Making Sense of Arts Management

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JOHANSSON,T.& LUONILA,M.(EDS.) Making Sense of Arts Management

RESEARCH, CASES AND PRACTICES 20 years of Arts Management education in Finland

SIBELIUS ACADEMY PUBLICATIONS 11

ARTS MANAGEMENT JUBILEE PUBLICATION

Making Sense of Arts Management RESEARCH, CASES AND PRACTICES 20 years of Arts Management education in Finland

Sibelius Academy Publications 11 Copyright Johansson, T. & Luonila, M. (Eds.) (2017). Making sense of arts management: Research, cases and practices. Sibelius Academy Publications 11. Helsinki: Unigrafia. Book layout and graphics: Tiina Paju ISBN 978-952- 329-085- 3 (hard copy) ISBN 978-952- 329-086- 0 (PDF) ISSN 0359-2308 © Tanja Johansson, Mervi Luonila and Sibelius Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki Contents

Osmo Palonen Foreword 6

Tanja Johansson Introduction 8

1. MARKETING & BRANDING

ARTICLE François Colbert The new reality of the arts: Quality of services offered to patrons in the arts 19

Annukka Jyrämä Branding in the arts – some perspectives 26

CASE Helena Ruhkala Marketing and branding the arts – Case Tapiola Sinfonietta 35

Ritva Eskelinen Supporting the creative process of advertising mobile games 38

2. LEADERSHIP

ARTICLE Tanja Johansson Examining the dialogical leadership in the arts 42

ESSAY Minna Launonen Shared talent and inclusive quality – A case of values in artistic-pedagogic leadership in a music school 51

Samu Forsblom Integrating culture to city making 54

CASE Anja Lappi-Hautamäki Arts management is behind everything! 57

3. ENTREPRENEURSHIP

ARTICLE Kristina Kuznetsova- Learning trough and about arts management: Bogdanovits A personal story of growth 60

Juko-Mart Kõlar New perspectives on crowdfunding: Fanvestory case study 67

CASE Eero Tolppanen Please write a hit! – The songwriter’s dilemma 75

Jere Ruotsalainen Creating moving fantasies 77

Inkeri Borgman Creating consumption of live performances through digitalisation: The case of the Gigle start-up 79 4. EVENT MANAGEMENT

ARTICLE Mervi Luonila The network of meanings in arts festival production – The managerial approach 82

Marjana Johansson Performing diversity at festivals 92

CASE Maati Rehor Managing professional competences in classical music events: A case of Avanti’s Summer Sounds Festival 99

Maiju Talvisto How do you tame an angry tour manager? Artist hospitality management at music festivals 102

Claire Delhom Practical considerations on partnerships in the festival field 104

5. PARTNERSHIP AND FUNDRAISING

ARTICLE Heidi Lehmuskumpu Engaging young adults with fundraising at opera and ballet organizations 108

Rodney Trapp A global case for impact investing in the creative industries 119

Tomas Järvinen From one mission statement to two organizational fields: The effects of reverse isomorphism in private cultural centres 128

CASES Paula Rahtu The role of audiences in valuable sponsorship collaborations 133

Ville Repo Commmunal marketing of the Kallio Block Party 135

6. AUDIENCE AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

ARTICLE Katri Halonen New roles for audiences: Cultural manager facilitating producers 138

ESSAY Violeta Simjanovska Defending or re-defining arts and cultural values: Changing perspectives 145

CASE Kari Jagt The Finnish Hospital Clowns Association: A pioneer in the field of ‘welfare art’ 150

Aura Linnapuomi Lowering the barriers to cultural participation 152

7. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Tanja Johansson & Future directions in the research and practice Mervi Luonila of arts management 156

List of illustrations 158 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 5 Foreword

From vision to practice – Establishing the Arts Management Master’s Degree Programme at the Sibelius Academy

OSMO PALONEN

In the beginning of the 1990s, the economic sit- Also needed were people with more accounting uation in Finland was very bad, and the entire skills in the arts. country was in a deep recession. The Finnish Above all, the lack of leadership and man- government and several cities were planning agement skills was the main issue. Arts organ- to cut the funding for orchestras, theatres, mu- isations used to operate in a very old-fashioned seums, dance companies and other cultural or- way because the state and municipalities were ganisations, many of which were forced to de- paying most of the expenses. In addition, man- crease or even stop their activities. Thus, new agement practices stemmed from state and mu- skills of arts management were clearly needed, nicipal administrations. because the education of art managers before It was 1991 when I started offering arts man- 1990 was solely based on studies in arts and agement training to professional people already arts research. working in the field. The arranging organisation The new skills needed were in the areas of was the Sibelius Academy Continuing Centre. marketing, fundraising and sponsorship, pro- Later, the University of Art and Design and the ducing and packaging, and new ways of media Theatre Academy entered into a partnership relations. The number of people interested in en- with the Sibelius Academy to form an Arts Man- trepreneurship in the arts was also increasing. agement Professional Diploma Programme. The partnership foreshadowed the University of the Arts, which started more than 10 years later. It was not enough to only offer some extra OSMO PALONEN training to professional people in their area of Palonen (MA in Arts Management, MA, BMus) is the founder of the Arts Management Master’s Degree Pro- expertise. Young people, who were aiming to gramme at the Sibelius Academy, Uniarts, and an initi- start their professional careers as arts manag- ator of several arts and music management courses before the graduate studies in arts management. Palonen ers, also needed a special arts management mas- holds a Master of Philosophy degree from the Univer- ter’s programme. sity of Helsinki, Bacherlor degree in music theory and piano music from the Sibelius Academy, and a Master The Arts Management Master’s Degree Pro- of Arts in arts management degree from the City, Uni- gramme at the Sibelius Academy has several versity of London. After his retirement, Palonen has focused on performing in several places with an enter- international models. The Sibelius Academy taining piano repertoire. has been a member of the European Network

6 ARTS MANAGEMENT: FOREWORD of Cultural Administration Training Centres Finland. The idea was to offer an international (ENCATC) since the network’s beginning in programme in English. The English language 1992. ENCATC has provided hundreds of con- provided the opportunity to invite international tacts to European and overseas universities and teachers as guest lecturers in the programme, institutes offering arts management education. because in Finland at that time, very few peo- As a member of the ENCATC board, I gained ple were able to teach arts management. So, much knowledge that has helped me to estab- an international programme presented the op- lish a new programme. portunity to have world-class teachers from all Inside the ENCATC Arsec (Lion), ICCM over the globe. (Salzburg) and the Sibelius Academy formed International student exchange was initiat- a project funded by the European Union. The ed at the very beginning of the programme. For aim of The Calliope Project was to train train- Finnish students to have contact with their fu- ers in arts management. The outcomes of the ture colleagues abroad during their studies is project helped form the Sibelius Academy pro- an invaluable experience. gramme. The beginning of arts management educa- Several contacts at North American univer- tion at the Sibelius Academy was not easy. The sities were useful in establishing the new pro- Academy was a music school and there was no gramme. Columbia University (NY) helped to tradition of management studies. Now after 20 build the selection process of new students. years, the Arts Management Master’s Degree Columbia College (Chicago) had several pro- Programme at the Sibelius Academy of the Uni- grammes and extensive experience in arts man- versity of the Arts Helsinki has established a agement teaching. Carnegie Mellon University place at the University. It is also a unique pro- was conducting research on ways to market the gramme among Finnish universities. The vision arts in the future. Golden Gate University had of arts management education has been imple- specific knowledge of multicultural arts man- mented in a beautiful way. I would like to thank agement. numerous people who have been working to- My own studies at City, University of London wards this success story of the Sibelius Acade- and all contacts in the City gave me the basis and my Arts Management programme. courage to start arts management education in

ARTS MANAGEMENT: FOREWORD 7 Introduction

Introduction

TANJA JOHANSSON

The task of arts management professionals is to pact on its development, and I am grateful for bring the artists, audience and society together in the visionary thinking of Mr Osmo Palonen and a meaningful way that enriches people’s lives. the management of the Sibelius Academy, who made a brave decision to implement a master’s This ideology has guided the Arts Management level education programme at a music univer- master’s degree education at the Sibelius Acad- sity. Now, 20 years later, we have good reason emy of the University of the Arts Helsinki for to celebrate this journey by presenting a wide 20 years. The arts management profession, cur- variety of topics related to the research, cases, riculum and discipline have developed signifi- practices and practitioners of arts management cantly during the past 20 years both interna- in Finland and abroad. tionally and nationally, contributing to a higher Arts management education at the Sibelius level of professionalism in the field. I strongly Academy began to emerge in the early 1990s. believe that the investments in arts and cultur- Initially, there were shorter courses on more al management education have had a major im- specific topics, such as folk music management and music exports, which later developed into longer professional diploma programmes as TANJA JOHANSSON presented by Mr Palonen in his foreword. Ear- Johansson (D.Sc. Econ.) works as professor and head of the Arts Management Department at the Sibelius lier, in Scandinavia, where the publicly subsi- Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki, Finland. She dised arts institutions have traditionally held is currently the only professor in arts management in Finland, and she has a unique background in both mu- a strong position in the cultural field, requests sic and business administration. Her research interests for arts management professionals increased consist of opera management, critical management studies, the institutional context of arts organisations, the effectiveness of operations, and new types the role of festivals in regional development, cultural of marketing and audience development tools joint ventures, and organisational ethnography. She has published in most leading arts management journals, and practices have been applied. Topics such such as the International Journal of Arts Management, as arts leadership, strategic management and Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, Event human resource management became the core Management, and Creativity and Innovation Manage- ment. of arts management education, followed by top-

8 ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION

ics in which community engagement, societal ues can pose challenges to arts management impact, digital outreach and ethics have been students, whose values and operating methods emphasised. Arts management education has are often more in line with artistic logic than always aimed to extend ‘beyond producing’ and economic logic; however, the aim of arts man- to understand the broader social, economic and agement studies is not for students to simply cultural context in which the artistic practices adopt economic logic but to gain a broader un- and processes take place. derstanding of the social, economic and cultural In 20 years, the Arts Management Master’s concepts to enhance the operating conditions in Degree Programme at the Sibelius Academy of the arts sectors on the one hand and to facilitate the University of the Arts Helsinki in Finland collaboration, participation and engagement in has served the national and international art the arts one the other. (Johansson et al. 2016) field well by educating arts management profes- Activities based purely on artistic logic are sionals in preparation for a wide variety of ca- often not economically possible, while an arts or- reers. The nearly 200 professionals admitted to ganisation based purely on economic logic does the programme currently work in diverse fields, not necessarily encourage artists to develop cre- such as cultural policy and planning, adminis- ative and fresh methods of artistic expression tration of cultural institutions, management of and interpretation. Balancing these two logics artistic and creative productions, art-business is therefore part of the everyday tasks of arts partnerships, administration of arts education managers, whether working for a small local fes- and city cultural affairs. Nearly 10% are arts en- tival or a national opera house. (ibid.) trepreneurs. Traditionally, about 40% of all ap- Arts management training involves support- plicants have earned a bachelor’s degree in cul- ing the acquisition of new knowledge and under- tural management from universities of applied standing in a field that combines artistic pro- sciences. For this type of educational path, arts cesses and management. Traditionally, this type management students begin their master’s de- of learning has been called ‘multidisciplinary’ gree studies with strong and varied practical ex- because it combines two academic disciplines periences within the field of arts management, that interact with each other, and to a certain which provides a good starting point for a more extent, affect the perspectives of the other dis- theoretical framing of arts and cultural manage- cipline (Ivanitskayan et al. 2002). For the past ment. The Arts Management Master’s Degree couple of decades, research on multidisciplinary Programme has always been an international expertise has examined this question of integra- programme, which was an important decision tion and interaction based on the concepts of made by the founders. In addition, combining boundary crossing between various operating students with different educational and profes- environments and an artefact that supports the sional backgrounds creates an exceptional start- boundary crossing of concepts. A recent review ing point for interdisciplinary higher education. by Akkerman and Bakker (2011) defines the artefact, or a boundary object, as a conceptual Arts management as tool that may also have a concrete form (e.g. a interdisciplinary education portfolio). In addition to practical operating en- Arts management education requires interdisci- vironments, boundaries can exist between dis- plinary pedagogy, as it draws from various disci- ciplines, ways of speaking, values and norms, plines, such as art and humanities sociology, so- which are all familiar to arts management stu- cial sciences, business administration and eco- dents. Unlike the transfer concept that has been nomics (see Byrnes 2014; Colbert 2010). From used in education research to refer to the one-di- a teaching and learning perspective, academic rectional transfer of the learned knowledge and disciplines that have mutually conflicting val- skills from one context to another (e.g. between

10 ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION the educational institution and the workplace), management involves the creation of an aesthet- boundary crossing emphasises continuous in- ic contract between artists and audiences); how- teractions and learning that extend to analysing ever, a more process-oriented definition of arts the background assumptions of the matters un- management is required that recognises the “on- der examination. Learning produces a new type going flow of events” (Weick 1995, 2) instead of of understanding that is profound and that also outcomes. reconstructs the identity of the learner. Johansson, Lahtinen and Ojala (2015) argued that the integration of different disciplines, boundary crossing, the establishment of links and new creation require the pedagogy of inte- The task of arts gration, which refers to teaching that actively management professionals supports students in making comparisons and is to bring the artists, associations, seeking analogies and developing audience and society metaphors (see also Dillon 2008). This promotes together in a meaningful creative and integratory activities between dis- way that enriches ciplines and supports arts management stu- people’s lives. dents in building a more solid ground for their interdisciplinary professions and identities. This type of advancement of arts management ped- Sensemaking occurs when people are sur- agogy has recently been one of the key areas prised and receive cues about certain things of development at the Sibelius Academy of the that may not fit, which leads to reflection, mak- University of the Arts Helsinki, and in the fu- ing plausible speculations and constructing ture, the continuous progression of arts man- events that make sense to them (Weick 1995). agement research, practices and pedagogy are Sensemaking of everyday life in arts organisa- equally important for an exceptional arts man- tions, projects and productions are interrelat- agement education. ed in the “nets of collective actions” (Czarni- awska-Joerges 1992, 32; see also Johansson & Sensemaking view of arts management Jyrämä 2016), which should be the focus of arts According to Chong (2010), arts managers must managers’ work. commit to 1) top artistic quality and maintain- How organisational agents construct their ev- ing artistic integrity, 2) accessibility of the art eryday realities, why and what effects are the and 3) economical responsibility and efficiency, central questions of the sensemaking approach regardless of the fact that arts management is (Weick 1995 ). In arts organisations, it is import- often conducted on a non-profit basis. In a way, ant to acknowledge the way people cope with the arts manager is a facilitator of the arts, but interruptions, as the field of arts management without the artist and his or her vision, there involves a variety of expectations and a number are no arts managers (Colbert et al. 2012). Tra- of interruptions during the artistic and creative ditionally, the definition of arts management has processes. For example, as decision makers, arts been provided from a mostly instrumental point managers must respond to the expectations of of view, such as by Martin (1997) (arts manage- their own organisation, partnering organisa- ment involves planning, organising, staffing, su- tions (e.g., funders, sponsors and other stake- pervising and controlling artistic productions), holders) and local, national and international Matthews (2006) (arts management involves the communities, which often expect positive im- facilitation and organisation of arts and cultural pacts and ‘doing good’ for the society (Weick activities) and Pick and Anderton (2002) (arts 2001; Daellenbach et al. 2016).

ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION 11 A sensemaking view of arts management fo- entrepreneurship. This list is not an exhaustive cuses on mechanisms that refer to ways of at- collection of key arts management practices but tributing meanings to events and actions in arts does provide a broad enough view of the cur- organisations, projects and productions (Sack- rent topics of arts management in both research man 1991). According to Weick (1995), “sensem- and practice. aking is about such things as placement of items Section I focuses on marketing and brand- into frameworks, comprehending, redressing sur- ing the arts. We are honoured to first present prise, constructing meaning, interacting in pursuit a chapter by Professor Colbert, who sets the of mutual understanding, and patterning” (p. 6). scene for arts management by examining the Hence, a sensemaking view of arts management concepts of cultural production, cultural con- involves both individual and social dimensions. sumption, co-production and customer loyal- Sensemaking involves structuring cues that ty. Colbert argues that the millennials live in a are interpreted but also reinterpreted based world where meaningful aesthetic experiences on actions and their consequences. These ac- influence the decisions to consume and repur- tions usually require a higher level of engage- chase: “Brand loyalty does not mean the same ment from actors compared to interpretation. thing to this generation as it does to baby boom- Arts managers often make sense of complex, ers”. Professor Annukka Jyrämä continues the ill-defined and uncertain situations (Weick discussion of arts branding and provides use- 1995; Byrnes 2014; Chong 2010), and the inter- ful definitions for the different concepts within pretation/reinterpretation processes must be the branding literature and the applications of acknowledged in the way arts management is the branding theory for arts organisations. The approached and further defined. Sensemaking chapter also explores a recent discussion on the in arts management involves knowing, think- connections of branding and the role of social ing, seeing and saying in social contexts. It is responsibility in art organisations and how these grounded in identity construction and contin- organisations contribute to local communities. uously redefining the self by others. This leads The practical cases presented in this chapter to the following definition of arts management: represent the marketing and branding of Tapi- Arts management is a continuous process of sen- ola Sinfonietta and is written by the orchestra’s semaking through which the actors engaged in the marketing manager, Helena Ruhkala. The case nets of collective actions construct meaningful flows describes the broad range of marketing activi- of events for the individual, organisational and so- ties of a modern symphony orchestra and how cial benefits of arts and culture. these activities are connected to other areas, such as audience development, community en- Content of the book gagement and funding. The second case is taken This book has a primary focus on how scholars from a private game company, Rovio, and Rit- and practitioners make sense of the practices va Eskelinen provides an interesting account and processes of arts management. The book il- of current marketing activities within mobile lustrates a variety of arts management contexts games. in which the arts managers interpret, take ac- Section II discusses views on arts leadership. tions, reinterpret and take further actions. The First, Professor Tanja Johansson examines a re- publication provides a comprehensive view for lational view of arts leadership by proposing a the Finnish field of arts management as well as dialogical leadership model for the arts. She for the international field. The diverse group of presents a model that emphasises the different authors make sense of what is happening around levels of leadership relations that shape and are them in terms of leadership, marketing, fund- shaped by interactions between people in artis- ing, audience and community engagement and tic practices. In her essay, Minna Launonen pro-

12 ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION vides an account of the phenomenon called the arts management education. Kuznetsova-Bog- ‘Finnish music miracle’ and uses a music school danovits argues that even if personal growth as case to illustrate how it is related to the educa- cross-sectoral, cultural, creative, complex, ar- tional value of the leadership of music schools. tistic, professional and entrepreneurial types of In the second essay, Samu Forsblom points out growth are often present in arts management the importance of leading the integration be- education, their connections to each other and tween culture and city making. Forsblom argues to identity are often inadequately discussed. Ju- that cities recognise the potential of cultural ur- ko-Mart Kõlar, as an entrepreneur himself, pres- ban development but lack cross-sectoral strat- ents new perspectives on crowdfunding through egies for cultural urban development due to a his company called Fanvestory. This article ex- lack of suitable experts outside the major cities. amines the consumption patterns of music fans According to Forsblom, arts management edu- and how fans can invest in the future royalties of songs and earn long-term revenue, while artists maintain a cash flow and visibility. This article, along with the other cases following Kõlar’s Arts management education articles, are excellent examples of how entre- requires interdisciplinary preneurial activities capture the fringe areas of pedagogy, as it draws from arts management and provide flexible solutions various disciplines, such for the progress of the field. For example, Eero as art and humanities Tolppanen is the founder of the music publishing sociology, social sciences, company Elements Music, which provides songs business administration. for artists and thus functions as an intermediary and economics. between labels and writers. Jere Ruotsalainen owns a company that has found its place in the field of the amusement and attraction industry cation plays a key role in providing such exper- to provide design solutions for themed parks tise and in educating people to understand the and entertainment attractions. Inkeri Borgman urban ecosystem and its broad relation to cul- is a co-founder of a start-up company called Gig- ture. Finally, Anja Lappi-Hautamäki draws from le, which quickly and easily connects artists and her remarkable experience in arts management customers through a mobile app. These three and explains that arts managers are leaders of cases are excellent examples of global compa- multiple stakeholders, who are not experts in nies in the field of arts management, which are arts or arts management in many cases. Lap- not only publicly funded and maintained acti- pi-Hautamäki’s text also provides a good over- vities but also a field of opportunities in which view of the multiple roles of an arts manager, different players support the growth of artistic including roles as a leader, educator, coach, en- and creative initiatives. trepreneur, producer and organiser. Section IV explores the ever-growing field of Section III describes the practices of art festival and event management. Finland hosts and cultural entrepreneurship, and some of one of the largest number of festivals per capita the articles and cases are personal sensemak- in the world, which provides opportunities for ing accounts of being and becoming an arts en- arts management professionals and research- trepreneur. Kristina Kuznetsova-Bogdanovits ers alike. Mervi Luonila discusses festivals as a is an arts management alumni and a doctoral way to produce arts for audiences and argues student in arts management, and in her article, that the aim of festival management is to cre- she explores the way entrepreneurship and an ate meaningful festival-driven nodes for collab- entrepreneurial mindset can be taught within orative value creation in networked production

ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION 13 structures. Marjana Johansson continues to ex- fundraising by examining impact investing in plore events and festivals, particularly from a the creative industries. Impact investing refers diversity point of view, and describes how di- to channelling private equity to projects whose versity is performed in the festival context. Ac- aim is to achieve positive, measurable social ben- cording to Marjana Johansson, festivals create efits. Impact investing is a rather new topic with- diversity through programming, location and in the creative industries, and interestingly, it is the attracted audience and attempt to main- an intersection between fundraising and part- tain a balance between the reaffirmation of cer- nerships. The third article, written by Tomas tain identities and the experimentation of the Järvinen, examines the reversed isomorphism other. The three cases of the event and festi- in the field of private cultural centres. Järvin- val management section illuminate three differ- en argues that institutional change due to iso- ent topics. Maati Rehor describes the manage- morphic pressure leads to a separation into two ment practices and challenges of Avanti! Sum- fields, which means that private cultural centres operate with different objectives and methods compared to public cultural centres. Arts management is a contin- Finally, section VI describes sensemaking uous process of sensemaking practices and processes in the context of au- through which the actors dience and community engagement. Katri Hal- engaged in the nets of onen begins the section by considering the new collective actions construct roles of audiences in the arts and their trans- meaningful flows of events formation from passive receivers to active pro- for the individual, organi- sumers (participating in the user-led content sational and social benefits creation) and producers (participating at dif- of arts and culture. ferent stages of the production process). In her essay, Violeta Simjanovska makes a strong argument for defending artistic and cultural values mer Sounds Festival. Maiju Talvisto, who has in open and diverse societies. The two cases in considerable experience in managing the Flow this section provide valuable views of the social festival, explores the management of artists hos- and participatory aspects of arts management. pitality, and Claire Delhom calls for stronger Kari Jagt describes the activities of the Finnish strategic thinking for festivals and points out Hospital Clown Association and clearly shows that the productive partnerships of festivals re- the impact of arts on children’s wellbeing in a quire a match between different profiles, values, hospital environment. Aura Linnapuomi makes personalities and objectives. a concrete case for the ways participation and Section V focuses on making sense of fund- access can be enabled during arts organisations raising and partnerships in the arts. First, Hei- and events. di Lehmuskumpu presents a fresh view of link- We truly thank all the authors who contrib- ing audience development and fundraising in uted to this arts management jubilee publica- the context of opera and ballet organisations. tion and created an exceptional overview of the Lehmuskumpu presents a comprehensive stra- variety of arts management research, cases and tegic fundraising model for arts organisations practices. We hope that this broad examination and examines practices of engaging young adults will inspire, encourage discussions and open new with fundraising in opera and ballet organisa- paths for the current and future arts managers tions in the interfaces of audience development and arts management researchers to continue and fundraising. The second article, written by making sense of arts management and to argue Rodney Trapp, presents an interesting view of its importance in the arts and society.

14 ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION References Johansson, T., Lahtinen, A-M., & Ojala, H. 2015. Akkerman, S.F. & Bakker, A. (2011). Boundary Yhdistämisen pedagogiikkaa: Kalevala taiteen ja crossing and boundary objects. Review of Edu- talouden rajanylittäjänä musiikin korkeakoulu- cational Research, 81, 132–169. tuksessa. [Integrative pedagogy: Kalevala as a boundary object between art and economy in Byrnes, W. (2014). Management and the arts. Oxon: higher music education] Finnish Journal of Focal Press. Music Education, 18(1), 8-19. Chong, D. (2010). Arts management. Second Edi- Johansson, T & Jyrämä, A. 2016. Dynamics of orga- tion. London: Routledge. nizational identity construction in the forma- Colbert, F., Brunet, J., Ravanas, P., Restuccia, M., tion of a cultural joint venture: The case of the Rich, D., & St-James, Y. (2012). Marketing Helsinki Music Centre. International Journal of culture and the arts. Gaëtan Morin éditeur. Arts Management, 18, 2016. Czarniawska-Joerges, B. (1992). Exploring complex Martin, D. (1997). Arts administration (encyclopedia organizations: a cultural perspective. Newbury article). In Shafritz, J.M. (ed.), The international Park: Sage Publications. encyclopedia of public policy and administration. Daellenbach, K., Zander, L., & Thirkell, P. (2016). A New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. sensemaking perspective on arts sponsorship Pick, M. & Anderton, J. (2002). Arts administration. decisions. Arts and the Market, 6(1), 68-87. 2nd Edition. New Yrok: Routledge. Dillon (2008). A pedagogy of connection and bound- Sackman, S.A. (1991). Cultural knowledge in organi- ary crossings: Methodological and epistemolog- zations: Exploring the collective mind. News- ical transactions in working across and between bury Park: Sage. disciplines. Innovations in Education and Teach- Weick, K.E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. ing International, 45, 255–262. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Gioia, D.A. & Chittipeddi, K. (1991). Sensemaking Weick, K.E. (2001). Making sense of the organiza- and sensegiving in strategic change initiation. tion. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Strategic Management Journal, 12(6), 433-448. Ivanitskayan, L., Clarkin, D., Montgomeryn, G., & Primeaun, R. (2002). Interdisciplinary learning: Process and outcomes. Innovative Higher Edu- cation, 27(2), 95–111.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: INTRODUCTION 15 16 ARTS MANAGEMENT ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 17 18 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP Marketing and branding

The new reality of the arts: Quality of service offered to patrons

FRANÇOIS COLBERT

Introduction first group is represented by the generation of The arts and cultural sector of today marches baby boomers, who are rapidly approaching re- to the beat of social media, globalization and the tirement age. This means that most of them will ever-growing diversity of entertainment offer- have more time to consume in the near future, ings. In a context marked by constant change, as well as the financial means to do so. On the this sector has no choice but to adapt to these other hand, the rising generation of millennials, new realities. One of these new realities is the representing the second market segment, live undeniable emergence of two very distinct marin a world defined by the ephemeral, a world ket segments that differ not only in their tastes, where the notion of a meaningful experience but also their conception of brand loyalty. The plays a fundamental role in decision making. Brand loyalty does not mean the same thing to this generation as it does to baby boomers. FRANÇOIS COLBERT Colbert is Professor of Marketing and holder of the Car- Unlike their elders, for millennials, the use of melle and Rémi Marcoux Chair in Arts Management at social media in everyday life has become sec- HEC Montréal. In addition to his duties as supervisor of the master’s program in International Arts Management ond nature. This has given rise to interesting (MMIAM), he is founding Editor and Executive Director new challenges when it comes to the quality of of the International Journal of Arts Management (IJAM). customer service, since the definition itself of Professor Colbert has been active in the field of arts and culture for over 40 years, particularly in the museum, good customer service is perceived differently film and performing arts sectors. He has led numerous by these two segments. training and professional development seminars in arts management, with a focus on the field of marketing management in a cultural context. He is a past or current The cultural product member of the board of directors of many cultural organizations and has served as vice-chair of the Canada Coun- The cultural product is both complex and multi- cil for the Arts (1995–2003). He is founding president of dimensional and, at the same time, it represents the International Conference on Arts and Cultural Man- agement (AIMAC) and co-chair of its scientific committee. a specialized purchase. In high art, the product François Colbert is the author of more than 160 publica- is said to be complex to the extent that it re- tions, including books, articles, book chapters, proceed- quires a certain level of specialized knowledge ings, bibliographies and research reports, mainly on marketing of the arts. and conveys abstract notions that presuppose

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 19 an ability to appreciate those concepts. Popular it. One could even say that the consumer’s re- art, on the other hand, tends to employ familiar lationship to art is based on product elasticity. archetypes that make the consumer feel more Indeed, more than the price of the product or comfortable with the artistic offering and that the location chosen to present it, the artistic can affect them more readily. Thus, high art ap- offering itself is the consumer’s main criterion peals to consumers with a higher level of edu- when making the purchase decision. cation who welcome the intellectual challenge Art also offers a rich consumption experi- posed by the works on offer, while popular art ence, which is why it is said that contact with appeals to a broad cross-section of the popu- art can immerse the spectator in a reality that lation because it does not require any special gives them the sense of being outside of time predispositions. (flow experience). The quality of the experience The cultural product is considered multidi- is what influences the consumer’s re-purchase mensional because appreciation for it is influ- decision or loyalty to the brand. enced by the technical and circumstantial aspects of its presentation as well as by the state Consumption antecedents of mind of the consumer. The technical envi- The market for cultural products is not homoge- ronment and the circumstances surrounding neous. Potential consumers have widely differ- a work’s performance or display can affect the ent tastes and preferences that are often rooted spectator’s evaluation of it, while the consum- in their childhood and greatly influenced by fam- er’s own mood, fatigue and preoccupations can ily or the educational milieu (Charland-Lallier also colour their perception of it and affect the & Colbert 2017; Colbert & Courchesne 2012). It consumption process. This is where the quality has been observed that people who have an ap- of customer service comes into play in such an preciation for high art generally hold a univer- important way. Poor technical quality or an un- sity degree, while those who consume popular pleasant consumption environment can lead to art come from all walks of life. Highly educat- lower satisfaction. In this context, the quality of ed consumers are often referred to as cultural the staff who come into contact with customers “omnivores,” because they are characterized by becomes even more important, since they play their eclectic tastes (Peterson & Kerns 1996; At- a role in the consumer’s satisfaction. For exam- kinson 2011). Individual preferences for a par- ple, receptionists, box-office staff, ushers, secu- ticular art form or artist are also a question of rity guards, guides and anyone else who takes personal taste. part in service delivery through direct contact Consumption antecedents are influenced with the customer are all in a position to affect by conceptions of time. Three distinct notions the quality of the cultural product and the con- of time can be identified in the consumer: per- sumption experience as a whole. It is essential to sonal time, social time and performance time keep sight of the fact that the image of the com- (Bouder-Pailler 2008). Personal time varies from pany that sticks in the consumer’s mind is that one person to another and is related to both of the person who welcomes them upon their the management of one’s time and constancy in arrival. For the consumer, these people become one’s appreciation of time. Social time is associ- the “face” of the company. In the case of an or- ated with the interaction between personal time chestra, the conductor is the other key influ- and performance time. For example, some peo- encer, even though he or she does not offer the ple find it hard to plan the different aspects of audience good service through direct contact. their life. These types of people having difficulty The cultural product also constitutes a spe- projecting themselves forward in time, making cialized purchase insofar as the consumer is typ- them incapable of purchasing a subscription. ically willing to make an extra effort to procure Moreover, the performance time can create a

20 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING connection between audience members attend- process (Caru & Cova 2005). In the first step, ing the same concert, even if remotely. “nesting,” the consumer identifies an element that is familiar to them in the artistic experi- Cultural consumption: Co-production, ence or in the environment in which the expe- co-creation and prosumption rience takes place, such as an opera aria or a Consumers produce services, experiences and specific instrument in the orchestra. This ele- products at the same time as they consume them. ment serves as an anchorage point for the con- The terms “co-production,” “co-creation” and sumer in the experience and make them feel at “prosumption” are used to refer to this phe- home. The consumer then moves on to the sec- nomenon, in which consumers of cultural products are no longer mere observers, but become The cultural product is co-creators of the experience. Their participa- considered multidimen- tion may take on a physical form, such as ap- sional because apprecia- plauding a performance, sharing their impres- tion for it is influenced sions, etc., but it is also reflected in imagination by the technical and cir- processes and emotional responses that are not cumstantial aspects of its necessarily observable. presentation as well as by Cultural products appeal to several of our the state of mind of the senses simultaneously. Consumers do not just consumer. passively encode these multisensorial stimuli: they use them to generate mental images. More precisely, they use the underlying symbols in ond step in the appropriation process, “inves- cultural products to construct imaginary stories tigating.” They study the artistic experience by that reflect their personal history and dreams. exploring new elements, such as the new songs They thus interpret them in multiple ways by of a well-known artist, thereby broadening their ascribing a subjective signification to them that knowledge. Finally, in the step known as stamp- transcends the actual attributes of these prod- ing, the consumer ascribes their own meaning ucts. Consequently, the meaning of a cultural to the artistic experience or an element of it and product does not so much reside in the product adds it to their nest. This cycle of appropriation as in the mind of the consumer. allows the audience to reduce the distance they The notion of co-creation implies that the perceive between themselves and the work of experience being offered to consumers by the art, facilitating their immersion in the artistic cultural organization is not uniform and rigid; experience. The same process takes place in re- it provides them with symbols and tools for cre- lation to the other dimensions of the experience ating meaning, while stimulating their imagina- (customer service, relationship with other au- tion and guiding their subjective experience (St- dience members, etc.). James 2012). Poor customer service can hinder Another phenomenon associated with appro- this process of co-creation, if, for example, the priation is that of rituals and the creation of music-lover is dissatisfied with the environment small worlds (Gainer 1995). Attending a concert in which a concert is experienced. is a social event for the majority of concert-go- ers, who consume the work in the company of Appropriation others as opposed to alone (as they would be if The co-creation of the artistic process is facil- they were to read a novel, for example). The ritu- itated by a process known as appropriation. al of an evening out at the concert hall or the- The appropriation of cultural experiences by atre is part of a consumption experience. Par- consumers has been described as a three-step ticipants who are familiar with the prevailing

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 21 conventions of behaviour (withholding applause by the company, while men tend to pay greater between the movements of a symphony, for ex- attention to the quality of peripheral services ample) may feel totally at home at a concert, (Voss & Cova 2006). while those unfamiliar with these codes may feel intimidated. In addition, consumers can form a Core product versus peripheral services “small world” with other people they know or Both the core product and the peripheral ser- even with strangers who they see as belonging vices can trigger emotions in audience members to a world similar to theirs. Some people may (Palmer & Koenig-Lewis 2010). Indeed, consum- even show a preference for a specific theatre be- ers who experience a positive emotion while at- cause they feel more at home there, while avoid- tending a concert are likely to recommend the ing venues where they do not feel as comfort- orchestra, while negative emotions tend to pro- able because they are unable to create a small duce the opposite effect. world. Recognizing a small world can mark the The consumer’s satisfaction can be seen in start of the cycle of appropriation for consum- terms of a chain of events composed of the fol- ers, while improving their satisfaction and help- lowing elements: Event, Emotions, Trust, Val- ing to enhance their emotional response to the ue, Involvement, Satisfaction, Repurchase In- musical work. tentions, Word-of-Mouth and Recommendation (Figure 1). A positive emotion or evaluation of Loyalty process and satisfaction the core product or the peripheral services and There is a growing interest among researchers the social environment not only helps build the for studying the behaviour of consumers in the consumer’s trust, but also creates value in the context of the arts. A recent survey of the liter- eyes of the audience. Trust and a perception of ature identified as many as 153 research papers value lead to involvement, which, in turn, influ- on the topic since 2000 (Colbert & St-James ences satisfaction. While it is unlikely that a sat- 2014; Colbert 2017). Several of these articles fo- isfied customer will come back to see the same cus on the process leading from satisfaction to work a second time, it is likely they will return customer loyalty and the various factors that to see another concert by the same orchestra affect satisfaction. (repurchase intention) and they may say good The one constant is the fact there can be no things about it (word-of-mouth) and recommend satisfaction if the audience does not like the core the concert or orchestra to others (recommen- product – that is, the work itself (Boerner et al. dation). The opposite is also true: negative emo- 2008, 2010). The quality of the work is the pri- tions in relation to the three dimensions of the mary source of satisfaction. However, music lov- cultural offering will diminish trust in the organ- ers also derive satisfaction from different com- ization and reduce involvement, which in turn ponents of the customer service they encoun- leads to dissatisfaction. ter during their concert attendance (Boerner et al. 2011). For example, the relationship of em- The importance of tolerance ployees with customers is an important factor, for disappointment particularly among frequent attenders and sub- The consumption of cultural products carries an scribers (Swanson & Davis 2012). Indeed, these inherent risk due to the fact that each new artis- groups appreciate being recognized by the or- tic offering is different from the others. For -ex ganization and feeling like one of its members, ample, an orchestra is constantly in the position even if only indirectly. In terms of gender, it has of offering a new product (Colbert et al. 1994; been observed that, for core products (concerts) Bouder-Pailler & Damak 2010; Darmon 2014). of equal quality, women are more likely to be in- However, an orchestra subscriber can mitigate fluenced by the pro-social values demonstrated potential disappointment by offsetting an expe-

