛ ta al Ka. ta alu, Te. tanuku Sum. mur/mun; burn, roast’ DED. 4099. Ta. mu i ‘to dry, burn’ Ma. mu i To. muṛ y ạ ṛ ṇ ṇ ḷ 2. 28. l ḷ ḷ Initial Sum. la ‘no, not’ DED. 2106. Te - ni ‘absent’ Sum. lag ‘mix, join’ DED. 253. Te yu ‘approach’ . lē ‘be not’ ledu ‘no, none’, lē 2. 29. Medial . lā Sum. pil-la/pel-la ‘fail, err’ DED 3443. Ta. pi ai ‘fail, to do wrong’ Ma. pi a Kol. pirs- Sum. kilim ‘mongoose’ DED. 1344. Ta ri ‘mongoose’r̤ Ma ri r̤ Ka. ri Kod. ki.ri Kui. kirpeni Kuwi ndu Sum. bir/bila ‘child, son’ DED. 3449. Ta. kī. pi ai ‘child, son, youth. kī ’ Ma. pilla Ka. pille,kī pilla, pilla Tu. pille Te. pilla . krā Kol. pilla Nk. pilla Go. pila Kur ḷḷ

2. 30: Final . pellō Sum. gal ‘be, exist’ DED. 1093. Ta. kala ‘come into being’ kali ‘come into being’ Te. kalugu ‘be, exist’ Kol. kal Kuwi. kalg- Sum. kil/kin/ki ‘multitude’ DED. 1678. Ta. ki ai ‘to multiply, flock’. l, ‘kindred’ To. ke Ka. ke e, ge e, ge e ‘union’ s̆ ḷ kē ḷ ḷ ḷ ṇ 139 Sum. mul/mu ‘grasshopper, insect, fly’ DED. 3974 To. mutsn ‘grasshopper’ Ko. mi ‘locust’ Ka. mi ice, mi ite ‘grasshopper, locust’ Tu. mo e Te. mi uta Kol. mi e Pa. mi akas̆ Ta. vi il ṭḷ ḍ ḍ ṇ ṭ ḍ 2. 31: ṭṭ ṭ ṭṭ Initial Sum.s̆ ar ‘smear’ DED. 2021; 1947. Te. carumu ‘to smear’ Ka. savaru Ta. ttu Tu dike Te. cadu ‘to rub into’. Sum. s̆ ur/sur ‘distress, afflicition’ DED. 2250. Ta. r ‘afflication’ Ma.cā r ‘afflication’.. sā Sum. s̆a/ ag ‘heart, inside’ DED. 2302 Ka gu cū ‘heart or core of a tree; essence’.cū Te ga, ceva Ta kam s̆ s̆ . cē , cēgu . cē . cē 2. 32. Medial. Sum. u /u u/u u ‘worm, spider’ DED. 602. Ta. ucu ‘wood worm’ ulu ‘wood worm’ Ma. u umpu ‘grain-moth’ Sum. ur/uru/usu/usǵ ǵ s̆ -um ‘one, alone’ DED. 834. Ta r, oru, onru ‘one’ ḷ . ō 2. 33: Final Sum. a ‘six’ DED. 2051. Ta. u ‘six’ Ma u Ko.a.r To.o. Ka. u Kod. a.ri Tu ji Te. u Kol r Go. s rung, harung, aru Kui. sajgi Sum. mus̆ ‘three’ DED. 4147ā. Br.r̳ musit ‘three. ār̳ ’ musi ‘threer̳ times’ Ka. ār̳ u Tu ji Te. ā uār̳ Ga . ānd. Kui. āmunji Ta u Ma. nnus̆ Sum.mū kar̳ /ga. mū‘liquor’ DED.. mūḍ 1158.. mūTa. ka ‘toddy; intoxication. mūn̳ r̳’ Ma. kamū, ka u Ko. ka Ka. ka , ka u, kallu Kod. ka i Tu. kali Te. kallus̆ Kols̆. kal Nk. ka Go. kal (kadda)ḷ Konda. ka u Kui. kala Kuwi ḷ ḷḷ du ḷ ḷ ḷḷ ḷḷ Sum. ku ‘be fat’ DED. 1784ḷ . Ta. ko u ‘to be fat’ koruppuṛ ‘fat’ Ma. ko. kārū,u To kā. kwa p Ka. korvu, korbu Tu. komme Kol. koru Nk. koru Pa. kor- s̆Go. korvinj, ku lar̤ Kui ga Kuwi. korowa. r̤ ḷ ṛwinj, kōsē . krō 2. 34. s/z Initial Sum. sig ‘seize, cave in’ DED. 2060. Ta. cikku ‘be caught; ensnared. Ma. cikku Ko. cik- To. tik-sik- Ka. sikku, sigu, sirku, silku Kod. cikk- Tu. Sikkuni, tikkuni Te. cikku Kol. sik- Pa. cirng- Kui. sehpa, Kuwi Sum. sig ‘short, small, thin. DED. 2057. Ta. cikka ‘in brief’ Ma. Cikkini ‘young, small’ Ka. sikkū. cikka ku ‘smallness Kod. cikk- Tu. cikka Te. cikiciki Sum. sil/zil/zir ‘peel, split, break’ DED., ciga 2114. ‘little, Ta small,. cilu ‘toyoung, open; cī split’ Ko. cilv. Sum. zag ‘to run; slip’ DED. 1950. Kuwi. zarginai ‘to occur’ Ta. cari ‘to slip away’ Ma. cariyuka. Ko. jarv- Ka. sari/jari, jaragu.saraku Tu. saraku Te. jaragu. Kol g. Malt. jarge.

. jarā 140 2. 35: Medial Sum. asa/aza ‘to paste’ DED. 43. Ta. acai ‘to join with’ Ka. asa Kuwi. assali Kur Malt. asge ‘to paste on’. Sum. gaz/gaza ‘gnaw, grind’. DED. 920 Kuwi. ka inai, kacali ‘to bite, sting’ Ta. kaccu, Ka. kaccu,. assgnā karcu, Tu. kaccuni Kol. kacc- Pa. kacc- Ga. kas- Kacc- Go. kaskanaẓ ẓKui. kasa Kur. khassna Malt. qaswe Sum. uzu ‘flesh’ DED. 626. Kui ju ‘flesh, meat’ Kuwi Ta n

2. 36. Final . ū . ūyū . ū, ū Sum. iz/giz/gis/gir ‘fire’ DED. 1272. Kuwi. hi ; fire’ Ta. kiccu To. kic, ki Ka. kiccu, kircu Tu. Kittu, kiccu, kicci Te. ciccu Kol. kis Nk. kick Pa kic Ga. kis, kiccuẓ ẓ Gou, hīcū. kis Konda. sisu Kur. ciccc̆ Malt. cicu. Sum. kus ‘sprout’ DED. 1491. 1439. Ta. kuruttu, kuruntu ‘sprount’ Ma. kuruttu, kurunnu ‘sprout, shoot’ Ka. kurube Kui. gunda Kur. kundna Malt. kunde.

