History …Rav Hayyim’s derech halimud was an invaluable response to the Haskalah’s poisonous condemnation of yeshivot. Distinguished historian Dr. Mordechai Breuer recently completed a comprehen- sive study of the intellectual, social and institutional history of yeshivot, covering a period of approximately one thousand years. Below, Dr. Breuer outlines some of Two modes of study alternated with- concurrently interpreting the text of losophy and the sciences were taught the pivotal points of his forthcoming book Ohalei Torah (in Hebrew),* which is in the yeshivah: text critique and Rambam’s Mishneh Torah so as to more or less independently from reli- analysis (peirush) and subtle, text-free serve, apart from codification, as a gion, and Islam was much less, if at all, to be released this summer. reasoning (pilpul).1 This polarity goes commentary on the Talmud. The chal- tainted with what Judaism considers back to the Talmud itself and is evi- lenge to his students’ intellects dent in the methodologies used by var- was enormous, and Rav ious commentators. Whereas Rashi Hayyim’s derech halimud was an was concerned with comprehending invaluable response to the the particular text studied, the Ba’alei Haskalah’s poisonous condem- The Yeshivah haTosafot focused on evaluating the nation of yeshivot. text in light of other sections of the Talmud, a procedure that led to fine The conceptual distinctions. (That the Ashkenazic/Sephardic Through the Ages term hachi garsinon [this is the proper text] occurs in Rashi’s commentary on Dichotomy the Talmud 1,450 times and is men- tioned in Tosafot only 326 times, A central point in the com- lends support to this thesis.) In the fif- parative history of yeshivot is teenth century, Ashkenazic yeshivot the persistent dichotomy tended to devote specific periods between Sephardic and (either entire semesters or certain parts Ashkenazic yeshivot. In An open-minded scholar ven- medieval times, for example, the years of transition from the Middle Studio portrait of a group from the Ponevezh Yeshivah. turing into the history of yeshivot can- Babylonian yeshivot studied Talmud Ages to the Early Modern period, a of the day) to textual analysis and con- Germany and France, for 2 not help but be struck by the great to the exclusion of everything else. movement aiming at including the ceptual pilpul. instance, Jewish philosophy was diversity of the yeshivot of past genera- Deviating from this, the early study of kabbalah sprung up in An important element in the history banned from the yeshivot (which was idolatry. The culture and civilization of tions. Above all, he must Sephardic yeshivot. of Talmud study, which cannot be reflected by the lack of philosophical Islam in Spain—which became totally withstand the impulse to And in modern times overlooked, was the decisive influence writings in the Ashkenazic world— Christian only by the end of the fif- assess the standard and both Chassidic and of outstanding teachers and deans, other than ethical treatises—until well teenth century—and elsewhere, quality of yeshivot of old Mitnagdic yeshivot many of whom brought about epoch- into the Early Modern period.) At the achieved a relatively high level, and by what would be have reacted to the making changes in the methods of same time in Spain and to some extent Jewish scholars felt the need to confront deemed a model institu- challenge of mod- study. A case in point was Rabbi Jacob in Provence, systematic philosophy and, to a certain degree, emulate the tion in more recent ernism by promoting Joshua Falk (eighteenth century) who (such as Rambam’s Moreh Nevuchim prevailing culture. times. Different ages and the study of moral announced in the preface to the first and Rav Sa’adiah Gaon’s Emunot traditions cherished dif- philosophy and musar. volume of his work that he decided to Vedaot) if not taught from the pulpit, Alternative Yeshivot ferent academic goals. To It is also important to abandon the well-trodden ways of was eagerly pursued by the more gifted illustrate, let us examine note that yeshivah pilpul and preferred instead to analyze among the students. Why the differ- There were other significant differ- various methods and teachers—in particular the Talmudical text critically and logi- ence in Ashkenazic and Sephardic ences between Sephardic and curricula. yeshivah deans or cally, making frequent references to views? The answer lies in the divergent Ashkenazic yeshivot. For instance, roshei yeshivah—would Rishonim including Rambam. In fact, Christian and Moslem cultures in there were—and still are—types of The Diversity of regularly include some Rabbi Falk paved the way for the new medieval Europe. yeshivot that were widespread in methods of study that appeared in the The culture in Christian Europe was Yeshivot of their private schol- Sephardic communities and only rarely arly preoccupations last two hundred