22 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING APPROPRIATION

CORE SHOW THEATRE´S VALUE DISAPPOINTMENT REJECT VALUES

PERIPHERAL TOLERANCE FOR INVOLVEMENT RECOMMEND SERVICES EMOTIONS DISAPPOINTMENT

SOCIALIZATION SMALL TRUST SATISFACTION REPURCHASE WORLDS

FIGURE 1. A PURCHASE / REPURCHASE MODEL FOR THE ARTS SOURCE: COLBERT ET AL (2017). MARKETING CULTURE AND THE ARTS. CARMELLE AND RÉMI MARCOUX CHAIR AIN ARTS MANAGEMENT, MONTRÉAL, CANADA.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 23 rience of a bad performance with other concerts ly very appreciative of the opportunity to meet during the musical season. Similarly, a negative with the artists, discuss performances with emotion in relation to the core service (the con- other audience members and debate with the cert) can be offset by the positive emotions trig- artistic team, and they derive special satisfac- gered by the peripheral services or social inter- tion when they receive a warm welcome from actions experienced during the event. the theatre’s staff. The role of social identifica- For example, the works proposed to sub- tion should also be acknowledged by managers scribers of the Steppenwolf Theatre in Chica- through a diversification of audiences in order go are highly challenging, but subscribers say to counter the traditional image of orchestra that they remain loyal to Steppenwolf because concerts as elitist. even if they do not like a show, they know they can always count on exceptionally good acting. Conclusion In fact, these subscribers identify with the the- As shown in Figure 1, customer service is an im- atre and are willing to tolerate a certain amount portant component of the aesthetic experience of disappointment. in the arts sector. It is part of a chain of elements Sustainable subscriber loyalty is thus reflect- that can lead to either a rejection of the work or ed in two main dimensions: subscription renewal concert venue, on the one hand, or loyalty and intention and recommendation intention. Feel- recommendations to others, on the other hand. ings of disappointment generated by bad con- Emotions are generated by three compo- certs are tolerated because they are offset by nents of the concert-going experience: the con- the good concerts, as well as by the positive ex- cert itself, the quality of the peripheral servic- periences with peripheral services and social es, and social interaction and the formation interactions. of small worlds. These three components are The sustainable loyalty that occurs when sub- themselves influenced by the audience’s ability scribers renew their subscription and make pos- to pass through the appropriation cycle and to itive recommendations to others reflects a genu- integrate the new elements of the performance ine form of loyalty. This loyalty behaviour can be in their nest. Similarly, the pro-social values explained by a combination of emotional, social, demonstrated by the concert venue tend to have individual and situational factors that reflect the a positive influence on the music lover’s appre- multidimensional nature of high art products ciation of the company, particularly in the case mentioned earlier. of women. It is important for managers of theatres that All these elements trigger emotions in audi- offer season subscriptions to pay special atten- ence members that lead them to attach value to tion to all peripheral services and to social inter- their experience and, in turn, this value influ- action in order to build or maintain subscriber ences their involvement in the venue and builds loyalty in spite of the inevitable disappointment their trust in the organization. subscribers may experience in relation to cer- If this chain is negative, consumers who have tain concerts. Services these managers should a tolerance for disappointment may nonetheless focus on include ensuring a hospitable welcome feel satisfied and go back a second time and/ and environment, the comfort of the venue, per- or recommend the company to others. On the sonalized relations with customers, the creation other hand, if they have no tolerance for disap- of a friendly space for gatherings and discussion, pointment, there is a risk that they could reject food and beverage services, and the like. the organization. Managers should also strive to enhance the As we can see, the role of the manager of a audience’s experience of the venue as a creator concert hall, even if he or she has nothing to do of social ties. Audience members are general- with the concert itself (this falls under the re-

24 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING sponsibility of the artistic director and conduc- Colbert, F. & St-James, Y. (2014). Research in arts tor), can positively influence the experience of marketing: Evolutions and future directions. Psychology & Marketing, 31(8), 566-575. listening to a concert by creating an environment that enhances the listening experience. Colbert, F. (2017). A brief history of arts marketing thought in North America. The Journal of Arts This is all the more important for today’s or- Management, Law, and Society, published online, chestras in that, as mentioned earlier, they face April 7. a context that requires them to target two very Colbert et al. (1994). Marketing culture and the arts, different market segments: baby boomers and 1st Edition, Gaëtan Morin Ed., Montreal. millennials, who do not necessarily share the Colbert et al. (2017). Marketing culture and the arts, same criteria in terms of customer service and 5th Edition, Chair in Arts Management Carmelle the social environment. and Rémi-Marcoux, Montreal. Darmon, L. (2014). La satisfaction et la déception References du spectateur au cinéma. Théories et pratiques, Atkinson, W. (2011). The context and genesis of Paris, L’Harmattan, coll. Logiques sociales, 268. musical tastes: Omnivorousness debunked, Gainer, B. (1995). Rituals and relationships: Inter- Bourdieu buttressed. Poetics, 39, 169-186. personal Influences on Shared Consumption. Boerner, S., Neuhoff, H., Renz, S. & Moser, V. (2008). Journal of Business Research, 32, 253-260. Evaluation in music theater: Empirical results Palmer A. & N. Koenig-Lewis (2010). Primary and on content and structure of the audience’s qual- secondary effects of emotions on behavioural in- ity judgment. Empirical Studies of the Arts, tention of theatre clients. Journal of Marketing 26(1), 15-35. Management, 26(13–14), 1201–1217. Boerner, S., Jobst, J. & Wiemann, M. (2010). Ex- Obaidalahe, Z., Salerno, F. & Colbert, F. (2017). Sub- ploring the theatrical experience: Results from scribers’ overall evaluation of a multi-experience an empirical investigation. Psychology of Aes- cultural service, tolerance for disappointment thetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 4(3), 173-180. and sustainable loyalty. International Journal of Boerner, S., Moser, V. & Jobst, J. (2011). Evaluating Arts Management, published online, May 2017. cultural industries: Investigating visitors’ sat- Peterson, R.A. & Kern, R.M. (1996). Changing high- isfaction in theatre. Service Industries Journal, brow taste: From snob to omnivore. American 31(6), 877-895. Sociological Review, 61(5), 900-907. Bouder-Pailler, D. (2008). Personal time and social Ravanas, P. (2006). Born to be wise: The Steppen- time: Their role in live performance attendance. wolf Theatre Company mixes freedom with International Journal of Arts Management, management savy. International Journal of Arts 10(3), 38-48. Management, 8(3), 64-74. Bouder-Pailler, G. & Namark, L. (2010). Offre et con- St-James, Y. in Colbert et al. (2012). Marketing Cul- sommation culturelle: les enjeux du risque perçu ture and the Arts, 4th Edition, Carmelle and et de la confiance. In Recherches en marketing Rémi-Marcoux Chair in Arts Management, Mon- des activités culturelles, Vuibert, p. 23-43. treal. Caru, A. & Cova, B. (2005). The impact of service Swanson, S.R. & Davis, J.C. (2006). Arts patronage: elements on the artistic experience: The case of A social identity perspective. Journal of Market- classical music concerts. International Journal ing Theory & Practice, 14(2), 125-138. of Arts Management, 7(2), 39-55. Swanson, S.R. & Davis, J.C. (2012). Delight and out- Charland-Lalier, M. & Colbert, F. (2017). Factors in- rage in the performing arts: A critical incidence fluencing the choice of a career path in the arts. analysis. Journal of Marketing Theory and Prac- American Journal of Arts Management (online), tice, 20, 263-278. January, 1-17. Voss, Z.G. & Cova, V. (2006). How sex differences in Colbert, F. & Courchesne, A. (2012). Critical issues perceptions influence customer satisfaction: A in the marketing of cultural goods: The decisive study of theatre audiences. Marketing Theory, influence of cultural transmission. City, Culture 6(2), 201-221. and Society, 3(4) (December), 275-280.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 25 Marketing and branding

Branding in the arts – some perspectives

ANNUKKA JYRÄMÄ

Introduction monin 2009). Other research has emphasized The importance of branding to the success of the need for art organizations to build strong nonprofit organizations is well documented in brands and brand loyalty (Kuenzel & Halliday existing literature (see e.g. Laidler-Kylander & 2008). The brand and brand loyalty have also Simonin 2009 for overview) as well as branding been studied in several layers of branding, in- and building brand loyalty (see e.g. Chaudhuri cluding product, organization(s) and place. & Holbrook, 2001; Punniyamoorthy et al. 2007). This chapter examines the phenomena of In the art sector, there are likewise a number of branding through selected perspectives, includ- studies on the subject. Studies of art organiza- ing organizational branding and brand persona tions show that brand loyalty captures various and stories, and brand portfolio and brand ar- stakeholder groups or viewpoints, among them chitecture strategies. This chapter also exam- customers (Colbert 2009; d’Astous et al. 2005), ines branding in the arts by highlighting recent donors and volunteers (Venable et al. 2005) and studies in the field. international reputation (Laidler-Kylander & Si- Branding Brand is defined as a name, signal, term, sym- ANNUKKA JYRÄMÄ Jyrämä (D. Sc. Econ.) is Professor at Estonian Academy bol, design or combination thereof, by which a of Music and Theatre, Cultural Management Masters product or service or organization can be iden- Programme and Development Manager at Aalto Univer- tified (Aaker 1996). Branding has been analysed sity School of Business, and Docent at the Sibelius Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki. Professor from various perspectives, and several dimen- Jyrämä’s research interests include arts marketing, ser- sions underlying the brand concept have been vices marketing, knowledge creation processes and the role of mediators from institutional and network theory defined. Next, few of these conceptualizations perspectives. She has conducted studies in such contexts are introduced. as cultural, city and business and has extensive experience from the field of arts management research and Brand identity and brand image can be un- education. Her research has been published in several derstood as the opposite sides of a coin. Brand journals, e.g. in the International Journal of Arts Man- agement, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, and Man- identity is the definition of a brand internally agement Learning. and how it wants to be experienced. It is a way

26 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING to communicate its value proposition to custom- ed by a product or service to a firm or to that ers, including everything that makes the brand firm’s customers (Aaker 1991, 15). Yet Aaker sees unique and meaningful (Janonis et al. 2007). brand loyalty as a component of brand equity Brand image is the perceptions and interpre- along with name awareness, perceived quality, tations of the identity by customers (Aaker & brand associations, and other property of brand Joachimsthaler 2000; Keller 1993; Park et al. assets (Aaker & Joachimshaler 2000). 1986). Brand identity can be seen as a set of Other components of brand have also been associations that the brand strategist seeks to examined in the literature. The connection peo- create or maintain, whereas brand image con- ple create between their identity and brand sists of the current associations perceived by has been defined as brand identification (He & consumers (Uggala & Filipsson 2009). It should Li 2010; Marin et al. 2008). Brand attractivess be noted that these concepts have been used captures perceptions of how the brand is per- somewhat interchangeably in brand literature. ceived when compared to both other competing Brand loyalty has been defined as “a deeply brands and to the brand itself (Marin & Ruiz held commitment to repetitive same-brand or same 2006; Marin et al. 2008). Brand love is a more brand-set purchasing, despite situational influences recent conceptualization that emphasizes the and marketing efforts having the potential to cause importance of brand to consumer choices and switching behaviour” (Oliver 1999, 34). Brand loy- identity building (Batra et al. 2012). alty combines both attitudinal and behavioural In order to create a brand for an organiza- elements. It looks at brand repurchase intention, several branding models have been devel- tions, willingness to pay a higher price, engage- oped. The models can be used as managerial as ment in positive word-of-mouth, and resist- well as academic tools of analysis. This chapter ance to negative information (Batra et al. 2012; examines two models, one that looks at how to Chaudhuri & Holbrook 2001; Punniyamoorthy build a brand identity from the company’s per- & Prasanna Mohan Raj 2007). spective, and the other at how consumers re- Brand equity is a set of brand assets and li- late to brands. abilities linked to a brand, its name or symbol, Strategic Brand Management (Kapferer that add to or subtract from the value provid- 2004) is a well-known model for guiding man-

HOW TO BUILD BRAND POSITIONING QUESTIONS TO HELP

WHY? TO WHOM? FOR WHAT PURPOSE?

WHEN? AGAINST WHOM? WHEN TO BE USED? WHO ARE OUR COMPETITORS?

FIGURE 1. ADAPTED FROM: KAPFERER 2003, STRATEGIC BRAND MANAGEMENT

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 27 POSITIONING IN THREE LEVELS: GROUPING AND CONSUMING BRANDS

ICON SPIRITUAL BRANDS LEVEL

IDENTITY SOCIAL BRANDS IDENTITY LEVEL

POWER CONSUMING BRANDS FUNCTIONAL BASIC LEVEL NEED WANT WISH WISH WANT NEED

FIGURE 2. ADAPTED FROM: LINDROOS, NYMAN, LINDROOS (2005) REF. D. AAKER BRAND LEADERSHIP) KIRKAS BRANDI. MITEN SUOMALAINEN TUOTE EROTTUU, LISÄÄ ARVOAAN JA PERUSTELEE HINTANSA. WSOY: HELSINKI

agement to ask key questions when planning of building an organizational brand persona is brand strategies. There is a need to position the examined through a recent study in the library brand by critically evaluating its identity and context (Kuldkepp 2016). image among a potential target group. Building a corporate brand requires deci- A model presented by Lindroos et al. (2005) sion-making on the positions of the various analyses brand and its connectedness to con- product or service brands affiliated with an sumers’ identity building. Potential relation- organization (Aaker & Joachimsthaler 2000). ship levels and ways to connect are identified Brand architecture is examined in this chapter in order to build awareness of brand attributes. through a longitudinal study of the Helsinki Mu- Lindroos et al. note that the same brand may sic Centre (Johansson & Jyrämä 2015; Jyrämä create different relationships with different cus- et al. 2016). The relationship between brand and tomer groups. corporate social responsibility (Jyrämä & Kaja- As noted above, branding can be examined lo 2013) is also be investigated. on different levels, among them product or After examined the branding of art organ- service, company, and place. Branding can be izations, this chapter looks at the branding of used in different contexts, such as for-profit or places with a specific connection to the arts. non-profit organizations. The questions raised Co-branding in the context of a city and an art by branding at an organizational or corporate organization is analysed using the example of level are multifaceted. They include questions Helsinki and the Guggenheim Museum (Mat- about building a brand persona that could cre- ilainen 2013). This chapter will then examine ate a joint understanding of an organization both the role of music in nation-branding in Estonia internally and among its stakeholders. The role (Verde 2017).

28 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING Branding an art organization The brand personality refers to the set of hu- Corporate brand has been defined somewhat man characteristics associated with a brand, similarly to corporate identity and corporate such as having a distinct personality (Aaker image (King 1991; Keller 1993; Balmer 1995, 1997; Gill & Dawra 2010). Brand can be seen as 2001; Jyrämä et al. 2013, 2015). Creating a cor- having a soul (Cohen 2014), or as a friend, al- porate organizational brand is more complex lowing for a relationship and positive attitude than product branding, since an entire organiza- toward the brand (Aaker 1997; Wertime 2002; tion or corporation is the brand (Baker & Balm- Voeth & Herbst 2008). Stories are likewise used er 1997). In corporate brand identity, the role of to communicate a company’s brand, including employees becomes important as the corporate the values of the organisation, its mission and brand builds, particularly through the people, its vision, to various stakeholder groups (Mit- values, and practices of an organization (King tins et al. 2011). Stories allow for the explain- 1991; Balmer 1995). Brand identity is rooted in ing of complex information in a simple, more an organization’s business heritage and related understandable and easily memorized way. to an organization’s vision, core values, products (Woodside 2008; Bergstedt & Nilsson 2010; and location (Kapferer 2012; Janonis et al. 2007; Germano 2010). Aaker 1996; Uggla et al. 2009). Kuldkepp (2016) found that when creating Kuldkepp (2016) analyses the building of a brand personal, current associations and sto- brand persona for the National Library of Es- ries need to be considered. She found several tonia via storytelling. She looks at the organiza- coexisting stories among the staff and stake- tional brand and how it is constructed at differ- holders that could be used for building brand ent levels, as illustrated by Figure 3. identity. It should be noted that the unexpect- Both brand persona and storytelling are a ed role that the building of the library played in means to communicate about a brand and make creating brand image seemed to somewhat over- it understandable (Kuldkepp 2016). Brand per- shadow the new visual brand persona adopted sona is linked to brand personality (Aaker 1997). by the library.

BUILDING BRAND PERSONA

EXTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS / THE IMAGE

MEANS OF EXPRESSION OF THE BRAND IDENTITY: VISUAL EXPRESSIONS (SYMBOLS, NAME, LOGO); COMMUNICATION

INTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS

ORGANISATION = BRAND (VALUES, PROMISE) MISSION

FIGURE 3. ADAPTED FROM: KULDKEPP (2016), BASED ON LAIDLER-KYLANDER ET AL. (2007), VOETH & HERBST (2008), AND VENABLE ET AL. (2005).

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 29 Brand architecture – managing brand portfolio brand architecture, Jyrämä et al. (2015) identi- Organization brand often consists of sever- fied a fifth strategy, in which the sub-brands in al product or service brands, and builds on a the portfolio are endorsing the umbrella organ- brand portfolio. The brand portfolio is a set of all izational brand. brands and brand lines that a company sells in These brand architecture strategy choices a particular category. It includes all the brands were recently analysed through international and sub-brands attached to product-market comparison. The analysis showed a connection offerings, including co-branding with other between the shared activities of joined organi- firms (Keller et al. 2008; Aaker & Joachimst- zations and the brand architecture strategy that haler 2000). Organizations need to determine was adopted. In those organizations where the how these brands in the brand portfolio are re- umbrella brand, or hosting organization, had lated, and then structure and position the dif- its own artistic productions, the brand identity ferent brand and sub-brand. This specifying of was strongly linked to the hosting organization’s brand roles and the nature of the relationships brand identity. Where the hosting umbrella or- between brands and between different prod- ganization was mainly focused on space man- uct-market contexts is called brand architec- agement and marketing the sub-brands, organ- ture (Aaker & Joachimsthaler 2000. izational identities seem to play a more impor- One of the most established brand archi- tant role. In the case of umbrella organization tecture tools is the Brand Relations Spectrum engaged in artistic activities, the brand strategy (BRS), which was introduced by Aaker and Joa- followed sub-brands or branded house strate- chimsthaler (2000a, 2000b). It has four main gies. Where only space or marketing activities brand architecture strategies: house of brands, were shared, the brand architecture strategy endorsed brands, sub-brands, and branded was mainly within the house of brands or in the house strategies. In branded house strategies, fifth identified strategy, in which the sub-brands existing competing brands are unified under a endorse the music centre’s organizational brand main supporting brand. The house of brands (Jyrämä & Johansson 2017). strategy, by comparison, has independent brand names without strong connection to the com- Art organization branding and mon organization. The brand architecture also social responsibility defines the power of relationships between the The connection of branding at arts organiza- brands. The brand with a stronger position is tions and the role of social responsibility in art considered to be an endorser brand, while the organizations has recently gained scholarly at- sub-brand is the endorsed one (Aaker & Joa- tention (Andreini et al. 2014; Jyrämä & Kajalo chimsthaler 2000). 2015). Social responsibility and contribution to The Helsinki Music Centre consists of three local communities have been studied from vari- organizational brands, namely the Helsinki ous perspectives and contexts. For example, the Philharmonic Orchestra, Radio Symphony Or- impact of universities on their local communi- chestra and Sibelius Academy. Each of the three ty has received considerable attention (Arnett has several product-level brands as well as sup- et al. 2003) which is referred to as relationship porting brands (City of Helsinki, Finnish Radio marketing. Much of the research on relationship Broadcasting Company, and Helsinki Art Uni- marketing success has examined relationships versity). This multifaceted complex integration that (1. Studies of art organizations have not- of brands has previously been an object of longi- ed the role of local communities as volunteer tudinal study on branding (Johansson & Jyrämä or funding bases, and community members as 2016; Jyrämä et al. 2015; Jyrämä & Johansson participants (Hughes & Luksetich 2004; Toe- 2017). When analysing the Helsinki Music House pler 2003; Torgerson & Edwards 2012). Many

30 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING art organizations perceive themselves as hav- the inclusion of an elaboration of hypocrisy to ing their identity legitimized through art, they social responsibility conceptualizations. nonetheless express a need to reflect what it means to be a good corporate or organization- Branding the place – the role of art al citizen (Andreini et al. 2014; Cornelius et al. Place branding is a growing sub-field of brand 2008), and to engage in environmental sustain- research on both the national and local levels ability and other societal issues. Arts organiza- (see Kavaratzis 2012; Hansen 2010; Merilles et tions face the same challenges as corporations al. 2009). Place branding includes various per- and should not be allowed, by themselves or by spectives in the execution of city management, other stakeholders, to be above societal respon- including the views of multi-stakeholder govern- sibility considerations (Colbert 2008). Several ance (Van Assche & Chien Lo 2011). Place brand- recent studies have investigated the links being has at least three target groups: the visitors, tween brand loyalty, brand identity and social the investors and the residents (Kavazakis et responsibility (Marin & Ruiz 2006; Marin et al. al. 2010). Unlike organizational branding, place 2008; Vallester et al. 2012). These studies pro- branding is not controllable by one stakeholder vide clear evidence that social responsibility is but requires the collaboration and partnerships a driver of brand value (Melo & Galan 2011). of many (Hankinson 2010). Adding to the discussions around corporate To analyse place branding focused on cities, social responsibility, Wagner et al. (2009) intro- the City Brand Attitude (CBA) measurement duced the concept of hypocrisy. They found that was developed (Merrilees, Miller & Herington perceptions of hypocrisy were a strong deter- 2009, 2011). In addition, Merrilees et al. (2009, minant of customers’ evaluation of companies, 2011) developed an extensive measure for city especially in the context of corporate social re- brand image featuring a range of dimensions, sponsibility. Hypocrisy is defined as “a belief that including nature, creativity and business, shop- a firm claims to be something that it is not” (Wag- ping, brand/reputation, and commitment to a ner et al. 2009). In addition, Venable et al. (2005) place. The dimensions were developed from found that honesty was an important determi- various theoretical approaches – urban stud- nant of nonprofit sector brand perceptions. ies, cultural and heritage research on places, In recent studies (Jyrämä & Kajalo 2015; Alas business development, and sociological studies et al. 2016; Kajalo & Jyrämä 2015) the connec- on creative cities, among others – highlighting tions of brand loyalty and social responsibili- the multidimensional nature of place branding ty were examined in different art organization- (Hankinson 2010). al contexts (Finnish National Opera, Estonian The important role of culture in building city Song and Dance Festival, and Bimbo Museum attractiveness and branding has been well docu- in Mexico). The aim was to establish a theoret- mented (Florida 2004; Vivant 2011). The City of ical conceptualization and models on the rela- Helsinki has used cultural events strategically to tionships between brand and social responsi- build up its city brand image (Matilainen 2013). bility. The analysis of these different data sets, The negotiations between the City of Helsinki for example, reconfirmed a connection between and the Guggenheim Museum are an excellent brand loyalty and social reputation, noting the example of such an approach. It is worth noting importance not only of being socially responsi- that developing city attractiveness using well- ble, but also of engaging with the local commu- known global brands and established interna- nity (Jyrämä & Kajalo 2013). In addition, the role tional actors may be losing cache in Helsinki, of non-hypocrisy was found to affect an organi- as Guggenheim’s offer was eventually turned zation’s reputation, and thereby its brand loyal- down (Matilainen 2013). Consequently, to build ty. As a result, Alas et al. (2015) recommended branding, cities have turned to existing cultur-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 31 al strengths and traditions (Mizau & Montanari as discussing brands through their artworks. In 2008). Helsinki’s adoption of the norms of lo- conclusion, branding appears in different forms cal cultural activism, as demonstrated in the in the arts. It is a useful tool for art managers, city’s current “one Hel of an impact” slogan, is a as well as a societal phenomenon for art to com- good example (Hietanen et al. 2016; http://www. municate both with and about. brandnewhelsinki.fi/2020) A novel approach to the relationship between References art and place branding was presented in a recent Aaker, D. (1991). Managing brand equity. New York: study on the role of music in nation branding. The Free Press. Verde (2017) conducted a study on the process Aaker, D. (1996). Building strong brands, New York: The Free Press of developing a nation’s brand image through Aaker, J.L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. music, specifically through artists and event Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356. brands. It focused on the interrelationship be- Aaker, D.A. & Joachimsthaler, E. (2000a). Brand tween key Estonian music brands identified leadership. New York: The Free Press. through a consumer survey – Arvo Pärt, Esto- Aaker, D.A. & Joachimsthaler, E. (2000b). The nian Song and Dance Celebration, and Ewert brand relationship spectrum: The key to the and The Two Dragons – and Estonian national brand architecture challenge. California Man- brand. The findings show that the role of mu- agement Review, 42(4), 8-23. sic is important in Estonia’s brand identity and Alas, R. Jyrämä, A., & Kajalo, S. (2015). Social re- image. The artists and festivals perceive them- sponsibility, organization reputation and brand selves as brand ambassadors for Estonia. They loyalty: the case of an arts organization. APROS / EGOS Conference 2015, Sydney, Australia, De- did not, however, use music as a tool for enhanc- cember 9-11, 2015. ing the international image of Estonia. Andreini, D., Pedeliento, G., & Signori, S. (2014). CSR and service quality on nonprofit organiza- Summary and conclusions tions: the case of performing arts association, Branding in the arts is widely accepted as a val- International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary uable tool for organizations to build their identi- Sector Marketing, 19, 127-142. ties and profiles, both internally and to address Arnett, D.B., German, S.D. & Shelby D.H. (2003). the perspectives of stakeholders, particularly The Identity salience model of relationship marketing success: The case of nonprofit marketing. their audiences. As highlighted by the previous Journal of Marketing, April 2003. examples, branding is used in the context of na- Baker, M.J. & Balmer, J.M.T. (1997). Visual identity: tions and alliances, as well as at an organization- trappings or substance?. European Journal of al level. Branding can also be used on an indi- Marketing, 31(5/6), 366-382. vidual level, with artists’ names and the specif- Balmer, J. M.T. (1995). Corporate branding and icities of their art being considered brands – for connoisseurship. Journal of General Manage- example, the Wagner society can be seen as a ment, 21(1), 22-46. brand community, even if Wagner almost cer- Balmer, J.M.T. (2001). Corporate identity, corporate tainly did not see himself as a brand. branding and corporate marketing. Seeing Artists have also provided novel perspectives through the fog. European Journal of Marketing, 35(3/4), 248-91. and criticism on brands and branding phenomena. Some of the most famous examples are Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R.P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 1-16. discussed by Schroeder (2005) in his seminal Chaudhuri, A. & Holbrook, M.B. (2001). The chain work on Andy Warhol, Barbara Gruger and Cin- of effects from brand trust and brand affect to dy Sherman. The communication between art brand performance: the role of brand loyalty, and branding is ongoing activity, with new art- The Journal of Marketing, 65(April), 81–93. ists taking part either as brands themselves or

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34 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING CASE MARKETING AND BRANDING THE ARTS – CASE TAPIOLA SINFONIETTA

HELENA RUHKALA

Like an orchestra tunes its instruments to the same ogisation, urbanisation, commercialisation and pitch to ensure the best possible harmony, the other individualisation have set the basis for the medi- operations of the orchestra also need to be tuned to atisation1 of our society. The practically unlimit- the same wavelength with the audience. ed volume of available information and stimuli is directly reflected on consumers’ behaviour The Tapiola Sinfonietta was established in 1987 and self-image, creating an impression of end- in Espoo – a neighbouring city to two major Hel- less possibilities to choose from both in consum- sinki-based orchestras, the Helsinki Philhar- er practices and in how people live their lives. monic Orchestra and the Finnish Radio Sympho- Our interests are becoming more and more frag- ny Orchestra. The Tapiola Sinfonietta profiled mented and their timescale has become shorter. itself already early on as a stylish interpreter The threshold for individuals to bring out their of Viennese classics. The orchestra has moreo- creativity is lower. This is especially evident in ver always had a living relationship to contem- channels of social media but also in many of the porary music and an unprejudiced approach to choices we make in everyday life – our hobbies, cross-artistic co-productions. clothing, eating habits, mode of living and work- Due to the orchestra’s split profile – concert ing methods alike. activities and audience development – the mar- With the mediatisation of society and grow- keting is also divided into two dimensions. In ing prominence of sharing economy, the arts the marketing of the actual concert activities a have started shifting away from the traditional principal goal is to generate financial revenue. institutional framework. Along with an interac- In the marketing within audience development tive and participatory lifestyle, many art forms the emphasis is on social marketing aimed at have come closer to daily practices, sometimes generating social impact. even to the extent that it is hard to define what is and what is not art. Art and everyday phe- Marketing in a mediatised world nomena make up a polyphonic tapestry where Only a decade ago it was still somewhat common different species traverse their own paths but for marketing to be experienced in cultural or- occasionally come together and crisscross. The ganisations as a threat to the product itself and audience’s interest in multiple art forms is a the organisation’s core goals. This attitude has marketing asset in the planning of cross-artis- however lost ground along with broader changes tic productions, where the audiences for differ- in society. Globalisation, modernisation, technol- ent art forms naturally join. Customer relations today are increasingly built on interaction and participation. The ap- HELENA RUHKALA Ruhkala (MMus in arts management) is an arts manage- peal of community is now perhaps stronger than ment professional who specialises in the marketing of clas- ever. The role of an organisation that produc- sical music. As marketing designer at the Tapiola Sinfo- nietta (Espoo City Orchestra) her responsibilities include, e.g. CRM and developing the orchestra’s domestic and in- 1 Mediatisation = a historical, ongoing long-term ternational brand. Ruhkala has previously worked in plan- process in which more and more media emerge and ning and managerial positions in the fields of folk music, contemporary dance and arts management. She graduat- are institutionalised. It is a meta-process analogous ed from the Arts Management MA programme at Sibelius to individualisation, commercialisation and globali- Academy in 1999. sation. Friedrich Krotz (2009): Mediatization.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 35 es cultural services is becoming more equal in The biggest mistake is to continue to strictly relation to the customer. A message spreading operate in the accustomed manner without pay- through informal channels often reaches the ing attention to the importance of the custom- customers much more effectively than a mes- ers’ changing needs. The customer determines sage sent by a formal source. What makes the what kind of practices should be developed to power of social media as an informal marketing achieve the goals. Rising in importance over ex- channel noteworthy is that it builds attitudes act targeting is the approach where genuineness towards brands, which can in turn significant- and the story play a stronger role. When the ly influence people’s purchasing behaviour. The goals are clear and the target groups are well importance of strong brands has become par- identified, the strategic planning of operations ticularly highlighted along with mediatisation. is easier. Social marketing, when successful, can At the Tapiola Sinfonietta the social changes produce positive social change, such as improve- described above are seen also as changes in the ments in people’s wellbeing and the functioning form of customer commitment. The number of of services. strongly committed customers has declined but Our choices are influenced, above all, by val- analogously the number of new “experimenters” ues. They affect what kind of lives we live and has grown. In the past ten years, there has been what kind of choices we make. Values are not a decline in customers in the larger series of easy to change, and that is why they need to be nine concerts, where the rate of commitment identified. The significance and amount of audi- has traditionally been high. The major reason ence development are continuously increasing behind the decline is the ageing of customers, in cultural organisations. At the Tapiola Sinfo- while new customers are not emerging in the nietta, audience development is a fixed part of same proportion to replace them. The smaller the orchestra’s operations. Alongside their actu- series of four concerts in turn has become in- al concert work, the musicians regularly set out creasingly popular, especially among the young to work in child health centres, daycare centres, “experimenters”. In this series customer com- schools, service homes for senior citizens and mitment is the weakest; and usually limited to hospitals throughout Espoo. Audience events one or two seasons. In the intermediate series are also organised in connection to the concerts consisting of five concerts in turn both the num- to introduce the backgrounds of the concerts bers of new customers and the rate of customer and performers. Audience development at the commitment are relatively high. Tapiola Sinfonietta is increasingly aimed at offering the local community personal experienc- Importance of a strong brand es of music and finding ways to contribute to The need for new audiences, especially young its wellbeing. audiences, is widely recognised in orchestras. At the Tapiola Sinfonietta, brand building ex- The premise for both social and traditional mar- tends across the entire organisation, from the keting rests in recognition of change: the struc- orchestra to the design of the business and ser- tures of organisations can either support it or vice image. Designing visual and narrative con- hinder it. tent is a central part of brand development, but

36 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING the supplementary services produced by the or- hancement of wellbeing. At the same time, mar- chestra and its partners may stand out as even keting has established itself as a natural part of more important, as generators of added value. the strategic planning of cultural organisations. The importance of customer service is especial- The arts management education that started in ly pronounced during the concert event in, for Finland twenty years ago was timed perfectly: example, the quality of coatroom services, res- there is a growing demand for professionals in taurant services, information signs, services for this realm, now and in the future. groups with special needs and ticket sales. One bad experience, such as impolite treatment at References the box office, can destroy a customer relation Colb, B.M. (2005). Marketing for cultural organisa- that has taken years to build up. tions: New strategies for attracting audiences to classical music, dance, museums, theatre & Interaction and communications are at the opera, Cengage Learning EMEA core of all operations. They cover anything from Design Management (1994). Yrityskuvastakilpailu- personal contacts to, for example, a functioning valtiksi. Helsinki: Otava. website. Everything becomes communications Korpiola, L. (2011). Kriisiviestintä digitaalisessa the moment the message reaches the recipient. julkisuudessa. Helsinki: Infor. Even a single melody can be a message. Every Kulttuurituotteiden vienti kasvanut EU-maissa, word, every expression, every gesture is a mes- Suomessa vähentynyt (Export of cultural prod- sage. The colours, scents, clothes and lighting at ucts has grown in most EU countries, in Finland the concert venue are messages. In the design- it has declined). News release from Statistics ing of business and services, attention needs to Finland 31 March 2017 paid to these and countless other factors. Stud- Luova talous ja aineettoman arvon luominen kasvun kärjiksi. Luovat alat Suomen talouden ja työl- ies have proven the importance of communi- lisyyden vahvistajina -työryhmän raportti. [Pro- cations and interaction: people’s behaviour can moting the creative economy and intangible make up as much as 90 percent of a compa- value creation as spearheading growth sectors. ny’s image. The customers are not as concerned Report of the working group on recognising the about what they are getting for their money per creative sectors as a driver of Finnish econo- se as they are about what they are expecting to my and employment] Opetus- ja kulttuuriminis- teriön julkaisuja 2017:18 get and what they feel like they are getting. Com- Sumiala Johanna: Kriisi mediayhteiskunnassa munications are productive when we manage to -luento, Helsingin Yliopisto 13.4.2011 offer more than the customer expects. The social role of cultural services has grown more profound both economically and in the en-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 37 CASE SUPPORTING THE CREATIVE PROCESS OF ADVERTISING MOBILE GAMES

RITVA ESKELINEN

Mobile games have existed almost as long as mo- revenue is gained later; for example, revenue is bile phones. The business to consumer–mobile gained through in-app purchases or in-app ad- game market was born in July 2008 when Ap- vertisements (ads). The free-to-play business ple launched its App Store, digitally distributing model started in the early 2010’s. According to mobile applications (apps) to iPhone operating App Annie, in 2016, 97% of mobile game reve- system (iOS) devices. The App Store’s early se- nues came from the free-to-play model. Mobile lection included 500 apps, and since then, it has games have evolved into services that are con- seen enormous growth. In August 2016, Sensor tinuously developed and updated; continuous Tower projected that the App Store would host development results in longer game lifecycles. about 2.93 million active apps by the end of the The free-to-play model has resulted in a shift year and would almost double the amount to from a product-marketing approach to a ser- 5.06 million by the end of 2020. In May 2016, vice-marketing approach. Premium game mar- 48,231 apps debuted in the App Store. Near- keting has traditionally focused on activities ly 21,000 (43%) were games. This means 700 related to up-front product launches. Free-to- games debuted every day. play game marketing has traditionally focused Since the era of smart phones began and the on scaling and growing business services over App Store launched, the market’s value has sky- time. Marketing strategies vary based on each rocketed and continues to grow. According to product and developer, and they include numer- App Annie, in 2016, publishers earned $35 bil- ous activities, such as optimising app stores, lion (€29 billion) in revenue from the App Store optimising TV advertisements, maintaining and Google Play; games generated 75% and 90% an active social media presence and build- of the revenue, respectively. Newzoo estimated ing influencer campaigns. Yet, most of 2016’s app store revenues, including those of the App top-grossing games invested heavily in digital, Store, Google Play and other mobile app stores, mobile paid-user acquisition, which is the algo- will grow to $85 billion (€72 billion) by 2020. rithm-driven buying of digital ad traffic to ac- Revenues from mobile games will grow to $65 quire new customers. In digital, mobile paid-us- billion (€55 billion) in the same period. er acquisition, each product costs less than the When it began, the market was dominated by expected average lifetime revenue of each user. premium games. In the premium business mod- The biggest gaming companies invest millions of el, consumers pay to download games. Howev- euros in user acquisition each month. er, free-to-play games have risen in popularity. The Finnish gaming organisation Neogames They are free for consumers to download, and noted the gaming industry has become crowd- ed, segmented and saturated; competition and user-acquisition prices are rising. The mar- RITVA ESKELINEN ket’s consolidation and institutionalisation are Eskelinen (MMus in arts management) started her arts management studies in the Kuopio unit in 2008. During increasing. As a result, marketing and strategic her studies, she started working in a production company business planning are becoming as important as Kombo that was bought by mobile game developer Rovio, the home nest of the Angry Birds. Eskelinen worked several good game design. years as a Producer in Animation unit and for the last two Consider market realities from the perspec- years she has been running the Marketing Content Creation tive of managing the creative process for mar- team in Games unit.