The Dravidian Development

3. 1. Reconstruction of the PDr. Phonemic system.

Dr. Bh. Krishnamurti reconstructs the following phonemes for PDr.12

Consonants Vowels p t t c k i u z m n ṭ ñ e o l a r ṇ w ḷ y

This reconstruction is based on the data provided by the 22 Dravidian languages spoken in India. Tamil has preserved the earliest literary records going back to the 2nd century B.C. At any rate, the Proto-Dravidian language of about 1000 B.C may be said to have had a phonemic system much closure to the reconstructed one. The new data brought in by the addition of Sumerian materials makes it possible now to reconstruct the Proto Dravidian language of about 3500 B.C. As the Archaic Sumerian records of kish and Jemdet Nasr have been dated to the period 3500-3000 B.C. (see 1-4-1), we have now before us the earliest literary records of the world to reconstruct the parent Dravidian language of about 3500 B.C.

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3. 2 The parent language: Sumerologists generally agree that Babylonia was originally inhabited by a tribe called ‘ubaid’ and the archeological remains show that immediately after the Floods (ie about 4100 B.C) a people of unknown ethnic and linguistic affiliation whom now we know as the Sumerians entered the southern parts of Mesopotamia and conquered the area from its original inhabitants.13 The following words employed by them to name their new settlements indicate the nature of linguistic affiliation. They were known as the people of Sumer (Kumari) and they named their country of settlement as ‘Kalam’ (Ta. Kalam), their capital city as ur (Ta. ur), their river as ‘Bura’ – Sumerian name for Euphrates – (Ma, pura –river. Ta. punal), their mountains as ‘Kur’ (Ta. Kurinci), their God as ‘Din- gir’ (Ta. tinkal To. tigil – moon God), their war god as ‘Muru’ (Ta. Murukan). They called their father and mother ad. (Ta. attan) ab or ab-ba (Ta. appan) and ama (Ta. amma) respectively. The names of their domestic animals are: Ur ‘dog’ (Ta. ucci), Mas ‘cattle’ (Ta. matu), dag ‘ram’ (Ta. takar), Kur ‘horse (Ta. Kutirai),

kis ‘pig’ (Kur. Kiss Malt. kisu, Ta. keral). They called their house Bid (Ta. vitu, Ka. bidu), their cloth Tuk or Tug (Ta. tukil). They counted the first six numerals as their parents did: ur, uru, usu ru, ‘one’ (Ta. Or, oru, onru), man (Ta. maru) or min. ir (Ta. iru) ‘two’; mus ‘three’ (Br. musi), nabu ‘four’ (Kur: naib), a, ia, ‘five’ (Ta. and as ‘six’ (Ta. aru) (Ta. nal)

These and other numerous correspondences indicate that the people of the Kumari region in the Pandya Kingdom of South India immigrated to the Persian Gulf and settled there. However, we are not in a position to connect the latest phase of the Sumerian language with Dravidian as the word order and the verbal system, had changed considerably owing to the influence of Semitic Akkadian in Babylonia. Therefore, we have to reconstruct the characteristics of the parent Dravidian language of the pre-separation period of the two main wings namely Indo-Dravidian (1Dr.) and Sumero-Dravidian (SubDr.).

3. 3 Relative chronology of the different stages of Development in early Dravidian (3500-1000 B.C.)

The following factors are taken into consideration in discussing the relative chronology of the evolution of the phonemic system in early Dravidian. 1. The fundamental vowels in Dravidian are a, i, and u. 2. The evolution of the five vowel system a, i, u, e, and o. 3. The evolution of phonemic contrast of length in the five vowel system. 4. The voiceless character of the stops. 5. The evolution of the cerebral or retroflex consonants.

______12 Proto-Dravidian *z ‘Indian Linguistics, Turner Jubilee volume I, 1958, p. 259. 13 David Diringer, Writing, New York, p. 35-36.

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3. 4. PDr. Vowel system The five bowel system of a, e, i, u and o reconstructed for the Proto-Indo- Dravidian (P 1 Dr.) of about 1000 B.C. contains an O sound not found in the Proto-Sumero-Dravidian (PSUDr.) of about 3000 B.C. The Brahui vowel system forms an ideal bridge between the PSuDr. And the PIDr. Systems for Brahui has no short o. Emeneau tries to explain this discrepancy by citing a number of etymologies to prove the PDr. *): Br. (1) o, (2) u, (3) a14 which theory seems incorrect through Sumerian evidences. The following are some of the evidence given by Emeneau; under section 2.25 he cites two examples for PDr. *o: Br. a.

1. DED. 834 asit ‘one (entity)); asi ‘one’ (adj.): *oru (** oru). onru, orru.

2. DED. 1772. khall ‘to strike, kill, fire (gun), throw: *kol – to kill. (In foot note he says: This Brahui verb has such a wide range of meanings that it seems very probable that it is to be interpreted as a merger of several PDr. Verbs. The meaning ‘to lift (cattle) seems to look to DED. 1156, which includes verbs all the way from Ta. kal ‘to steal, rob’ to Malt. qale. id.)

Sumerian records show two sets of numerals for ‘one’. These are ur, uru, u um, ru ‘one’ found in the Archaic period and a ‘one’ found universally in the latest period of Sumerian history. (sign No.1)15. Therefore it is clear that the Archaics̆ Sumerian forms ur, uru, ru are the PDr. Formss̆ for numeral ‘one’. The initial u is retained in konda unri and Go. Undi and changes to O/O in the other languages. Therefore Brahui asi/asit one’ is to be derived from the Sumerian form as ‘one’. PDr. *O cannot be reconstructed in this instance. Similarly the other derivation Br khall ‘to strike, kill’. PDr. Kol ‘to kill’ cannot be established as correct etymology. The following evidences in Sumerian records permit us to drive Br. khall ‘to kill’ from Sum. Gal ‘to kill’ ‘destroy)

Sum. Sign. No. 87.