years. More recently, imbued with theology and dogma. found in Ashkenazic communities. such as Tanach, the outstanding Rabbi Hayyim Halevi Moreover, to Jewish eyes Christian ideas One such yeshivah was the yeshivat Throughout history, The yeshivah in Kelm, a stone building with arched windows with decorative lead- Hebrew language and Soloveichik (Volozhin, Brisk) revolu- and concepts seemed close to idolatry, if chachamim, which was a study group different yeshivot had ing. Photos courtesy of YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, except where indicated. grammar, kabbalah or tionized Talmud study with regard to not idolatry itself. Compared to Jewish of elderly, distinguished scholars. different curricula. In the early Ashkenazic yeshivot (eleventh other subject areas in their lectures. both curriculum (by concentrating on culture, Christian culture was consid- Interestingly, the earliest European century) included other subjects such Rambam) and methodology. He ered inferior, and therefore, there was documentation of this type of yeshivah Dr. Breuer is professor emeritus of Jewish as the study and interpretation of *(The Tents of Torah) to be published by devised and introduced new ways of no incentive for Jews to compete with stems from Ashkenazic (not Sephardic) history at Bar-Ilan University. liturgical poetry (piyyutim). In the Mercaz Shazar. judicial analysis and conceptual logic, it. In Moslem countries, however, phi- sources. A famous responsum by

Summer 5763/2003 JEWISH ACTION Summer 5763/2003 JEWISH ACTION Sephardim viewed pilpul, which was widespread in Since the average student is no genius, the yeshivot tend Ashkenazic yeshivot, as being oversophisticated. to promote mediocrity, uniformity and diminished student creativity.

Rabbeinu Gershom Meor Haggolah3 synagogue after morning prayers...and not exceed his elementary needs.7 Sephardic ideal was to study Gemara itable founders of the yeshivot.) In the yeshivah, like most other educational leaves no doubt that the “yeshivah” he they brought their books...but [then] The essentially Sephardic origin of in accordance with halachah and not writings of Ashkenazic masters, how- institutions, is not essentially structured referred to was a study group of impecuniosity became widespread and this indulgent definition of Torato to engage in fruitless hairsplitting.9 ever, there are many distant yet dis- on a democratic system. Moreover, accomplished scholars headed by sever- they were dependent on gainful labor, umanuto is confirmed by the fact that Sephardim viewed pilpul, which was tinct echoes reflecting the lively, some- yeshivah masters are religiously endowed al outstanding rabbis known to every and therefore this custom had to be this subject is hardly mentioned in widespread in Ashkenazic yeshivot, as times stormy, course of their sessions with a status that ensures their position 5 with their students. In contrast, Talmudic student of that period. discontinued.” According to Rashi, it Ashkenazic responsa prior to recent being oversophisticated. of authority. Thus, theoretically, there can Sephardic masters delivered their lec- Among those studying at the yeshivat would seem that the yeshivat boker was times. Furthermore, Ashkenazic glosses It stands to reason that excessive be no power struggle between masters tures in a more magisterial, impersonal chachamim of Rabbeinu Gershom were already considered a bygone institu- on the relevant section of the Shulchan pilpul leads to greater stringency when it and students, and yet there have been, 8 style and their students acted in a scholars from Provence and Spain who tion in Ashkenaz during his time, Aruch rely almost exclusively on comes to halachic decision-making. This and still are, ongoing struggles at various more restrained manner. This again is had presumably traveled to Mayence, however, it reemerged in subsequent is because the conclusions resulting from yeshivot which seem to have originated 4 reflected in the written discourses of Germany for this purpose. Rashi’s generations. The term yeshivat boker excessive pilpul are questionable; there- in a breakdown of the traditional balance the Sephardic masters, which only yeshivah was a yeshivat chachamim as itself is mentioned, to the best of my fore halachic decisors tend to follow it to of power between masters and students. rarely refer to personal matters, names well but was also attended by students knowledge, only by Rabbi Tsevi be strict but not to be lenient.10 A surprising finding of any study of 6 and details of yeshivah life.11 of different age groups and levels of Hirsch Ashkenazi. Rabbi Ashkenazi The Sephardic tradition of yeshivah yeshivot is the extent of student power achievement. This is evident in Rashi’s clearly differentiates between a yeshivat learning and life is at a distinct disad- over the ages. The root of this power lies