38 ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING keting collateral. Finding a balance between The most important part of managing the commercial and artistic values is crucial. All creative process is enabling seamless collabo- creative marketing can be analysed, and perfor- ration and communication. Doing so provides mance metrics are available in almost real time. a flow of creative people managing campaigns Revenue generated through one single ad can and ad spend and supports the needs of both be measured. Creative content, such as digital parties. It creates high-quality successful cam- ads and app-store landing pages, can be tested paigns when planning activities and collecting and optimised. results. Facing a daily flow of data for the creative process can be overwhelming unless the data References is learned from over time, harnessed to answer App Annie. (2017). 2016 Retrospective hypotheses and analysed to support trends, in- Neogames. (2017). Finnish Game Industry Report sights and signals. The context and placement 2016 of a target audience need to be understood when Newzoo. (2017). 2017 Global Mobile Market Report planning campaigns and analysing results. Con- Sensor Tower. (2016). Apple’s App Store Will Hit 5 text and placement are crucial in gaining posi- Million Apps by 2020, More Than Doubling Its Current Size. tive results in the saturated market.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: MARKETING AND BRANDING 39 40 ARTS MANAGEMENT

Leadership

Examining the dialogical leadership in the arts

TANJA JOHANSSON

Introduction Soila-Wadman 2003). In addition, these stud- Leadership research has undergone several ies include participative methods that empha- changes, where leadership has been defined sise everyday practices, whether in symphony through qualities, skills and behaviour as well orchestras or film productions. This indicates as shared, pooled or spread processes and re- that the relational perspective is an appropri- lational practices, in which everyday interac- ate approach for examining the networked and tions and language play a critical role in leading processual realities of cultural productions (e.g. the self or others. In this chapter, I will explore Becker 1984). dialogical leadership practices, particularly In this chapter, both the interpersonal and those in the field of arts, and consider lead- structural relations needed to further construct ership as a practice by which a leader works the understanding of the relational nature of with and through others (Hewison 2004; Koivu- practices in the field of cultural production are nen & Wennes 2011). In line with Fairhurst and highlighted. First, I will provide background for Uhl-Bien (2012), the underlying assumption of the relational view on leadership and the rela- the chapter is that leadership unfolds in a col- tional practices in the field of art. This will be laborative and co-created process among rela- followed by a proposition for a dialogical lead- tional human beings. Hence, relational leader- ership scene in the arts involving the individual, ship focuses on how leadership is practiced in group, organisational and field level relations. everyday interactions, emphasising the social processes and constructed interactions rather The relational and leadership views than focusing attention on the behaviour of indi- The relational view on leadership draws from vidual leaders (Crevani et al. 2010; Koivunen & relational ontology, according to which the so- Wennes 2011; Denis et al. 2012; Koivunen 2007). cial world is not seen to consist primarily of Interestingly, several leadership studies on static substances but rather of dynamic, unfold- arts organisations have taken a relational per- ing relations (e.g. Emirbayer 1997; Bourdieu & spective (see e.g. Koivunen 2003, 2007; Koivu- Wacquant 1992; Dachler & Hosking 1995). This nen & Wennes 2011; Köping, 2003; Sauer 2005; perspective derives from social construction-

42 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP

ism (Berger & Luckmann 1966), which focuses ticular situation (Evered & Louis 1981). Viewing on how meanings are created between people leadership as a shared phenomenon also high- in their embodied, relationally responsive dia- lights the importance of aesthetics in all kinds logue, in which they view themselves as part of of leadership processes. Viewing leadership as the process of constructing meanings (Bakhtin a shared phenomenon also highlights the im- 1981; Cunliffe 2003; Cunliffe & Shotter 2006). portance of aesthetics in all kinds of leadership However, this process does not occur in a vac- processes. Viewing leadership as a shared phe- uum but in collectively organised temporal and nomenon also highlights the importance of aes- spatial contexts (Emirbayer 1997). A unifying thetics in all kinds of leadership processes. core premise of relational thinkers is that they When skilful relating is a part of leadership try to overcome different dichotomies deriving practice, then multi-ontology sense-making is from a ‘substantialist’ view, which divides the a possibility, for instance, in decision-making world into isolated entities (Emirbayer 1997; Os- tasks (Fulop & Mark 2013). Fulop and Mark terlund & Carlile 2005). (2013) examine a relational leadership approach Bourdieu’s view on the social does not include to decision-making and adopt Hosking’s (see e.g. a sharp distinction between the external and the Hosking et al. 1995) work. In their view, deci- internal, the conscious and the unconscious or sion-making is undertaken through organising the bodily and the discursive. Bourdieu also op- processes that are cognitive but also social/cul- poses methodological individualism, which plac- tural, political and emotional, and in which the es emphasis on the structure or agent, system social construction of leadership and context are or actor, or collective or individual (Bourdieu inseparable individual and collective undertak- & Wacquant 1992). In contrast, the relational ings (see also Koivunen & Wennes 2011). Thus, perspective derives from the view that people the meaning-making processes of the organi- involved in an interaction derive meanings from sational members occur through dialogues be- the changing conditions of situations. In leader- tween social actors and institutions, between ship research, these dynamic processes become the self and others, between the inside and out- the primary unit of analysis rather than the ele- side of the organisation or between the past and ments themselves. Practice from the relational present (Ybema et al. 2009). This does not mere- view is seen as a space for the production and ly refer to concrete relationships between per- reproduction of relations (Emirbayer 1997). sons but to a wider consideration of the various The relational perspective in organisation- discursive resources people may refer to when al studies recognises that organisations do not making sense of their work and its organisa- somehow float in a neutral environment but tional and other environments. Hence, the re- rather influence and are influenced by the world lational processes can be seen as happening ‘in around them. From a relational perspective, it is between’ the various actors, positions, profes- therefore possible to study the inter-subjective sional groups, other organisations in the field and interdependent nature of organisational life. or between past and present understandings of Understanding organisational practices involv- the work situations. ing different events, activities and utterances requires an appreciation of the overall organ- The relational processes of isational context. Here, organisational context the arts field refers to the dynamic processes involving organ- Bourdieu’s (1992, 1993) concept of the ‘field of isational culture, people, resources, purposes, cultural production’ is built around a relational previous events and future expectations as well system in which art and its producers do not ex- as the institutional structures that constitute ist independently of the institutional framework the temporal and spatial background for a par- that authorises, enables, empowers and legiti-

44 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP mises cultural products and productions. Thus, tral dynamic in the field of cultural production cultural products are created through social re- (Bourdieu 1992, 1993). lations that enable and maintain the system of The concept of field is important in consider- cultural production. The relations can be both ing the dimensions of the relational processes in visible interactions as well as invisible structur- the arts. According to Bourdieu, different cap- al relations between the social positions of indi- itals (e.g. cultural or social) and positions with- viduals, groups or institutions. In the chapter I in the field are acquired through accumulated draw on a relational understanding of cultural experiences within the same field. This is why products, which instead of highlighting the in- the other ‘players’ entering the field of cultur- dividual creators is interested in the social and al production may find it difficult to legitimate contextual (e.g. economic and educational) as- their actions in the field. For instance, if an ad- pects that frame cultural productions and the ministrative director comes from the business networks of the producers (Becker 1974, 1982; field to the field of cultural production, his or Bourdieu 1993, 1992; Ranciere 2004; Guillet de her experiences may not be given much appre- Monthoux 2004). From this perspective, a cen- ciation or weight. Bourdieu (1993) argues that to tral aspect is the interaction between a cultural enter a field and to play the game, an agent has product, producers (artistic, technical and ad- to have knowledge, skill or talent to be accepted ministrative participants involved in the pro- as a legitimate player in the specific field. Enter- cesses through which cultural products are pro- ing the field of cultural production involves an duced), the audience (consumers and the public attempt to use the knowledge in the best possi- in general; critics and the media) and the society ble way, which would add to the agent’s capital. at large. Hence, the relational processes in the The heteronymous principle based on external arts refer to the visible relationships between factors means that almost anybody entering the organisational members as well as to other re- field of cultural production from the outside can lations, such as the historical and structural re- perform tasks that are not directly related to lations in the art field (Bourdieu 1992). the core artistic practices of cultural production. The field of cultural production is structured Delmestri, Montanari and Usai’s (2005) study by the distribution of available positions such in the film industry suggests that the two conflict- as art for art’s sake vs. social art, consecrated ing logics of art and economy have an influence on artist vs. striving artist or opera vs. symphony the relations and the networking systems. First, as well as by the characteristics of the agents vertical relations are more common between the occupying the positions. The dynamics of the production personnel (e.g. producers and techni- field are based on the struggles between these cal staff) and the people who manufacture, mar- positions, a struggle often expressed in the con- ket and sell the cultural products with the aim of flict between the orthodoxy of established tra- securing financial durability. Second,horizontal ditions and the challenging new modes of cul- relations are used by artistic personnel because tural practices, manifested as position-takings. they are more interested in artistic merit than These position-takings may refer to the ‘space in economic success or organisational advance- of creative works’ or to internal (e.g. stylistic) ment. Artistic merit adds to their cultural and and external (e.g. political) positioning. Conflicts symbolic capital and confirms their position and between the different position-takings create autonomy in the field of cultural production. For particular manifestations of the structures of this reason, the artistic personnel in arts organi- the positions in the field. Hence, the struggle sations are more familiar with working with hor- is not only between two individuals but is also izontal relations because of their larger interest inscribed in the broader conflict between or- in symbolic and cultural capitals that define the thodoxy and heresy, which constitutes the cen- merits in the arts field. Hence, advancement in

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 45 the organisational hierarchy may not be the main no word is final, there are no ultimate explanations reason for aiming for the best possible perfor- that everyone, without exception, will accept as ex- mance. Conversely, for other personnel (e.g. tech- hausting all possibilities” (Clark & Holquist 1984, nical and administrative staff), vertical relations 347). Dialogue is thus a central element in re- may appear more relevant since the formal or- lational meaning-making, but the structure of ganisational hierarchy determines their everyday a dialogical process is defined in terms of po- work practices and positions in relation to their lyphony. According to Bakhtin, the concept of peers. This can have an effect on the differenc- polyphony refers to a multi-voiced social struc- es in how the different personnel groups attach ture where each ‘voice’ has an independent role meanings to relations between artistic practic- in the unity of an event. However, some voices es, expert groups and organisations (Vilén 2010). will always be louder than others, and that is why Bakhtin emphasises tensions (both inter- Towards dialogical leadership in nal and external), power struggles and silence the arts field as inherent aspects of dialogical meaning-mak- A relational approach provides an integrative ing (Belova 2007). Hence, meanings in dialogues construct that can help to integrate the differ- emerge from a constant struggle between my ent levels of leadership and thus highlight mul- voice/your voice and my sense/your sense (Cun- ti-stakeholder involvement (see e.g. Sluss & liffe 2002; Belova 2007). Ashforth 2008). To conceptualise the relation- According to Bakhtin, people are always en- al leadership in the arts field, I apply the concept gaged in meaning-making acts, as they contin- of dialogue and propose a dialogical leadership uously try to make sense of what is happening model in the arts field. Dialogue in this context around them. Cunliffe (2003) states that peo- means that the meanings are negotiated through ple construct meanings as they talk and listen dialogical relations in which utterances are al- to their own voices and those of others as they ways related to other utterances and the speak- try to figure out who they are, what they should er. Two different sides can be distinguished in do or say and how they should relate with oth- a dialogue: centripetal and centrifugal. The ers. Within a dialogue people relate inter-subjec- centripetal side is integrating and organising, tively to one another through utterances. This whereas the centrifugal side is disrupting and process can be seen as a continuing polypho- disorganising (Bakhtin 1981, 1984). Hence, I draw ny, where the voices and participants change from Bakhtinian’s view of dialogue, which has constantly (Hazen, 1993). De Cock and Chia also inspired Hermans’ Dialogical Self Theory (2001) argue that people are never free to im- (Hermans et al. 1992; see also Hermans 2013), pose their intentions but must instead mediate which has been used to theorise dialogical lead- them through the intentions of others. ership in organisations outside the arts field (e.g. Isaacs (1993, 1999) offers a more concrete van Loon 2017; van Loon & van Dijk 2015). description and defines four principles of dia- In Dialogical Self Theory, the ‘self’ (or I-po- logue: 1) listening as a participant; 2) respecting sition) consists of a collection of roles and po- the coherence of others’ views; 3) suspending sitions such as an artist, a parent, a spouse, a one’s own certainties; and 4) speaking with one’s professional, an employee and a leader. These true voice, and encouraging others to do the position repertoires then relate to the wider so- same. First, listening requires an understand- ciety and network of others in which it functions ing of how people understand instead of enact- (Hermans & Hermans-Konopka 2010; Hermans ing meaning on what others are saying or rely- & Gieser 2012). Dialogue is an on-going and open ing merely on one’s own interpretations. Isaacs process, which include ambiguities and changes (1999) stresses that it is equally important to lis- but is never finished: ”Nothing is ever completed, ten together and to learn to be a part of a larger

46 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP ECONOMICAL ARTIST EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT

ART FIELD PROFESSIONAL GROUPS

CULTURAL ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL ARTS ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT ORGANISATION

FIGURE 1 THE CURRENT DIALOGICAL LEADERSHIP SITUATION IN THE ARTS FIELD.

whole, in which voice and meaning arise from all implies being able to create the conditions for people. At its best, dialogue becomes a flow of new meanings to emerge in an interaction. Mis- meaning itself instead of individual voices. Sec- understandings between people are common in ond, respect is a practice that shifts the quali- relational meaning-making, and it is the leader’s ty of opposing and encourages people to sense task to cope with this confusion appropriately. what others are saying and thinking. To respect Second, as van Loon (2017) observes, there is a others means to listen for the coherence in their difference between dialogue and debate. Where- views, even if what they are saying seems unac- as debate is about defending one’s own assump- ceptable. In a dialogue, one can choose to resist tions, dialogue is about questioning those as- the other’s point of view or to suspend judge- sumptions, working together in a mutual space ments and opinions and the certainty that lies and trying to find common ground through the behind them, thus displaying one’s thinking in above-mentioned principles of dialogue (respect, a manner that makes it understandable to each suspending judgments, listening, asking ques- party. Finally, speaking with one’s voice refers to tions and voicing). In addition, an effective dia- revealing what is true for the speaker, and often logical leader is able to break existing patterns this type of authenticity encourages true voice and adjust between the two types of communi- in others as well (Isaacs 1993, 1999). cation. Third, a leader needs to learn to sense Dialogical leading is a process of organising what it means to respect and be respected, to and relating from a shared purpose and values truly listen, to suspend his or her own judgment in reciprocally connected relations (van Loon and to voice what comes to the mind. A good di- 2017). Hermans and Hermans-Konopka (2010) alogue may even transform a leader’s meaning define dialogical leadership as ”flexible movements system and open up his or her thinking, feeling between a diversity of I-positions that are relevant and behaviour in a way that is appropriate to the to the functioning of the organization as a whole” situation at hand (Van Loon 2017, 78–80). (p. 326). Van Loon (2017) argues that dialogical In the arts field, Beech (2008) examines the leadership involves three key aspects. First, it dialogical relations in a theatre and suggests

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 47 that the meanings related to the organisation As this chapter presented only a conceptual are constructed through utterances connected framework for dialogical leadership in the arts, to the external discourses, such as art vs. com- more empirical research is required to gain a merce, as well as to more individual level posi- deeper understanding of the dialogical leader- tions, such being the mother/father figure of the ship practices in different art forms. Moreover, organisation, having a relationship with the art- dialogical leadership should be considered in ists and being a leader. Dialogical leadership in relation to various managerial practices such the arts thus involves an important additional as HRM, strategic management and fundrais- element, namely, the field level positions and the ing. Impactful arts management requires leader- relations between them. The dimensions of dia- ship practices that enable continuous dialogues logical leadership presented by van Loon (2017) between the different individual, organisation- seem to apply to individual, group and organisa- al and institutional participants. While this is tional level relations in the arts, but the model not an easy task, it has the potential to devel- needs to be complemented with field level rela- op arts management into a culturally and soci- tions to be suitable for the arts field. Here, field etally conscious practice that truly support the level relations refer specifically to the horizontal art and artists. relations (including historical) between peers, that is, the other artists and creative content References providers. The following figure presents the di- Bakhtin, M. (1981). The dialogic imagination (edited alogical leadership model that shows how dia- by M. Holquist). Austin: University of Texas Press. logical leadership operates in the arts? in the Bakhtin, M. (1984). Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics arts and emphasises the complexity of relations (edited by C. Emerson). Minneapolis: University in arts leadership. of Minnesota Press. An arts manager can be positioned in the Beech, N. (2008). On the nature of dialogic identity middle of the figure, enabling and encouraging work. Organization, 15(1), 51-74. dialogue between the individuals, groups, organ- Becker, H. S. (1982). Art worlds. Berkeley: University isations and the arts field. This always occurs in of California Press. a specific social, cultural, economic, educational Becker, H. S. (1974). Art as collective action. Ameri- and ecological environment, which both enables can Sociological Review, 39(6), 767-776. and restricts the practices of arts management. Belova, O. (2007). Listening to the other: Polyphony and dialogue in organisational research. in La Re- Conclusions vue des Sciences de Gestion. In this chapter, I have approached leadership as Berger, P. & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social con- a series of relational processes and conceptual- struction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. London: Penguin Books. ised them in terms of dialogue. Drawing from Bourdieu, P. (1993). The field of cultural production. Bakhtin and Hermans, dialogue in this chapter Oxford: Polity Press. refers to relational meaning-making process- Bourdieu, P. (1992). The rules of art. Genesis and es and, considering Bourdieu’s field of cultural structure of the literary field. Stanford, CA: Stan- production, illustrates the dialogic leadership ford University Press. model of the arts field, including interpersonal Bourdieu, P. & Wacquant, J. D. (1992). An invitation and structural as well as vertical and horizontal to reflexive sociology. Chicago: University of Chi- relations. The individual, group, organisational cago Press. and field level relations are all important to un- Cunliffe, A.L. (2002). Social poetics as management derstanding the specificities of dialogical lead- inquiry: A dialogical approach. Journal of Man- ership in the arts field. agement Inquiry, 11(2), 128-146.

48 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP Cunliffe, A.L. (2003). Intersubjective voices: The role Hermans, H.J.M. (2013). A multivoiced and dialogi- of the “theorist”. Administrative Theory & Praxis, cal self and the challenge of social power in a glo- 25(4), 481-498. balizing world. In: R.W. Tafarodi (Ed.), Subjectiv- Cunliffe, A.L. & Shotter, J. (2006). Wittgenstein, ity in the twenty-first century. Psychological, so- Bakhtin, management and the dialogical. In D. ciological, and political perspectives. Cambridge: M. Hosking & S. McNamee (Eds.) The social con- University Press. struction of organization: 226-239. Oslo: Liber/ Hermans, H.J.M., & Gieser, T. (Eds.). (2012). Hand- CBS Press. book of Dialogical Self Theory. Cambridge, UK: Crevani, L., Lindgren, M., & Packendorf, J. (2010). Cambridge University Press. Leadership, not leaders: On the study of leader- Hermans, H.J.M., & Hermans-Konopka, A. (2010). Di- ship as practices and interactions. Scandinavian alogical self theory: Positioning and counter- po- Journal of Management, 26(1), 77-86. sitioning in a globalizing society. Cambridge, UK: Dachler, H.P. & Hosking, D.M. (1995). The primacy of Cambridge University. relations in socially constructing organizational Hewison, R. (2004). The crisis of cultural leadership realities. In D. M. Hosking, H. P. Dachler, & K. J. in Britain. International Journal of Cultural Poli- Gergen (Eds.), Management and organization: Re- cy, 10(2), 156-166. lational alternative to individualism: 1-28. Hosking, D.M., Dachler, H. P., & Gergen, K. J. (1995). Aldershot: Avebury. Management and Organisation: Relational Alter- De Cock, C. & Chia, R. (2001). Diversity and organiza- natives to Individualism. Avebury: Aldershot tion: An essay with special reference to the work Isaacs, W.N. (1993). Taking flight: Dialogue, collective of Mikhail Bakhtin. Discussion Papers in Manage- thinking and organizational learning. Organiza- ment, nr 01/03, Exeter University. tional Dynamics, 22, 24–39. Delmestri, G., Montanari, F. & Usai, A. (2005). Repu- Isaacs, W.N. (1999). Dialogue and the art of thinking tation and strength of ties in predicting commer- together. A pioneering approach to communicat- cial success and artistic merit of independents in ing in business and in life. New York: Doubleday. the Italian feature film industry. Journal of Man- Koivunen, N. (2003). Leadership in symphony or- agement Studies, 42(5), 975-1002. chestras: Discursive and aesthetic practices. Denis, J-L., Langley, A., & Sergi, V. (2012). Leadership Tampere: Tampere University Press. in the Plural. Academy of Management Annals, Koivunen, N. (2007). The processual nature of lead- 6(1), 211-283. ership discourses. Scandinavian Journal of Man- Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a relational so- agement, 23, 285–305. ciology. American Journal of Sociology, 103(2), Koivunen, N. & Wennes, G. (2011). Show us the 281-317. sound! Aesthetic leadership of symphony or- Fairhurst, T. & Uhl-Bien, M. (2012). Organizational chestra conductors. Leadership, 7, 51-71. discourse analysis (ODA): Examining leadership MacIntosh, R., Beech, N., Antonacopoulou, E., & as a relational process. The Leadership Quarterly, Sims, D. (2012). Practising and knowing manage- 23(6), 1043-1062. ment: A dialogic perspective. Management Learn- Fulop, L. & Mark, A. (2013). Relational leadership, ing, 43(4). decision-making and the messiness of context in Osterlund, C. & Carlile, P. (2005). Relations in prac- healthcare. Leadership, 9(2). tice: Sorting through practice theories on knowl- Guillet de Monthoux, P. (2004). The art firm. Aes- edge sharing in complex organizations. The Infor- thetic management and metaphysical marketing mation Society, 21: 91-107. from Wagner to Wilson. Stanford, CA: Stanford Ranciére, J. (2004). The politics of aesthetics. The University Press. distribution of the sensible. London: Continuum. Hermans, H.J.M., Kempen, H. J. G., & Van Loon, E. Sauer, E. (2005). Emotions in leadership: Leading a (Rens) J. P. (1992). The dialogical self: Beyond in- dramatic ensemble. Tampere: Tampere Univer- dividualism and rationalism. American Psycholo- sity Press. gist, 47.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 49 Soila-Wadman, M. & Köping, A-S. (2009). Aesthetic van Loon, R. (2017). Creating organisational value relations in place of the lone hero in arts leader- through dialogical leadership: Boiling rise in still ship: Examples from film making and orchestral water. New York: Springer. performance. International Journal of Arts Man- Vilén, T. (2010). Being in between: An ethnographic agement, 12(1), 31-43. study of opera and dialogical identity construc- Sluss, D.M. & Ashforth, B.E. (2008). How relation- tion. Economics and Society 216. Helsinki: Edita. al and organizational identification converge: Ybema, S., Keenoy, T., Oswick, C., Beverungen, A., El- Processes and conditions. Organization Science, lis, N., & Sabelis, I. (2009). Articulating identities. 19(6), 807-823. Human Relations, 62(3), 299-322. van Loon, R. & van Dijk, G. (2015). Dialogical leadership: Dialogue as condition zero. Journal of Lead- ership, Accountability and Ethics, 12, 62–75.

50 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP s ESSAY SHARED TALENT AND INCLUSIVE QUALITY – A CASE OF VALUES IN ARTISTIC- PEDAGOGIC LEADERSHIP IN A MUSIC SCHOOL

MINNA LAUNONEN

The credit for the so-called “Finnish music the case of the East Helsinki Music Institute1 miracle” – the proportionally large number of (Itä-Helsingin musiikkiopisto), during Professor internationally successful musicians coming Géza Szilvay’s years as violin teacher (from 1971 from Finland – is generally attributed to the to the present) and principal (from 1984 to 2010). nation-wide network of state-subsidized music schools. During public debate in recent years, The East Helsinki Music Institute: Finland’s music education system has been Striving for inclusive quality questioned. Is it producing too many profession- With 2,000 pupils, the East Helsinki Music Insti- als doomed to unemployment? Is the quality of tute (IHMO) is one of the largest music schools the professionals it produces sufficiently high? in Finland, and it has become internationally Why give professional tuition to everybody if known for the Colourstrings teaching technique only a very small percentage actually turn pro- and music educational approach developed by fessional? On the one hand, the quality of the Géza Szilvay, together with his cellist brother Finnish music education is said to be insuffi- Csaba Szilvay. Beside its pedagogic profile, the cient, with the implication that it is no longer as artistic flagship of the institution has been its high as it used to be. On the other hand, there is orchestra, the Helsinki Strings2. IHMO’s spe- a tendency to separate professional and hobby- cialty since 1999 has been cooperation between ist instrumental music tuition from each other. its music school and the municipal comprehen- Overall, the arguments are contradictory and sive school system. In this cooperation model, there seems to be a conceptual confusion as to instrumental music as well as theory and solfège what the debate is actually about. Add to all lessons are integrated into the children’s school that the paradox that the outside world contin- day. The Colourstrings-based instrumental ues to admire Finnish music education and hold group teaching of this school continues to at- it up as a model, whereas in Finland the music tract international attention. miracle is often considered a relic of the past IHMO’s mission is based on Zoltán Kodály’s (Klemettinen 2012). motto, “Music belongs to everyone.” Another Based on my experience with the Finnish oft-cited phrase by Kodály is, “Only the best is music education system, I have seen the im- good enough for children.” While statements like portance of analysing the values the activity this should be self-evident, they have really been is based on, such as value-based leadership in taken seriously by the music institute’s directors the music school context. This chapter explores as an obligation to provide quality teaching to all the issue through my personal interpretation of pupils – and to developing student intake to the extent that nearly all applicants can be offered a way to start with their music studies. This ethos

MINNA LAUNONEN Launonen (MMus in arts management) is a doctoral student in arts management at the Sibelius Academy of the 1 The term ‘music institute’ is being used inter- University of the Arts, Helsinki. In addition, she works as changeably with the term ‘music school’ in this ar- the administrative manager of the East Helsinki Music In- ticle. stitute. Her doctoral research explores the narratives of 2 In Finnish Helsingin Juniorijouset (translation in the “Finnish music miracle” in the Finnish music schools. English is The Helsinki Junior Strings).

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 51 of what might be called “inclusive quality” has gramme was incredibly popular with both kids been felt strongly in the institution. and grownups alike, and started what could Working in the administration of the music only be described as a violin boom. Musical school, I have sensed a strong “mission-con- instrument stores ran out of small-sized vio- sciousness” present, even in the everyday work lins, and you had to queue for violin lessons at of the institution. In sustaining that conscious- music institutes” (Seppälä 2008). ness, stories and storytelling play a central role. Géza Szilvay recalls that the initiative to Stories live on in the everyday life of the insti- make a music educational television series tution – the story of the music institute and its came from the Finnish Broadcasting Compa- founding fathers and mothers, stories of other ny. It was targeted for Finnish children and their key figures along the years, stories of turning parents, but there was also modest hope that points, successes, setbacks and obstacles, sto- decision-makers would watch it, too. It turned ries of overcoming obstacles. In the background out to have an impact on both the authorities there is always the grand narrative of the Finn- and families with children that could hardly have ish music miracle, of which the East Helsinki been foreseen. Géza looks back upon the pro- Music Institute is a part. grammes tenderly as “naïve and simple” – and What kinds of values stand behind the mu- inexpensive, “practically free” for the broadcast- sic miracle? In the following, I will reflect upon ing company. He points out that the children the question based on an interview with Géza were not fully trained, and suggests that may- Szilvay,3 and start with a story belonging to the be therein was the positive appeal of the pro- music miracle genre. gramme. It showed that they were “quite normal, lovely gifted children.” However, of these children, A story of the talent shared almost everyone became professional, “fine pro- One of the basic stories told in the East Helsin- fessionals!”4 ki Music Institute and known throughout Fin- The fact that so many of the children went so land is one about the television series “Mini- far as musicians is, in Géza’s view, due to making fiddlers in Musicland” (“Viuluviikarit Musiik- music together in a group and in the orchestra. kimaassa”), which was written and hosted In his own words: by Géza Szilvay and produced by the Finnish “It proves – I go back to Kodály – that talent does Broadcasting Company in 1979. It was an edu- not belong solely to the one who has it but you cational series that featured Géza with his lit- should share it and by sharing you become richer. tle violin pupils on their journey through “Mu- This is the core philosophy of my work. During sicland.” The outcome of this venture demon- the entire 46 years of my work in Finland, it was strates the power of the television, not only in this all the time. All of these young people gave to the days of cultural uniformity in Finland but the [Junior Strings] orchestra but they got enor- up through the present day. It made Géza a ce- mously in return. This philosophy should be high- lebrity and became part of the collective mem- lighted much stronger because I am sure it is one ory of a generation. As the story is recount- of the secrets of the music miracle in Finland.” ed in a publication for the 40th anniversary of the East Helsinki Music Institute: “The pro-

3 The sound-recorded interview that took place 4 Phrases in quotation marks are direct quotes on the 24th of April, 2017 could be depicted as a from the interview; original language Finnish. ’narrative theme interview’.