Gal ‘dwell’ Gal ‘kill, destroy’ Gal ‘lift up’ Gal ‘open’ seize, snatch Gal ‘set’ Gal ‘be warlike, powerful’

______

14 M. B. Emeneau, Brahui and Dravidian comparative Grammar, University of California Press, 1962, p. 17. 15 Geo. A. Barton, The Origin of Devleopment of Babylonian Writing, Leipzig, 1913, p. 1.

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Sum. Sign. No 381

Gul ‘destroy’ Gul ‘plunder; rob’ ‘destroy; throw down’.

The same Sumerian sign gives the meaning ‘lift up’, therefore kol

Under section 2.24. PDr. *O: Br. U Emeneau cites Ka. Tegal ‘shoulder’ and says that “the forms of with e may be evidence for *O.” This theory cannot be accepted as correct since the Sumerian records give the meaning ‘shoulder, ‘neck’ for that form tig. Therefore Sum. tig> Kan. Tegal. Therefore there is no evidence for PDr. O. similarly under section 2.26 PDr. O: Br. O Emeneau cites DED. O this, that’ kui. O ‘that at the greatest distance), But Sum ur, ul ‘that’ ‘yonder’ and Ta. u, utu, umpar ‘that, ata distance’ may be taken to represent the PDr. u.

It is clear from these evidences that PDr. U develops into *O in the Dravidian languages including Brahui, an offshoot of Sumerian. Sumerian has no representation for O in its alphabet phoneme different from u by about 1500 B.C. Simlarly e developed into a separate phoneme different from i. In Sumerian the difference between i and e is only phonetic and not phonemic. (see 1.6) Therefore the evolution of e as a different phoneme from I may be said to have taken place at the end of the Sumerian period ie about 2000 B.C. What remains from the fundamental vowels reconstructable for the parent language are a, i, and u.

3. 5. Direction of vowel change: In the following diagram arrows indicate the direction of Vowel changes.

The First shift The Second shift 3000-2000 B.C. 2000-1000 B.C.

i ------<----- u I u

e -----<------a e o a

During the period of the First shift the back vowels a and u were fronted and during the period of the Second shift high vowels were lowered. One illustration may be sufficient to explain this change.

144

Sum. tug ‘to open’ Sum. tag ‘to open’ Ta tira ‘to open’ tab turappu’akey’ Go. taritana ‘open’ Ma. turakka ‘to open’ Kui. dari- ‘to be opened’ Ko. terv – ‘to open’ To. terv – ‘to open’ Ka. tere – ‘to open’ Kod. tora – ‘to open’ Te. tera ‘open’ Kur. tisigna ‘to open’ Malt. tisge ‘to lift’ Br. turing – ‘to undo’

Though DED 2667 list all these items together under tira, the Go and the Kui items are separated here as the Sumerian records show another form tag, tab ‘to open’. The PDr. *u is retained unchanged in Sumerian 9tug), Malayalam (turakka) and Brahui (turing). According to the rules of the First shift u>i in Tamil (tira), Kur (tisigna) and in Malt (tisge). During the period of the Second shift, u>o in Kod (tora), i>e in Ko. (terv- To (terv), Ka (tere) and Te. (tera).

3. 6 PDr. Stop phonemes The Sumerian syllabic system of writing yields three stop phonemes K(g), t(d) and p(b). There is general agreement among the Sumerologists that these stops are voiceless in character. The Semitic scribes rendered the value of the Sumerian signs indiscriminately either by k or g, t ord and p or b. Compare the forms tu, tug, tuk meaning ‘cloth’ or ‘garment’; aga, aka, love’, ‘desire’ and kas, gas, ‘toddy’ ‘liquor’. In these illustrations k and g simply represent the same sound. It is not certain as to why there should be two alphabetic characters to denote the same sound. It appears that these phonological problems are inherent in the very nature of the Cuneiform medium and its rendering into phonemic characters.

The authors of the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary were right in expressing the view that the inventory of Tamil phonemes probably corresponds very closely to that of the PDr. phonemes16. It is true that the Kannada and Telugu words with voiced stops initially have no corresponding cognates in Tamil; but this character should not be attributed to the parent language. While Sumerian and Tamil retain this characteristic of their parent language, Kannada, Telugu and other languages of the family developed secondary voicing in word initial position at a date earlier than the beginning of the Christian era.

______16 T. Burrow and M.B. Emeneau ‘A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford 1961.

145

3. 7 PDr. Cerebral consonants. The cuneiform system of writing makes no distinction between the dentals, alveolars and cerebrals or retroflexes. Stephen Langdon in his Sumerian Grammar (p.40) says: “The language possesses at least three cerebral consonants in word-final position; these are; d( ), r( ), and l( ).” We may add to this list of cerebrals. The following illustrations may show characteristics of these cerebrals : ḍ ṛ ḷ s̆

Sum. mul/mu ‘grasshopper’ To mu ‘grasshopper; Sum mili/meles̆ ‘throat’ ‘neck’ Kur Malt. melqeḍ ṣ ṇ Ta. mi a u Ko. mir Te.me a Sum kil/kie ‘multitude’ Ta. ki ai . mulkhē Sum ges ‘hear’ Taṭ. kelr̳ ḍ Sum ka /ga ‘toddy’, ‘Liquor’ ḷTa. Ka Ka.Ka Tu. Kali Te. Kallu Nk. Ka s̆ l ands̆ s in addition to l yield ḷalso r (z).ḷ Ex. ḷ

Sum. Sign No. 149

Mulu ‘sight’ ‘aspect’ ‘seek’ Ta. mu i/vi i Mulu ‘perfect’ Ta. mu u. mu umai Mulu ‘sprout’ Ta. mu ai r̤ r̤ Mulu ‘foot’ Ta. mutal.r̤ Ma.r̤ muram Sum. r ( ) also yields ̤ ( ) ḷ Sum. ur/uru ‘to plough’ Ta.u u Ma.u uga. To. u fṛ- Kod. u. -Tu. r̤u duniẓ Kol. ur- Pa u - Go. u ana Malt.use.r̤ r̤ s̤ ḷ ṛFor evidenceṛ of cerebral d in word final position, Kid ‘pinch off’ Ta. Killu; mud ‘enclose’ Ta. mutu; kad ‘to tie’ Ta. Kattu. The Sumerian language was rich with cerebral consonants. It appears that by about 2500 B.C, the language was in possession of at least four cerebral sounds expressed through the cuneiform characters r, l, d and s. Parallel development should have taken place in the Dravidian language of Indian by about this date.