commentary on the Gemara where he boker, which is attended by chaverim vantage compared to the Ashkenazic Milchamta shel Torah in the nature of the teacher-pupil rela- makes certain statements seemingly me’arayot gaveiru (lion-hearted [presti- tradition. Sephardic responsa and tionship that has existed in the Jewish mindful of less-advanced students. gious] scholars) rather than bachurei novellae, with few exceptions, supply This brings us to another observation study house since ancient times. While While yeshivat chachamim survived chemed, younger students who arrive very little information on matters concerning the relationship between constrained to submit to the teacher’s authority, the pupil is allowed, nay, in Ashkenaz in what was known as later in the day to study. related to the internal organization teachers and students, two distinct expected to question the teacher if driven klausen (kloysen) [an institution for and function of the yeshivot. (On the groups upon whose cooperation the exis- by a genuine sense of incongruity or advanced scholars], in the Sephardic Torato Umanuto other hand, information about tence and functioning of the yeshivah curiosity. Talmud study is nothing if not diaspora they continued to play an Sephardic yeshivot chachamim is avail- depend. Although yeshivot differ in their dialectic, both as to the texts studied and important role. To be sure, eventually In the Sephardic regions, yeshivat able from the abundant rules and reg- attitudes regarding the status and rights the ensuing discussions in class, which many of these yeshivot of the elderly boker was the rule rather than the ulations drawn up by the various char- of students within yeshivah life, the lost their high standard of learning as exception, as is evident by the number frequently resemble a battlefield their students succumbed to rote, of Sephardic responsa throughout the (milchamta shel Torah). Students rejoice uninspired study. centuries dealing with the concept of in this free-for-all. Thus, in the thirteenth Another yeshivah model more typical Torato umanuto (a Tamudical term century a call went out from the yeshivah of Sephardic communities was the denoting one whose main occupation of Evreux in northern France declaring yeshivat boker or morning yeshivah. A is Torah study). Scholars who fit into that some of the stringent laws governing passage in Berachot 64a extols the cus- this category were granted exemption Yeshiva Knesses Yisroel in Slabodka, 1914. students’ obligations toward their masters tom of “leaving the synagogue and from paying taxes and given priority in Photo courtesy of Agudath Israel Archives should be suspended since the study of entering the study house.” It was proba- commercial dealings. A typical ques- books had partly superseded oral teach- bly this custom of devoting some time tion discussed in the responsa is the Sephardic scholars. Indeed, Torato ing by masters. Subsequently, a shift of immediately after morning prayers to following: Can a scholar who learns for umanuto is one of the few outstanding the balance of power in favor of the stu- Torah study that led to the widespread several hours in the morning, opens his themes of yeshivah history found in dents became increasingly noticeable. development of the yeshivat boker, shop for a few hours, then shuts it and abundance in Sephardic but not The rise of student power becomes plain from the beginning of the nine- which is still the rule in many congrega- goes back to study for the rest of the Ashkenazic sources. This seems to be teenth century. Ashkenazic yeshivot, tions. Before attending to their liveli- day still be entitled to Torato umanuto based on the comparatively liberal privileges? Practically all of the respon- some with a student population reach- hoods, students of the yeshivat boker Sephardic attitude regarding what con- sa answer in the affirmative, following ing unprecedented dimensions, severed would spend between one and three stitutes Torah learning and their accep- hours listening to a high-level lecture on in the footsteps of Rabbi Meir Halevi the traditional ties subordinating the tance of intellectual pursuits outside of Gemara, Rambam or Shulchan Aruch. Abulafia (thirteenth century) who yeshivah administrations to the local Gemara and halachah mentioned The earliest mention of a yeshivat decided that part-time study made a community councils, thereby making boker is found in Rashi’s writings scholar eligible for the benefits of above. Moreover, it can be attributed the yeshivot more self-sufficient. A where he states: “Originally there was Torato umanuto, but stipulated that the to the Sephardic approach to Torah growing number of assignments and study that largely eschewed pilpul. The responsibilities were taken over by stu- a custom to stay on for an hour in the income from his occupation should The yeshivah building in Radin.