52 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP Philosophy and leadership of less, personal traits as such may not be very the Music Miracle useful as a conceptual tool. Instead of prescrib- A core philosophy, or a firm and conscious val- ing what kind of a person a good leader ought ue basis, seems to be essential for an enduring to be, the point is to ask why he or she is doing work. The concept of philosophy can naturally what they are doing, and how they will strive to be, and has been, used in many ways, not least reach their goals. in the context of music education. As Bowman and Frega (2012) note, philosophy is something Concluding thoughts: other than a “passionate expression of deeply held Leadership, values and the mission convictions.” They further claim that the purpose What is special for the music educational lead- of philosophy is to improve practice by improv- ership – and arts educational leadership in gen- ing thinking. Lindström (2009) states that the eral – is the idea of the artistic leadership, which philosophical question of why we should have adds to the pedagogic and administrative or music education is based first on our concept managerial dimensions. In an arts education- of humanity, and second is an ethical question al institution, pedagogic and artistic activities about what is good and right (Lindström 2009.) are like two sides of a coin, and pedagogy pro- This indicates the different levels on which phi- vides the means for achieving artistic results. losophy works – not only guiding the basic prin- In the value-based educational leadership case ciples (why and for whom), but having practi- presented here, the aim is not only to raise fu- cal consequences for the teaching methodology ture musicians and music lovers, but to educate and organising the teaching (what and how). All children by means of the art of music as part of these elements can be found in Géza’s account their growth as human beings. of the meaning of philosophy, or the basic leadership values, for his work. It is not possible to REFERENCES go into them in detail here, but among them are Bowman, W.D. & Frega, A.L. (eds.) (2012). The Ox- the social aspect of music education, insistence ford Handbook of Philosophy in Music Educa- tion. New York: Oxford University Press. on quality, and the educative value of what is Klemettinen, T. (2012). Blog of the Executive Direc- being taught. tor of the Assocation of Finnish Music Schools. Studies on value-based educational leader- http://www.musicedu.fi/sml-ajankohtaista/suoma- ship often emphasize the personality of the lead- laisen-musiikkikasvatuksen-paradoksi-2/ er. It goes without saying that an exceptional Lindström, T.E. (2009). Ihmiskäsitys musiikkikas- leader is an exceptional personality. A leader vatuksen filosofian kehyksenä. In Louhivuori, J., puts her or his personality in the service of an Paananen, P. & Väkevä, L. (eds.), Musiikkikas- organisation’s purpose, in the same manner as vatus. Näkökulmia kasvatukseen, opetukseen ja her or his professional skill – and indeed her or tutkimukseen. Suomen Musiikkikasvatusseura – his values. Personal dimensions do play a role, FiSME ry. Vaasa: Ykkös-Offset, 107-120. and in the educational leadership literature they Notman, R. (2014). New Zealand – A values-led principalship: the person within the professional. In are considered as influential factors in a success- Day, C. & Gurr, D. (eds.), Leading Schools Suc- ful principalship. Effective leaders have been de- cessfully. Stories from the Field. London: Rout- fined as “authentic leaders” who “communicated ledge, 117-128. their personal vision and belief systems by direc- Seppälä, E. (2008). Neljä vuosikymmentä musiikkia. tion, word and deeds” (Notman 2014). Neverthe- Itä-Helsingin Musiikkiopisto. Helsinki: Miktor.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 53 ESSAY INTEGRATING CULTURE TO CITY MAKING

SAMU FORSBLOM

One of the megatrends that is strongly chang- lack of goals, indicators and assessment tools. ing the world is urbanisation. Urban guru Bruce The regional-economic impacts of culture are Katz predicts a rise of cities as world political rather well recognised today, but proving the actors alongside nations. The strengthening role connection between cultural vibrancy and, for of cities is also marked by global competition be- example, the contentment of residents and the tween cities over professionals, businesses and development of a positive city brand can be a tourists. There is a clear and proven connection challenging task. between cultural vibrancy and the attractive- The Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor ness of a city. Charles Landry, expert in crea- published by the European Commission in 2017 tive cities, stresses the importance of a proper offers an assessment and monitoring instrument balance between soft and hard infrastructure in to support the development of cities from the urban development. Immaterial cultural capital perspective of cultural vibrancy and creative features as one of the key issues in the build- economy. 168 cities from 30 countries were cho- ing of future. sen for study. The scope of assessment is broad, Culture-led urban regeneration offers cultur- including statistical data on cultural venues, cul- al operators great potential to strengthen their tural participation, jobs in creative sectors, ed- positions, but it also entails certain challenges ucation in the arts, transport connections and from the viewpoint of the intrinsic value of cul- quality of governance. The highest scoring cit- ture. Culture is visible in the development of ies per population group were Paris and Munich Finland’s cities now perhaps more than ever. At (XXL), Copenhagen and Amsterdam (XL), Ed- the same time the field of cultural operators is inburgh and Karlsruhe (L) and Eindhoven and becoming strongly polarised into two tiers, the Linz (M-S). There were no Finnish cities among winners and the losers. Major cultural events the top scorers. organised on economic grounds and the devel- Cities recognise the considerable potential of opment of the urban culture of city centres are cultural urban development, but comprehensive seen as key ingredients of urban development. cross-sectoral strategies for the cultural urban On the other hand, the primary production of development of cities are still rare. This may be art ‘for art’s sake’ faces growing difficulties along due to a lack of experts in the field outside the with the decline in public funding. major cities. Arts management education has One of the common and critical challenges a central role in the building up of the needed in the making of a culturally attractive city is a expertise. Integrating culture to city making requires an understanding of the multilevel urban ecosystem. SAMU FORSBLOM Forsblom (MMus in arts management) has worked as a professional in the field of arts management nearly 20 Culture as an accelerator of regional economy years. His career consists of several leading positions in Culture has growing importance as an accelera- festival and arts organisations in Helsinki, Hämeenlinna and Oulu. Currently, Forsblom works as a head of events in tor of economic, social and urban development. City of Oulu, preparing also Oulu 2026 – European Capital The strong role of culture as an accelerator of of Culture project. Forsblom holds Master of Music degree regional economy is a fact proven by numerous in Arts Management and has worked also as a director of Arts Management education at the Sibelius Academy. studies. Events and museums that attract large

54 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP audiences have been highlighted in the growth significance of culture in the marketing of cities strategies of many Finnish cities. Presently most keeps growing, “it is all about emotions”. There of the bigger cities in Finland are realising pro- is no point in marketing a city without contents. jects based on the cultural attractiveness the Modern city marketing means promoting urban city, where investments in stadiums, event cen- phenomena, such as site-sensitivity and creativ- tres and new museum concepts have been jus- ity, and communicating about them in new and tified with economic arguments, growth of em- fresh ways. In culture and phenomenon based ployment and tourism revenues. city marketing the city acts as a partner in the Culture can create social impact, especially development of interesting phenomena and con- by means of community-based urban culture. tents. The marketing should not be targeted at Events and culture can build up a shared iden- tourist and residents separately – it is the same tity and pride in a city. Culture can activate the city, after all. Tourists are interested in the same people of a city, create wellbeing and solve many things as the locals (“live like a local”). of the challenges connected to multiculturalism. New Orleans, which has built its cultural During its year as a European City of Culture, identity on unique competences in rhythm mu- Liverpool attracted 10 000 voluntary workers sic, is an excellent example of successful city to build the future of their hometown. marketing. The local culture has created a plat- Immaterial cultural capital has also come to form for tourism, industry, community and ed- play a central part in the development of the ucation. The creation of creative contents is built environment. City planning forges the based on real doing; showcasing the soulful- physical environment but without cultural in- ness and strengths of the city. terfaces and cultural knowledge it cannot pro- One of the best known and most extensive duce a balanced result. A functional connection programmes of cultural urban development is between cultural practitioners and planners of ECoC, European Capitals of Culture. Finland urban environments is in fact the number one will have its turn in 2026 and many Finnish cit- ingredient of a creative city. Urban planning pro- ies are now preparing for a development project cesses have traditionally been technically ori- that will span over 7-10 years. ECoC is a kind of ented, although in reality a good end result can living lab that offers cities the possibility to pi- only be achieved through diversified knowledge lot new forms of cultural urban development. and real dialogue among a broad group of actors. Where the first Capitals of Culture were award- Development of the urban environment needs ed the title for what they were, today emphasis is to also accept the significance of temporariness placed on what a city wants to become. The cri- and continuous change as special characteris- teria for selection underscore urban and social tics of a creative city. Creating and accepting an change. It has been understood that the power of event-friendly atmosphere often involves sever- culture and creativity rests foremost in their ca- al years of work towards a change in attitudes. pacity to strengthen the urban community and build pride and identity. A perspective that em- Request for a modern city marketing phasises the engagement of the community has The mentioned elements make up the basis of risen alongside the ideal of strongly artistically the brand message of many cities today. The curated production. The traditional philosophy

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 55 of judging artistic quality from the viewpoint of itors. Pecs 2010 saw a 27% increase in tourism. production has been challenged by approaches The figures are impressive and at best the year where social and communal factors of success as a Capital of Culture can permanently change are used in the assessment of productions. the DNA of a city with its cultural orientation. A city that wins the title is expected to Everyone who works in a managerial or other achieve long-term cultural, social and econom- responsible position in the field of culture needs ic impacts. The results in the previous Capitals to understand the impacts of culture in the eco- of Culture have been systematically assessed. system of cities. Arts management education is For example, each euro of public money invested thus one of the principal agents in the creation in Mons 2015 generated 5.5-6 euro for the local of a knowledge base for cultural urban develop- economy. Marseille 2013 attracted 11 million vis- ment in the future.

56 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP CASE ARTS MANAGEMENT IS BEHIND EVERYTHING!

ANJA LAPPI

“In the 1970s Lauri Vesanto travels from Kuopio to agement played a key role in my career. Years Mikkeli to teach ballet. Anja is one of his students. of experience as an artist were cased with arts She doggedly rides on her bike to the ballet classes management theories. I recognized a field of re- and rejoices over the arrival of modern dance and search that not only suited my choleric personal- jazz dance itself in Mikkeli in the early 1980s. Anja ity but also reinforced my practical experiences experiences the joy of dance, even though she doesn’t and arts producer identity. Arts management, dare tell anyone. The quiet girl in the back of the what a wondrous, endless bog of development class hatches over the decades into an entrepreneur – for better or for worse! in culture and the arts, a founding member of sev- Being an entrepreneur and developer in the eral organizations and, most recently, chair of the field of arts in Eastern Finland can, despite the board of Minna Canth ry.” numerous, even national networks, be lonely and hard. My job as an entrepreneur is expert The story might sound logical, but in truth thirty work where I manage, spar, train, produce and years of dance is a tapestry of wafer-thin webs design. My playing fields are the development made up of thousands of different situations, one of public organizations, artistic production as that I’ve been knitting with my own work as an the core activity and customer work of my own artist and producer. The tapestry, which dur- businesses and providing training for artists, ing my studies at the Sibelius Academy finally organizers of events, associations and organi- presented itself to m e as a theoretical field of zations. As an entrepreneur I am also the em- study, is still surprisingly invisible to many oper- ployer to two employees and numerous project ators outside the arts field. Studies in arts man- workers. All the same, the arts are a field of activity one has to repeatedly justify. Investment plans and the need for service development in the arts or the business potential of the arts ANJA LAPPI Lappi (MMus in arts management) is a creative director, in regional development are not recognized, or artist and entrepreneur, all in one. Apart from her own the idea of arts entrepreneurship is shunned – enterprises, Anya Productions (2009-) and the Kuopio Boothill ceramics studio (1995-2008), she has also been still today! At the same time, countless hours a founder of Dance Theatre Minimi (1991-), the Regional are spent in the free field on the various pro- Dance Centre of Eastern Finland (2004-), the Centre for Creative Industries MYLLY, the Satamankulma art centre duction phases in the artistic process, collabo- and, most recently, Minna Canthin talo ry, an association ration between different administrative sectors for the renovation of the Minna Canth Building in Kuopio. and actors is short-sighted, and the resources Her expertise derives from a career spanning over 25 years in dance theatre, as an entrepreneur and heading changing left over for the making of art are too scarce. and often turbulent projects. The production structures of cultural activities Anja Lappi currently works as the managing director of produced by the public sector are rigid, while the VB Photographic Centre and as the creative director of Anya Productions, a company that provides cultural man- the outcomes as such represent impeccable art. agement and design services, and as the chair of the board The need for development is pressing, through- of Minna Canthin talo ry. She is also a board member and member of the committee for organizational affairs of Kuo- out the entire region of Eastern Finland. I have pion yrittäjät (regional branch of the Federation of Finnish to remark, from my personal perspective, that Enterprises) and a deputy member of the board of Savon yrittäjät (regional branch of the Federation of Finnish En- the cultural shot in the arm and regional de- terprises). velopment generated by the arts management

ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 57 centre with potential to ensure its continuity through diverse artistic and business activities.

“Anything else, but not that half-dead sleepy life” The Minna Canth (1844-1897) quote lends itself well to the Kanttila project. Canth lived in the building as a young girl, between 1853 and 1863, and again after she became widowed, from 1879 to the day she died. She ran a thread shop and a general store in the building and hosted her famous cultural salon there, frequented by cultural person- ages from writer Juhani Aho to education of the Sibelius Academy have faded composer Jean Sibelius. out in the Kuopio region. The loss of in the ed- The renovation and future activities of the ucation is continuously seen as underdeveloped Minna Canth Building symbolize, on a small structures in the arts sector in region. scale, everything that a professional in arts Attitudes that carry new art and culture for- management needs to master in Finland and in ward are however needed. As an entrepreneur international networks. The development – or and developer of arts industry it is important for in many cases more precisely creation – of arts me to be part of the process of multi-disciplinary management and embedding the activities in the production of artistic and cultural contents from surrounding society are a continuous process the stage of developing ideas to taking responsi- of influencing values, producing art and main- bility, when needed, for more extensive entities taining the operating environment. Seeing to it by coordinating, communicating, marketing and that the mission of creators and producers of selling. It hardly comes as a surprise that I have art to create, produce, manage and develop art lately been active in a new renovation project, as part of the aggregate of societal functions is a mission impossible par excellence, i.e. a pro- fulfilled. Caring for the entirety that maintains ject for renovating the Minna Canth Building in the arts and in which the creation, production, Kuopio. I have nothing less on my lap than one of sales, performance and reception (i.e. viewing, Kuopio’s most worthy gifts to the world, writer listening, practice or experiencing of the arts) be- and social activist Minna Canth and the cultur- long. By seeing to it that the words ‘arts’ and ‘arts al-historically valuable building where she lived administration’ are inscribed in regional strate- and worked, Kanttila. The idea is to convert the gies, plans for urban environments and budgets building into a base for creative industries and a to enhance wellbeing in cities – automatically. centre for developing cultural business; includ- Congratulations, Sibelius Academy & Arts ing residency and work spaces, a cafeteria/res- Management! Congratulations to everyone who taurant and a shop. We want to turn Kanttila has studied there – what a gift we got from there into a living, internationally appealing cultural to our souls!

58 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 59 Entrepreneurship

Learning trough and about Arts Management: A personal story of growth

KRISTINA KUZNETSOVA-BOGDANOVITS

Beginnings After all, I am an arts manager-educator who This is a story of an arts manager. This is in big assists people in their learning journeys. Even- part my story, as I am an arts manager. I am also tually, that means assisting myself in my life- a mom, a wife, a wannabe-poet, a cinemahol- long learning and continuously redefining my ic, and a traveller, among other things. Howev- own place in the world. er, it is hard to articulate explicitly how all those I see entrepreneurial education as support- pieces come together into one holistic identity, ing students in constructing their preferred and often words lack accurate meaning. Thus, lifestyle from their unique interaction with so- there are numerous perspectives to this story, ciety and the application of the given means, and it is prone to change over time. Perhaps it be they skills, talents or capital (Ellmeier is the diversity of stories we share with other 2003; Kuznetsova-Bogdanovits, Ranczakows- people, children, colleagues, students and the di- ka, & Kiitsak-Prikk 2017). As follows, sponta- versity of their interpretations that are the most neous learning, implicit knowledge and entre- fruitful ground for self-reflection and learning. preneurial mindset have always interested me It might help another arts manager in acknowl- – from the moment I learned that these phe- edging their place in society, and in the world. nomena exist, to be more precise. It is on the one hand extraordinary how knowledge can surface years later after actual learning expe-

KRISTINA KUZNETSOVA-BOGDANOVITS rience, once you need to put it into practice, or Kuznetsova-Bogdanovits (MA in cultural manage- how without even focusing on a particular skill, ment) is a graduate of the Cultural Management MA one can master it by practicing something rath- programme in Estonian Academy of Music and Thea- tre (EAMT) and currently she is a Research Assistant er different. I also find that spontaneous learn- and doctoral student in arts management at the Sibel- ing and implicit knowledge (Polanyi 1967) are ius Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki. She also works as a lecturer in the Creative Entrepreneurship very much connected to the (everyday) prac- module and Cultural Management MA programme at tices of arts management and that they are es- EAMT and a project manager for an EU funded project. Her doctoral research focuses on managing entre- sential aspects of a learner’s identity construc- preneurial education in arts universities. tion (Meijers 1998). In these terms they can be

60 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP

EVERYDAY PRACTICES

ENTREPRENEURIAL MINDSET

SPONTANEOUS RECOGNITION LEARNING OF LEARNING GROWTH IMPLICIT EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE ENTREPRENEURIAL MINDSET

FACILITATION PROCESS

FIGURE 1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ENTREPRENEURIAL LEARNING AND PERSONAL GROWTH (ADAPTED FROM DAVID KOLB’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE, 1984)

connected to John Dewey’s concept of person- This paper explores the entrepreneurial mind- al growth as the main aim of education provid- set as the suggested learning outcome of the cul- ed (Dewey 1916). Entrepreneurial refers to es- tural and arts management programs particu- sentially proactive, resource-based and inno- larly in Europe and relate this concept to that vation-driven mindset (Śledzik 2013; Kirzner of Deweyan growth in education in general and 1973), which is close to the concept of effectual learning in particular. It also touches upon the thinking (Sarasvathy 2001). This type of think- problematic of arts management-related lan- ing and learning can be very helpful for learners guage. The data included originates from an of different fields helping the implicit knowledge analysis of arts and cultural management grad- to become explicit and spontaneous learning to uate programs in Europe carried out in 2013, as become recognized. well as interviews with cultural management In its circular motion, the model builds on master’s programme alumni from the Estoni- Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle1. How- an Academy of Music and Theatre (2016-2017). ever, it shifts the focus from conscious learning processes1 to the transformation of knowledge Having hard time to fit in as an Arts Manager from spontaneous and implicit to recognized Occasionally, I find myself reflecting on situa- and explicit and includes everyday (also out of tions when people make excuses for themselves class) practices. The facilitator’s role in the pro- as arts managers. It may sound like an over- cess as that of enabler for reflective learning simplification, but much of how arts manage- (Brockbank, McGill & Beech 1998) and growth ment is understood in a certain culture or so- cannot be underestimated. However, this pa- ciety is about the etymology of words in this per does not focus on this particular aspect. particular language-culture (Puren 2005). For example, kultuurikorraldus in Estonian can be directly translated as arranging culture with 1 Kolb’s cycle includes 4 stages: concrete experi- historically having a meaning leaning toward ence, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation (1984) administration or animation (of events) rath-

62 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP er than management and leadership (Dragice- ed. Suteu (2006) notes that academic training vic-Sesic & Stojkovic 1996). Thus, I have often in cultural management has created profession- had a hard time identifying myself as an arts ally closed groups: librarians, curators, conser- manager in an Estonian context, since I lean vationists and so on, but this process cannot be much more toward education-structure man- applied to general cultural management. There agement processes in practice. Even the idea of cannot be a homogenous closed occupational pursuing a doctoral degree came from the (once group with the same standardized training from non-acknowledged) intrinsic motivation to de- a general perspective. What are then the possi- velop as an educator in entrepreneurial cours- ble learning outcomes of arts and cultural man- es. The articulated idea of my initial doctoral agement programmes and what are some of the plan was focused on intercultural communica- methodologies of reaching these outcomes? tion and cohesion. However, this was a difficult research topic to keep academic distance from Arts Management curricula in Europe as a researcher, due to my own multicultural – Seen through the experiential learning model background. Secondly, it seemed that studying This analysis re-explores the dataset from the communication alone does not provide an es- degree profiles2 of 23 arts and cultural manage- sential understanding of people’s growth and ment master’s programmes from 16 countries development in the arts management field. At conducted in 2013, all members of the Europe- the same time, studying management thought an Network of Cultural Training and Adminis- the perspective of constructivist education does tration Centres (ENCATC). Although the selec- provide useful insights. tion and accessibility of materials in English of What about arts management education? It the ENCATC member programmes somewhat is not so easy always to argue for the need for a limited the research, some important emerging separate academic arts management education tendencies were traced. The research is centred to policymakers, funders or colleagues, because around David Kolb’s (1984) experiential learn- “management” is such a strong word etymolog- ing model, which also inspired the conceptual ically that it immediately diverts attention from framework and which is in turn based on John the “arts.” In Estonia as well as elsewhere in Eu- Dewey’s educational philosophy. The experien- rope, the tendencies in higher education evalua- tial learning model as introduced by David Kolb tion are toward optimisation, and that makes it in 1984 puts emphasis on experience, but also even harder for programmes that do not really on reflection and conceptualization of the expe- “belong” in business nor traditional arts uni- rience, and on the experimentation processes. versities to justify its existence and contribu- The way I applied the model in 2013 was to or- tion (Ebewo & Syrai 2010). Although the learn- ganize and present learning outcomes instead of ing outcomes of a business management pro- learning processes. This was done looking par- gramme and an arts management programme ticularly at the learning outcomes and profiles might differ on paper simply by the absence or of the graduates3 and to some extent the teach- presence of word “arts” in the beginning, cen- ing and learning methods, all found in the ma- tre or end of the sentence, this word changes terials presented on the programmes’ websites. the educational reality significantly. This problematic relates to the wider public discussion 2 Degree profile- usually includes learning out- about the role of the arts (funding) in society comes, profiles of the graduates, and other inform- ative texts. and to the relations in the particular culture 3 Profile of the graduate, graduate profile, career between artists’ and managers’ communities or employability profile - describes in different for- of practice (Wenger 1998). However, there is a mat the possibilities of the future graduates on the point when specialization becomes exaggerat- job market

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 63 CONCRETE EXPERIENCE

KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS WORKIN & LEAD TEAMS; PRACTICAL APPLICATION; PRODUCE, PRODUCTION; MANAGE, MANAGEMENT; COMMUNICATE, COMMUNICATION

ATTITUDES KNOWLEDGE & CROSS-SECTORAL; KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS COMPLEX; SKILLS ACTIVE CREATIVE; REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION STRUCTURED APPROACH ARTISTIC; REFLECT, REFLECTIVE; OBSERVATION IN PLANNING; CULTURAL; ANALYZE, ANALYTICAL; MAKING STRATEGIC PROFESSIONAL; EVALUATE DECISIONS ENTREPRENEURIAL

KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS CRITICALLY APPRAISE; THEORETICAL & SCIENTIFIC APPROACH; AWARENESS OF SOCIAL & POLICY FRAMEWORKS

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION

FIGURE 2 EXPERIENTAL LEARNING PROCESS OF CULTURAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION.

My interest in gathering the data was more gen- Entrepreneurial mindset and personal growth eral and focussed on the way the material was in arts management presented (discourse used, visual up-building, If we first look at the knowledge and skills build- absence or presence of certain elements). Re- up in terms of Kolb’s model, we can see that the visiting it now, from the perspective of knowl- concrete experience gets most attention in the edge transformation and entrepreneurial mind- curricula, followed by abstract conceptualization set, generated some interesting novel insights. and reflective observation, while active experi- This data was complemented by 10 inter- mentation is somewhat less present. Given that views with cultural management master’s pro- entrepreneurship is primarily defined as an in- gramme alumni from the Estonian Academy of dividual’s ability to turn ideas into action (Eu- Music and Theatre, in which they reflected on ropean Commission 2013) and entrepreneurial their professional identity construction, learn- mindset is about rethinking “art for art’s sake” ing and research work while studying in the pro- into “art for a living” (Ellmeier 2003, 7), contin- gramme. uous active experimentation in the real world

64 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP is needed to sustain personal growth (Sullivan Thirdly, on a more critical note it can be said 2000; Honig 2004). On average, the master’s pro- that although the attitudes related to person- grammes did not have difficulties in providing al growth as cross-sectoral, cultural, creative, internship and similar learning opportunities. complex, artistic, professional and entrepre- However, rarely did they build up these oppor- neurial were present, their connections to each tunities into several milestones (as the plans of other and identity were weakly drawn. Also, fo- studies showed) leading up to real-life employ- cusing on entrepreneurial mindset, its potential ment, or connect them to research practice. In in supporting the development of other learn- this sense, it is important to acknowledge that ing outcomes and the variety of career choices arts management alumni (from the interviews was not made explicit. Thus, the focus was more conducted in the Estonian Academy of Music on learning methods descriptions (internships, and Theatre) state that research work conducted project work, other active learning methods for for their theses helped them in reflecting their example) and learning outcomes, but not on the own practices, identity and contribution to the connections and coherent potential for growth field, and for some even proved to be the first that the programmes offer. Moreover, the nature connection to their working life. The latter is pri- of arts management work – working closely with marily applicable to those students who chose audiences and society at large -- implies knowl- to connect their internship with empirical data edge about learning processes (Belfiore 2006) gathering and thesis work. and bottlenecks. I suggest it could be indeed Secondly, key attitudes raised by the alumni supported in the curricula (descriptions) with- included cross-sectoral, cultural, creative, com- out jeopardizing resource-based or open-career plex, artistic, professional and entrepreneuri- choices. al. How could these learning outcomes relate Finally, as for the implicit knowledge and to the idea of personal growth, and how do the spontaneous learning, arts managers from programmes express the possibilities for profes- EAMT said that what was first seen by them sional identity construction? The most obvious as conflict between theory and practice dur- expression of an estimated professional identity ing studies later went through (in the course of of a student would be providing a career pro- their thesis work) the shift of perspective, after file4. The career concept includes the progress certain knowledge surfaced and was contextu- and development of individuals (Baruch 2004; alized into practice. The ENCATC study from Gibb 1993) – in other words, growth and identity 2013 also demonstrated that an entrepreneurial construction. Admittedly, it cannot be described attitude was considered important also in those fully in the curricula documents, as it is also the programs which focused more on academic or individual’s own perception (and narrative) of research development of the students, and in oneself as it relates to work and career (in a this sense the programme developers do not see holistic manner), reflecting motivations, per- any contradiction between these two fields of sonal meanings and individual values (Meijers practice. Thus, I believe that programme de- 1998). Thus, we could say that arts and cultur- velopers put stronger emphasis on the student al management programmes have adopted the identity construction and personal growth (the student resource-centred approach to their cur- reflective, self- and context-analytical outcomes ricula in general (Sarasvathy 2001), not wanting were clearly present) which is crucial for cultur- to determine concrete professional identities. al and arts managers. After all, arts managers work with their own as well as other people’s values and identities, and both themselves as 4 As described in footnote 2 there is no agreed term in Europe to describe the idea, thus a variety well as educators need to be continuously con- of more descriptive terms is used interchangeably. scious of that.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 65 Entrepreneurship Endings Honig, B. (2004). Entrepreneurship education: To- Now, almost 10 years on from the beginning of ward a model of contingency-based business planning. Academy of Management Learning my journey as an arts manager in the Estonian and Education, 3(3), 258–73. Academy of Music and Theatre, I find myself be- Kirzner, I. (1973). Competition and Entrepreneur- tween two countries and two academic worlds. ship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. I know many people around me in academia al- Kolb D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood ready for a long time, but their contribution and Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. relationship has changed for me. In addition, the Kuznetsova-Bogdanovits, K., Ranczakowska, A., way I see time, processes and meanings creat- & Kiitsak-Prikk, K. (2017). Entrepreneurial ed- ed is much different. I am constantly doubting ucation in Arts Universities – Facilitating the and rethinking my contributions, realising all change of entrepreneurial mindset. In Inner- the while that it is an essential part of the con- hofer, E., Pechlaner, H., & Borin, E. (Eds.), Entre- preneurship in culture and creative industries. tinuous personal growth process. Perspectives from companies and regions. New York: Springer International Publishing. References Meijers, F. (1998). The development of a career Baruch, Y. (2004). Managing careers: Theory and identity. International Journal for the Advance- practice. Harlow: FT-Prentice Hall/Pearson. ment of Counselling, 20(3), 19. Belfiore, E. (2006). The Social Impacts of the Arts Polanyi, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. Garden – Myth or Reality? In Mirza, M. (ed.), Culture City, NY: Doubleday. vultures: Is UK Arts Policy Damaging the Arts? England: Policy Exchange, 20-37. Puren, C. (2005). Interculturalité et interdidacticité dans la relation enseignement-apprentissage en Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objec- didactique des langues-cultures. Paris: Klinck- tives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New sieck. York: David McKay Co Inc. Sarasvathy, S.D. (2001). Causation and effectuation: Brockbank, A., McGill I. & Beech, N. (eds.) (1998). Toward a theoretical shift from economic inev- Reflective learning in practice. London: Gower itability to entrepreneurial contingency. Acade- Publishing Limited. my of Management Review, 26(2), 243–263. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. An in- Śledzik K. (2013). Schumpeter’s view on innovation troduction to the philosophy of education. New and entrepreneurship. In Stefan Hittmar (Ed.), York: Macmillan. Management trends in theory and practice. Fac- Dragicevic-Sesic, M. & Stojkovic, B. (1996). Cultural ulty of Management Science and Informatics, management – handbook. Belgrade: c Clio. Ac- University of Zilina & Institute of Management, cessed at http://theatreforum.in/static/upload/ University of Zilina. docs/ARTcompletan.pdf Sullivan, R. (2000). Entrepreneurial learning and Ebewo, P. & Sirayi, M. (2009). The concept of arts/ mentoring. International Journal of Entrepre- cultural management: A critical reflection. The neurship Behavior and Research, 6(3), 160–75. Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, Suteu, C. (2006). Another brick in the wall. A criti- 38(4). cal review of cultural management education in Ellmeier, A. (2003). Cultural entrepreneurialism: on Europe. Amsterdam: Boekmanstudies. the changing relationship between the arts, cul- Wenger, E. (1998) Systems thinker. Communities of ture and employment. International Journal of practice: Learning as a Social System. Accessed Cultural Policy, 9(1), 3–16. at http://www.co-i-l.com/coil/knowledge-garden/ European Commission (2013). Entrepreneurship cop/lss.shtml. 2020 Action Plan. Brussels: European Commis- Yorke, M. (2004). Learning & Employability. Se- sion. ries I. Employability in higher education: what Gibb, A. (1993). The enterprise culture and educa- it is –what it is not. York: The Higher Education tion. International Small Business Journal,11(3), Academy. 11–34.

66 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP Entrepreneurship

New perspectives on crowdfunding: Fanvestory case study

JUKO-MART KÕLAR

Introduction power with the help of the fans (‘fanvestors’). The current case study provides new insights Fanvestory was launched on March 31, 2017 and into the increasingly expanding crowdfunding has launched five campaigns as of August 2017. industry and explores the consumption patterns This article analyses the first two campaigns between different age and gender groups in the that featured the well-known Estonian pop-rock context of music industry start-ups. As a com- artist Tanel Padar and Tommy Cash, a rising Es- pany, Fanvestory aims to solve two fundamental tonian rapper in the international music scene. problems for the artists and fans in the digital This article aims to study the differenc- era: (i) artists face increasing global competition es in consumption patterns between different and receive money with a long delay, whereas (ii) age and gender groups who purchased shares fans are mostly passive consumers but want to of the future royalties of the music. The data engage in new and interesting ways. Fanvestory come from two primary sources: payment trans- allows fans to support the artists by investing in actions from the two campaigns and a survey the future royalties of the songs and earn long- questionnaire distributed via Facebook after term revenue with them while artists receive the campaigns. The article has both practical cash up front and increase their promotional and theoretical implications: (i) it allows Fan- vestory to clarify its communication strategy towards different customer segments, and (ii)

JUKO-MART KÕLAR it elucidates the functioning of the increasing- Kõlar (MMus in arts management) is an Advisor on ly growing and powerful crowdfunding industry Music at the Estonian Ministry of Culture, Chairman (Alhadeff & Buff 2014), especially regarding the of Supervisory Board of Estonian National Symphony Orchestra, start-up entrepreneur and lecturer. He is a different consumption patterns of various age doctoral student of Management at Estonian Business and gender groups. School and conducts various lectures on creative industries, entrepreneurship, project management and managing creative teams. His research interests include Definitions and literature review business models, music industry, creativity and technology. Juko-Mart Kõlar is a co-founder and co-owner of The topic of crowdfunding has become increas- Fanvestory. ingly important, as the global crowdfunding in-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 67 dustry was estimated to be a $34 billion indus- and crowdfunding campaign refers to an initia- try in 2015 and expected to continue growing tive to raise funds via a crowdfunding platform. at a compound annual rate of 100% over the According to Miller (2016), the roots of near term (Massolution Crowdfunding Indus- crowdfunding originated from efforts to support try 2015 Report). Crowdfunding is a wide con- the arts. Miller adds that some of the oldest and cept that has drawn inspiration from similar best-known crowdfunding sites began as a way concepts such as micro-financing and crowd- for fans to engage with the artists they love. To- sourcing (Poetz & Schreier 2012). The term day, crowdfunding has gained much importance is ambiguous, as it refers to receiving contri- not only as a way to raise funds, but also in cre- butions from the general public but does not ating long-lasting meaningful partnerships be- specify in which format, such as investments, tween the two sides. Scherer and Winter (2015, loans or donations. Mollick (2014) argues that 22) emphasize the importance of creating such crowdfunding represents a unique category of relationships between the artists and the fans fundraising, but because it belongs to an emer- that go beyond the value of simply lending or gent field in a state of evolutionary flux, com- donating money. According the authors plete definitions would be arbitrarily limiting. ”future market success will be increasingly built The author distinguishes between the broader on new relationships within the new digital me- elusive definition with many uses across vari- dia network – and no longer steered solely by ous different disciplines and the narrower defi- corporations, but more and more by artists as nition, which he explains as the “efforts by en- “artepreneurs” and former fans become “culture- trepreneurial individuals and groups–cultural, preneurs”. They create value on the basis of these social, and for-profit–to fund their ventures by new relationships as new forms of connectivity drawing on relatively small contributions from a that can outperform markets, because these new relatively large number of individuals using the relationships are not only based on money but on internet, without standard financial intermedi- value which can be shared or exchanged – so that aries” (Mollick 2014, 2). Following the Crowd- financing becomes something of so much more funding Industry 2015 Report, a crowdfunding value than mere lending or donating money. platform is understood as a facilitator of mone- That’s what all parties must learn, realise and tary exchange between funders and fundraisers, communicate” (Scherer & Winter 2015, 22).

EQUITY-BASED MODEL LENDING-BASED MODEL FUNDERS RECEIVE COMPENSATION FUNDERS RECEIVE FIXED PERIODIC IN THE FORM OF FUNDRAISER´S INCOME AND EXPECT REPAYMENT EQUITY-BASED OR REVENUE OR OF THE ORIGINAL PRINCIPAL PROFIT-SHARE ARRANGEMENTS INVESTMENT

REWARD-BASED MODEL DONATION-BASED MODEL FUNDER´S PRIMARY OBJECTIVE FOR FUNDERS DONATE TO CAUSES THAT THEY FUNDING IS TO GAIN A NON-FINANCIAL WANT TO SUPPORT, WITH NO EXPECTED REWARD SUCH AS A TOKEN OR IN THE CASE OF COMPENSATION (I.E. PHILANTROPIC OR MANUFACTURED PRODUCT, A FIRST EDITION SPONSORSHIP BASED INCENTIVE). RELEASE

FIGURE 1. FOUR CATEGORIES OF CROWDFUNDING. SOURCE: CROWDSOURCING.ORG.

68 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP Scherer and Winter (2015, 9) argue that parts is percentage-based commission on the raised of the former “push-music-economy” where funds, whereas some generate income by offer- companies produced and distributed music, is ing white label solutions and cash management. in transition and will become a “pull or on-de- (Crowdfunding Report 2012) mand economy”. Miller (2017, 9) adds that this Figure 1 exemplifies the four categories of new economy is crowdfunding proposed by Crowdsourcing.org. “driven by users who climb the participation lad- The value of this framework for this study der using new digital network media, not only to lies in Fanvestory’s unique position among the listen to and watch music /.../, but also co-create different categories. Fanvestory might be seen value with new possibilities to share, comment, as a hybrid model by means of combining the criticise, co-create or even produce music, and elements of both the equity-based and lend- now they can also co-finance music”. ing-based models. The program allows fans to Accordingly, as the Crowdfunding Indus- buy a share of the songs’ or recordings’ future try Report (2012, 12-17) illustrates, the previ- royalties (equity-based model), and contributors ous arguments might be identified to four cate- receive annual payments (lending-based model) gories of crowdfunding platforms to frame the from the collective management organisations, discourse: (i) equity-based, (ii) lending-based, such as Estonian Authors’ Society and Estoni- (iii) reward-based, and (iv) donation-based. Ac- an Phonogram Producers’ Society. Fanvestory’s cording to the report, equity-based and lend- unique position calls for specific communication ing-based platforms are the most effective for and marketing strategies because the custom- digital goods, such as software, film or music, as ers’ expectations vary between the different cat- they raise the largest sums of money per cam- egories, which is discussed in detail in the fol- paign on average. However, donation-based and lowing sections. reward-based crowdfunding are considered the most effective for cause-based campaigns that Overview of the first two campaigns “appeal to funders’ personal beliefs and passions” Fanvestory has launched five campaigns as of (ibid.). Additionally, the report (p. 17) reveals August 2017, but the focus in this article is on that the reward-based category is the largest the first two. The first Fanvestory campaign fea- (43% of the global crowdfunding industry), tured the song “Parem veelgi” by the Estonian whereas the equity-based category showed the pop-rock artist Tanel Padar. According to the fastest annual growth rate of 114%. The prima- prospect, the campaign was valued at € 20,000, ry revenue model for crowdfunding platforms and 33% of the future royalties were made avail-

LEGAL PERSONS MALE FEMALE ARTIST 67% (€ 13 400) NUMBER OF BUYERS

7 66 27

FANS 33% MONEY RAISED (€ 6 600) €756 €4596 €1034

FIGURE 2. OVERVIEW OF THE FIRST CAMPAIGN: “PAREM VEELGI” BY TANEL PADAR.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 69 LEGAL PERSONS MALE FEMALE ARTIST 80% (€ 48 000) NUMBER OF BUYERS

5 110 67

FANS 20% MONEY RAISED (€ 12 000) €355 €7389 €3057

FIGURE 3. OVERVIEW OF THE SECOND CAMPAIGN: “NOSEBLEEDS” BY TOMMY CASH.

able for the fans, who could purchase between company’s Facebook page, where 105 respond- 0,1% and 1% of the shares per transaction. The ents discussed their expectations towards the first campaign was launched during an evening company and experiences with the campaigns TV show on Estonian National Television called (figure 4). The questionnaire consisted of 11 Ringvaade on March 31st, and all 33% were sold structured and unstructured questions, in- to the fans for € 6,600 in about 30 minutes. cluding dichotomous yes/no questions, multi- Figure 2 reveals that there were 100 buyers, ple-choice questions and open-ended questions of whom the majority (66%) were male. Male to gain in-depth knowledge about the partici- buyers were also the biggest contributors pro- pants’ preferences. portionally in terms of the absolute value and The previous figure reveals that the demand the average price per purchase. for the shares surpassed the supply, as the ma- The second campaign was launched live on jority of respondents (76%) who did not buy a May 1st on TV3 during the evening news pro- share in the songs’ future royalties claimed to gramme called Seitsmesed. The programme fea- have wanted to do so if given the opportuni- tured a song called “Nosebleeds” by the Estoni- ty. This lack of opportunity might have result- an rapper Tommy Cash. The deal included both ed from large media attention (both campaigns composition and the recording of the song, and were launched live on primetime TV shows), as the campaign was valued at € 60,000. According well as from a relatively large number of fans for to the prospect, fans could purchase between both artists who received the information about 0,1% and 1% per transaction, and all 20% of the the campaigns from the artists’ social media future royalties were sold for € 12,000 in about channels: Tanel Padar has more than 30,000 two hours. Figure 3 reveals a similar pattern be- fans on Facebook, and Tommy Cash has more tween the two campaigns: among the 182 buy- than 150,000 followers on Instagram. Approxi- ers, more than 60% were male, who were also mately 60% of the fans who purchased a share the biggest contributors proportionally both in also claimed to be a fan of either one or both of absolute value and in terms of average amount the artists. It follows that approximately 40% per transaction. purchased a share for other reasons than to sup- In addition to the analysis of payment transport or engage with a particular artist, which is actions, Fanvestory distributed a survey ques- relevant in the context of Fanvestory’s commu- tionnaire after the first two campaigns on the nication and marketing strategy.