- - - - -

146

Paper 4

Paper 4 STUDIES IN Paper 4 SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY STUDIES IN

SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY STUDIES IN STUDIES IN SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY

A. Sathasivam by UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON A. SathasivamAND UNIVERSITY byOF CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON AND UNIVERSITYA. Sathasivam OF CALIFORNIA A. Sathasivamby Copyright ©2016 by Mrs. T. Sathasivam UNIVERSITYby OF CEYLON UNIVERSITYAll rights reservedAND OF CEYLON

Paper presented Copyright ©2016 by Mrs. T. Sathasivam at the Sixth International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Copyright ©2016 by Mrs. T. SathasivamAll rights reserved Studies held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - 15th - 19h November 1987 All rights reserved

Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Studies held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - 15th - 19h November 1987

Paper No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner presented at the Sixth International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference-Seminar of Tamil whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in Studies held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - 15th - 19h November 1987 Studies held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia case of brief quotations embodied in cri- 15th tical articles and reviews.- 19h November 1987 No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner No part of this work may be stored, used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in November 1987 whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder, except in case of brief quotations embodied in cri tical articles and reviews. case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. November 1987

November 1987 November 1987

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148

STUDIES IN SUMERO-DRAVIDIANSTUDIES IN PHONOLOGY SUMERO-DRAVIDIAN PHONOLOGY 1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

SUMERIAN SUMERIAN

Sumerian is an extinct agglutinative language spoken in Mesopotamia, from Babylon Sumerian to the is an Gulf extinct of Persia agglutinative from at least language 4000 spoken B.C. till in about Mesopotamia, 2000 B.C. from Dravidian Babylon is an to agglutina the Gulf tive of Persia family from of languages at least 4000 numbering B.C. till about about 22, 2000 spoken B.C. mainly Dravidian in is the an South, agglutina Central tive family and parts of languages of Northern numbering India about and also 22, spoken in the mainly mountains of Eastern Baluchistan and North in the South, Central and parts of -East Sri Lanka. These languages are Northern India and also in the Tamil, Malayalam, Kota Toda, Kannadam Kodagu, Tulu, Telugu, Kolami, Naiki, mountains of Eastern Baluchistan and NorthSumero-Dravidian -East Sri Lanka. These languages are Tamil, Parji, Gadba, Ollari, Pengo, Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuwi, Kurukh, Malto and Brahui. Malayalam, Kota Toda, Kannadam Kodagu, Tulu, Telugu, Kolami, Naiki, Sumero-Dravidian Parji, Gadba, Ollari, Pengo, Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuwi, Kurukh, Malto and Brahui. is a the new name applied to this group of agglutinative languages which combines into a single word various linguistic elements, each o is a the new name applied to this group of agglutinative f languages which combines into a single word various linguistic elements, each owhich has a distinct fixed connotation and a separate existence. f which has a distinct fixed connotation and a separate existence. Sumerian languages are known to the world only through the excavated cuneiform Sumerian languages are known to the world only through the excavated inscriptions numbering more than 2000. These inscriptions are cuneiform ideographic writings without phonetic signs fo inscriptions numbering more than r grammatical elements; it means 2000. These inscriptions are ideographic writings without phonetic signs fothat the identification of the language beyond the written records is not evident. r grammatical elements; it means that the identification of the language beyond the written records is not evident. Sumerian writing never attempted to render the language phonetically correct, Sumerian writing never attempted to render the language phonetically correct, exactly as it was spoken. exactly as it was spoken. In this phonological analysis Sumerian and Dravidian languages are compared. It should be remembered that Sumerian became a dead language by In this phonological analysis Sumerian and Dravidian languages are compared. It should be remembered that Sumerian became a dead language by about 2000 B.C. and it was treated as a foreign language from 2000 B.C.-1600 about B.C. But 2000 the B.C. Dravidian and it was languages treated with as a the foreign exception language of Tamil, from 2000 are all B.C. mo-1600 dern B.C. languages and some are recorded languages of recent years. A comparative study But the Dravidian languages with the exception of Tamil, are all modern languages and some are recorded languages of recent years. A comparative study should take into consideration the time gap in the development of these two language groups. should take into consideration the time gap in the development of these two language groups. “The script evolved by the Sumerians has the capacity of writing but four vowel sounds,“The script low evolvedback a, high by the back Sumerians u with labial has the rounding, capacity mid of writingpalatal ebut and four front vopalatalwel sounds,i. It is probable low back that a, highwhen back a separate u with vowellabial rounding,sign was employed mid palatal for e anyand offront these palatalvowels, i. the It is long probable vowel that was when intended”. a separateThese vowel four vowelssign was a, employede, i and u indicatefor any ofno these vowels,phonemic the distinction long vowel of waslength intended”. between These the short four an vowelsd long. a, These e, i and are u k, indicate g, g, t, nod, p, b, phonm, n,emic r, l, s, distinction s, z. of length between the short and long. These are k, g, g, t, d, p, b, m, n, r, l, s, s, z. 149

Labials Coronal Dorsal Laryngals

Cerebral Alveolar Dental Palatal Velar Explosive Labials Coronal Dorsal k Laryngals a) surd p t k b) sonant b Cerebral Alveolar Dentald Palatal Velar g ExplosiveSpirant k a) surd p t a) surd s s k h(?) g b) sonant b z d z h(?) Spirantb) sonant l a) surd r r j g s l s h(?) b) sonant l z z h(?) Nasal m l n n ng r r j g l Nasal m l n n ng Stephen Langdon reconstructs the following consonants for the Sumerian spoken speech. These are not recorded in the written alphabet. StephenPalatal Langdon nasal reconstructs n the following consonants for the Sumerian spoken Velarspeech. nasal These are ng not recorded in the written alphabet. PalatalLaryngal; nasal Spirant n surd, h VelarCerebral: nasal Sonants, ng l, r Laryngal; These Spirant phonemes surd, h developed during the Neo-Sumerian period (2200 Cerebral:E.C-1600 Sonants, B.C) as the l, r original alphabet was constructed much earlier - 2800 B.C. These phonemes developed during the Neo-Sumerian period (2200 E.CThe-1600 following B.C) as remarks the original of Marie alphabet-Louise was consThomsentructed about much Sumerian earlier - 2800Phonetics B.C. is worthy of note:1 The following remarks of Marie-Louise Thomsen about Sumerian Phonetics is worthy of note:1 “The Sumerian phonetic system, as it is traditionally understood is almost identical to that of Akkadian. Since our informations about the pronunciation of “The Sumerian phonetic system, as it is traditionally understood is almost Sumerian come from Akkadian sources, this fact is probably the main reason for identical to that of Akkadian. Since our informations about the pronunciation of the seeming conformity with the Akkadian phonological system. The Sumerian Sumerian come from Akkadian sources, this fact is probably the main reason for thewriting seeming does conformity not represent with a the phonetically Akkadian phonologicalcorrect rendering system. of Thethe languageSumerian, and writingit is therefore does not hardly represent possible a phonetically to reconstruct correct an rendering adequate of phonological the language system, and of itSumerian.” is therefore hardly possible to reconstruct an adequate phonological system of Sumerian.” “However, as Sumerian became a foreign language to the scribes the need for a more“However, elaborate as Sumerian writing grew,became and a foreign full writings language of endings to the scribes like the the prominal need forsuffixes a more as elaborate well as the writing insertion grew, ofand pronominal full writings prefixes of endings in thelike finite the prominal verbal forms sareuffixes characteristics as well as the of insertionthese texts.” of pronominal2 prefixes in the finite verbal forms are characteristics of these texts.”2

