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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75-25,897 JOHNSON, Hugh Grayson, 1934- THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS IN THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY 1923-1933: A CASE SIUDY OF MISSIONARY PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. The American University, Ph.D., 1975 Political Science, international law and relations Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 © Copyright by HUGH GRAYSON JOHNSON 197c Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS IN THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY 1923-1933 A CASE STUDY OF MISSIONARY PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS by Hugh Grayson Johnson Submitted to the Faculty of the School of International Service of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Studies 1975 The American University Washington, DC THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Sok0 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF F I GURES.............................. * .................. iv Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................... 8 THE GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN B O A R D .................... 8 EDUCATIONAL W O R K ...................................... 19 CHANGING GOALS IN CHANGING TIMES ......................33 3. THE TRAINING OF PERSONNEL................................. 56 THE EARLY PERIOD: PIONEERING AND EV A N G E L I S M ........... 56 SECOND PERIOD: EDUCATION AND THENEW CH U R C H ............ 6h THIRD PERIOD: MOVING INTO THE MODERN AG E ............... 69 L. TURKISH NATIONALISM AND THE AMERICAN SC H O O L S .............. 78 EFFECTS OF THE CAPITULATIONS...........................78 THE NEW TURKISH PERSONALITY............................ 93 5. RELIGION AND THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS........................ Ill SECULARIZATION....................................... HI PROSELYTISM............................................132 6, CULTORE AND THE AMERICAN S C H O O L S ........................ 165 THE DONKEY I N C I D E N T S ..................................165 THE MEAD C A S E ..........................................185 THE BARBER POLE I N C I D E N T ............................. 196 ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7. BUREAUCRACY AND THE AMERICAN S C H O O L S ................... 208 ETATISM............................................... 208 RED T A P E ............................................. 215 OBSTRUCTIONISM....................................... 225 8 . CONCLUSION ............................................. 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY............ 259 APPENDIXES A. DRAMATIS PERSONAE....................................... 311 B. SOME IMPORTANT DATES ; ............................... 321 C. ISMET PASHA'S STATEMENT TO THE AMERICANS AT LAUSANNE ..................................... 331 D. ISMET PASHA'S LETTER TO JOSEPH C. G R E W ................. 332 E. ISMET PASHA’S IDENTIC LETTER TO THE BRITISH, FRENCH AND ITALIAN DELE G A T I O N S....................... 333 F. REGULATIONS FOR PRIVATE SCHOOLS......................... 335 G. CRIMINAL CODE: DISOBEDIENCE TO ORDERS FROM AUTHORIZED OFFICIALS (Article 5 2 6 ) .................. 336 H. CRIMINAL CODE: INSULTING THE TURKISH NATION OR TURKISH O F F I C I A L S ................................. 337 Article 157 .............................. 337 Article 1 5 8........................................... 337 Article 1 5 9 ........... 337 Article 1 6 0 ................................... 338 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Stations and Outstations of the American Board in Turkey in 19 1 1 ............................... 304 2. American Schools and Colleges in Turkey Prior to 1 9 1 4 ........................................ 305 3. American Schools and Colleges in Turkey in 1923 ............................................ 306 4. American Schools and Collegesin Turkey in 1929 ............................................ 307 5. American Schools and Colleges in Turkey in 1933 ............................................ 308 6. Professor Fisher's "Donkey Slide" .................... 309 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Five times I have received...forty lashes less one. Three times I have been beaten with rods; once I vas stoned. Three times I have been shipwrecked; a night and a day I have been adrift at sea; on frequent journeys, in danger from rivers, danger from robbers, danger from my own people, danger from gentiles, danger in the city, danger in the wilderness, danger at sea, danger from false brethren; in toil and hardship, through many a sleepless night, in hunger and thirst, often without food, in cold and exposure. And, apart from other things, there is the daily pressure upon me of my anxiety for all the churches. (2 Corinthians 11:2^-28, RSV) Tarsus, in the southern part of the land that became modern Turkey, was the home town of the Apostle Paul. Paul was the prototype missionary. Like his modern counterpart, he left all behind and jour­ neyed great distances to do his work among people he did not know. He worked and preached. He wrote letters about it. He had some successes and many failures. He was cock-sure and insecure. He suffered beatings, stonings and shipwrecks as well as robberies. He was arrested and imprisoned. He appealed his treatment on the basis of his citizenship. Since that time, churches have sent many people to all sorts of places for all sorts of reasons. Today, missionaries are much more likely to be ignored than stoned. They are more likely to be shrugged at than flogged. They run a much greater risk of expulsion than of imprisonment. They are less in danger of shipwreck than of finding Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 themselves by chance aboard a hijacked airliner. When they do run afoul of the law on foreign soil, however, their nationality still has a certain importance. Christian mission has always meant crossing frontiers. The frontiers have most often been geographic, as in the case of national boundaries. At other times, the frontiers were the less obvious ones of culture or faith. In all cases, those who sent and those who went interpreted their action as dutiful obedience to the commands of Jesus. Hie stated purpose of mission was to convert people, although churches occasionally sent missionaries to serve other people in the most altruistic sense. Churches sent their missionaries to foreign lands and strange cultures. The organization of the churches for structured mission was for little more than to provide the most elementary support. Sometimes not even that much was furnished. Missionaries were adventurous pio­ neers. The churches pioneered vicariously through the adventures of the missionaries. Churches did not prepare their missionaries for service before sending them out. The missionaries themselves were the experts, both in mission and in foreign cultures. Even if the churches had been inclined to prepare the missionaries before sending them, they could not have done so with any appreciable degree of effectiveness. They were simply not equipped for it. Therefore, missionaries were sent out
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