Summer 5763/2003 JEWISH ACTION Summer 5763/2003 JEWISH ACTION dent representatives, some of them Despite this, yeshivot have done 3. Ed. Eidelberg, no. 32. appointed by the roshei yeshivah, others unquestionably well in achieving 4. We know this from manuscripts by democratic elections. As a result, what has, in fact if not in theory, that Rabbeinu Tam had in his posses- students increasingly demanded a become their chief educational aim: sion. Sefer Hayashar, responsum no.46. share, or at least a say, in the day-to- to immunize the largest possible 5. Sefer HaPardes, 305f.; cf. Tosafot day management of the yeshivah. In number of students against the dan- Berachot 11b s.v., shekevar. times of crisis—economic, administra- gers to religious life. As a matter of 6. Resp. Chacham Tsevi., no. 1. tive (faculty appointments), even edu- fact, depicting the yeshivah as a shel- 7. Responsa Rema, no. 248. This cational (such as during the introduc- ter (miklat), a fortress (mivtzar), a responsum first appeared in Or tion of musar)—students’ grievances bulwark (chomat magen) and a verita- Tzaddikim, Salonika, (1799); new edi- were apt to erupt into something ble Noah’s Ark has become a main- tion: (Jerusalem, 1972); a verbatim approaching open revolt. (The intro- stay of yeshivah propaganda ever copy appears in Teshuvot HaRosh, no. duction of musar was controversial since the rise of secular streams in 15, 8; cf. Yad Rema on Baba Batra since it valued moral over intellectual modern Jewish society. Concurrently, (Jerusalem 1992), no. 82. excellence. In Telz, for example, the students’ aversion to musar forced the yeshivah to close for a few months.) The Contemporary Scene

The revival of yeshivot after the Shoah is truly phenomenal. Never before in Jewish history have so many students filled the “tents of Torah.” Many of these “tents” are now stately and spacious buildings, alive with the din of young people engaged in vehement disputation, none of whom bear the least resem- blance to the tragic yeshivah student depicted in Chaim Nachman Bialik’s HaMatmid. (That the growth of yeshivot in Israel is only marginally influenced by the defer- ment of military service is corrobo- rated by the tremendous growth of Mir Yeshiva, Poland, circa 1930s. Photo: David Turkel Collection, courtesy of Agudath Israel Archives yeshivot in the US and elsewhere.) Additionally, there has been an upsurge yeshivot have sought to isolate their 8. Yoreh Deah, no. 243, cf. Shach of kollelim, which in Israel seem to students as much as possible from the and Be’er Haggolah ad loc. have become the normative framework world outside their “four ells.” Thus 9. See Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef, resp. for married alumni of yeshivot. even while some critics may think the Yabia Omer, preface to vol. I, citing b. Yet as welcome as the growth of time has come for yeshivot to recon- Bava Kamma 92a: shemateta alibba yeshivot is, it exacts a price: it is a case sider some of their methods, they, for dehilcheta. of sacrificing quality for quantity. Since the most part, agree that in a trou- 10. Cf. Rabbi David Tsevi Hoffmann, the average student is no genius, the bled world, the yeshivah presents a resp. Melammed Leho’il, preface. yeshivot tend to promote mediocrity, rock of strength and stability. JA 11. The great Rabbi Meir Halevi uniformity and diminished student cre- Abulafia, mentioned above, leaves us ativity. This may sound like a tenden- Notes completely in the dark about the iden- tious exaggeration, however no lesser an 1. For a fuller discussion of pilpul tity and manner of study of his own authority than the Chazon Ish is see my entry in Encyclopedia Judaica masters, see I. Ta-Shema, in Kiryat reported to have stated that present-day under “Pilpul.” Sefer, vol. 43 (1968), 572; cf. my yeshivot have managed to do away with 2. See e.g., Rabbi Israel Isserlin, paper in the Jacob Katz Jubilee ignorance (am ha’aratzut), but at the Terumat Hadeshen, Pesachim Volume (Perakim Betoledot Hachevra same time also with excellence (gadlut). uKhetavim, no. 237. Hayehudit etc.) (Jerusalem 1980), 48. Summer 5763/2003 JEWISH ACTION