1 Marie-Louise Thomsen: The Sumerian Language, Copenhagen, 1984, p. 37. 12 MarieMarie--LouiseLouise Thomsen: Thomsen: T heThe Sumerian Sumerian Language, Language, Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1984, 1984, p. 37. p. 23 2 Marie-Louise Thomsen: The Sumerian Language, Copenhagen, 1984, p. 23 150 “Moreover, mainly for orthographic reasons, we know very little about “Moreover, mainly for orthographic reasons, we know very little about the Old Sumerian grammar, and, therefore, in many cases we are able to the Old“Moreover, Sumerian mainlygrammar, for orthographicand, therefore, reasons, in many we knowcases verywe arelittle a bleabout to understandthe Old“Moreover, Sumerian the Os mainly grammar,texts foronly orthographicand, when therefore, comparing reasons, in manywith we theknowcases later verywe grammatical arelittle a bleabout to understand“Moreover, the Os mainly texts foronly orthographic when comparing reasons, with we knowthe later very grammatical little about constructions.understandthe Old Sumerian the On Os the grammar,texts otherhand, only and, whenthe therefore, Sumerian comparing ingrammar manywith theascases it lateris weavailable grammaticalare a blein the to the constructions. Old“Moreover, Sumerian On the mainlygrammar, otherhand, for orthographicand, the therefore, Sumerian reasons, ingrammar many we knowcasesas it is verywe available arelittle a bleinabout theto moreconstructions.understand comprehensive the On Os the texts postotherhand, -Sumerianonly when the textalSumerian comparing material grammar withis somewhat theas it later is availableheterogeneous grammatical in the understandthemore Old comprehensive Sumerian the Os grammar,texts post -Sumerianonly and, when therefore,textal comparing material in manywith is somewhat thecases later we heterogeneous grammaticalare able to andmoreconstructions. partly comprehensive contradictor On the postotherhand,y, and-Sumerian Akkadian the textalSumerian influence material grammar can is besomewhat demonstrated.as it is availableheterogeneous Since in the in andconstructions.understand partly contradictor the On Os the texts otherhand,y, and only Akkadian when the Sumerian comparinginfluence grammar can with be demonstrated.theas it later is available grammatical Since in the in practiceandmore partly comprehensive we contradictor know very post y,little and-Sumerian aboutAkkadian the textal originalinfluence material Sumerian can is besomewhat demonstrated. language heterogeneous in its Since older in practicemoreconstructions. comprehensive we know On thevery postotherhand, little-Sumerian about the the textalSumerian original material grammar Sumerian is somewhat as language it is availableheterogeneous in its inolder the stages.practiceand partly we contradictor know veryy, little and aboutAkkadian the influenceoriginal Sumerian can be demonstrated. language in itsSince older in andstages.more partly comprehensive contradictor posty, and-Sumerian Akkadian textal influence material can is besomewhat demonstrated. heterogeneous Since in stages.practice we know very little about the original Sumerian language in its older practiceand partly we contradictor know veryy, little and aboutAkkadian the influenceoriginal Sumerian can be demonstrated. language in itsSince older in stages. “What makes it so difficult for the student to rid himself of this misguided stages. practice “What we know makes very it so little difficult about for the the original student Sumerianto rid himself language of this in misguided its older and misleading“What makes approach it so difficult is the forfac tthe that student the basis to rid forhimself the deciphermentof this misguided of and stages. misleading approach is the fact that the basis for the decipherment of Sumerianand misleading“What rests makes largely approach it uponso difficult is the the works forfac thet ofthat Semiticstudent the basisscribesto rid forhimself who the themselves ofdecipherment this misguided treated of Sumerian “What rests makes largely it uponso difficult the works for the of studentSemitic scribesto rid himself who themselves of this misguided treated Sumerianand misleading asrests a dead, largely approach literary upon is thetongue, the works fac andt ofthat whoSemitic the were basisscribes no forlonger who the themselvesaware decipherment of the treated finer of andSumerian misleading“What as a makes dead, approach itliterary so difficult is tongue, the forfac andthet that studentwho the were basisto ridno forlongerhimself the aware ofdecipherment this of misguided the finer of nuances,Sumerian grammatical restsas a dead, largely literary and upon phonetic, thetongue, works which and of Semiticwho had weregoverned scribes no longer whothe living themselves aware language, of the treated finer and Sumerianandnuances, misleading grammatical rests largely approach and upon phonetic,is the the works fac whicht ofthat Semitic had the governed basisscribes for whoth ethe living themselves decipherment language, treated and of whonuances,Sumerian moreover, grammatical as a dead, for pedagogicliterary and phonetic, tongue, reasons which and foundwho had were governedit practical no longer the toliving awareneglect language, of thesome finer and of Sumerianwho moreover, restsas a dead, largely for literarypedagogic upon thetongue, worksreasons and of foundSemiticwho were it scribes practical no longer who to themselves aware neglect of thesome treated finer of them…….whonuances, moreover, grammaticalThe present for pedagogic dayand studentphonetic, reasons of which Sumerian found had must governedit practical bear th thise toliving truth neglect language, in mind some with and of nuances,Sumerianthem……. grammatical Theas a present dead, literary andday studentphonetic, tongue, of which Sumerianand who had were governedmust no bear longer th thise living truthaware language, in of mind the finerwith and anwho almost moreover, conscious for pedagogicpersistence; reasons only then found will it he practical be able to realizeneglect thesome exact of nuances,anthem……. almost grammaticalThe conscious present persistence; dayand studentphonetic, onlyof which Sumerian then had will governedmust he bebear able th thise livingto truth realize language, in mind the exact with and rwhoelationship moreover, between for pedagogic the conventionalized reasons found Sumerian it practical orthography to neglect andsome the of ranthem…….elationship almost The conscious betweenpresent persistence; daythe student conventionalized onlyof Sumerian then will Sumerianmust he bebear able thisorthography to truth realize in mind theand exact withthe them…….who moreover, The present for pedagogic day student reasons of Sumerian found mustit3 practical bear this to truth neglect in mind some with of soundsranelationship almost of the conscious livingbetween language persistence; the conventionalized which only it represents. then will Sumerian 3he be able orthography to realize theand exact the anthem…….sounds almost of The theconscious livingpresent language persistence; day student which onlyof it Sumerian represents. then will must he bebear able this to truth realize in mind the exact with soundsrelationship of the betweenliving language the conventionalized which it represents. Sumerian3 orthography and the ranelationship almost conscious between persistence; the conventionalized only then will Sumerian he be able orthography to realize theand exact the sounds What of the is attemptedliving language so far which is to itshow represents. that the3 Sumerian inscriptions so far soundsr elationship What of the is betweenattemptedliving language the so farconventionalized which is to it show represents. that Sumerianthe3 Sumerian orthography inscriptions and so thefar deciphered What isbelong attempted to the so neofar -isSumerian to show periodthat the (B.C Sumerian. 2200- inscriptionsB.C. 1600) whereso far decipheredsounds of the belong living languageto the neo which-Sumerian it represents. period 3(B.C . 2200- B.C. 1600) where Akkadiandeciphered What phonetic isbelong attempted toinfluence the so neofar seem -isSumerian to veryshow greatperiodthat thewhereas (B.C Sumerian. 2200 the- inscriptionsArchaicB.C. 1600) Sumerian whereso far Akkadian What phoneticis attempted influence so far seem is to veryshow greatthat thewhereas Sumerian the inscriptionsArchaic Sumerian so far recordsAkkadiandeciphered are phonetic partlybelong not toinfluence decipheredthe neo seem-Sumerian and very what periodgreat has whereasbeen (B.C .deciphered 2200 the- ArchaicB.C. come 1600) Sumerian down where to deciphered records What are is partlybelong attempted not to decipheredthe so neofar -isSumerian to and show what periodthat has the been(B.C Sumerian .deciphered 2200- inscriptionsB.C. come1600) down whereso far to usrecordsAkkadian are real are phoneticSumerian partly not influence records. deciphered seem and very what great has whereasbeen deciphered the Archaic come Sumerian down to Akkadiandecipheredus are real phoneticSumerian belong toinfluence records. the neo seem-Sumerian very periodgreat whereas (B.C. 2200 the- ArchaicB.C. 1600) Sumerian where usrecords are real are Sumerian partly not records. deciphered and what has been deciphered come down to recordsAkkadian are phonetic partly not influence deciphered seem and very what great has whereasbeen deciphered the Archaic come Sumerian down to DRAVIDIANus are real Sumerian records. usrecordsDRAVIDIAN are real are Sumerian partly not records. deciphered and what has been deciphered come down to us DRAVIDIAN are real Sumerian records. DRAVIDIANCaldwell’s publication of ‘A comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or DRAVIDIAN Caldwell’s publication of ‘A comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South IndianCaldwell’s Family publication of languages of ‘A comparatiin 1856 stimulatedve Grammar many of the scholars Dravidian to get or DRAVIDIAN South Indian Family of languages in 1856 stimulated many scholars to get deeper South IndianCaldwell’sinto this Family newpublication familyof languages ofof languages.‘A comparatiin 1856 Caldwell stimulatedve Grammar treated many of only the scholars 12Dravidian languages to getor deeper Caldwell’sinto this newpublication family ofof languages.‘A comparati Caldwellve Grammar treated of only the 12Dravidian languages or exclusivedeeperSouth Indian into of thisthe Family Brahuinew offamily languagelanguages of languages. known in 1856 at Caldwell thatstimulated time. treated Field many onlywork scholars 12 in languages India to getby Southexclusive IndianCaldwell’s of the Family Brahuipublication of languagelanguages of ‘A known comparatiin 1856 at thatstimulatedve Grammar time. Field many of workthe scholars Dravidian in India to getbyor Professorsexclusivedeeper into of Burrow, thisthe Brahuinew Emeneau family language andof languages. Battacharyaknown at Caldwell that brought time. treated the Field recording only work 12 inof languages 10India more by deeperSouthProfessors Indian into Burrow, this Family new Emeneau offamily languages ofand languages. Battacharya in 1856 Caldwell stimulatedbrought treated the many recording only scholars 12 of languages 10 to more get languagesexclusiveProfessors of inBurrow, the1950s. Brahui Emeneau These language 22 and languages Battacharyaknown atwere that brought groupedtime. the Field recordinginto work three inof ie. India10 South more by exclusivedeeperlanguages into ofin this the1950s. Brahuinew Thesefamily language 22of languages.languages known at wereCaldwell that groupedtime. treated Field into only work three 12 in languages ie.India South by Dravidian,languagesProfessors CentralinBurrow, 1950s. Dravidian Emeneau These and22 and languagesNorth Battacharya Dravidian. were brought grouped the recordinginto three of ie. 10 Southmore Dravidian,exclusiveProfessors of CentralBurrow, the Brahui Dravidian Emeneau language and and North Battacharyaknown Dravidian. at that brought time. the Field recording work inof India10 more by Dravidian,languages Centralin 1950s. Dravidian These and22 languagesNorth Dravidian. were grouped into three ie. South languagesProfessors inBurrow, 1950s. Emeneau These 22 and languages Battacharya were brought grouped the recordinginto three of ie. 10 Southmore Dravidian,Publication Central Dravidianof the Brahui and language North Dravidian. by Denys Bray, Part I in 1909 and Part Dravidian,languagesPublication Centralin 1950s. Dravidianof theThese Brahui and22 language languagesNorth Dravidian. by were Denys grouped Bray, Par intot I inthree 1909 ie. and South Part II & III in 1934 has opened new vistas in the field of Dravidian Linguistics. Dravidian,II & IIIPublication in Central1934 has Dravidianof theopened Brahui and new language North vistas Dravidian. byin Denysthe field Bray, of ParDravidiant I in 1909 Linguistics. and Part ProfessorII & IIIPublication in Emeneau 1934 has of who theopened Brahuihas takennew language vistas to the byin study Denysthe fieldof Bray, Brahui of ParDravidian tnot I in very1909 Linguistics. seriously and Part ProfessorPublication Emeneau of whothe Brahuihas taken language to the by study Denys of Bray, Brahui Par tnot I in very1909 seriouslyand Part thoughtProfessorII & III thatin Emeneau1934 major has portion who opened has of thetakennew Brahui vistas to theVocabulary in study the field of is Brahui extraof Dravidian-Dravidian. not very Linguistics. Aseriously deeper IIthought & IIIPublication thatin 1934 major has ofportion theopened Brahui of thenew language Brahui vistas Vocabulary byin Denysthe field Bray, is extraof ParDravidian-Dravidian.t I in 1909 Linguistics. Aand deeper Part thoughtProfessor that Emeneau major portion who has of thetaken Brahui to the Vocabulary study of is Brahui extra- Dravidian.not very seriouslyA deeper ProfessorII & III in Emeneau1934 has who opened has takennew vistas to the in study the field of Brahui of Dravidian not very Linguistics. seriously 3thought S.N.Kramer: that Studiesmajor portionin Sumerian of the Phonetics, Brahui VocabularyArchiv Orientalni, is extra Vol- VIIIDravidian. No. 1, A deeper Professor3 Emeneau who has taken to the study of Brahui not very seriously thought 1936, S.N.Kramer: p.22. that Studiesmajor portion in Sumerian of the Phonetics, Brahui VocabularyArchiv Orientalni, is extra Vol- VIIIDravidian. No. 1, A deeper thought3 1936,S.N.Kramer: p.22. that Studiesmajor portion in Sumerian of the Phonetics, Brahui VocabularyArchiv Orientalni, is extra Vol- VIIIDravidian. No. 1, A deeper 3 1936,S.N.Kramer: p.22. Studies in Sumerian Phonetics,151 Archiv Orientalni, Vol VIII No. 1, 3 1936,S.N.Kramer: p.22. Studies in Sumerian Phonetics, Archiv Orientalni, Vol VIII No. 1, 3 1936,S.N.Kramer: p.22. Studies in Sumerian Phonetics, Archiv Orientalni, Vol VIII No. 1, 1936, p.22. study of Brahui language clearly point to the fact that the suspected extra- Dravidian Vocabulary in Brahui is definite Dravidian items.