70 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP ”DID YOU BUY A SHARE IN THE SONG(S)?”

”NO” ”YES” 58 46 44 (76%) 27 (59%) WANTED TO BUY, RESPONDENTS RESPONDENTS CLAIMED TO BE FANS OF THE BUT IT WAS ALREADY ARTIST(S) SOLD OUT

FIGURE 4. OVERVIEW OF THE RESULTS OF THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE.

The main findings and discussion Buff (2014), who analysed music-related cam- The different purchase patterns, motivations paigns on Kickstarter and argued that projects and expectations between the different groups that raised larger amounts of money had, on av- who purchased the shares in these songs will be erage, larger contributions from their backers. investigated. Figure 5 provides a detailed view McAndrew and Jeong (2012) studied age, sex of the purchase transactions from first two cam- and relationship status as predictors of Face- paigns and reveals differences among various book use and found that females, younger people age and gender groups. Whereas the average and those not currently in a committed relation- price per purchase for the first campaign was ship were the most active Facebook users. The €55, it was €59 for the second campaign. This authors concluded that age was negatively relat- outcome supports the findings by Alhadeff and ed to the frequency of most Facebook activities.

MALE MALE FEMALE FEMALE (CAMPAIGN 1) (CAMPAIGN 2) (CAMPAIGN 1) (CAMPAIGN 2)

100 AVERAGE € 100 PRICE PER 81 PURCHASE 75 (IN EUR) 72 73 € 75

62 59 59 54 56 51 € 50 42 40 39 39 37 35 28 25 € 25

€ 0

AGE GROUPS ...–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51– ...

FIGURE 5. AVERAGE PURCHASE PRICES PER PURCHASE BY DIFFERENT AGE AND GENDER GROUPS.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 71 AGE GROUPS ...–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51– ...

CAMPAIGN 1 € 70 € 736 € 2130 € 1988 € 706

MORE MORE CAMPAIGN 2 € 205 € 2676 € 3968 € 2707 € 780 PROMOTION, MONEY, LESS LESS MONEY PROMOTION

FIGURE 6. ABSOLUTE MONETARY VALUE PER AGE GROUP OF THE FIRST TWO CAMPAIGNS.

Zarella (2010) adds that younger age groups (es- In this respect, the reasons why people pecially teens and people under 30) tend to have claimed to have purchased shares in the songs’ more posts on their Facebook pages. Based on future royalties is discussed next. As illustrat- these studies, younger age groups, especially feed, although the small number of responses males, are expected to provide more promotion- (46 of 104 respondents actually purchased the al value for the artists by sharing information shares; 29 male and 17 female) does not allow about them. According to York (2017), almost for far-reaching conclusions to be drawn, certain two thirds of all Facebook users are younger patterns will reveal some insights. First, there than 35 years, whereas only approximately 10% is a relatively large group of people who saw the are older than 55 years. At the same time, the campaigns first and foremost as an interesting analysis of purchase transactions from the first investment opportunity. About one third of this two campaigns revealed that people in the older group said they were not a fan of either of the age groups, especially the between the ages of artists but believed in the commercial success of 31 and 40 and 40 and 50, spent the most money the songs. One respondent said, “I want to diver- per transaction. sify my investment portfolio”. Another was more Figure 6 reveals that the age group between specific: “I expect to earn a minimum ROI of 10%”. 41 and 50 generated the highest monetary value The second group of respondents just wanted per transaction, whereas the middle age group to support the artists and contribute to the suc- between 31 and 40 generated the highest mon- cess of their careers, regardless of the royalty etary value in absolute terms. Considering both earnings. Some of these people liked the idea of average and absolute monetary values of the dif- supporting the artists (“My expectation is that ferent age groups, older groups tended to gen- artists make their dreams come true by making erate more monetary value, with the exception music and that they are happy”), whereas others of the oldest age group. wanted to support these particular artists (“TC The previous figures revealed that although [Tommy Cash – author’s remark] does ridicu- the artists of the two campaigns represented lous and awesome things”). The third catego- different music genres and presumably attract- ry of respondents wanted to try out something ed different audiences, the purchase patterns fun and was willing to risk the money. One re- between male and female buyers of the two spondent said, “/.../ the song can explode /.../ Lot campaigns were relatively similar. This finding of money and big success for the song €€€€€€€€€ seems to imply that the role of particular art- :D”. Another added, “There are extreme cases of ists or music genres has limited or no impact artists who can make it big, let them try and let me on the purchasing patterns of different age and buy ‘Extreme’ shares”. Finally, there were some gender groups. respondents who simply appreciated the idea of

72 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP INVESTING

SUPPORTING BETTING, FUN

FIGURE 7. RESPONDENTS’ EXPECTATIONS TOWARDS FANVESTORY.

the new platform (“I like your idea very much. Conclusion Awesome!”). As stated, Fanvestory is a music industry start- These different expectations can be grouped up that allows fans to buy shares in future roy- into three categories, as illustrated in Figure 7. alty earnings of the songs and artists to receive To meet these defined expectations of in- cash up front and increase their promotional vesting, supporting and fun, Fanvestory needs power. The analysis of the first two campaigns to carefully consider its communication strat- and a survey questionnaire conducted after the egy. When Fanvestory was first launched, the campaigns led to the following outlines. First, company’s press releases used a lot of invest- there were significant differences in the con- ment-related vocabulary (e.g., “ROI”, “shares”, sumption patterns between different age and “investment”, “IPO”). However, this release was gender groups. Whereas younger age groups, followed by the critics and received bad public- especially females, were more likely to provide ity in some business blogs and the biggest dai- most of the promotional value for the artists via ly business newspaper in Estonia (e.g., Äripäev, social media, older age groups, especially men March 31, 2017). The platform was not a typi- between the ages of 31 and 50, spent the most cal investment platform, as there was no finan- money per transaction and also provided the cial data about the songs, previous earnings most monetary value in absolute terms. Sec- or future projections of the royalties. Howev- ond, the findings support Alhadeff and Buff’s er, the company wanted to refrain from being (2014) argument that campaigns that raised labelled just as another donation-based or re- larger amounts of money had, on average, larg- wards-based crowdfunding platform, as there er contributions from the backers. Third, the were many of those already available. In this artists of the two campaigns represented dif- sense, Fanvestory needs to position itself and ferent music genres with expectedly different communicate its functionalities accordingly (see audiences, but the purchase patterns of male Figure 7), as it aims to address the expectations and female buyers between the two campaigns of its users by combining the elements from both were relatively similar. Therefore, the role of the lending-based and equity-based crowdfund- particular artists or music genres had limited ing models (see Figure 1). or no impact on the purchasing patterns of dif-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 73 ferent age and gender groups. Finally, people Massolution Crowdfunding Industry 2015 Report. purchased shares in the songs’ future royalties Crowdexpert.com. Available at: www.crowdex- for different reasons: (i) investing, (ii) support- pert.com/crowdfunding-industry-statistics/. Ac- cessed August 2017. ing the artists and (iii) betting. McAndrew, F. T. & Jeong, H. S. (2012). Who does As a managerial implication, this study re- what on Facebook? Age, sex, and relationship veals that to meet these expectations, Fanves- status as predictors of Facebook use. Computers tory needs to refrain from using only specific in- in Human Behavior. November, 28(6): 2359–2365. vestment-related vocabulary, which created bad Miller, Z. (2016). List of Top Sites to Crowdfund Mu- publicity in the beginning. As a hybrid model, sic, The Balance, October 12. Available at: www. Fanvestory combines elements from both equi- thebalance.com/list-of-top-sites-to-crowdfund- ty-based and lending-based crowdfunding mod- music-985231. Accessed August 2017. els and needs to be communicated as such. Mollick, E. (2014). The dynamics of crowdfunding: An exploratory study, Journal of Business Ven- References turing, January, 29(1), 1–16. Poetz, M.K. & Schreier, M. (2012). The value of Alhadeff, P. & Buff, L. A. (2014). Understanding crowdsourcing: can users really compete with Crowdfunding, The Music Business Journal, professionals in generating new product ideas? April. Available at: www.thembj.org/2014/04/un- Journal of Product Innovation Management. derstanding-crowdfunding/ Accessed August 29(2), 245–256. 2017. Scherer, H. & Winter, C. (2015). Success factors for Crowdfunding Industry Report (2012). Crowdsourc- music-based crowdfunding as a new means of fi- ing.org, May. Available at: www.crowdfunding.nl/ nancing music projects. International Journal of wp-content/uploads/2012/05/92834651-Massolu- Music Business Research, April, 4(1), 9-25. Avail- tion-abridged-Crowd-Funding-Industry-Report1. able at: www.musicbusinessresearch.files.word- pdf . Accessed August 2017. press.com/2012/04/volume-4-no-1-april-2015- Espiner, T. (2016). “Bowie bonds” - the sing- success-factors-for-music-based-crowdfunding. er’s financial innovation”, BBC News, Janu- pdf. Accessed August 2017. ary 11. Available at: www.bbc.com/news/busi- York, A. (2017). Social Media Demographics to In- ness-35280945. Accessed August 2017. form a Better Segmentation Strategy, Sprout- Kickstarter (2013). Kickstarter Stats, June. Availa- Social, March 6. Available at: www.sproutsocial. ble at: www.kickstarter.com/help/stats. Accessed com/insights/new-social-media-demographics/#- August 2017. facebook. Accessed August 2017. Kickstarter (2012). Theatre Is Evil: the album, art Zarella, D. (2010). Activity on Facebook, Hub- book and tour. Available at: www.kickstarter. Spot, June 1. Available at: https://blog.hubspot. com/projects/amandapalmer/amanda-palmer- com/blog/tabid/6307/bid/6031/activity-on-face- the-new-record-art-book-and-tour. Accessed book-by-age-infographic.aspx. Accessed August August 2017. 2017. Miller, Z. (2017). What Is Crowdfunding? The Main Categories of Crowdfunding and How You Can Get Involved, The Balance, February 27. Avail- able at: www.thebalance.com/a-guide-what-is- crowdfunding-985100. Accessed August 2017.

74 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CASE PLEASE WRITE A HIT! – THE SONGWRITER’S DILEMMA

EERO TOLPPANEN

We are looking for contemporary pop tunes with an how should a songwriter know what to do when edge. She likes strong beats and electronic sounds he has a recipe to follow without the actual in- mixed with acoustic instruments. She likes strong, gredients or any idea if it is a bread or a cake edgy lyrics with a meaning. that he is baking? As a music publisher, my job is to work be- These words are from an actual, real-life brief- tween labels and writers as an intermediary, ing from a record executive to songwriters, de- providing the artists with songs or their cre- scribing the kind of music he would like one of ators. In this role, I encounter the above de- his artists to perform in the future. It is a very scribed situation almost daily. Songwriters are common practice in the world of pop music for given assignments upon the successful execu- record labels, in desperate need for hit songs tion of which their livelihood depends. Yet, if for their artists, to reach out in this manner. we were to break down the brief, we would Many of the artists signed to record labels do not find the whole setting absurd. Take the term in fact compose their own material, and that is ‘contemporary’, for example. Contemporary where professional songwriters and music pro- refers to something that is current, which de ducers step in. facto means it is something that is already ex- What boggles the songwriter’s mind is that isting and therefore familiar to listeners. As there are all these words in the briefing, but for ‘edgy’, it usually means something that is none of them describes the music in actual a bit dangerous, on the edge of the known and musical terms such as rhythmical figures or unknown. Therefore, the song is supposed to chord progressions, let alone in lyrical con- be familiar and dangerous at the same time. cepts. Instead, we have terms like contempo- The songwriter must know the unknown and rary, edgy, pop, strong beats and acoustic ele- incorporate that into the music?! No wonder ments. According to the brief, the lyrics need creatives suffer anxiety when such paradoxical to be strong, edgy and meaningful. Supposedly demands are made. meeting all these qualities would create a hit However, in my experience, the problem is and then everybody would be happy. However, not on either side alone. The label might not even know what they want. In an attempt to facilitate the process, the executive may create the brief, thus taking on the role of the creative EERO TOLPPANEN and, by doing so, ironically confusing the actu- Tolppanen (MMus in arts management) is the Head of A&R al creative. Yet, songwriters try desperately to and co-owner of Elements Music, the leading independent Finnish music publishing company. His responsibilities in- please their ‘bosses’ to win their approval. What clude finding, signing and developing talented songwriters they may not realise is that they have only been and representing them towards domestic and international clients. Tolppanen has a background as a drummer and given a vague recipe, and the actual ingredi- holds a Master of Music degree in Arts Management from ents and correct measures have to be decided the Sibelius Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki. He also holds a BBA degree in International Business from by them. This is the equation the songwriter is Tampere University of Applied Sciences. asked to solve. A (good) executive then listens

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 75 to the song to determine whether the qualities then decide how much of it to apply so that the sought can be found in the end result. product is interesting enough to first catch the Sensitivity towards the requested parame- audience’s attention and familiar enough to then ters and knowing which musical elements to ap- retain it. For a songwriter to reach this point of ply to reach the desired results is, in my opinion, professionalism, it takes tremendous courage, one of the most important qualities of a profes- as it is only through trial and error that sensi- sional songwriter. It is for the creatives to define tivity develops, and a songwriter’s self-esteem what is meant by contemporary, edgy, meaning- is constantly on the line. A publisher can pave ful and so forth, and the customer and ultimately the way by giving sense and structure to the the audience decide whether or not they like it. world around the songwriter so that they are This sensitivity is a mix of being aware of what not alone and can feel some sort of safety while is happening in music currently, understanding experimenting. Yet, as in the situation with the its relation to the past and interpreting the lim- label executive, it is important that the song- its of the known and unknown. Bringing in too writer is not told too specifically what to do, as many familiar qualities will generate a boring it is their own way—not the publisher’s—that result, but being too edgy makes music incom- they need to find. prehensible for the masses. The actual musi- I suggest that this dilemma of pleasing ver- cal ingredients available for the music creation sus creating art is actually one of the most im- process are individual to each songwriter and portant reasons we have only a handful of su- consist of their musical history, acquired skills perstars: it is extremely rare that a songwriter and taste. It is the combination of these qual- solves the equation and finds the creative sweet ities, sensitivity to outside influences and how spot where they can just do their own thing and the songwriter responds to these influences with everybody loves it. And even when this happens, what they have inside that makes the result a the tragedy is that the world of pop is already success or a failure. moving forward, changing the meaning of con- When expressed this way, the old cliché of temporary, and the dilemma presents itself yet ‘doing your own thing’ applies quite well. The again. And they say pop music is simple. challenge is to first develop an ‘own thing’ and

76 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CASE CREATING MOVING FANTASIES

JERE RUOTSALAINEN

Culture and industry do not often fit in the same involves continuously developing new and out- sentence. When talking about the production standing ideas while keeping everyone togeth- industry, which relies on craftsmanship, it is er, even when cash is flowing as fast as a roller difficult to find strong examples of culture and coaster. My background as a visual artist gave industry connecting. Despite all odds, Fanta- me the perfect tools to create things, but man- sia Works has managed to combine production agement takes far more than that. Management and design to create fantastic experiences for takes guts. The first time you lose €100,000, you nearly 20 years. Theme building is considered feel it. It is a risky mixture of social responsibil- one of the world’s hardest industries to succeed ity and making a profit, and that mixture always in, and it is rare to establish or find companies comes up when talking about the industry. Do in northern Europe, let alone in Kuopio, with we still live in an era in which artistic business- a theme-building focus. Nonetheless, Fantasia es cannot make a profit? No, that kind of think- Works has managed to follow in the footsteps of ing does not work anymore. Management also Disney and build, develop and pursue the dream means making the right decision based on the of becoming a global player in the amusement right data. Yet, doing so is easier said than done. and attraction industry. Sometimes, I feel I have been too kind. If you What is great about Fantasia Works is that want to run a profitable business, you cannot be we have mixed creative people, such as weld- nice — or can you? Keeping the right people to- ers, scenographers, lighting designers, and gether and sometimes letting some of them go is three-dimensional modellers, with diverse are- inevitable, but trusting your employees and cli- as of expertise to build the perfect team capable ents is investing in your future. If you have guts of tackling any challenge and delivering unique and vision, that trust eventually pays you back. attractions to ever-demanding customers. Tai- Two years ago, we made a bold decision and lored solutions is the core of our business. Being changed our company name from the Finnish the company’s CEO is exacting but exciting. It Fantasiarakenne to the English Fantasia Works. We had achieved all our goals, so we outlined new ones: within five years, our turnover would be more than €5 million, and more than half of JERE RUOTSALAINEN Ruotsalainen (MMus in arts management) has been the it would come from abroad. We also established Creative CEO of Fantasia Works Oy (Fantasia Works) since new shareholding partners and planned our fu- 2006 and a designer and partner of the company since it was founded in 2000. Ruotsalainen has worked as a crea- ture as a global company. During that time, the tive director of various projects, including theme park con- indoor activity parks phenomenon developed, cepts and themed play areas, produced contemporary art festivals, worked on several environmental art projects and which perfectly linked our fields of expertise, worked as a lighting designer. Ruotsalainen has recently including theming and interactive apparatus- worked on indoor activity parks and attractions. Themed es. We created new goals and a new range of environments are multisensory and have many active layers; they must be linked to a selected theme. For Ruot- products in a relatively short time. In fact, many salainen, story is an essential part of the designing process, years earlier, we would had a hunch that the ac- especially when creating experience-focused environments and attractions. tivity parks boom would come, but we had not

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 77 been brave enough to test that hunch. Now, we me. Today, the gaming industry has made us see have the best possible situation. We constantly that creative work can be a €1 billion business. develop new games and immediately test them The industry is a perfect example of combin- on a live audience. By doing a lot of work up- ing many creative professions, from narrative to front, we have become professionals in an area visual, to create more value than has ever been that never before existed. We have a vision of imagined. Creating themed fantasies is where creating moving experiences and a set path to digital and tangible worlds collide. In activity becoming a global creator. We have a blue sea. parks, games motivate people to action. That ac- Disney was the first, and is still the biggest, tion means people spend more time in the parks, company in the attraction business, but it went which is valuable. More time spent in the parks bankrupt in its early stages. I did not want to usually means more cash flow for operators. In experience that outcome. However, taking risks the end, this is the story that gets investors mov- cannot be helped. Managing risks can be. You ing and orders rolling. have to know how to avoid icebergs in a tempt- Fantasia Works promises to create experi- ing blue sea. That is why I took the Arts Man- ences that customers can imagine, but if we agement Programme at the Sibelius Academy want to stand out, we need to create themes in Helsinki. I acquired management skills over or borrow brands from license owners. Themes time. It helped that I had worked as an entre- and brands can be created, but creating a brand preneur before I joined the Academy, but the is difficult. Games and movies have great brands theoretical aspects of the programme helped and IPs that can be used widely, and better come see a bigger picture and deepen my knowl- operation in the industry can benefit everyone. edge of the industry. My thesis topic, Building I suggest future arts managers lead with a Fantasy, was chosen purely to benefit my own great passion, but use brands, data and new company and profession. I think that more peo- technologies to bring value to traditional arti- ple in the creative industry should do the same. sanship. It is what we do: we create and man- When I was at the Sibelius Academy, there age. We make innovations realities. were not too many people in the same position as

78 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CASE CREATING CONSUMPTION OF LIVE PERFORMANCES THROUGH DIGITALISATION: THE CASE OF THE GIGLE START-UP

INKERI BORGMAN

What is Gigle? Why do Gigle exist? In this article, I will discuss the reasons why In a perfect world, every artistically talented I became an entrepreneur and why Gigle was person would be born with a twin: a producer born. People enjoy live performances, but find- who would cherish their unique sibling. Unfor- ing and booking a performer is a time-consum- tunately, many performers lack producers and ing task. If ordering a performance could be as become overwhelmed by the time and energy easy as ordering a pizza, would people buy more they must invest in other tasks outside their live performances? artistic processes. The vision of Gigle is to increase consump- Whereas many talented and well-networked tion of culture and arts. Gigle connects custom- performers find themselves a proper agent, ers to well-packaged experiences through an on- many lack support in their work. Some profes- line service. Our mission is to lower the barrier sionals prefer to have full control over their ca- of purchase by creating a channel through which reers and work by themselves. In every case, performances can be bought instantly. most performers would like to devote their time Gigle’s main idea is to digitalise the produc- to developing their artistic skills, rather than tion process, remove negotiations and match selling gigs. Most performers, whether in the supply to demand. We aim for quality service margins or mainstream, would love a calendar and data-driven tools that support professional that books itself automatically, which means a performers in achieving sales and help custom- need for a digital solution is out there. ers find and book the best experiences—straight from their mobile device. However, there are some challenges… Customers will choose an event, such as Focus of investors. At the moment, the world ‘business party’ or ‘kids’ party’ and add where is focusing on artificial intelligence and the In- and when the performance will take place. Gigle ternet of Things. Banks and health care are the will present all the relevant performances that next big things on the disruption list. However, can be purchased instantly with just a couple of culture and arts, despite having a market size of taps on a phone. Gigle is not just an online portal $127 billion, are not considered relevant options for performers. We integrate billing, contracts, in which people invest their money. notifications and many other features to create real value for all parties. Relationship of arts and business. Gigle is an interesting project, not the least because of its

INKERI BORGMAN relationship with arts and business. The inher- Borgman is a start-up entrepreneur with more than 10 ent anti-commercial position-taking of the arts years of experience in arts, production and sales. She is finalizing her second arts related degree at the Sibelius combined with investors’ urge to multiply their Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki, and merging tech investment is a challenging equation to solve. with culture at Gigle. Inkeri has worked with internationally acclaimed Finnish artists and is enthusiastic in support- Nevertheless, a midway path and a balance being upcoming talents. tween art and commerce should be found.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP 79 Major risks. Besides an adventure, Gigle is a Survival attitude required major financial risk for the parents of 4-year- In the future, understanding the possibilities of old twins. We have interviewed tens of people digital solutions and adapting to the changing and gathered feedback to be able to build a tool world will be extremely important qualities for that will accurately solve problems. If you think a good producer to have. Understanding how Gigle can make a difference, please share our to create financial well-being for artists with- story. Gigle’s success is dependent on the peo- out sacrificing artistic integrity is essential. Dif- ple surrounding us: performers, customers and ferences between art and business will create followers. tensions that a good producer should be able to resolve. Something good, too Producers working in the field of arts have With Gigle, we want to make a difference. We the skills and attitude needed in the start-up want to support local talent and create more field. Taking risks and managing them, as well experiences all around us. We want people to as having the ability to create solid networks, ‘Gigle’ gigs. We have gained a lot of support not are characteristics of a good producer. A large only in the form of positive words, but also as percentage of start-ups fail, and only few of them critiques that helps us to develop our service will become financially sustainable. An even further. We have connected people and sold gigs. smaller number of start-ups will become “uni- We have gathered a team of experts who will corns”, referring to start-up companies valued help us find solutions to the major questions over $1 billion. Considering this reality, build- ahead of us. ing a start-up has more significance than just Gigle is not financially dependent on inves- making money. Behind every start-up is usual- tors or foundations, but proper funding would ly a desire to change imperfections in the sur- help us speed up the process. Our tiny team has rounding world. The imperfection Gigle desires everything from coding to graphic design, pro- to change is the difficulty in connecting produc- duction and sales. We have the knowledge and ers and artists worldwide. With the help of oth- skills in-house required to go forward. ers and a hint of luck, we might make a living out of creating that.

80 ARTS MANAGEMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Event management

The network of meanings in arts festival productions: The managerial approach

MERVI LUONILA

As a result of the rapidly growing ‘festivalisa- embody a notable part of contemporary culture tion’ of culture (Bennett et al. 2014), the cultural setting (Jordan 2016; Richards 2015; Yeoman et field might be placed in the middle of ‘festival fe- al. 2015). In this development, festivals do not ver’ (Négrier et al. 2013). The growth in the size exist purely as traditional practices. They have and number of festivals is visible. Accordingly, extended to modes where arts and cultural insti- the nature of festivals’ contents are discussed tutions package and publicise their programmes to shift towards the production of spectacular as ‘festivals’, for instance (Négrier et al. 2013). and immersive art (Jordan 2016) and refram- In these endeavours, festival form might exist as ing arts consumption and production as more a kind of flexible marketing platform allowing a of a social activity (Négrier 2015; Yeoman 2013). low threshold of participation to performances As a consequence of this development, festivals produced by arts institutions (ibid.; Karttunen & Luonila 2017). Festivals, thus, have reassert- ed their position as popular manifestations for MERVI LUONILA individuals to consume and experience arts and Luonila (DMus, Arts Management) is working as Post- doctoral Research Fellow at Sibelius Academy of the culture. Accordingly, festivals have both direct- Uniarts Helsinki. Her research interests focus on the ly and indirectly come to play a multifaceted management of arts in general and the networks in particular. Applying the research context from the role in contemporary society through their so- Finnish festival field Dr Luonila continues her contri- cial, cultural and economic contributions (Getz bution to the literature of festival management and 2012a; Karttunen & Luonila 2017; Luonila 2016a; arts management. Her postdoctoral research concen- trates the given roles and meanings of festivals among Richards 2015). essential stakeholders of networked productions. Dr In Finland, as in Europe in general, festivals Luonila has several years’ working experience in arts organisations. Additionally, as a project manager, have held a significant position within the cul- producer and project researcher in EU-funded de- tural field throughout their history (see Négrier velopment and education projects in universities and the non-profit sector, she has planned and executed et al. 2013). Festivals have been seen as the val- as a team member and a coordinator a variety of de- uable way to organise arts and culture for audi- velopmental and educational activities related to the themes of the creative economy, cultural industries ences. In many cases productions have based on and festival management. voluntarism emerging from the enthusiasm of

82 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT

the content or, in some cases, ideological world- because, in Finland, festivals currently serve to views (Luonila et al. 2016; see also Amberla 2013; produce culture and function as platforms of Newbold et al. 2015). Currently, the quiddity of cultural production, distribution and consump- the Finnish festival field is multicultural and tion to a greater extent than ever before (Her- multifaceted. The contemporary Finnish fes- ranen & Karttunen 2016; Karttunen & Luonila tival field presents variations on internation- 2017; Négrier et al. 2013; see also Bennett et al. al, national and local festivities. The variety of 2014; Jordan 2016; Négrier 2015; Richards 2015). commercial and subsidised endeavours seek to Indeed, festivals − as a way to produce arts entertain and cultivate audiences through mani- for audiences − deserves attention. The ‘glam- fold art genres from theatre, contemporary arts, our’ of festivals emerges from the promise of ho- opera, rock and folk music, fine arts and movies, listic experiences, innovativeness and high-qual- for instance (see Herranen & Karttunen 2016). ity content (Karttunen & Luonila 2017; see also Festivals are produced all around the country Luonila 2016b). Festival is project-based produc- (see Finlands Festivals 2017; Herranen & Kart- tion system that produces art content without tunen 2016), and the frequency of festivals is permanent structures such as staff or buildings. noteworthy: in a country of 5,5 million inhab- Due this cost efficiency and flexibility in festival itants, the number of festivals is estimated to format (see Frey 2003), in cultural policy dis- be between 500 and 800 (Kinnunen & Haahti course, festivals are sometimes illustrated as the 2015). Finland, thus, represents a relevant ex- ‘Swiss army knife’ (Herranen & Karttunen 2016; ample of the European field of arts festivals (see Négrier et al., 2013). The metaphor is linked to Négrier et al. 2013). The Finnish branch might the meaning that festivals are expected to serve be placed in line with other western countries all kinds of cultural, social and economic objec-

AIM OF FESTIVAL PROJECT – THE CONCEPT OF FESTIVAL PRODUCT

FESTIVAL ORGANIZATION AIM OF PRODUCES PRODUCTION

THE FESTIVALSCAPE ARTISTIC FESTIVAL ASPECTS OF THE CONTENT EXPERIENCE FESTIVAL EXPERIENCE: PRODUCED SOCIAL EXPERIENCE E.G. STAGED, VISUAL THROUGH A AND ENJOYMENT OF PLACE PROVIDING SERIES OF UNEXPECTED EVENTS SERVICES, VENUES, EVENTS OUTSIDE EVERYDAY FACILITIES LIFE

SIMULTANEOUS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

RECURRENT EVENTS (ON PREDETERMINED DAYS)

PARTICULAR PLACE

FIGURE 1. THE CONCEPT AND AIMS OF A FESTIVAL AS A PRODUCT (SOURCE: LUONILA 2016A, 82).

84 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT tives at once (Négrier et al. 2013) in an econom- organisations that produce and enable the fes- ically attractive way (Luonila 2016a). tivals (Chong 2010; DiMaggio & Hirsch 1976) in However, although flexible, the festival model networked production structures (Becker 1974; is also fragile; festivals are easy to create and set 1982; Bourdieu 1993). Thus, the sub-objective up, but they also fail easily (Getz 2002; Négri- is to make sense of a framework for value cre- er et al. 2013; Nordvall & Heldt 2017). Based ation in the network structures (see Möller et on the functionally unbounded, temporal and al. 2005; Möller & Svahn, 2006; see also Weick project-based networked production structures 1995), as introduced through the literature of (Moeran & Strangaard Pedersen 2011), festivals festival management (see Getz et al. 2007). are perishable by nature in long-term views (Al- len et al. 2005; see also Kotler & Scheff 1996). In The conceptual approach: this discourse, the reasons causing the failures Festival as a product have been linked to supply and demand. Howev- In this chapter, festivals are studied as an interim er, as Getz (2002) mentioned, failures are part project-based, albeit frequent, way to organising of the natural evolution of the festival industry, variety of arts contents for manifold audiences in which the large number of festivals and com- (Luonila 2016a). Accordingly, arts festivals are petition among them significantly impact oppor- considered to be organised bodies that aim to tunities to survive the project-based business produce a setting to facilitate cultural and holis- and “the competition may concern seeking the tic experiences and promote a sense of commu- same audience, sponsors, grants, suppliers, and/ nity and celebration beyond that found in ordi- or other inputs” (Nordvall & Heldt 2017, 174). nary life (Jordan 2016; Morgan 2008). This ap- Therefore, the festival format is vulnerable to proach is understood as the basis for creating influences stimulated by the economic climate, a festival-specific product. The festival product cultural trends and audience demands (Newbold includes artistic contents produced in event se- et al. 2015), which set the framework that deter- ries, and essential services designed according mines festivals’ vitality as cultural productions. to a festival’s mission at temporary festivalscape As Luonila and Johansson (2016) found, the (Luonila 2016a; see also Getz 1989; Gration et al. production structures differ in the contexts of 2011). In this respect, festivals are considered to arts institution and festival due to the essence be product-driven productions whose contents of the resources needed. According the authors, are associated as a result of creative act (see Col- the influence in terms of variety-entailed inter- bert 2007). The attendees consume the festivals ests in the production processes reflects es- as entity in an act of interpretation at a particu- sentially to the production structures. In this lar time and place as long as the ‘performance’ sense, indeed, research regarding the mech- takes place (see Figure 1; Hirsch 1972; Lampel et anisms behind the production processes and al. 2000; Orosa Paelo & Wijnberg 2006). These management of festivals is required to deepen characteristics differentiate festivals compared the understanding of the festival format. This to single concerts, art exhibitions or programmed study draws on literature concerning manage- concert series produced by arts institutions, to a ment of arts, networks and festivals. The pur- special way to produce arts for audiences. pose of this chapter is to discuss the necessary Figure 1 shows the idea of the festival as a multidisciplinary approach to festival manage- product by means of studied in this chapter. ment and organising (e.g., Getz 2010; Yeoman et al. 2015; Mair & Whitford 2013). Positioning the Value creation of festivals discussion within the concept of a festival prod- Arts festivals, as cultural productions in gener- uct (see Figure 1), this chapter aims to reveal al, are valued for their symbolic and aesthetic the mechanisms behind cultural production in meanings (Luonila & Johansson 2016). The val-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 85 ue of festivals is not similar to that of tangible ple multifaceted roles as regulators, facilitators, goods; rather, the value lies in the experimental co-producers, suppliers, collaborators and audi- qualities as in the promise of highly desired arts ence members (Larson 2002; Getz et al. 2007) experiences, ability to facilitate social, cultur- and form the salient basis for festival produc- al and economic exchanges, capability to com- tion (Getz et al., 2007; see also Robertson et al., municate through symbolic meanings and in an 2009). The basis that results from these collab- opportunity to cultivate individual and group orative activities is the economic and knowledge identity (Getz 2015). The depicted basis for val- capital (Getz 2012a) yielding the immaterial and ue creation in the festival context explains the material resources to the productions (see Jo- perishable nature of festivals and clarifies the hansson 2008). fragility of the festival form: when value is creat- Strategically, the festivals sought change, de- ed through a ‘performance’ at a particular time velopment of the arts field and the creation of and place, consumption act exists within the lim- a unique and quality experience to enhance the ited timeframe. The simultaneously producing vitality (Luonila 2016b; Nordvall & Heldt 2017). and consuming festival experience supports the As Luonila and Johansson (2016) noticed, the argument that, the key to the success of a fes- networks are an essential tool for improvement, tival is the experiential setting delivered at the experimentation and continuous development of festival (Gration et al. 2011; Kinnunen & Haahti, the event, and the activities with stakeholders 2015; Morgan 2008). diversify the opportunities for an innovative fes- In this respect, the value creation is abstract tival design. The relationships and cooperation and, thus, cannot be guaranteed per se. The val- between the festival organisation and within the ue of festival relates to time and place and peo- stakeholder networks are crucial elements not ple’s experiences of festivity. However, festival only in terms of production resources, but also costs are associated mainly with the production in the context of the service innovations required of the contents and services at festivalscape be- for project-based and temporal festival produc- fore the event execution. These logics of econ- tions to enhance the competitive edge (Carlsen et omy, consumption and production influence al. 2010; Getz & Andersson 2010; Larson 2009). festivals, especially regarding resources for From the audience’s and other stakeholders’ the project-based productions (Frey & Vau- viewpoints, the attractiveness of festivals as way traves-Busenhart 2003) challenging the man- to consume arts or bind partnerships might be agement fundamentally. crystallized in the high quality of content, community, innovativeness, image aspects and ‘sto- The meanings in the networked festival ry’ of the festival. For individuals, festivals pres- productions ent an opportunity for a significant social inter- As the literature of festival management high- action and representation of self, as Larsen and lights, the success of festivals relies on the net- others (2009, 2010) found in their article regard- works. The production structures are found ing music consumption. According to the au- to consist of various stakeholder groups and thors, music depicts a desired self-image of the co-producers (Larson 2002; Getz et al. 2007; music consumer and underlines consumption, Johansson 2008), such as the festival organis- similar to festivals. This perspective might be ers, artists, media industry, local trade and in- linked to the unique nature of festivals as enti- dustry, sponsors, public authorities and involved ties beyond the every day life, as Johansson (in associations and clubs (Larson 2002; Getz et this publication) defines. The author character- al. 2007). This ensemble creates a platform for ise festivals as potential spaces for the reconfig- production (Luonila 2016b; Luonila & Johans- uration of identity and concomitant, for diversi- son 2016) in which stakeholders take on multi- ty as well fostered by the expression of “freedom

86 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT that differs from one’s ‘normal’ life” (Johansson in The research of audiences clarifies the im- this publication, 93). portance of attendance and reflects the wider For other stakeholders, beside the prod- understanding of the meaning of co-production uct-related issues, the charm of the festival as a substantive procedure in festival produc- might lie in stakeholders who are involved in tion. Andersson and Getz (2007) presented the production networks, especially in the case of pivotal role of audiences in their article regard- business-related partners. As Luonila (2016b) ing the resource dependency of Swedish street found, the collaboration among the business-re- festivals. The authors called attendees “specta- lated stakeholders depends on the festival’s tors” and stated that they need be considered as ability to produce valuable marketing collabo- the most influencing stakeholder with the “pow- ration and serve the stakeholder’s relationship er to make or break the festival” (Andersson & management activities by strategically suita- Getx 2007, 154). This aspect might be true from ble means and concrete instruments. From the the monetary perspective; however, according public authority perspective, festivals are connected to opportunities to enrich entrepreneur- The dimensions of mean- ship within, as well as the attractiveness of, host ings create a basis for regions. In this exchange (see Getz 2012b), the the formation of net- public authority is an enabler of productions, worked production struc- whereas the festival production is seen as ve- tures, which are a result hicle to generate economic, social and cultur- of meaning-based negotia- al capital in the community resulting from the tions. As a result, festi- fundamental activities in productions (Arcodia val management can be per- & Whitford 2006; Crespi-Vallbona & Richards ceived as the management 2007; Luonila & Johansson 2015). In this sense, of a network of meanings. the festival might become an instrument of lev- erage in the stakeholder’s fundamental activi- to the recent findings in literature, the question ties when necessary to suit the interests of the of attendance and collaboration with audiences stakeholders. and other stakeholders is not simply in regard to monetary properties or production resources. Management in the network of meanings Rather, the interest should be in the participa- The resource perspective, the nature of art and tory and concrete natures of co-production and product-driven production, requires a manifold their influences on a festival’s success and man- understanding of the nature of the organisation, agement. For example, as Jordan (2016) clari- leadership and innovativeness needed in mana- fies, the role of audiences, as representative of gerial tasks. As previously illustrated, the pro- the crucial stakeholders, has shifted from spec- duction environment of festivals is an assembly tator to actor (see Colbert in this publication). of several stakeholder groups with recognisable Accordingly, Johansson and Toraldo (2015, 14) roles and distinguishable actors that need to be state that in festival production, “the consumer managed (Andersson & Getz 2008; Getz 2012a; is positioned as an active agent in the production Getz at al. 2010; Getz et al. 2007; Larson 2002; process through a philosophy of participation”, 2009). Festival production as a platform links a hence, to the core of the co-production process- considerable number of involved and detached es of festivals (see White et al. 2009). In this stakeholders, as well as multifaceted objectives sense, the attendees and stakeholders impact and the connections between values and dynam- to the vitality of festivals to a significant degree ics, in procedures influence to the organising by simultaneously consuming and producing the and management. festival (Lee et al. 2008; Morgan 2008).

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 87 As a result of a festival’s characteristics of of networks are not obvious or sharp, but rath- experimental and networked phenomena, di- er overlapping and blurred because actors of mensions of meanings (DOMs) are created for the networks are rarely motivated by a single attendees and other stakeholders. However, for interest (Elbe et al. 2007). Rather, as identified reasons relating to networked production struc- before, the stakeholders exist in the production tures, DOMs are attached to festivals in terms networks in multifaceted and compound roles as of cultural, social and economic properties. Ac- regulators, facilitators, co-producers, suppliers, cordingly, DOMs that a festival creates and is collaborators and audience members (Larson attached to occur naturally at the individual and 2002; Getz et al. 2007), and the interests in the organisational levels and overlap. network of meanings overlap. Thus, the produc- From the network management perspective, tion context of a festival might be defined as a the mentioned aspects need a closer look to make network of meanings and stakeholders, where- sense of the mechanisms behind the festival pro- as their roles in these procedures impact the ductions that capture the scope of value creation. activities of each festival ecosystem uniquely. In management, the aim is to find ways to form festival-driven nodes for value co-creation in net- Discussion and conclusions worked production structures (Luonila 2016a). Conceptualising the discussion in this chap- Relating this to the above discussed significance ter, it is stated here that festivals produce ar- of the interaction and relationships in the fes- tistic content and essential services according tival context, the DOMs create a basis for the to their mission, which forms the specific fes- formation of networked production structures. tival product. This product includes both festi- The prerequisite for the formation of network valscape and festival experience, in which the nodes is the meaning-based interaction among artistic content produced in an event series is stakeholders. As a definition, these ‘negotiations’ positioned at the core of the product. The ‘tread- might be seen as being rather abstract; in this mill of art and economy’ and the social nature of case, the negotiations are not merely conducted art work (Becker 1974) create the cornerstone around round tables with the aim of developing for making sense of ecosystems or hybrids, in a contract of collaboration. Rather, negotiations which production and consumption (e.g., DiM- might be considered as a part of the co-produc- aggio & Hirsch 1976; Pratt 2004; Du Gay 1997), tion and co-creation processes among audiences values and capitals (Bourdieu 1993) and, thus, and stakeholders. Strategically, the goal lies in a range of multilevel interests exist simultane- the creation of a dynamic situation that enhanc- ously and are intertwined with the production es the sense of community. The question is not system of festivals. only about the role of festival attendees per se, The resource perspective, the nature of arts but also about the role of other stakeholders in- and product-driven production (see Colbert volved in the festival production as volunteers, 2007; Luonila et al. 2016), allows the manifold residents of the cities and employees in host cit- context to make sense of the key characteristics ies, all of who aim to create a ‘cultural collec- in the mechanisms in organising and managing tive thing’ around the production (Luonila 2016b; arts festivals. The approach assists to determine Luonila et al. 2016). In this process, the aim of the leadership and innovativeness required in festival organisation is to orchestrate collabora- managerial tasks as well. When festival production by influencing the actors with the festival tion as a platform links a considerable number product (Luonila 2016a). of involved and detached stakeholders, as well Indeed, from the management perspective, as multifaceted objectives, the connections be- the interaction and relationship management tween values, dynamics in procedures and out- become imperative. The structures in the goals comes in activities are more emergent than lin-

88 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT ear because of intertwined factors that relate References dynamically to each other over time (see Larson Amberla, K. (2013). Festivals in Finland. In E. Négri- 2002). Indeed, this multi-layered platform plac- er, L. Bonet & M. Guérin (Eds.), Music festivals, a changing world (pp. 193-198). Paris: es an emphasis on effective interaction with the Michel de Maule. audience and other stakeholders. Andersson, T. & Getz, D. (2007). Resource depend- According to Larson and others (2015), the ency, costs and revenues of a street festival. festival’s ability to become an appropriate and Tourism Economics, 13(1), 143-162. respected actor in the community strengthens Andersson, T. D. & Getz. D. (2008). Stakeholder the vitally important for legitimacy and enhanc- management strategies of festivals. Journal of es the opportunities for the formation of valua- convention and event tourism, 9(3), 199-220. ble network nodes as a basis for successful re- Arcodia, C. & M. Whitford, M. (2006). Festival At- sourcing. As discussed in this chapter, the DOMs tendance and Social Capital. Journal of Conven- create a basis for the formation of networked tion and Event Tourism, 8(2), 1-18. production structures, which are a result of Becker, H. S. (1982). Art worlds. Berkeley: Universi- ty of California Press. meaning-based negotiations. As a result, festival management can be perceived as the man- Becker, H. S. (1974). Art as collective action. Ameri- can Sociological Review, 39(6), 767-776. agement of a network of meanings. The levels Bennett, A., Taylor, J., & Woodward, I. (eds.) (2014). of institutionalisation and legitimacy of a fes- The festivalization of culture. Farnham, Surrey: tival are consequences of these DOMs. These Ashgate. appearances guide the motivation and decision Bourdieu, P. (1993). The field of cultural production. making about the formats and opportunities for Oxford: Polity Press. collaboration among stakeholders, which con- Carlsen, J., Andersson, T.D., Ali-Knight, J., Jaeger firms earlier research (see Larson et al. 2015). K., & Taylor, R. (2010). Festival management in- Therefore, in festival management, the fes- novation and failure. International Journal of tival-specific DOMs need to be identified to fos- Event and Festival Management, (1)2, 120-131. ter a sense of making the DOMs: What are the Chong, D. (2010). Arts management. (2nd ed.). DOMs that festivals create and are attached to? Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. This identification enables the understanding of Colbert, F. (2017). The new reality of the arts: Qual- ity of service offered to patrons. In T. Johansson the network positions and interfaces in stake- & M. Luonila (Eds.), Making Sense of Arts Man- holder networks that permit valuable collabo- agement. reserach, cases and practices (pp. 19- ration through the formation of valuable net- 25). Sibelius Academy Publications. work nodes. The prerequisite for the formation Colbert, F. (2007). Marketing culture and the arts. of network nodes is the meaning-based interac- 3rd edition. Canada: HEC Montreal. tion among stakeholders, which the festival or- Crespi-Vallbona, M. & Richards, G. (2007). The ganisation aims to orchestrate by influencing the meaning of cultural festivals. Stakeholder festival product. In this mechanism, the manag- perspectives in Catalunya. International Journal er’s ability to produce the content and collabo- of Cultural Policy, 13(1), 103-122. rative models that create DOMs for stakehold- DiMaggio, P. & Hirsch., P. (1976). Production organizations in the arts. The American ers is emphasised. Behavioral Scientist, 9(6), 735-749. Elbe, J., Axelsson, B., & Hallén, L. (2007). Mobilizing marginal resources for public events. Event Management, 10, 175-183. Finland Festivals (2017). www.festivals.fi. Accessed July 2017.

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ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 91 Event management

Performing diversity at festivals

MARJANA JOHANSSON

Introduction tural, group-based and individual differences is Diversity is a key word today. Whether de- seen as positive as it allows us to acknowledge a scribed as multiculturalism, cultural diversity or broad range of capabilities and experiences, and cosmopolitanism, there is a sense that the cur- it carries the potential of recognising and ad- rent global landscape is characterised by flows dressing issues of difference and inequality. On and encounters between a diverse range of cul- the other hand, diversity is not unanimously cel- tures and people. Vertovec (2007) has charac- ebrated. Economic, social and political changes terised the current condition as one of ‘super-di- have also given rise to uncertainty, and in some versity’ – a complex range of economic, political cases, have increased segregation and created and socio-cultural factors that shape contem- splits between groups and individuals. Some dif- porary society. On one hand, recognising cul- ferences come to be seen as acceptable and are, therefore, welcomed; others not so much. This is not only evident in cross-cultural contexts, MARJANA JOHANSSON but also in social relations at a more local level, Johansson (D. Sc. Econ.) is Senior Lecturer in Man- where individuals may become marginalised on agement at Essex Business School, University of Es- sex (from January 2018: The Adam Smith Business the grounds of, for example, gender, ethnicity, School, University of Glasgow). Her research focuses class or disability. Belied by its often unprob- on identities and differences in organisations, organisational power and inequalities, and cultural produc- lematic and popular use, diversity is a complex tion and consumption. Current and recent research phenomenon that merits critical attention. includes a project on the staging of diversity in the The aim of this chapter is to discuss diversity context of festivals; identity construction and the boutique festival; intersectional analyses of work in the in relation to festivals. It considers how festivals professional contexts of academia and counselling; may be seen to contribute to how diversity is un- and linguistic diversity in organizations. Her research has been published in journals such as Culture and derstood and framed through the way it is per- Organization, Gender, Work & Organization, Human formed in the festival context. Festivals show as- Relations, and Organization. She has also carried out festival research for the Swedish Cultural Foundation pects of diversity in several ways: through their (Svenska kulturfonden). content, their location and the people they bring

92 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT together. Festivals may provide a vehicle for im- the festival context. The chapter concludes by porting new cultural expressions and art forms, pointing towards the political and performative thereby transforming the hitherto unfamiliar aspects of diversity, and by offering some sug- into something familiar (Hottinen 2016). They gestions for further research. may to varying degrees have an explicit ‘diversity agenda’, whether related to the programming, Identity, diversity and festivals the artists or the audience. While their mission Festivals are seen as efficient and appealing ve- might be a sincere one of furthering positive rec- hicles for cultural production in that they pro- ognition of cultural and individual differences vide spectacular experiences in a compact and and diversity through the festival experience, easily accessible format (see also Luonila in they might also run the risk of reducing diversity this publication)1. They are seen as exemplary to superficial stereotyping. This is the potential means for promoting uniqueness as well as di- downside of the current ‘festivalisation’ trend versity, for example, in the way they contribute in society, whereby diversity runs the risk of to tourism, development and regeneration (e.g. becoming commodified “spectacles of Otherness” Jamieson 2014; Luonila & Johansson 2015). They (Taylor 2014, 33), rather than an opportunity for are also seen to enable the creation of commu- genuine encounters and exchanges. nity, place and belonging (e.g. Duffy et al. 2011; Diversity is connected to identity in that what Jaeger & Mykletun 2013). For example, early is seen as ‘diverse’ is attributed with a differ- festivals organised in Finland in the 1800s had a ent identity to that of the majority population, civilising, identity-forming aim (Rantanen 2016; for example. In the anthropological tradition, Silvanto 2007). They displayed the uniqueness festivals have long been viewed as facilitating of the culture, as well as emphasised the bond the “articulation, performance and rediscovery of between its people. Difference and sameness are identity” (Bennett & Woodward 2014, 11). Iden- thus two sides of the same coin. Fast forward to tity is affirmed in relation to difference: what is the 1960s and the rise of the contemporary pop the uniqueness of a place, group or individual festival, and we note how those festivals were which distinguishes ‘us’ from others, who is ‘the not only events for performing music but also Other’, and how should we relate to them? Con- for providing space for a growing countercul- versely, as well as affirming identities, festivals ture (Clarke 1982). Rather than subscribing to may also provide the space and opportunity to a homogeneous cultural space defined by the ‘experiment with different identities’ (ibid.). Un- state, such festivals became expressions of coun- derpinning this idea is the notion that festivals tercultural politics, and the diversified political are special spaces that operate under different and cultural preferences of different groups. The conditions to everyday life, and therefore, they tension between a unified community identity afford a freedom of expression that differs from and the recognition of diversity can be said to one’s ‘normal’ life. Following this argument, fes- always be negotiated within the material and tivals are then potential spaces for the recon- symbolic space of the festival. figuration of identity and concomitant notions While festivals are seen as useful vehicles for of diversity. creating a shared sense of identity, we must be The question that this chapter addresses is: mindful of unproblematic descriptions of iden- how is diversity performed in the context of fes- tity groups. Grouping people together under a tivals? To answer this question, this chapter will particular label does not mean that everyone in- start by exploring identity and diversity related to festivals in more detail. It will then sug- 1 It must, of course, be noted that ‘accessibility’ gest that an embodied perspective may allow varies depending on location, infrastructure and us to develop our understanding of diversity in ticketing policy.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 93 cluded in the group are similarly attached to it, Gender is, for example, a key category or interpret its meaning in a uniform way. For through which diversity is understood. Goulding example, a festival audience survey carried out and Saren (2009, 43) discuss how gender is per- by the Swedish Cultural Foundation (Johansson formed at a Goth festival, claiming that the Goth 2015) showed that the meaning and importance “subculture positively embraces the active reconfig- of what constitutes ‘Finnish Swedishness’ var- uration of gender norms”. The festival provides ied between audience members. Lumping people a space for challenging gender norms, and for together into descriptive categories must there- performing alternative and varied expressions fore be done with caution. Instead of trying to of gender by experimenting with costumes and decide what the essence of Finnish Swedishness looks. While the aim of the festival is not explic- or any other identity category is, we need to fo- itly to showcase gender diversity, it neverthe- cus on how it is performed in different contexts less contributes to making alternative gendered and by whom. Festivals present interesting sites expressions visible. Another often mentioned for making such observations.

Ways of ‘doing diversity’ Festivals are One way in which festivals are said to engage potential spaces for with diversity is through their programming: ei- the reconfiguration of ther when single-genre festivals showcase per- identity and concomitant formances with different cultural heritages, e.g. notions of diversity. music festivals that aim to bring together artists and musical traditions from different parts of the world; or when mixed-arts festivals showcase a range of different artistic genres, thus showing key category of diversity is class, in relation to the diversity of ‘the arts’. While these aspects which Johansson and Toraldo (2015) have ex- of diversity are important for the attraction and plored the emergence of so-called ‘boutique fes- success of festivals, I will here examine diversity tivals’ in the UK. These are festivals that are de- in the context of how festivals perform diversity scribed as small-scale, ‘non-commercial’ music through how they “enrol different consumers, ex- or mixed-arts festivals, which are seen to offer periences and cultural tastes” (Bennett & Wood- an alternative to large mainstream ones (Robin- ward 2014, 12). Diversity related to individuals son 2015). Their offering and promoted lifestyle has generally been understood as a range of visi- have contributed to the audiences largely con- ble and invisible differences that mark people as sisting of white middle class consumers. Again, different from each other, such as gender, ethnic- these are not explicit characteristics that the ity, age, class, sexuality and personality. As such, festivals aim to promote, but they nevertheless diversity takes the form of a list of differences become sites for performing classed and racial- that are considered significant in one way or an- ized identities. In these ways, they contribute to other, giving the impression that the categories reinforcing ideas of who the target audience is, are stable and that the list can be made complete. what they look and behave like, and what their However, differences are not ‘natural’ and giv- cultural tastes are like. en, but changeable and fluid. Which differences count as important can change over time, as can Diversity as an explicit festival aim their definitions. As such, rather than being sta- However, there are festivals that explicitly seek ble and given, differences are continuously made to further an agenda of “recognition of differenc- through interactions. In other words, they are es and multiplicities” (Markwell & Waitt 2009, relational and performative. 143). Related to cultural diversity, WOMAD is

94 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT a well-established cultural festival which takes there is also a risk of simplifying and stereotyp- place in several locations across the globe and ing it. It has been suggested that, while festivals which aims to ‘highlight awareness of the worth do have the potential to promote diversity and and potential of a multicultural society’ (About enhance inclusion, they may also reproduce gen- WOMAD, n.d.). In Finland, Maailma Kylässä and der, class and racial inequalities (Stevens & Shin Faces Etnofestival can be mentioned as exam- 2014). They may also be appropriated for com- ples of festivals with an explicit diversity agen- modification means, thus losing sight of their da. The former, which has taken place in Hel- original political impetus – something which sinki since 1995, started as a one-off event with public debate claims has happened to both the an anti-racist aim before becoming a mainstay Carnival and Pride (Khalili-Tari 2016; Tatchell on the festival scene. Faces Etnofestival, which 2017). Instead of being a means for social trans- takes place in a rural setting, was first held in formation, they become sites for cultural con- 1998, also with a multicultural message of there sumption and superficial engagement. being ‘different cultures and different ethnicities and they are not a threat to the Finnish culture’, The contribution of performativity as explained by the festival founder. Such festi- Given the above, festivals provide an interest- vals can be seen to politically engage with the ing context within which to analyse the ‘per- idea of super-diversity on a local level, in that forming’ of diversity. Performing and perfor- they wish to draw attention to the multiplicity mances are, of course, at the heart of festivals. of global culture. Taking this idea further, I will consider the idea Other festivals have similar political diversi- of performing in a way which takes into ac- ty agendas, aiming to “afford some communities count what different performances ‘do’, that is, greater visibility” (Taylor 2014, 27) by drawing their performativity. In particular, I will con- attention to the lived realities and cultural spe- sider how festivals might not simply represent cificities of marginalised groups. An example of diversity, but actively contribute to bringing these is the annual Pride Festival, which is an it into being. In particular, I argue for the val- internationally recognised event. First held in ue of examining how festivals enact diversity the US in 1970 to protest against gay oppres- through the bodies that assemble for it. The sion, Pride has since become an international value of such a focus is grounded in the notion phenomenon. It usually takes place during a that it is through our bodies that we come to week of events, culminating in a street parade. understand who we are, and it is through inter- In the UK, the Notting Hill Carnival in London, acting with other bodies that we create a sense which has taken place since 1966, is an annu- of belonging, or conversely, one of exclusion. al weekend celebration of Afro-Caribbean cul- When we talk about ‘individuals’, ‘groups’, or ture and heritage. It started as a response to why not ‘audiences’, we should not disregard increased racial tensions, hoping to act as a their embodied characteristics. The body is an catalyst to facilitate, among other things, em- important site of identity construction; it is powerment, education and transformations of dressed, groomed and adorned to display par- perceptions, as well as artistic excellence and ticular identities, and it participates in pro- entertainment (Notting Hill Carnival Mission ducing social practice. Characteristics which 2016). It has become a major event that attracts signify diversity, such as gender, age, class and a very large audience. ethnicity, are observed and performed through Such festivals provide a platform for un- the body. Given that festivals are linked to iden- der-represented groups and aim to raise aware- tity construction as discussed earlier, the role ness and promote social inclusion. However, of the body in the making and maintaining of whenever a group or identity is showcased, festivals should be examined.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 95 Festivals and embodied performances of ment examples of taking to the streets, Butler diversity argues that it matters that bodies assemble; that Considering how central the body is to festivals, they physically get together and are seen to do it has gained relatively little contemporary fes- so. In doing so, they exercise their right to ap- tival research attention. While much has been pear, asserting their existence and demanding to written on identity, collectivity and communi- be recognised. What becomes important, then, ty, embodied perspectives are rare. Research is to understand that who or what appears is that does explore the ‘various forms of sensual “regulated in such a way that only certain kinds of and embodied experience based on engagements beings can appear as recognisable subjects, and oth- with different tastes, sounds, forms of dress and ers cannot” (p. 35). Something or somebody can behaviour’ (Bennett & Woodward 2014, 12) has appear only insofar as they are legible. Whether mainly focused on the sensory impact on the in- somebody is legible and therefore allowed to appear in the social sphere partly depends on the “infrastructural conditions of staging” (p. 19), a notion which here takes on a particular meaning We need to move away from as festival organising is precisely about staging. attempting to discover and Indeed, “how exactly a festival is staged provides a list possible differences, clear symbolic expression of its degree of dialogue to instead paying greater and exchange” (Chalcraft et al. 2014, 122, original attention to how diversity emphasis), including, for example, its degree of is ‘done’ – that is, how public access. To examine how and where dif- it is performatively en- ferent bodies appear (or are made to disappear) acted – through festivals. is thus important. To return to the examples of Pride and the Carnival, it is the visibility of particular sexualised and racialiced bodies in public spaces that is an important aspect of their constitution. What Pride aims to achieve is the dividual festival participant (Toraldo 2013), in- recognition of ”sexually non-normative bodies” cluding “the impact rhythm has on the flesh and (Taylor 2014, 27) through their appearance in materiality of bodies” (Duffy et al. 2011, 17). Like- public spaces. Meanwhile, the Carnival has been wise, while the aspects of collectivity and com- subject to long-standing debates about safety, munity are often said to be central to festivals, criminality and racial profiling. A recent polem- little attention has been paid to how this can be ic concerned the introduction of facial recogni- explored in the coming together and encounters tion software at the 2017 Carnival (Nix 2017), between bodies that mingle, sit, stand, jump, implemented with the purpose of monitoring queue, dance and sometimes collapse out of ex- particular bodies. While these events provide haustion. Depending on which festivals and with the opportunity for visibility, the way in which whom bodies congregate, they affirm, subvert or the assembled bodies are gazed upon and be- aspire to particular identities, as discussed ear- haved towards shapes how their diversity is per- lier. Following the tenet that identity and diversi- formed and evaluated; for example, that particu- ty are relational constructs, the body is a key site lar minority groups are positioned as needing through which such relationality is performed. strict policing. To pay attention to bodies in this To explore how we might understand the manner opens up a perspective on festivals as effects of bringing bodies together in festival political spaces – a quality which might often space, I will turn to Butler’s (2015) notion of a characterise them but which is not always in- politics of assembly. Drawing on social move- terpreted as such.

96 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT Conclusion transform social divisions. Identity and diversity That festivals are seen as important for iden- are not neutral, descriptive constructs; rather, tity is well established; however, I believe that they are political and performative ones insofar the existing debate can be developed by bring- as some differences are seen as more acceptable ing diversity into it. Constructions of identities and highly valued than others. Such evaluations always delineate boundaries between sameness shape inclusion and exclusion, and festivals are and difference; between those who are under- not exempt from those social dynamics. stood to be alike and those who are understood to be different. Conversely, the concept of diver- References sity is underpinned by ideas of sameness. The About WOMAD (n.d.) Online resource: http://wom- extent to which constructions of sameness and ad.org/about/, accessed 2.8.2017. difference are viewed as natural and unchange- Bennett, A., & Woodward, I. (2014). Festival spaces, identity, experience and belonging. In Bennett, able is an interesting and important question. A., Taylor, J. & Woodward, I. (Eds.), The festi- In this context, festivals are a fascinating site valization of culture. Farnham: Ashgate. for analysis in that they present an interesting Butler, J. (2015). Notes toward a performative the- tension between the reaffirmation and experi- ory of assembly. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- mentation of identities; on the one hand, they versity Press. are seen to strengthen particular identities; on Chalcraft, J., Delanty, G., & Sassatelli, M. (2014). the other hand, they are seen to afford experi- Varieties of cosmopolitanism in art festivals. In mentation. How identity, and by extension diver- Bennett, A., Taylor, J., & Woodward, I. (Eds.), The festivalization of culture. Farnham: Ashgate. sity, become reaffirmed, challenged, subverted or sanitised through festivals is an issue merit- Clarke, M. (1982). The politics of pop festivals. Lon- don: Junction Books. ing further attention. To do so, we need to move Duffy, M., Waitt, G., Gorman-Murray, A., & Gibson, away from attempting to discover and list pos- C. (2011). Bodily rhythms: Corporeal capacities sible differences, to instead paying greater at- to engage with festival spaces. Emotion, Space tention to how diversity is ‘done’ – that is, how and Society, 4(1), 17-24. it is performatively enacted – through festivals. Goulding, C. & Saren, M. (2009). Performing iden- Particularly, I argue for the greater incorpo- tity: An analysis of gender expressions at the ration of an embodied perspective. When we talk Whitby goth festival. Consumption, Markets & about diversity in the festival context, we cannot Culture, 12(1), 27-46. discount the actual bodies that are seen to rep- Hottinen, M. (2016). “Ensi kertaa Suomessa” – nyky- resent that diversity and the conditions under musiikkifestivaalit kansainvälisten ilmiöiden maahantuojina. In Silvanto, S. (Ed.), Festivaalien which they appear. Whether they appear simi- Suomi. Helsinki: Cupore. lar or dissimilar to each other, we can ask what Jaeger, K. & Mykletun, R.J. (2013). Festivals, iden- has made possible their assembly in that par- tities, and belonging. Event Management, 17(3), ticular space, and what meanings are attributed 213-226. to their appearance. The interesting perform- Jamieson, K. (2014). Tracing festival imaginaries: ative aspect of festivals, then, is who is staged Between affective urban idioms and administra- and how; what aspects of ‘diversity’ become vis- tive assemblages. International Journal of Cul- ible. Following on from this, we should also be tural Studies, 17(3), 293-303. mindful of ‘absent presences’; which forms of di- Johansson, M. (2015). Det är publiken som gör festi- valen: En publikundersökning av fjorton festival- versity are hidden while others are foreground- er. Helsingfors: Svenska kulturfonden. ed? Finally, we must be mindful of the perils of Johansson, M. & Toraldo, M-L. (2017). ‘From mosh turning diversity into a ‘spectacle’ that remains pit to posh pit’: Festival imagery in the context distant or becomes an object of consumption, of the boutique festival. Culture & Organization, and which therefore might reinforce rather than 23(3), 220-237.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 97 Khalili-Tari, D. (2016). Black culture is popular, but Robinson, R. (2015). Music festivals and the politics everyone should remember why Carnival started of participation. Farnham: Ashgate. when partying this weekend. The Independent, Silvanto, S. (2007). Tervetuloa kaupunkifestivaa- 28th August. leille! Urbaanin festivaalikulttuurin nousu. In Luonila, M. (2017). The network of meanings in arts Silvanto, S. (Ed.). Festivaalien Helsinki. Helsinki: festival productions: The managerial approach. Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskus. In Johansson, T. & Luonila, M. (Eds.), Making Stevens, Q. & Shin, H. (2014). Urban festivals and lo- Sense of Arts Management: Research, Cases cal social space. Planning, Practice & Research, and Practices (pp. 82-91). Publications of the Si- 29(1), 1-20. belius Academy 11. Helsinki: Unigrafia. Tatchell, P. (2017). I’ve marched in every Pride Lon- Luonila, M. & Johansson, T. (2015). The role of fes- don since 1972. Today, it needs liberating. The tivals and events in the regional development of Guardian, 6th July. cities: Cases of two Finnish cities. Event Man- Taylor, J. (2014). Festivalizing sexualities: Discours- agement, 19(2), 211-226. es of ‘pride’, counterdiscourses of ‘shame’. In Markwell, K. & Waitt, G. (2009). Festivals, space Bennett, A., Taylor, J. & Woodward, I. (Eds.), and sexuality: Gay Pride in Australia. Tourism The festivalization of culture. Farnham: Ashgate. Geographies, 11(2), 143-168. Toraldo, M.L. (2013). Mobilising the cultural con- Nix, R. (2017). The decision to use facial recognition sumer through the senses: Festivals as sensory software at Notting Hill Carnival is another ex- experiences. International Journal of Work Or- ample of racial profiling by the police. The Inde- ganisation and Emotion, 5(4), 384-400. pendent, 27th August. Urry, J. (1995). Consuming places. London: Rout- Notting Hill Carnival Mission (2016). Online re- ledge. source: http://www.thelondonnottinghillcarni- Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its impli- val.com/about.html, accessed 5.9.2017. cations. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024- Rantanen, S. (2016). Musiikkifestivaalien alkuvai- 1054. heet Suomessa: Kansanvalistusseuran laulu- ja soittojuhlat 1800-luvun lopulla. In Silvanto, S. (Ed.), Festivaalien Suomi. Helsinki: Cupore.

98 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT CASE MANAGING PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCES IN CLASSICAL MUSIC EVENTS: A CASE OF AVANTI’S SUMMER SOUNDS FESTIVAL

MAATI REHOR

The professional field of classical music in Fin- carried out with practically nonexistent resourc- land represents a very high level of competence es in an indie spirit and with great courage. The as to both the design and the production person- festival, realized through some quite creative nel. This presents its own challenges to manag- solutions, soon stood out as a cross-section of ing events. Even though the responsibility of ar- the orchestra’s uncompromising artistic work. tistic and administrative management is usually The operations became established and pro- divided between different persons, there has to fessionalized also from the viewpoint of finances be a shared conception of the common goal and along with the arrival of government transfers available resources. The production staff in clas- and festival subsidies in the 1990s. The festival sical music festivals similarly consists for the got to host many renowned visiting artists from most part of professionals who work quite inde- composers and conductors to soloists. The ar- pendently. Alongside the team of professionals tistic whole of the festival is still today, 32 years you will nearly always find an enthusiastic group after its founding, built on the same principles, of volunteers. What differentiates the field from but the production has been honed into a form other music genres and festivals in other fields that is as professional as that of year-round, per- is expressly the degree of professionalism and manent orchestras. In the design of the Sum- the requirements and possibilities it entails in mer Sounds Festival the dimensions of artistic the production. planning, finances and administration and pro- This situation is also evident in the annual duction and communications run parallel, with Summer Sounds Festival organized in the city technical production as the third dimension. of Porvoo by the Avanti! Chamber Orchestra. The festival’s artistic planner changes every Avanti! was established in 1983 on the initia- year, and s/he is given free hands on creating tive of Esa-Pekka Salonen, Olli Pohjola and Juk- the programme. This is why an element of sur- ka-Pekka Saraste, and the festival was founded a prise is one of the key characteristics of the fes- few years later. The first three-day festival was tival. Both persons who are closely familiar with organized by professor Ilkka Oramo and Avanti’s Avanti’s operations and the festival and fully ex- founding composers under his inspiration. In the ternal artists have served in the post of artistic early years the festival was largely realized by planner. From the viewpoint of management, the musicians themselves and a few persons re- the work calls for precise financial and techni- sponsible for the production side. The work was cal-production coordination to ensure that the festival will operate effectively as a whole. In practice the planning is supported – and also

MAATI REHOR delineated – by the executive director, the pro- Rehor (MMus in arts management) is currently working as duction manager and the orchestra’s own ar- executive director for Turku Philharmonic Orchestra. Pre- viously Rehor has worked as executive director for Avanti! tistic director. The overall responsibility with Chamber Orchestra and executive manager for Jazz Fin- regard to management rests with the executive land (former Finnish Jazz Federation). Rehor holds a degree in music pedagogy and Master of Music in arts man- director. The planning calls for alternative, ex- agement from the Sibelius Academy, Uniarts. perience-based approaches especially when the

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 99 resources are limited. As the artistic planner the executive producer serving as their closest gives the festival its face and the theme around superior and supervisor. The executive director which the communications and marketing are is responsible for the financial monitoring, all the built, the end result aimed at the audience has contracts and coordinating the overall work be- to always express the planner’s vision. Since mo- tween the teams and the artistic planner. tivation is principally high at this level, the core The high level of professionalism among the task for management is to maintain a clear di- event staff allows for even surprising approach- vision of work and responsibilities. es, and exceptional and unusual artistic solu- In classical music events the production is tions above all. When all the performers are also usually run by a contracted production man- professionals, high costs are however inevitable. ager who does similar work for permanent or- It is important to let the artists focus on their chestras. In Avanti! the work is done by the or- own part during the intense festival days with- chestra’s own production manager, who knows out having to worry about the conditions. It is the practices, partners and other required ser- also significant for the motivation of the pro- vice providers. S/he takes part in the prepar- duction staff, who work the longest hours, that ing of the budget as regards the cost estimates they get to use professional resources. These re- for the programme contents and technical requirements are in many ways well reasoned, but alization. The production manager also books in times of growing economic restraints, the di- the technical team for the festival and serves as rector has to also push for compromises or cut- their closest supervisor. The orchestra attend- backs in the logistical, technical and service re- ants and the sound and light technicians are top alization in comparison to earlier festival years. professionals in their fields and it is pivotal to It is crucial to create an atmosphere of possi- trust in their knowhow. The teams work very bilities, to be personally engaged and to supple- independently and managing them at organiza- ment and counterbalance the decision making tional level mainly means creating a good spirit by serving and supporting the staff. and ensuring that information travels expedi- The Summer Sounds Festival aptly compiles ently back and forth. the general core competencies required by fes- The responsibilities associated with the ex- tival work when it comes to the production of ecutive director are usually highly diverse, espe- established, top-quality art music events. Doing cially in small events organized through associa- and managing things is different when working tions. In Avanti! the festival’s executive producer in a volunteer setting. The successes are always and the communications manager are the key sum of many different factors, but what I myself members of the executive director’s team. They, regard as the most important aspect (and atti- too, are experienced professionals who look after tude!) of management is enabling. The ability to their own areas of responsibility independently. evaluate the competence and motivation of the During the festival week the team is joined by people who will work on the event is of course the production assistants and volunteers, with necessary, but futile if there is no trust in the

100 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT selected team. In this context, I see the task of effectiveness indicators, and considering them managing professionals primarily as participat- in the planning requires close collaboration that ing, rather than directing. takes all the aspects of production into account. In the field of classical music, executive di- Artistic success cannot be something felt only rectors and people with administrative respon- by the artists themselves, the event has to reach sibility are for the most part professionals of and address audiences, also in the margins. both substance and production. As my case il- Cut and pasted marketing simply is not lustrates, it is possible that the responsibility enough in today’s world and collaboration with of administrative and artistic leadership will be business raises the standard. The embedding of growingly divided in the future. In other music holistic models of thinking and working is one genres this occurs more commonly. In Avanti! of the most fruitful challenges in our field. In a the division of roles between the administrative certain sense, a return to the times of scarcer and artistic management is exceptionally dis- resources could actually favour creative solu- tinct. The responsibility for the outcomes of the tions, and here the significance of management activities is however harder to define. The cri- becomes pronounced. What all can we, the cre- teria of public funding increasingly underscore ators and supporters of events, do and invent?