Phonetically Brahui goes with Sumerian into a sub-group. One of these features study of Brahui language clearly point to the fact that the suspected extra- isst udySumero of Brahui-Brahui language D n in theclearly other point Dravidi to anthe languages:fact that theEx: suspectedSum, de:sun extra Br-, Dravidian Vocabulary in Brahui is definite Dravidian items. de:sunstDravidianudy of Ta Brahui ,Vocabulary ne:ram language Kod in ,Brahui ne:raclearly isTu point definite, ne:rde to Dravidianthe (DED fact 3128).that items. the The suspected sub grouping extraof Dravidian Vocabulary in Brahui is definite Dravidian items. Sumerian and Brahui within the Sumero-Dravidian Family will be treated in a Phonetically Brahui goes with Sumerian into a sub-group. One of these features separate paper. Brahui is spoken in the Baluchistan district of Pakistan which is isPhonetically Sumero-Brahui Brahui Brahui D goes goesn in with withthe Sumerian otherSumerian Dravidi into into a ansub a sublanguages:-group.-group. One One Ex:of these Sumof these ,features de:sun features Br, de:sunmuchis SumeroSumero closerTa,- -BrahuiBrahuine:ram to the D D oldKodn nin city,in thene:ra the of other Mohenjo otherTu , Dravidine:rde Dravidi-daroan (DED aninlanguages: thelanguages: 3128). Indus Ex: Thevalley. Ex:Sum sub Sum, Itde:sun appearsgrouping, de:sun Br, that Brof , Sumerianpeoplede:sun speakingTaTa ,and , ne:ramne:ram Brahui the Kod Kodsame within, ,ne:ra ne:ralanguage theTu Tu , Sumerone:rde, oncene:rde -inhabited(DEDDravidian (DED 3128). 3128).both Family The the The subwillIndus sub groupingbe valley treatedgrouping andof in the ofa separateEuphratesSumerian paper. and-andTigris Brahui BrahuiBrah valley. uiwithin withinis spoken the the Sumero inSumero the -BaluchistanDravidian-Dravidian Family district Family will of willbe Pakistan treated be treated winhich a in is a much separate closer paper.paper. to theBrah Brah olduiui is cityis spoken spoken of Mohenjo in inthe the Baluchistan-daro Baluchistan in the district Indus district of valley. Pakistan of Pakistan It appearswhich w hichis that is people much closer closerspeaking to toBh. the thethe Krishnamurthi old oldsame city city languageof of Mohenjo Mohenjo reconstruct once-daro- daroinhabited in thein the Indusfollowing both Indus valley. the valley. phonemesIndus It appears Itvalley appears for thatand Pr otothatthe- EuphratesDravidianpeople speakingspeaking -(PDr.)Tigris the 4valley.the same same language language once once inhabited inhabited both both the theIndus Indus valley valley and theand the Euphrates-Tigris valley. Euphrates-Tigris valley.

Bh. Krishnamurthi reconstruct the following phonemes for Proto- VowelsBh. Krishnamurthi reconstruct the following phonemes for Proto- Dravidian (PDr.)4 Dravidian i (PDr.)Bh.4 Krishnamurthiu reconstruct the following phonemes for Proto- Dravidian (PDr.)4 e o Vowels Vowels a ii Vowels uu i e o o u Consonants e a a o a ConsonantsLabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Stop p t t t c k Consonants Fricative LabialLabial DentalDental AlveolarAlveolar RetroflexRetroflexz PalatalPalatal VelarVelar StopNasalStop ppm t tn t t t tn c cñ k k Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar FricativeLateralFricative l z zl NasalStop mp n t t n t ñ c k NasalTrill m n r n ñ LateralFricative l l z LateralFrictionless w l l y TrillNasal r Trillcontinuant m n r n ñ Frictionless FrictiLateralonless ww l l y y continuant Trillcontinuant r FrictionlessThere arew two problems in regard to the reconstructiony of PDr. Phonemes:continuantThere (1) are Tamil two r(l)problems is a peculiar in regard phoneme. to the It reconstructionhas very many of reflexes PDr. in differentPhonemes:There Dravidian (1) are Tamil two languages.r(l) problems is a peculiar It isin representedphoneme.regard to It hasthein theveryreconstruction PDrmany as reflexes z a retroflexof in PDr. Phonemes:fricdifferentative phoneme.Dravidian (1) Tamil Zlanguages. is r(l) phonetically is a Itpeculiar is representedpreserved phoneme. in in Old Itthe Ta.has PDr ( very ),as old manyz Ma.a retroflex reflexes( ), old inka different Dravidian languages. It is represented in the PDr as z a retroflex (fric ative) andThere phoneme. old Te.are Z( twois phonetically). Tolkappiyamproblems preserved in describesregard in Old to 1 Ta. (the ( ) ),reconstructionas old a Ma.retroflex ( ), old fricative,of ka PDr. fricative phoneme. Z is phonetically preserved in Old Ta. ( ), old Ma. ( ), old ka (Phonemes: ) and old (1) Te. Tamil ( ). r(l)Tolkappiyam is a peculiar describes phoneme. 1 ( It) ashas a veryretroflex many fricative, reflexes in ( ) and old Te. ( ). Tolkappiyam describes 1 ( ) as a retroflex fricative, different Dravidian languages. It is represented in the PDr as z a retroflex 4fric Bh.Krishnamurti:ative phoneme. Proto Z is -phoneticallyDravidian in Indi preservedan Linguistics, in Old Turner Ta. ( Jubiler ), old Ma.Vol.I, ( 1958, ), old ka 4 Bh.Krishnamurti: Proto-Dravidian in Indian Linguistics, Turner Jubiler Vol.I, 1958, ( p.259. ) and old Te. ( ). Tolkappiyam describes 1 ( ) as a retroflex fricative, 4 Bh.Krishnamurti: p.259. Proto-Dravidian in Indian Linguistics, Turner Jubiler Vol.I, 1958, p.259. 152