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 101 CASE HOW DO YOU TAME AN ANGRY TOUR MANAGER? ARTIST HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT AT MUSIC FESTIVALS

MAIJU TALVISTO

This chapter dives briefly into artist produc- Arts manager wanted tion, especially artist hospitality management When working with artists backstage, an arts in a festival environment. It is based on many manager does not have to be the strongest per- years of experience working at Flow Festival sonality or the most charismatic person. But it in Finland. Hospitality management means all is important to be friendly, easy to talk to and things related to artist hospitality when an art- a good negotiator. No matter what kind of feed- ist is on tour. This may include booking flights back you get, the show must go on and your and arranging hotel accommodation. Sorting smile cannot fade. As artists’ backstage man- out local transportation is also important, which agement is usually team work, an arts manager may include securing a ‘hospitality rider’. Basi- cannot be a lone wolf. When working in a hectic cally, hospitality management means catering atmosphere, one simply must forget about his for everything the artist needs backstage and or her own life for the time being and focus on in order to make the show happen as smooth- the life of the artist. This can be the best and ly as possible. the worst part of the job, because living in the There are many tales about artist riders and “festival bubble” is exciting but it is a state that the unreasonable requests artists have. Riders is very hard for outsiders to understand. are documents containing instructions for the Festival work is famous for its project-based hospitality team telling them how to create the nature. People in the field are accustomed to backstage environment and other elements of working on different projects simultaneously or the stay according to artists’ wishes. Hospitali- back-to-back. Arts managers no longer hold the ty teams come in all shapes and sizes. However, same positions for decades and they must con- one thing they all know is that if anyone is going tinually upgrade their knowledge of the field. A to have to paint the backstage room purple, ca- person is only as good as their last gig. If an arts ter only red, organic food or order Santa Claus manager is working with international artists, it from the North Pole, it will be them. Of course, is important to keep up with international stand- some of the most unreasonable requests are only ards and have good networks internationally. added so that the artist’s crew knows that the In Finland, the state of festivals is excellent. papers were actually read. This is the case for customers and performers alike. The general atmosphere in the field is organized and secure. This is because Nordic MAIJU TALVISTO countries care about managing details correct- Talvisto (MA) is currently working as artist coordination ly and because the countries are safe places to manager for Flow Festival and producer for the Comic Op- era Helsinki. Previously she has worked, for example, as perform. Finnish workers are highly valued. In producer for We Jazz Festival, producer for Bravo! Thea- other countries, hospitality might be neglected tre festival for children and young audiences, and production assistant for Pori Jazz Festival. Maiju has graduated or completed with minimal effort and budget. It from the University of Helsinki as a musicology major after is a good position to start preparing for a show which she continued her studies in the Arts Management and of course there is also a reputation that Master’s Degree Programme at the Sibelius Academy, Un- iarts. must be upheld.

102 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT Challenges from extreme weather When a hospitality team cannot provide to extreme personalities something, it is useful to find an alternative When working at temporary events, such as solution, and communicate it clearly to the art- festivals and concerts that are built up from ist. This could involve sourcing local product or scratch for only a couple of days, there are many service similar to what was requested. Howev- challenges that an arts manager may face. Tem- er, Finland has a small trade market, which pro- porary conditions, like extreme weather, create vides only a small supply of things. This means their own obstacles and dangers and they must that not all hospitality requests can be met—or be taken very seriously. In addition, different they must be ordered abroad well in advance. countries have different laws. So it is important Of course, an arts manager will always face to let the artist’s crew know if, for example, per- tour managers who are either extremely bored mission is needed in order to proceed. because they have been touring for so long or When starting hospitality production, the so intoxicated with power that they ask for the most important thing is to start planning early. moon and the stars. They may comment about Often, when bands are touring, they can only the smallest details and insist on more and more see three to four concerts ahead and it might be hoops for the hospitality team to jump through. difficult to get necessary information in a timely If nothing else helps, you can always give them manner. If unsure, always double-check. In my a bottle of good quality vodka or champagne, opinion, broken English is often the main lan- smile, apologize and keep your fingers crossed. guage used by people working on productions, so And yes, this is my best piece of professional ad- there is absolutely no harm in checking to make vice based on ten years of experience in the field. sure that something was understood correctly.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 103 CASE PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON PARTNERSHIPS IN THE FESTIVAL FIELD

CLAIRE DELHOM

Festival organisations are waking up! Now in festival itself. In the festival field, this skill is of- the era of decreasing public funding, there is ten sorely tested by difficult working conditions, an urgent need for support from private organ- such as tight schedules, small teams to create a isations to survive in festival field, and Finnish large panel of content and a lack of financial re- festivals are rethinking their views on partner- sources. However, a suitable environment for the ships. However, when things are done in urgency strategic-thinking process needs to be built up. without ample planning and strategizing, I think It is the responsibility of people in charge of that they rarely end up being viable in the long partnerships to remind and keep in mind that a run. As a consequence of this urgency, the in- partnership is, above all else, a business-based tended fruitful cooperation turns into perpetual relationship. As in any relationship, it requires unsatisfying relationships for both the partners a match between different profiles, values, per- and the festival. In this respect, what should be sonalities and wishes. Each festival, like each done next? individual, is unique. The chosen cooperation in Too many partnership projects end up be- a partner-festival relationship should be a con- ing a simple monetary transaction versus vis- scious, strategic decision. We should always be ibility by default, without any proof of it being asking ourselves if this partnership project is the right choice, simply because both sides are the right way to bring all parties what they need. convinced it would require too much resource That said, I believe overseeing partnerships for to create something more solid. It should be the a festival is a challenge, yet full of opportunities role of any arts manager to challenge the estab- ready to be seized. It will present a million pos- lished model and decide whether it still has its sibilities to create personal relationships with place in the festival’s strategy. Taking this into each partner and to work together in developing account, a festival will never be viable in the unique content for an event, adding extra value long run without strategic thinking, which is a to it in the process. core skill required to create a sustainable fu- Currently in Finland, the job of ‘partnerships ture for our organisations. Strategic thinking coordinator’ is often associated with marketing goes together with audacity and risk-taking, and or fundraising tasks. Managing partnerships is brings a new energy to each project and to the a task that should be recognised as such. My daily struggle is convincing organisations that hiring someone to focus on partnerships is a CLAIRE DELHOM Delhom moved to Finland to study in Sibelius Academy long-term investment. Finding the right part- Arts Management Master’s Degree Programme in 2013. ner, building trust and creating commitment re- Since then, she has worked at different positions in several quires full-time dedication and ongoing efforts festival organizations in Helsinki. Currently, she is working on a new event in Helsinki with the aim to create a bold cul- way ahead of the event. I have noticed that we tural content and wider work with partnerships. Claire’s must understand the way private businesses passion for festivals comes from the whole process of creating and producing a new edition every year, and the pos- think and adapt it to the artistic world while sibility to experience fully the result of this creation during considering the festival as a business. Versatil- the time of the event, as well as enjoying the audience’s reception of the new content. According to Claire, producing ity is a requirement. Mass emails are too often a festival is just like creating an art work! still used to approach new partners, and a more

104 ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT personal approach should be used. Taking the organisation needs to think larger than itself, time to carryout field research beforehand will taking into account our environment in order enable organisations to find a matching partner. to take advantage of it. I argue that it also re- A festival is a true gift for companies look- inforces our role in society. We represent the ing for creative marketing campaigns. Each world and its culture, and we need to open our edition of a festival is unique, serving different doors to it and let it influence the event’s core purposes, targeting different audiences. This personality. uniqueness is the most prevalent strength of How about the future? What can we expect to the field: with such broad content, it is possi- change, or not change, in the next 10–15 years? ble to offer companies hundreds of ways to take Thanks to their unique format, festivals are ad- part in the festival’s experience. The potential aptable entities, which will continue to expand for festivals to regroup the stakeholders also at the whim of the context, their environment makes them more appealing. For example, the and the wishes of their stakeholders. As for April Jazz and Espoo Ciné International Film partnerships, I believe we can achieve a state Festival, both happening in the spring with the in the field where we work hand-in-hand with Espoo Cultural Centre as a main venue, decided businesses to co-create value for our audienc- to join forces and created a three parties’ party es. I expect a change in people’s opinions of the partnership with Marimekko, a powerful Finn- cultural field: festivals have to be recognised as ish design brand, to decorate their main venue. a type of business with their own peculiarities. The festivals also share their outdoor advertis- In the end, all of those challenges come to one, ing campaign to minimise costs and maximise large objective: building the legitimacy of festi- visibility. In this case, cooperation with outsid- vals amongst private organisations, but also in ers but also fellow festivals and open-minded- their own environment. Make them see the po- ness were found to be keys for success! In this tential of an event. Festivals are a true treasure sense, I believe that to develop successfully, an trove, no doubt about it!

ARTS MANAGEMENT: EVENT MANAGEMENT 105 106 ARTS MANAGEMENT

Partnership & fundraising

Engaging young adults with fundraising at opera and ballet organizations

HEIDI LEHMUSKUMPU

Introduction changes in consumer behaviour. Many organiza- Opera and ballet organizations are on the verge tions have recorded a decline in subscriptions of a major transition. The average age of the au- for years, as customers are moving either to- dience is increasing, particularly in the opera ward single-ticket purchases or require flexi- (see Colbert 2003; Kemp & Poole 2016; Hall, Bin- ble packaging with subscriptions. Customers ney & Vieceli 2016). “As the arts face challenges are also increasingly likely to buy tickets clos- concerning shrinking and aging audiences, reaching er to the date of the performance, and there are new consumer segments has become an imperative” signs that customers are unwilling to make long- (Kemp & Poole 2016, 53). Opera and ballet or- term commitments (Hamilton 2017; Lach 2017; ganizations are increasingly seeking to engage Salmona 2017). In addition, memberships have young adults both as customers and donors. decreased especially after the financial crisis of Not only are opera and ballet organizations 2008. Interestingly, those who are members and finding ways to engage new audiences and do- donors tend to be more loyal than before (Lach nors, but they are also revising their market- 2016; Hamilton 2017). ing and fundraising efforts to better respond to As if the changes in consumer behaviour were not evident enough, there is a noticeable difference in behaviour between the older and HEIDI LEHMUSKUMPU younger generations. Colbert (2017) divides the Lehmuskumpu (MMus in arts management, M.Sc. in fundraising, M.Sc. in economics) is a PhD researcher at the market into two segments, millennials and baby MuTri Doctoral School of the University of the Arts Hel- boomers. These two consumer groups differ in sinki. Her research is titled “Strategic Fundraising – A Competitive Edge for Arts Organi-zations. Multiple Case both their tastes and their view of brand loyal- Studies of International Opera and Ballet Organizations.” ty. Whereas baby boomers have more time and Lehmuskumpu is also an alumna of Arts Management money available, millennials highlight the impor- (2013). Currently Lehmuskumpu works as a Develop- ment Manager at the Finnish National Opera and Ballet. tance of a meaningful experience (Colbert 2017, Lehmuskumpu also holds a M.Sc. degree in Fundrais- in this publication). Interviews conducted at the ing and Grantmaking from New York University, and a Metropolitan Opera and New York City Ballet in M.Sc. in Economics from Aalto University’s School of Business. January 2017 indicated that young adults tend to

108 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING

MISSION

DONATION = MARKET INVESTMENT ANALYSIS

ROI= STRONGER ORGANIZATION; BETTER SERVING ITS MISSION STRATEGY

CASE FOR SUPPORT

RELATIONSHIP- BUILDING & DONOR STEWARDSHIP ENGAGEMENT IDENTIFICATION

COMMUNICATIONS AND MARKETING

SOLICITATION CULTIVATION STRATEGIC FIT

FIGURE 1: MANAGING STRATEGIC FUNDRAISING IN THE 21ST CENTURY ADAPTED FROM: LEHMUSKUMPU 2013, 33

110 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING buy their tickets closer to performance time, and This chapter begins by defining strategic attend a larger variety of cultural events, which fundraising. The discussion then turns to how can reduce their loyalty to one brand. to strengthen the brand while fundraising, and In Europe, the changes in consumer behav- thereby how to create a foundation for loyalty. iour and consumer segments are coupled with After this, the chapter focuses on the most lu- a fear of decreasing public funding. For exam- crative customer segment, young adults, and ple, the opera houses in Paris, Berlin and Lon- elaborates how opera and ballet organizations don have already experienced financial difficul- can attract this challenging group and engage ties in recent decades (Zalfen 2007). Across Eu- them both as customers and donors. Examples rope, the importance of raising funds from the are presented from the Metropolitan Opera, private sector is constantly increasing. At the New York City Ballet, and Dutch National Op- same time, it is worth noting that the majority of era and Ballet2. art institutions, and opera houses in particular, would not survive without some level of public What Is strategic fundraising? funding (Cancellieri & Turrini 2016). The im- Traditionally fundraising has been defined as portance of fundraising has also been noted at any active effort by a non-profit organization to Opera Europa1, which relaunched its Fundrais- raise funds from individuals, foundations, cor- ing & Friends Forum in 2016 to better serve its porations or governmental institutions (Preece member organizations’ needs to share practic- 2005). It thus includes both donations and spon- es in fundraising. sorships. Fundraising as a term, however, is mis- As active fundraising is a rather new phe- leading, as the emphasis is solely on the finan- nomenon among opera and ballet organizations cial aspect of fundraising. In fact, for decades in Central and Northern Europe, and especial- fundraising has been called development in the ly in Finland, financial goals are generally em- United States and the United Kingdom. As Seil- phasized. Strategic fundraising should, however, er (2011a, 42) states, “Development is growth of be a significantly broader concept than simply mission; it includes planning, communications and expanding the funding portfolio. In fact, fund- fundraising.” raising can act as a vehicle and accelerator for The mission is the core in fundraising, ex- engaging new audiences. plaining why an organization exists. “The mission is the magnet that will attract and hold the interests of trustees, volunteers, staff and contributors” (Rosso 2011, 6). When analysing dif- 1 Opera Europa is a non-profit service organiza- ferent opera and ballet organizations, three as- tion created to increase collaboration between pro- pects of their mission come to the fore: to pre- fessional European opera houses and festivals. The Fundraising & Friends Forum was originally estab- serve traditional opera and ballet, to present lished in 2006, but was reactivated in 2016. opera and ballet, and to develop both new audiences and new kinds of opera and ballet produc- 2 As part of my on-going PhD research, I have visited the Metropolitan Opera, New York City Ballet tions and initiatives (Metropolitan Opera 2017a, and Dutch National Opera & Ballet in 2016–2017, New York City Ballet 2017a, Dutch National Bal- and conducted several personal interviews. I have let 2017, and Dutch National Opera 2017). These also analyzed the organizations’ websites and some three aspects form the foundation for opera and of their printed materials. In addition, I attended ballet organizations’ fundraising, and the focus Dutch National Opera & Ballet’s International Young Patrons Gala on June 10th, 2017. The over- tends to be on the development aspect. all PhD research also includes other organizations, In my earlier research, I included the invest- such as American Ballet Theatre and Royal Opera ment aspect, and defined strategic fundraising House. as: “Strategically developing the non-profit’s organ-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 111 izational structure and resources, as well as rela- tivation refers to the different methods used to tionships with the prospects and donors to be able move constituents, prospects and donors from to effectively raise funds from individuals, founda- an interested stage to an engaged stage. Solic- tions, corporations or governmental institutions. In itation refers to the actual “ask” for a gift. Ide- strategic fundraising the donor is treated as inves- ally, there is an optimum intersection of inter- tor and the donation as an investment” (Lehmus- est, readiness and capacity from the prospect’s kumpu 2013, 33). The return on investment is or donor’s part prior to the ask (Joyaux 2011). a stronger and more competitive arts organi- Finally, stewardship refers to the phase after a zation (ibid.). donor has given the first gift. Beginning with My view of strategic fundraising is illustrat- thanking the donor, it includes nurturing the ed in Figure 1. The core is the organization’s newly established donor relationship in all possi- mission. After conducting market analysis and ble ways, in order to engage the donor even fur- needs assessment, the organization can form a ther and to guide the donor to give additional fundraising strategy (Lehmuskumpu 2013). “The gifts. The tools for fundraising are derived from needs statement shapes future fundraising goals communications, marketing and sales. (Lehmus- and objectives and must include not only annual kumpu 2013) operating needs but also longer-term fundraising plans for capital and endowment” (Seiler 2011b, Building a stronger brand – cornerstone for 13). In addition, a proper donor relationship da- loyalty tabase and other tools need to be established While raising funds is an important goal for during this preparation period. fundraising, it should not be the only goal. In The former actions represent the prepara- fact, building a stronger brand should be as im- tions needed to occur prior to the active fund- portant, especially when an opera or ballet or- raising phases – the relationship-building. Tra- ganization operates in a culture with a limited ditionally the phases of relationship-building tradition of philanthropy to the arts. Building a have been divided into identification, cultiva- stronger brand strengthens an opera or ballet tion, solicitation and stewardship. Identification organization’s reasons for existence, as well as is closely connected to prospect research. Cul- its attractiveness as an arts organization.

LEGACY MAJOR GIFT PATRON DONOR MEMBER SUBSCRIBER SEVERAL SINGLE- PURCHASES TICKET PER YEAR BUYER

CUSTOMERS DONORS

FIGURE 2. EVOLVEMENT OF CUSTOMER AND DONOR LOYALTY Ultimately, a strong brand will both attract A strong case for support is a necessity new audiences as well as increase current cus- How can fundraising further improve the brand? tomers’ and donors’ interest and loyalty. A The tools used in fundraising are communica- stronger brand will also remove barriers to first- tions, marketing and sales. The ultimate sales time visitors, including young adults, a demo- story is described as the case for support. It de- graphic of interest to opera and ballet organiza- scribes, why to donate for a particular non-profit tions. Each opera and ballet organization should organization at a given time (Seiler & Aldrich aim for increased loyalty, as it usually trans- 2011). If constructed carefully, the case for sup- lates into memberships, subscription sales and port can improve an organization’s brand. Ac- donations, as well as to a willingness to advo- cording to Riccardo Salmona, New York City cate attendance to others (Kemp & Poole 2016; Ballet’s Senior Director of Development, two is- Hall et al. 2016). In fact, Colbert stresses that sues help to determine whether an organization a subscriber is genuinely loyal when he or she will be successful in fundraising efforts: having a renews the subscription and also makes posi- strong natural case for support, or the ability to tive recommendations to others (Colbert 2017, construct one, and having brand recognition or in this publication). universally accepted credibility (Salmona 2017). The evolvement of customer and donor loy- The case for support can be communicated alty is illustrated in Figure 2. Although an indi- not only through official channels, but also with vidual might not move in the exact order listed, the help of various advocates for opera and bal- the figure forms the basis for relationship-man- let organizations, such as personnel, manage- agement for both prospective customers and do- ment, the Board of Directors, the fundraising nors. The higher the donated amount, the more committee, donors and even customers. All of philanthropically-minded the individual is. For these can be described as “brand evangelists”. example, although members are considered do- Building a stronger brand also enhances fi- nors, the lowest levels of members are mostly nancial goals, as a stronger brand will act as benefit-driven (Hamilton 2017). a magnet for attracting more donors and cor- Opera and ballet organizations should have porate partners. In fact, Preece (2005) claims a dual branding strategy: To make sure that that an arts organization’s ability to garner re- their target customers think about them when sources for longer-term viability is dependent making purchasing decisions, and to ensure on how stakeholders view either artistic merit that the consumers’ view of the product is ac- or its engagement and participation with the curate (Colbert 2003, 75). Fundraising can surrounding community – and frequently both. strengthen both of these areas. Fundraising can be an instrument for engaging and energiz- Young adults – a lucrative segment ing donors who can develop an emotional tie to Opera and ballet organizations are in the midst an organization (Chong 2010). Colbert stresses of major changes regarding consumer behaviour that the quality of the work – in this case the and consumer segments. The audience is aging opera or ballet itself – is the main determinant and subscriptions are decreasing. Furthermore, for customer satisfaction. This is coupled with customers are seeking more flexibility with their the quality of peripheral services, as well as the purchases. “I think that has to do with people’s un- quality of social interaction. (Colbert 2017, in willingness to commit ahead of time ... they want to this publication) If the opera house is able to pick and choose and have the freedom of just going increase the accessibility, uniqueness and fa- when they want to”, Salmona (2017) describes. A vourable associations of the brand, it may en- similar trend has been observed at the Metro- courage cus-tomers to repeat purchase behav- politan Opera. Barbra Lach, Director of Mem- iour (Hall et al. 2016). bership & Promotions describes: “What we found is more and more people don’t want to commit to an cultural and arts heritage as their parents’ and eight-performance subscription. ... What our mar- grandparents’ generations. Lach (2017) admits keting department has, I think, very smartly done is that it is harder to acquire younger people. “I a Create Your Own program, so [opera lovers] can think it’s harder to acquire people in general.” choose their own package” (Lach 2017). In addition to subscriptions, also the number Customer- and donor-oriented Initiatives of memberships decreased after the financial As the behaviour and values of today’s young crisis of 2008 at both the Metropolitan Opera adults differ from their preceding generations, and New York City Ballet. Interestingly, those opera and ballet organizations have created of- who are committed members and donors have ferings tailored to this segment. These can be become even more loyal. Lach (2017) states: divided into customer- and donor-oriented in- “There’s been a dip in membership…I think part itiatives. of the reason the donor base is lower is, in fact, be- The Metropolitan Opera’s established con- cause it’s an aging donor base…But the people who cept “Fridays Under 40” is an example of a cus- stay are even more generous.” tomer-driven initiative led by the organization’s New York City Ballet renewed its member- marketing department. Young adults are being ship program a couple of years ago with the aim attracted by discounted tickets with a social of increasing commitment at each level. With component, such as cocktails, to catch the spell a revised strategy, the plan was to strengthen of the world of opera and ballet (Lach 2017). The relationship-building toward a major gift mod- events are marketed on the website as follows: el: more personal, long-term cultivation of re- “Tickets to the Fridays Under 40 series for the lationships also for middle-range members. As 2017-18 season will be on sale starting Sunday, a result, it has been able to successfully move June 25! Ten Friday performances will be availa- its donors to higher levels. ble as part of this series for audiences aged 40 and Douglas James Hamilton, New York City under. Along with an 8 pm start time, these per- Ballet’s Director of Membership, stresses the formances are paired with a pre-show party fea- im-portance of gradually developing relation- turing complimentary wine, special guests, and ships when cultivating donors: “…if you embrace more. Tickets are $60 or $100 in the Orchestra or the idea that this is a relationship that you hope and Grand Tier.” (Metropolitan Opera 2017b) expect to last ten years, that let’s you relax and be Another customer-driven example is the a person and try to get to know that other person Metropolitan Opera’s family-friendly, pre-show a little better” (Hamilton 2017). open house, which was started in 2015. In addi- Due to the changes in customer and donor tion to a matinee holiday presentation, the at- behaviour and segments, opera and ballet or- tendees could experience other aspects of the ganizations are increasingly seeking to engage Met, such as learning how props are construct- young adults both as customers and donors, at ed, meeting members of the Met Orchestra, and the same time as cultivating and stewarding trying on costumes. The aim is to target young- their existing customers and donors. This raises er audiences and build love for both the opera further challenges, in particular how to attract and the organization, as well as to thank exist- and cultivate a consumer segment whose being donors. (Lach 2017) haviour differs substantially from older genera- By contrast, both the Metropolitan Opera’s tions? Interviews and observations indicate that Young Associates and New York City Ballet’s young adults tend to be less loyal to one organi- Young Patrons groups are donor-oriented initi- zation, delay their purchase decisions, explore a atives led by the development department. In- variety of cultural events and experiences, and terestingly, these groups’ marketing highlights might not share the same values of protecting exclusive experiences, insider access and the

114 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING trendy New York scene, rather than the donating ly developed it since. The Patrons are invited aspect of being a patron. This is in line with Col- to various opera and ballet evenings through- bert’s notions that the millennials value mean- out the year, both during premieres and behind ingful experiences and social networks (Colbert the scenes, designed exclusively for the Young 2017, in this publication). Furthermore, it is note- Patrons Circle. worthy that New York City Ballet highlights the In June 2017, the first-ever International educational factor of its Young Patrons Circle on Young Patrons Gala was organized. The gala’s the organization’s website, for example: focus was both customer- and donor-oriented. “A special group for patrons of the arts under Although the core was formed by the existing 40 years of age, New York City Ballet’s Young 160 Young Patrons, the aim was to attract alto- Patrons Circle offers members exclusive benefits gether 1,500 young adults to the event, and more and a close up view of New York City Ballet. The broadly to the world of opera and ballet. Prior to Young Patrons Circle is a stimulating combina- the actual program there was a red carpet with tion of ballet, education, and revelry for young celebrities, pop-up music and dance numbers professionals who are interested in being a part in the foyer and drinks. More cocktails, hors of New York City Ballet’s innovative culture and d’oeuvres and modern dance music by DJs fol- happening scene” (New York City Ballet 2017b) lowed the program. The appeal to join the Young Patrons Cir- As described by Eline Danker, the Dutch Na- cle reflects both fear and assumption that to- tional Opera & Ballet’s Head of Fundraising and day’s young adults do not share the same phil- Relationship Management: anthropic values as the older generations. Ham- “We felt it was important to come up with an ilton (2017) worries that the younger generation evening where we would both show the best of does not share the same philanthropic mind- opera and ballet in an hour program dedicated set of preserving and perpetuating culture with to young people, and be able to open up ticket their parents and grandparents: sales to everybody who is young…and who would “I’m concerned that it is not conveyed clearly. love to come to a gala and have this cultural ex- That…the value isn’t there…Our current aging perience and have this network”. (Danker 2017a) generation is…a worry that it’s going to be this It is not a coincidence that networks are em- big spike in our culture that’s going to come and phasized here. The Young Patrons Circle’s web- go and that we…are increasingly becoming more site states that, “The Young Patrons Circle is a and more a market-driven organization.” great platform for young professionals to enter the world of philanthropy while gaining valuable con- Addressing young adults’ consumer habits nections for the future.” (Dutch National Opera One assumption is that young adults are more & Ballet 2017) Could the social network be an familiar with shorter forms of entertainment. even bigger reason than artistic content for a This is coupled with major changes in society, as young adult to join? Personal observations at music education has been, and continues to be, the gala indicate that some of the participants cut at schools – especially in the United States. were also evaluating the other gala attendees. Unless a young adult has been taken to the opera When one couple was asked whether they were by a relative or acquaintance, or has received a already patrons, they replied: “We are not patrons cultural education, opera might have a difficult yet. We came to check this out. If the quality is good time bringing them in. This raises the question enough, we might join.” It seemed that the quali- of whether opera and ballet need to change their ty referred to not only the artistic content, but artistic core to attract young adults. to the peer group they could have an access to. The Dutch National Opera & Ballet launched Danker emphasizes, however, that it is cru- its Young Patrons Circle in 2014, and has active- cial to keep the focus on opera and ballet.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 115 “It is indeed of utmost importance that the art emphasized in societies, such as Finland, where forms have the central stage, that we do not cre- active fundraising is new in the field of arts. ate an circle where people have a drink with the The key to successful fundraising is a solid back to the art forms. We look carefully at the case for support – why us, and why now? This is diversified growth of the Young Patrons Gala. deeply connected with an organization’s overall We offer during the year evenings that show each reasons for existence and its brand. If construct- time an element of opera or ballet that explains ed wisely, storytelling used in fundraising will and helps to enjoy.” (Danker 2017b) strengthen the brand. If young adults are less loyal to one organiza- Figure 3 illustrates how an opera and ballet tion and are looking for experiences at various organization can improve its market position by cultural institutions, will opera and ballet or- strengthening its brand while fundraising. The ganizations need to collaborate with other arts assumption is that when an opera or ballet or- organizations to attract both young customers ganization is able to increase its brand value, and donors? There has been some initial inter- it will increase both its importance to society nal discussion at the Metropolitan Opera, for and its customers’, donors’ and partners’ loy- example, on the possibilities of starting some alty. It can be assumed that the greater an or- kind of dual memberships program in general ganiza-tion’s importance to society, the greater – not only concerning young adults. “I do think the possibilities for public funding. Likewise, as this discussion will definitely come up again. I per- stakeholders’ loyalty increases, the likelihood sonally think that it’s something we should consid- of receiving private funding improves. Howev- er”, Lach (2017) states. er, more research is needed to fully test these Finally, reaching out to young adults also assumptions. adds another twist. Creating new initiatives for A strong brand is also highly important when young adults might attract corporate partners, reaching for young adults as either customers as young adults are also a highly fascinating con- or donors. When young adults think highly of an sumer segment for for-profit companies. Also organization, barriers to entry are removed even there might be natural synergies between young for those who have never been to an opera or adults and especially the ballet world. For ex- ballet. Also, the likelihood increases for repeat ample, the Dutch National Opera & Ballet found visits, and even for becoming a young patron. a fit with ING, the Dutch multinational finan- Furthermore, referring to Figure 3, it would cial institution. Both dancers and bankers face be interesting to analyse, which part of an op- similar challenges, which created a solid foun- era or ballet organization’s mission is empha- dation for the partnership. As Danker (2017a) sized when fundraising: preserving, presenting describes: “Talent alone is not enough. Technique or developing? If all the donors and partners are alone is not enough. It’s blood, sweat and tears. And mainly interested in the development aspect of it’s a lot of personality. And it’s support from the the mission (the initial market position in Fig- people around you… So, that’s the fit.” New York ure 3), how can an opera or ballet organization City Ballet, to cite another example, found an raise funds for its other two elements of the mis- excellence match with Puma, who provides pro- sion: preserving the traditions and presenting duces sportswear and fitness clothing. the art forms? Opera and ballet organizations are in a very Conclusions interesting and challenging situation. The av- This chapter discussed how an opera or ballet erage age of customers has always been fairly organization can strengthen its brand and at- high at the opera. Yet actions are needed to attract young adults as both customers and do- tract young adults. Simultaneously, organiza- nors while fundraising. These goals should be tions need to be clever with their marketing and

116 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING IMPORTANCE IN THE SOCIETY ~ PUBLIC FUNDING

PRESERVE PRESENT

ARTISTIC IMPROVED MARKET CORE STRENGTHENING POSITION THE BRAND WHILE FUNDRAISING

DEVELOP

INITIAL MARKET POSITION

LOYALTY OF CUSTOMERS, DONORS AND PARTNERS ~ PRIVATE FUNDING

FIGURE 3: THE EFFECTS OF AN OPERA OR BALLET ORGANIZATION’S INCREASED BRAND VALUE

fundraising strategies to respond to millennials’ continuous research on consumer behaviour is different type of consumer and donor behaviour. needed in order to develop optimal marketing More research is needed on how young adults and fundraising strategies and to tailor practi- can be captured both as customers and donors. cal tools to attract young adults. Initial research has revealed that ballet audiences are more diverse and younger than op- References era audiences. Will this give ballet organiza- Cancellieri, G. & Turrini, A. (2016). The phantom of tions better tools to cope? What about those modern opera: How economics and politics affect the programming strategies of opera hous- organizations which offer both art forms? What es. International Journal of Arts Management, strategies are needed to serve everyone’s taste? 18(3), 25-36. Furthermore, how will today’s young patrons Chong, D. (2010). Arts management. Routledge. be lifted to higher donor levels, once they have London. exceeded the age limit of being a young patron? Colbert, F. (2017). The new reality of the arts: Quali- Finally, can opera and ballet organizations at- ty of service offered to patrons. In Johansson, T. tract young adults in the future without chang- & Luonila, M. (Eds.), Making sense of arts man- ing compromising their artistic content? If agement: Research, cases and practices. (pp. 19- 25) Publications of the Sibelius Academy 11. Hel- young adults’ attention span is noticeably short- sinki: Unigrafia. er, how can opera be delivered to them without Colbert, F. (2003). The Sydney opera house: An sacrificing the artistic core? Again, ballet or- Australian icon. International Journal of Arts ganizations might be more flexible, as especial- Management, 5(2), 69-77. ly modern dance performances can be taken to Hall, E., Binney, W., & Vieceli, J. (2016). Increasing innovative spaces. loyalty in the arts by bundling consumer bene- Opera and ballet organizations are in the fits. Arts and the Market, 6(2), 141-165. midst of interesting and challenging times, and

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 117 Partnership & fundraising Joyaux, S.P. (2011). Strategic fund development: Interviews building profitable relationships that last. Third Danker, Eline (2017a). Head of Fundraising and Re- edition. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. lationship Management, Dutch National Opera & Kemp, E. & Poole, S.M. (2016). Arts audiences: Es- Ballet. Personal interview. June 9, 2017. tablishing a gateway to audience development Danker, Eline (2017b). Head of Fundraising and Re- and engagement. The Journal of Arts Manage- lationship Management, Dutch National Opera & ment, Law and Society, 46(2), 53–62. Ballet. Personal e-mail. September 15, 2017. Lehmuskumpu, H. (2013). Attracting and maintain- Hamilton, Douglas James (2017). Director, Member- ing funders after an internal crisis in an arts ship, New York City Ballet. Personal interview. organization. Case: Dance Theatre of Harlem. January 6, 2017. Master’s Thesis, Arts Management. Sibelius Lach, Barbra (2017). Director, Membership & Pro- Academy, University of the Arts Helsinki. motions. The Metropolitan Opera. Personal in- Preece, S. (2005). The performing arts value chain. terview. January 4, 2017. International Journal of Arts Management, 8(1), Salmona, Riccardo (2017). Senior Director of Devel- 21-32. opment, New York City Ballet. Personal inter- Rosso, H.A. (2011). A Philosophy of fundraising. In view. January 4, 2017. Tempel, Eugene R., Seiler, Timothy L. & Aldrich, Eva E (Eds.), Achieving excellence in fundraising. Third edition. San Francisco: John, Wiley & Events Sons. (p. 3-9) Young Patrons Gala. Dutch National Opera & Ballet. Seiler, T.L. (2011a). The total development plan. In Personal observations. June 10, 2017. Tempel, Eugene R., Seiler, Timothy L. & Aldrich, Eva E (Eds.), Achieving excellence in fundrais- Websites ing. Third edition. San Francisco: John, Wiley & Dutch National Ballet (2017). Dutch National Ballet. Sons. (p. 41-50) Retrieved from http://www.operaballet.nl/en/ Seiler, T.L. (2011b). Plan to succeed. In Tempel, ballet/ballet on August 20th, 2017. Eugene R., Seiler, Timothy L. & Aldrich, Eva Dutch National Opera (2017). Dutch National Opera. E (Eds.), Achieving excellence in fundraising. Retrieved from http://www.operaballet.nl/en/op- Third edition. San Francisco: John, Wiley & era/opera on August 20th, 2017. Sons. (p. 10-17) Dutch National Opera & Ballet (2017). Young Pa- Seiler, Timothy L. & Aldrich, Eva E. (2011). Devel- trons Circle. Retrieved from http://ypc.opera- oping and articulating a case for support. In ballet.nl/en/about on September 3rd, 2017. Tempel, Eugene R., Seiler, Timothy L. & Aldrich, Metropolitan Opera (2017a). Our Story. Retrieved Eva E (Eds.), Achieving excellence in fundrais- from http://www.metopera.org/About/The-Met/ ing. Third edition. San Francisco: John, Wiley & on August 20th, 2017. Sons. (p. 27-38) Metropolitan Opera (2017b). Fridays Under 40. Re- Zalfen, S. (2007). The crisis of culture and the cul- trieved from http://www.metopera.org/Season/ ture of crisis. The case of opera in Berlin, Lon- Tickets/Fridays-under-40/ on September 4th, don and Paris in the late twentieth century re- 2017. visited. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 13(3), 273-286 New York City Ballet (2017a). Mission Statement. Retrieved from https://www.nycballet.com/Ex- plore/Our-History/Mission.aspx on August 20th, 2017. New York City Ballet 2017b). Young Patrons Circle. Retrieved from https://www.nycballet.com/Sup- port/Young-Patrons-Circle.aspx on September 4th, 2017. Opera Europa. Opera Europa. Retrieved from http://www.opera-europa.org/ on August 20th, 2017.