4 Bh.Krishnamurti: Proto-Dravidian in Indian Linguistics, Turner Jubiler Vol.I, 1958, p.259. occupying a place between the hand series and the soft series. The early loan words from Sanskrit have l substituted for s, Ex. celam sesa, remainder.

In Sumerian word final position PDr. z (r / l) is represented by Sum. ki occupying‘pig’ DED 1275a place Kur between Kiss: pig the Malt hand. kisu series but Taand ther al: soft pig series. Sum. KaThe liquorearly loanDED s̆ s̆ words1158 Ta from. kal S toddyanskrit Ma have. Kal l substitutedKo kal Ka kal for Kod s, Ex. kalli celam Tu kalisesa, Te remainder. kallu Kol kal Nk kal kē s̆ Go kal Konda karu Kui kalu Kuwi karu In Sumerian word final position PDr. z (r / l) is represented by Sum. ki ‘pig’Problem DED (2)1275 Kannada, Kur Kiss: Telugu pig Malt and. kisu some but otherTa rDravidian al: pig Sum. languages Ka liquor possess DED 1158voiced Ta consonants. kal toddy inMa the. Kal word Ko kal initial Ka kal position Kod kalli k g Tu t kalid p Te b: kalluThis hasKol drawnkals̆ Nk thekals̆ Goattention kal Konda of ma karuny scholarsKui kalu regardingKuwi karu the late originkē of voicing in somes̆ languages. Professor burrow argues that there is no voicing in the primitive Dravidian Problemwords and (2) what Kannada, is seen Teluguis some andlanguages some inother secondary Dravidian voicing. languages He says: possess “Tamil voicedalone among consonants the Dravidian in the word languag initiales positionrepresents k gthe t stated p ofb: affairsThis has in drawnthe parent the attentionlanguage ofin mathisny matter. scholars Telugu regarding and Kanaresethe late origin have offor voicing reasons in thatsome are languages. obscure Professorin most instances burrow introducedargues that secondary there is voicingno voicing into inprimitive the primitive Dravidian Dravidian words. wordsAt the sameand what time is a seenlarge is percentage some languages of words in secondarybeginning voicing.with the He voiced says: stops “Tamil in alonethese amonglanguages the areDravidian of extra languag-Dravidianes represents origin. We the must state assume of affairs the in existence the parent of languagesome substrate in this languagematter. Telugu to account and Kanarese for these, have and, for in reasonsfact, for thatthe existenceare obscure of ininitial most sonants instances at all. introduced5 secondary voicing into primitive Dravidian words. At the same time a large percentage of words beginning with the voiced stops in these languagesSimilar statement are of extra has-Dravidian been made origin. re Wegar dingmust theassume opposition the existence 'voiced: of somevoiceless substrate' in Sumer languageian. Theto account conventional for these, transliterations and, in fact, forshow the aexistence distinction of initialbetween sonants voiced at all.and5 voiceless stops in Sumerian b, d, g : p, t, k. But now it is disputed whether this distinction actually existed in Sumerian. Similar statement has been made regarding the opposition 'voiced: v oiceless First' ofin allSumer the earliestian. The Akkadian conventional system transliterations of writing does shownot distinguish a distinction b, d, betweeng and p, t,voiced k and and it is voiceless most probable stops inthat Sumeri the Akkadiansan b, d, g :borrowed p, t, k. But this now custom it is disputedfrom the whether Sumerians. this distinctionThis means actually that Sumerian existed in originally Sumerian. does not have the opposition voiced : voiceless.6 Identical First statementsof all the earliest have Akkadianbeen made system by Dravidianof writing doesand notSumerian distinguish scholars. b, d, gRegarding and p, t, kthe and opposition it is most voiced: probable voiceless that the in Akkadians the Sumero borrowed-Dravidian this family custom it fromrequires the exhaustiveSumerians. analysis This means of the problemsthat Sumerian involved. originally does not have the opposition voiced : voiceless.6 Identical statements have been made by Dravidian and Sumerian scholars. Regarding the opposition voiced: voiceless- - - - - in the Sumero-Dravidian family it requires exhaustive analysis of the problems involved.

5 T.Burrow: Dravidian Studies - 1: Notes- - on- - convertibility - of surds and sonants, BSOS IX 1937-39 Annamalai, Collected Papers on Dravidian Linguistics 1968, p. 17. 6 Marie-Louise Thomsen: The Sumerian Language, Copenhagen, 1984, p.43. 5 T.Burrow: Dravidian Studies - 1: Notes 153on convertibility of surds and sonants, BSOS IX 1937-39 Annamalai, Collected Papers on Dravidian Linguistics 1968, p. 17. 6 Marie-Louise Thomsen: The Sumerian Language, Copenhagen, 1984, p.43. 154