118 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING Partnership & fundraising

A global case for impact investing in the creative industries

RODNEY E. TRAPP

Introduction (Lewis & Donald 2010; Abankina 2013). Steph- Creative social entrepreneurs (CSE) have al- anie Odegard is one such creative entrepre- ways leveraged their cultural capital, both tan- neur who has transformed whole communities gible and intangible, across a wide spectrum of in South Asia, creating market demand for in- innovative products and services while playing digenous cultural goods and generating cultural an important role in retaining the support sys- wealth that may have otherwise faded away due tem of millions at the bottom of the pyramid to technological advances and globalization. Her company, the Stephanie Odegard Collection, is a multi-million dollar business and leader in the handmade rug industry. The company seeks to RODNEY TRAPP preserve rare artistic traditions from around the Trapp (MBA, M.Sc., MA) is a Vice President for Ad- world and is devoted to assisting artisans in de- vancement, University of the District of Columbia in the US. Trapp is a graduate of Wake Forest University veloping countries promote and preserve their with a Bachelor of Arts de-gree in Speech Commu- traditional crafts. The company gives back 25% nications and Theatre Arts. He also holds an Inter- national Master of Busi-ness Administration degree of its profits to further the economic and social from the University of Valencia in Valencia, Spain; a development of its workers and their commu- Master of Science degree in International Business Development & Consulting from Novancia Business nities, and helped to create a movement that School in Paris, France; and a Master of Arts degree has successfully eradicated the use of child la- in Arts Management from American University in bor in carpet weaving throughout South Asia Wash-ington, DC. A proven business strategist, Trapp has provided senior management and fundraising (Aageson 2008). counsel to nonprofit organizations at the forefront of ELEMENTAL is another game changing education access, cultural inclusion, and poverty alle- viation for nearly 30 years. He has built development creative enterprise. This Chilean architectur- operations infrastructure and launched successful al firm is com-mitted to innovation and design fundraising campaigns and consulting projects for different universities and arts organizations in the US in projects of public interest and social impact and in Europe. For instance, Rodney Trapp is credit- through building initiatives that have the po- ed with achieving a financial turnaround for the dis- tressed Dance Theatre of Harlem, an iconic cultural tential to create wealth and can act as a medi- institution in New York. um through which they can improve the quality

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 119 of life for those at the bottom of the economic therefore seeks to bridge the seeming discon- pyramid. There is also Data Dealer - an award nect between investors and CSEs by helping the winning online game about collecting and sell- investor community better understand how so- ing personal data. Developed in Vienna, Austria, cial and financial value is created in the creative Data Dealer aims to raise awareness about on- sector and by giving CSEs key insights into the line surveillance, privacy, and the social impact investment decision making process. of technology in a fun, playful yet serious way. In Like most entrepreneurial pursuits, creative Uganda, there is an ethical fashion brand called enterprises operate in environments where little Sseko Designs that is putting poor women, with financial or business development assistance is high potential, to work making clothing prod- available. They often lack access to: liquid cap- ucts which allow them to earn enough money for ital; robust markets and distribution channels; college and to pursue their dreams. The found- information regarding contracts and intellectual ers of these creative endeavors are all part of a property; industry knowledgeable mentors and class of creative social entrepreneurs who are advisors; and often do not possess the manage- responding to market failures with transform- ment acumen required to grow and scale their ative, financially sustainable innovations aimed businesses. The creative economy in general at solving social problems while also creating a suffers from the misperception by some that healthy market demand for their products or its products and services have little to no eco- services. These creative social enterprises are nomic, social or environmental value. (Frieden- reconceiving products and markets and rede- wald-Fishman 2011; Aageson 2008) fining the way industry partners with artists The majority of financial asset owners and and artisans. managers that invest for social impact do not The United Kingdom was one of the first consider the creative industries a target sector countries to formally recognize the creative for these types of investments (Harji & Jackson industries as an industry sector back in 1998 2012; Lyons & Kickul 2013). Many impact inves- when the highly regarded Department of Cul- tors claim that they want to invest in a diverse ture Media and Sports (DCMS) grouped togeth- mix of social innovation opportunities that lead er 13 business sectors – advertising, architec- to sustainable social change, yet scores of cre- ture, art and antiques, computer games, crafts, ative social entrepreneurs go unnoticed every design, designer fashion, film and video, music, year. Resilient in their mission to use creativity performing arts publishing, software and TV as a tool for social change, CSEs can be found and radio. DCMS defines the creative industries addressing some of most intractable social issues as those industries ”which have their origin in in- of today, including poverty eradication, women dividual creativity, skill and talent and which have empowerment, environmental protection, and a potential for wealth and job crea-tion through the adolescent promiscuity, to name just a few. generation and exploitation of intellectual proper- The lack of access to financing for creative ty” (Higgs et al. 2008, 3). The concept of creativ- industry entrepreneurs seems endemic world- ity is well recognized in business and public pol- wide (Dümcke et al. 2014; Harriset al. 2013) de- icy literature as an important driver of sustain- spite growing evidence that the sector could po- able growth and economic development both tentially offer more resilient, inclusive, and envi- nationally and internationally (Bakhshi, Har- ronmentally viable paths to economic recovery greaves & Mateos-Garcia 2013; Henry 2007). and GDP growth (Bakhshiet al. 2013; Pugatch Unfortunately, this recognition is not widely ap- et al. 2014). Therein lies the paradox. It appears preciated from the impact investing communi- that when it comes to social impact, CSEs are ty judging from the current level of investment absent from the impact investment conversa- activity within the creative space. This chapter tion. This chapter provides some key insight as

120 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING to why this is happening and more importantly, stand or know much about (ECCE Inno- how to change the status quo so that more in- vation), vestment can flow to creative enterprises. • Lack of clarity on what constitutes the creative industries (Harris et al. 2013) Impact investing and social entrepreneurship • Research gaps in how artistic and cultur- The emerging practice of impact investing has al activities contribute to economic inno- garnered a great deal of attention in recent vation and quality of life (Hayter & Pierce years, especially from policy makers and so- 2009), and cial activists attempting to define the sector. • Inadequate statistical tools or indicators In 2009, the Monitor Institute estimated that to measure the contribution of the cultur- the impact investment market could potentially al industries sector to the economy and reach US$ 500 bil-lion by 2020 (Freireich & Ful- its impact in local communities (CREA. ton 2009). A year later, JP Morgan and the Rock- RE Creative Regions). efeller Foundation sized the bottom-of-the-pyra- Impact investing as a practice draws its in- mid market opportunity across five sectors and spiration from earlier trends such as socially re- estimated that the sector could reach US$ 400 sponsible investing (SRI); sustainable investing; billion to US$ 1 trillion by 2020. More recent- environmental, social, and governance (ESG); ly, British venture capitalist Robert Cohen, for- community development; and microfinance mer chair of the G8 summit’s Global Social Im- (Clark et al. 2014; Combs 2014). Both micro-fi- pact Investment Task Force, pre-dicted that the nance and community development, for exam- market for venture capital and private equity ple, have for decades driven positive change in investments in the sector could grow to be as underserved communities. large as $3 trillion (US Advisory Board on Im- Social entrepreneurs operating within the pact Investing). creative economy seldom receive the attention A growing body of research suggests that of institu-tions practicing and promoting impact creative enterprise assets may provide quality investing. Social entrepreneurs create business- diversification within impact investment port- es whose primary objective is to address a so- folios for they can often deliver profitable and cial problem and whose surpluses are primarily transformative social outcomes (Higgs et al. reinvested for that purpose in the business or 2008; Lewis & Donald 2010; Pratt 2008). Other in the community, rather than being maximiz- studies and reports confirm that design, mu- ing profits for shareholders (Lyon & Fernandez sic, craft, film and television, fashion, publish- 2013). These hybrid businesses are called so- ing, heritage, cultural festivals and related com- cial enterprises because they combine aspects ponents of the creative and cultural industries of charity and business. Their primary objec- are key drivers of job creation, foreign exchange tive is to deliver social value to the beneficiaries earnings, income generation and catalysts and of their social mission, and their primary rev- supporters of other industries such as leisure, enue source is commercial, relying on markets printing, tourism and transportation (Abanki- instead of donations or grants to sustain them- na 2013). Yet still, the creative industries sector selves and to scale their operations. (Ebrahim suffers from: et al. 2014) • The misperception of being an risky, Conversations about investing for social good transitory sector (Tom Fleming Creative or variants thereof have been taking place for Consultancy) more than 30 years with concepts such as ‘so- • Lack of awareness by the financial com- cial entrepreneurship,’ popularized by Bill Dray- munity and likewise a reluctance to in- ton, the founder of Ashoka who sought to invest vest in a sector that they do not under- both financial and human capital in those indi-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 121 viduals who offered creative, sustainable and ular socially responsible investing (SRI) of the replicable solutions (Juech & Michelson 2011) 1980s and 1990s, which applied positive or neg- or the ‘blended value’ conceptual framework ative screens, seeking to avoid investments that espoused by several management researchers were deemed harmful to society, or to support where non-profit organizations, businesses, and those investments that were considered benefi- investments are evaluated based on their ability cial to society. The WEF adds measurability as to generate a blend of financial, social, and en- a third criterion stating, “The degree of financial vironmental value (Lyons & Kickul 2013; Lyon return may vary widely from recovery of principal & Fernandez 2013; Pawson 2014; Freireich & to above-market rates of return. In addition to fi- Fulton 2009).The status quo today for impact nancial return, the investment’s social or environ- investing is the triple bottom line of econom- mental value must be measured in order for the in- ic, social, and environmental returns. Hawkes vestment to be considered an impact investment”. (2001) and Aageson (2008) contend that perhaps The major actors that invest for social impact the time has come to consider a ‘quadruple bot- do not consider the creative industries a target tom line,’ adding the cultural dynamic in order sector for these types of investments. Many have to achieve true sustainability. taken the lead from the GIIN’s Global Impact Investing Rating System (GIIRS) and its com- Toward a common definition on panion Impact Reporting Investment Standard impact investing (IRIS), which provide a catalog of generally ac- To better understand the meaning behind im- cepted performance metrics that leading impact investing, it is useful to consider how the pact investors can use to measure social, en- term is currently used in the industry. The Glob- vironmental, and financial success, to evaluate al Impact Investing Network (GIIN) defines im- deals, and to grow the credibility of the impact pact invest-ing as “investments made into compa- investing industry. The creative industries are nies, organizations, and funds with the intention to noticeably absent from the target sector listings; generate social and environmental impact alongside however, GIIN does at least collect some data a financial return” (US Advisory Board on Impact on art-related subsectors such as artisanal, cul- Investing). The World Economic Forum (WEF) ture, and tourism. It is interesting to note that argues that impact investing is “an investment in 2013 the number of investment affiliations for approach that intentionally seeks to create both artisanal and culture were higher than three of financial return and positive social or environ- GIIN’s key sectors: education, housing develop- mental impact that is actively measured”. ment, and environment. Both the WEF and the GIIN definitions em- Some researchers conclude that the creative phasize the importance of intentionality in economy is not a cohesive or discrete industrial actively seeking direct investments in social sector but rather a broader concept consisting businesses/enterprises with high social and of a large proportion of nonprofit organizations, environmental impact outcomes as well as an small businesses, and self-employed practition- expectation of financial return. In this definition, ers who do not identify themselves as part of a impact investing is regarded as neither an in- major industry. This presents a serious chal- vestment afterthought nor an unintentional re- lenge for creative businesses in particular, for sult in social good, which is common in the cor- important business networks that could be a porate social responsibility practices of many source of support and intermediation are sorely multinational corporations. Moreover, this dual underdeveloped mainly because creative types bottom line or what some refer to as the triple do not identify as part of an industry and hence bottom line of people, place, and profit, helps have difficulties finding peers. In addition, plat- distinguish this type of investing from the pop- forms could be built to link these potential busi-

122 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING ness networks to existing supply chains in a lo- take risks on CSEs with weak credit histories. cal community and thus increase program and Venture capitalists are not interested in fund- operation efficiency. This tendency of CEs to ing community-oriented start-ups that intend non-affiliate may be one of the reasons why the to stay small and local. Philanthropists direct creative industries as a discreet sector are not their capital to social service agencies and other reflected as a priority within the impact invest- nonprofit activities, unwilling to help capitalize ing space. Robust levels of support and invest- arts-related social enter-prises or woefully unin- ment may in fact already exist; however, they formed about the breath of relevant investable are ‘hidden’ within other industry sectors, as opportunities that exist within the creative in- is the case with video gaming, product design, dustries sector. Despite the lack of access to cap- advertising, and independent broadcast produc- ital, some creative social enterprises are beating tion (Miles & Green 2008). the odds. There is a company called Chairigami in New Haven, Connecticut for example, which Challenges to impact investing in creates handcrafted recyclable furniture from the creative industries renewable resources. Elvis and Kresse, a UK- When considering the creative industries from based social enterprise, makes lifestyle acces- an impact investment perspective, one needs to sories using industrial waste that is diverted understand the difference between the term cre- from landfills and provides 50 percent of its prof- ative entrepreneur and social entrepreneur. Cre- its from their fire hose line to the Fire Fighters ative entrepreneurship is the practice of setting Charity. Elvis and Kresse also employs workers up a business in one of the creative industries. from Poole’s Remploy factory, an organization The creative entrepreneur is concerned first and that helps people with disabilities find work. foremost with the creation and exploitation of creative and intellectual capital, whereas the so- Barriers to entry cial entrepreneur is primarily interested in pur- Most investors are risk adverse. Investing by suing innovative solutions to social problems. its nature, however, requires a certain toler- Some suggest that wealth creation and cultural ance for risk. The creative industries sector value should be specific returns expected from is often associated, rightly or wrongly, with a CSEs (Aageson 2008; Mangematin et al. 2014). variety of risks that serve as barriers to invest- The social entrepreneur creates an entering. The predominance of Small and Medium prise that is both mission driven and market fo- Enterprise (SME) businesses is a deterrent for cused, with the mission being just as important some who prefer to invest in scalable projects as the return. The mission and vision of the in- or structure large-scale deals. High-stakes institution help to determine the return and define vestors such as these struggle to find invest- how problems will be solved and how opportuni- ment opportunities that are large enough to ties will be taken advantage of through the en- justify the fixed costs incurred in sourcing the terprise. For the most part, the impact investing investments and conducting due diligence. Im- community seems primarily interested in this pact investing may be less attractive to these altruistic form of entrepreneurship that focuses investors who are unable or unwilling to in- on the benefits that society may reap. Creative vest the additional effort required to source the entrepreneurship in this case becomes a social deal. Perhaps this is where business support endeavor when it transforms so-cial capital in intervention can be extremely helpful, in that a way that affects society positively. (Bauer et intermediaries like business incubators and ac- al. 2012; Lyons & Kickul 2013; Tulchin & Liin). celerators can make it easier for investors to Gaining access to capital is a major issue find and qualify potential deals and mitigate for creative enterprises. Banks are unwilling to some of the risks of investment.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 123 The literature establishes that creative and Social business accelerators cultural resources and activities have the po- Business incubators and accelerators can play tential to drive economic and community de- a critical role in bridging the gap in capital and velopment in a sizable way (Lewis & Donald support of social enterprises, especially those 2010; Abankina 2013). This preponderance of operating in the creative industries. In tradi- evidence has made a difference in how some in- tional business circles, incubators typically fo- vestors look at the sector. Barriers to entry have cus on the early stages of new business devel- lowered; yet many still do not quite understand opment (pre-customer, pre-revenue), while ac- how to properly evaluate risks associated with celerators tend to focus on businesses that have this sector. The notion of cultural capital, for a few years of operating history and an existing example, is widely dismissed as having little if customer and revenue base (Cohen). Acceler- any economic value; yet it includes traditions, ator operations concentrate on growth, expan- music, skills, feasts and celebrations, food and sion, scalability and replication, providing the creative place-making that have significant so- social enterprise with seed-investment, men- cial, cultural, environmental and economic val- toring, educational support and technical as- ue (Aageson 2008). sistance (Konczal 2014). The biggest challenges that impact investors Research indicates that the most success- face with creative industry enterprises never- ful accelerators offer a range of services, such theless are: as business development support, mentoring, 1. Sourcing viable investment opportuni- infrastructure, access to capital as well as ac- ties cess to networks of investors, foundations, and 2. Understanding how value is created and corporations (Walshok 2014; Kempner 2014). assessed in the creative sector from an While scant attention has been paid to social economic and social impact point of view enterprise accelerators, the prospect of finding 3. Measuring the impact of their invest- market-based solutions to social problems has ments on the communities in which they generated a great deal of interest in accelera- are made tor best practices (Clark, Emerson & Thornley 4. Navigating a still immature impact in- 2014; Cohen; Kempner 2014; Roberts & Johnson vesting ecosystem and the loosely de- 2013; Walshok 2014; Casasnovas & Bruno 2013). fined creative industries sector In considering the existing landscape of ac- 5. Finding suitable exit opportunities. celerator programs, the literature shows that When one works with content-based activi- 75% of them rely on some level of philanthropic ties and is dealing with intangible assets, there support, even though a third of them are struc- is also considerable concern around issues of tured as for profits, suggesting a sustainable rev- intellectual property (Polido 2014). The invest- enue intention. Accelerators typically provide a ing community has a tendency to require pro- common core of business support services in- hibitively higher rates of return from creative cluding mentoring, professional partnerships business in order to compensate for the risks and networks, business skills development, busi- that these investors take when considering in- ness plan & strategy development, and access to vestment. This leads to a host of creative en- investors. Two reports by the Aspen Network of terprises finding it impossible to access equity Development Entrepreneurs issued in 2013 and and debt financing (Freireich & Fulton 2009) 2014 assessed the landscape and evaluated the and points to the need for more public policy value created by impact incubators and accel- incentives to ensure that creative enterprises erators for the social enterprises and impact have equal access to financial investment and investors they seek to support. business support programs.

124 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING Conclusions petency, and intellectual property The aim of this chapter was to illuminate the knowledge practice of impact investing and to demon- 2. Connect with industry experts and strate its effective application within the cre- veterans for mentorship ative industries. It also sought to stimulate 3. Investigate the newer SME capital de- further dialogue about the social innovation, livery systems (e.g., online micro- and cultural inclusion and economic development small-business lenders, supply-chain potential of the creative economy in local com- finance programs, angel investors, and munities. crowd funding) The chapter concludes with a few manage- 4. Join local networks of businesses for rial implications that could help accelerate the collaborative opportunities and supply growth and development of creative enterprises chain integration and the impact they are having in communities 5. Learn how debt and equity finance can large and small around the world. The manage- help to grow and strengthen one’s busi- rial implications are grouped under three actor ness. categories: 1) Asset owners and their advisors Service providers must begin to (banks, fund managers, foundations, corpora- 1. Embrace the social innovation and so- tions, impact investment funds/intermediaries, cial impact agendas of creative enter- venture funds, angels, and government invest- prises ment programs), 2) Demand-side actors (social 2. Engage investors with limited prior enterprises, small and growing businesses), and sector knowledge and educate them 3) Service providers (incubator and accelerator on the investment potential of the cre- programs, standards-setting bodies, consulting ative industries sector firms, nongovernmental organizations, univer- 3. Develop support interventions that sities, capacity development providers). emphasize intermediation, business Asset owners and their advisors should con- model innovation, and debt and/or eq- sider: uity financing as well as focus on the 1. Increasing capital outlay investments later growth and expansion phase of in creative enterprises business development 2. Embracing hybrid structures and the 4. Partner with the legal community to fluidity of the creative industries sec- offer workshops and seminars on intel- tor lectual property concerns in the crea- 3. Developing new risk profiles that are tive industries specific and appropriate for the crea- 5. Adopt robust research, measurement tive sector and knowledge transfer practices, 4. Forming public and private sector providing continuous assessment and partnerships that could serve to min- quantifying of the impact and value imize risk profiles and maximize im- created. pact outcomes 5. Establishing support models that in- This article seeks to illuminate the princi- clude a mix of debt and equity prod- pal reasons why the creative industries sector ucts is not one of the key target areas for impact in- Demand-side actors should seek out oppor- vesting as well as to demonstrate why and how a tunities to: few niche players have succeeded in harnessing 1. I mprove their business development public and private capital to develop the creative skills, business model innovation com- industries sector for the public good. Although

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 125 the literature suggests that the creative indus- Ebrahim, A., Battilana, J., & Mair, J. (2014). The tries could offer huge potential to drive econom- governance of social enterprises : Mission drift and accountability challenges in hybrid organic development and social change globally (Lew- izations. Research in Organizational Behavior, is & Donald; 2010 Higgs et al.2008; Pratt 2008), 34, 81–100. those leading the impact investing movement Freireich, J. & Fulton, K. (2009). Investing for social have yet to invite this high potential sector to and environmentaliImpact: A design for catalyz- the table in any substantive way. This chapter ing an emerging industry. San. Francisco: Moni- represents a tiny step towards building a better tor Institute. understanding and appreciation of the possibili- Friedenwald-Fishman, E. (2011). No art? No social ties of successful creative economy investments. change. No innovation economy. Stanford Social More research is needed on this topic, especially Innovation Review Blog. Accessed 16 Feb. 2015. with regards to the development of sector spe- Hayter, C. & Pierce, S.C. (2009). Arts & the economy: Using arts and culture to stimulate state cific metrics and evaluation processes, under- economic development. Washington, DC. standing how to value content-based cultural Harji, K. & Jackson, E.T. (2012). Accelerating Im- assets and determining how best to structure pact: Achievements, Challenges and What’s Next deals within the creative sector. in Building the Impact Investing Industry. Pre- pared for the Rockefeller Foundation. New York References E. T. Jackson and Associates. Aageson, T. (2008). Cultural entreprenuers: Pro- Harris, C., Collins, M., & Cheek, D. (2013). Ameri- ducing cultural value and ealth. In H. K. Anhei- ca’s creative economy: A study of recent concep- er and Y. Raj Isar (eds.), The Cultural Economy. tions, definitions, and approaches to measure- London: Sage Publications. p. 92–108. ment across the USA. Oklahoma City: Creative Abankina, T. (2013). Regional development models Economy Coalition. using cultural heritage resources. International Hawkes, J. (2001). The Fourth Pillar of Sustainabil- Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Re- ity: Culture’s Essential Role in Public Planning. search, 7(1), 3–10. Australia: Cultural Development Network (Vic.) Bakhshi, H., Hargreaves, I., & Mateos-Garcia, J. and Common Ground Publishing. (2013). A manifesto for the creative economy. Henry, C. (2007) Entrepreneurship in the creative London. industries: An international perspective. New Bauer, C.M., Guzmán, C., & Santos, F.J. (2012). So- York: Edward Elgar. cial capital as a distinctive feature of social econ- Higgs, P., Cunningham, S., & Bakhshi, H. (2008). Be- omy firms. International Entrepreneurship and yond the Creative Industries: Mapping the Cre- Management Journal, 8(4), 437–448. ative Economy in the United Kingdom. London: Casasnovas, G. & Bruno, A.V. (2013). Scaling social NESTA. ventures: An explorative study of social invest- Juech, C. & Michelson, E.S., (2011). Rethinking the ing. Journal of Management for Global Sustaina- future of sustainability: From silos to systemic bility, 2, 173–197. resilience. Development, 54(2), 199–201. Clark, C., Emerson, J., & Thornley, B. (2014). Col- Kempner, R. (2014). Incubators are popping up like laborative Capitalism and the Rise of Impact In- wildflowers … But do they actually work ? Inno- vesting. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. vations, 8(3), 3–6. Combs, K. (2014). More than just a trend: The im- Konczal, J. (2014). Accelerating into control. Innova- portance of impact investing. Corporate Finance tions, 8(3), 139–148. Review, 18(6), 12–18. Lewis, N.M. & Donald, B. (2010). A new rubric for Dümcke, C., Z. Jaurová, Z. & Inkei, P. (2014). Op- ‘Creative City’ potential in Canada’s smaller cit- portunitie for CCSs to access finance in the EU - ies. Urban Studies, 2010: 29–54. Short Analytical Report. Lyon, F. & Fernandez, H. (2013). Strategies for scaling up social enterprise: Lessons from early years providers. Social Enterprise Journal, 8(1), 63–77.

126 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING Lyons, T. S. & Kickul, J. R. (2013). The social enter- Miles, I. & Green, L. (2008). Hidden Innovation in prise financing landscape: The lay of the land the Creative Industries. London: NESTA. and new research on the horizon. Entrepreneur- Pugatch, M., Torstensson, D., & Chu, R. 2014. The ship Research Journal, 3(2), 147–59. Creative industries and the BRICS. CISAC: Neu- Mangematin, V., Sapsed, J., & Schüßler, E. (2014). illy-sur-Seine, France. Disassembly and reassembly: An introduction to Pawson, Douglas. Enhancing the market space for the special issue on digital technology and cre- impact investing in Canada? Ottawa, Canada: ative industries. Technological Forecasting and N.p., 2014. Print. Social Change, 83, 1–9.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 127 Partnership & fundraising

From one mission statement to two organizational fields: The effects of reverse isomorphism in private cultural centres

TOMAS JÄRVINEN

Introduction ment. Hambrick et al. (2005) have nevertheless The aim of this chapter is to discuss how iso- suggested the opposite; that isomorphic pres- morphic pressure leads to a field-level change sures can lead to isomorphism in reverse. In this in the context of cultural centres. In particu- chapter, I argue that institutional change due to lar, private cultural centres are used as cases to isomorphic pressure not only leads to isomor- illuminate the change happening between pri- phism in reverse, but to a separation into two vate and public cultural centres in Finland. This fields altogether. In the context of private cultur- chapter investigates the impact of triggers for al centres, this means ultimately working with change upon a field and the role that isomorphic different goals and different methods than their pressure plays in the process of organisational initial counterparts, the public cultural centres. field change. Originally developed by DiMaggio and Powell The field of cultural centres (1983), isomorphism is one of the central con- Cultural centres are public venues that create a cepts within institutional theory, and it refers platform for people to practice cultural activities to the change towards homogenisation amongst and to take part in such (Stenlund 2010). A cul- organisations within a particular field. It implies tural centre is a house used in versatile ways for that organisations seek legitimacy by conform- cultural activities, such as concerts, theatre and ing to isomorphic pressures in their environ- visual arts. A general feature of cultural centres is that they do not have any artistic personal of their own; they are mostly production-centred organisations (Silvanto et al. 2008). The public TOMAS JÄRVINEN Järvinen (MMus in arts management) is a doctoral stu- cultural centres usually state that their primary dent at the Sibelius Academy, director of Finlands Sven- mission is to produce (by prioritising and coor- ska Ungdomsförbund and responsible lecturer in arts management at the Summer University of Tampere and dinating) an exclusive offering of culture to the the Helsinki Summer University. In his doctoral disser- community (Ruusuvirta et al. 2012) tation, Järvinen aims to develop an explorative theory of how to make the administration of independent cul- In 2017, there were 186 cultural centres in tural centres more effective. Finland and 86 (46.2%) of these were private

128 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING cultural centres (Statistic Finland 2017). Of the ed in order to provide an important and original 86 private centres, 24 are maintained by NGOs, contribution to knowledge. 59 by companies and three by private persons. The idea of arts facilities in residential are- Theoretical framework: as was introduced into Finnish cultural debates Institutional theory in the 1960s, and the term ‘democratisation of Institutional theory provides a powerful means culture’ in the 1970s (Silvanto et al. 2008). The for understanding organisations (Greenwood et main idea of cultural democracy was to under- al. 2008) and how they strive for legitimacy and line citizens’ own activities as well as their needs support in society in the face of environmental and their own perceptions of culture (Kangas, uncertainty (Pache & Santos 2010). Institutional 1988). During this debate, Finnish municipalities theory (Meyer & Rowan 1977) will be adopted to started to provide cultural services (Silvanto et illustrate how the exchange between public and al. 2008). The vast majority of the private cul- private centres, the early and late adopters, in- tural centres were founded in Finland after the fluences institutional field-level change. state initiative (Statistics Finland 2017). DiMaggio and Powell (1983) as well as Scott et al. (2000) point out that, in the beginning of an The concept of a field organisation’s lifecycle, it implements changes The definition of a field is somewhat unclear in in the field in comparison to an existing organi- the literature (Machado-da-Silva et al. 2006). An sation, but ends up in institutional isomorphism organisational field is usually defined as in order to gain field stability. “sets of organizations that, in the aggregate, Institutional change takes place among three constitute a recognized area of institutional different mechanisms, according to DiMaggio life; key suppliers, resource and product con- and Powell (1983) in their famous paper, ‘The sumers, regulatory agencies, and other organ- Iron Cage Revisited’. These are: 1) normative izations that produce similar services or prod- pressures; 2) mimetic processes; and 3) coer- ucts.” (DiMaggio & Powell 1983). cive isomorphism. They are considered mech- Scott (1994, 2002), nevertheless, goes further by anisms for isomorphism, not types or forms of distinguishing funding sources and regulators isomorphism (Mizruchi & Fein 1999). DiMaggio as patterns of a set in a functional field. and Powell (1983) admit that these analytically distinct mechanisms are empirically very diffi- Methodology cult to separate, and two or more of them may There seems to be very little research on the be operating at the same time. field of cultural centres, and for that reason, I Albeit, the ‘iron cage’ hypothesis has gained a aim to fill this gap by reporting on the findings durable status over the years; some (Hambrick of a qualitative study that focuses on the impact et al. 2005) have started to present arguments of strategy on the administration of private cul- on organisations becoming more heterogene- tural centres. According to Suddaby and Green- ous and not more homogeneous. The isomor- wood’s (2009) typology, my study applies an in- phism in reverse that Hambrick et al. (2005) terpretive epistemology. This chapter draws on present shows an alternative, where macro-cul- semi-structured interviews with four cultural tural forces have actually diminished the iso- centres and five interviewees per centre. The morphic pressure for organisations. interview data is complemented by an analysis Oliver (1991) explores the strategic response of various documents. In the analysis phase, the of organisations to the environmental pressures in-depth case study data was compared and con- exerted on them to conform. Her framework of trasted, and an analytical framework based on five strategic responses to institutional process- the concept of organisational culture was adopt- es questions organisational conformity and ex-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 129 amines the alternative strategies that organisa- attention or find financing, then the alarm bell tions employ to cope with institutional demands. rings pretty quick and we start thinking about These are acquiescing, compromising, avoiding, corrective actions.” defying and manipulating. Oliver (1992) highlights deinstitutionalisation as ”the process by which the legitimacy of an estab- Discussion: The effects of lished organizational practice erodes or discontin- reverse isomorphism ues”. The decision to follow another guideline in It is evident from the research that private cul- economic terms, rather than the one predomi- tural centres are trying to distance themselves nant within the field, is a result of deinstitution- from the traditional public cultural centres, alisation. This is mainly the result of functional even if they started out with somewhat of the or other internal pressures (Oliver 1992), which same premises and conditions, especially when change the institutional values. it comes to the mission statement. Six key as- The third key aspect is the customers. An on- pects were drawn from the analysis. going thread in the discussion with the partici- The first key aspect is institutional pressures. pants is the perception of the customers not only The field clearly introduces isomorphic pres- as passive recipients of the ‘exclusive offering of sures; many participants highlighted that the culture’ made up by the management of the cen- customers usually do not distinguish between tre, but rather as people whose lives can be en- private and public cultural centres; thus, they riched by cultural experiences and where their expect the same service from both. Then again, own opinions are taken into account. Therefore, every participant pointed out that the economic one of the most compelling changes identified realities are not nearly the same; the municipal within the field of cultural centres is that the centres get most of their annual budgets as sub- private cultural centres construct their identi- sidies from the municipality, whereas the private ty much more around ‘enriching people’s lives’, centres need to both apply for private funding rather than simply offering a versatile cultural and get ticket sales to make ends meet. Further- opportunity. The analysis shows that institution- more, several participants stated in the inter- al logics appear to be shifting subtly within the views that the private cultural centre is a com- industry and that a new field is slowly emerging. plementary cultural service for the municipali- The fourth key aspect is avoidance. A CEO of ty, aimed at providing something that is missing a cultural centre put it bluntly when asked what from the municipal cultural service, rather than the most important things are when leading a providing it completely on its own. private cultural centre: The second key aspect is deinstitutionalisa- “Probably to find a balance where a business tion. The dominant theme apparent in the anal- model could be found that is economically suf- ysis of this material is, therefore, the continuous ficiently justifiable, functional and adequately undertone of a comparison between the public interesting in terms of the content, and should and private centres. As a descriptive example, I say, differing…we would like to differ from… the COO of one private cultural centre contend- producers of traditional municipal cultural ser- ed that the methods they use differ from their vice, to which the cultural centres of the cities… public counterparts: belong to. According to our viewpoint, there is “It’s a kind of a sense of urgency thing…We can- an interesting domain between these two worlds, not think that this is how we always have done which accumulates some things from both sides things. We always have some sort of a contem- and builds an entirety of its own.” plation going on and occasionally even a feel- Analysing this account suggests that this in- ing of crisis, that if we cannot find an audience terviewee has become dissatisfied with the ac- for something, or find a way to offer it, or get cepted institutional arrangements (Greenwood

130 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING & Hinnings 1996) and attempts to instigate in- centres have turned out to be resilient to organi- stitutional change on a field level. sational and isomorphic pressures, proving that The fifth key aspect isdefiance . A producer the classic isomorphism also works in reverse, of a private centre also highlighted, thus suggesting the emergence of a new field. “…definitely this, how the artistic content meets the expenses. These are things you have to focus References on. Then there is always the possibility to think DiMaggio, P. J. & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage about what business model should be used.” revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Focusing on Oliver’s (1991) work on strategic Sociological Review 48, 147–60. responses to institutional pressures, this can Greenwood, R. & Hinings, C.R. (1996). Understand- be interpreted that private cultural centres are ing radical organizational change: Bringing to- adopting a ‘defiant’ strategy, and dismissing or gether the old and the new institutionalism. ignoring the emerging norms and values of the Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 1022-54. current field. Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Sahlin, K., & Suddaby, R. The sixth key aspect is the internal collabora- (eds.) (2008). Introduction. In The Sage hand- tion. There seems to be a drift towards a deeper book of organizational institutionalism. London: Sage. p. 1-46. collaboration between private cultural centres. The uncertainty and the lack of steady public Hambrick, D.C., Finkelstein, S., Cho, T.S., & Jack- son, E.M. (2005). Isomorphism in reverse: Insti- funding may challenge the quality of the cultural tutional theory as an explanation for recent in- offering, but it also generates a natural flexibil- creases in intraindustry heterogeneity and man- ity for the private centres towards a changing agerial discretion. In Research in Organizational environment. A COO challenged the dominant Behavior: An Annual Series of Analytical Essays method of cultural centres in the following way: and Critical Reviews, Vol 26. “Do you have to do it all by yourself? Could you Kangas, A. (1988). Kunta ja kulttuuri kulttuuritoimi- ambulate the things you have done in order for alan valossa. Helsinki: Valtion painatuskeskus. you to get more revenues from elsewhere for your Machado-da-Silva, C.L., Guarido Filho, E.R. & Ros- soni, L. (2006). Organizational fields and the big and important investment?…Or then, could structuration perspective: analytical possibili- somebody else have something that would fit ties. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, your profile very well? I would think about this 10 (Special Edition), 159-196. sort of circulating of productions.” Meyer, J. W & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized or- As the quote above suggests, the interview- ganizations: Formal structure as myth and cere- ees heavily emphasised the importance of joint mony. The American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), ventures and joint productions. 340‐363. Powell, W. W. & DiMaggio, P. J. (eds.) (1991). The Conclusion new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. New institutional norms appear to be emerging Mizruchi, M. S., & Fein, L. C. (1999). The social con- amongst the private cultural centres, suggest- struction of organizational knowledge: A study ing that a field-level change is occurring. It is of the uses of coercive, mimetic, and normative evident from the analysis of the research con- isomorphism. Administrative Science Quarterly, ducted that private cultural centres are engaged 44(4), 653-683. in re-shaping and re-inventing an organisation- Oliver, C. (1991). Strategic responses to institutional field of their own. From an initial position of al processes. Academy of Management Review, being a late adopter of norms and practices in 16(1), 145-179. an institutional field, where the early adopters Oliver, C. (1992) The antecedents of deinstitutional- ization. Organization Studies, 13(4). were the public cultural centres with well-established mission statements, the private cultural

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 131 Pache, A.C. & Santos, F. (2010). When world collide: Mazza, C. & Strandgaard Pedersen, J. (2004). From The international dynamics of organizational Press to e-media? The transformation of an or- responses to conflicting institutional demands. ganizational field. Organization Studies, 25(6), Academy of Management Review, 35(3), 455–476. 875–895. Ruusuvirta, M. & Saukkonen, P. & Ruokolainen, V., Silvanto, S., Linko, M., & Cantell, T. (2008). From & Karttunen, S. (2012). Kuntien kulttuuritoimin- enlightenment to experience: cultural centers in ta lukujen valossa. Suomen kuntaliitto. Available Helsinki neighbourhoods. International Journal from: www.kunnat.net/fi/Kuntaliitto/media/tie- of Cultural Policy, 14(2), 165-178, dotteet/2012/01/ kulttuurilukujenvalossa /Kun- Statistic Finland. (2017). Kulttuuritapahtumat ja tien%20kulttuuritoiminta%20lukuina.pdf -keskukset: Suomen kulttuuritaloja ja kulttuu- Scott, W.R. (1994). Conceptualizing organization- rikeskuksia maakunnittain 2017. Tietokantatau- al fields: linking organizations and societal sys- lukot. Accessed 15.3.2017. Available from: www. tems. In Derlien, H.U., Gerhardt, U., & Scharpf, stat.fi/til/klt/tau.html F.W. (eds.), Systemrationalitat und partialinter- Stenlund, K. L. (2010). Effekter av byggandet av esse. Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft. Kulturens hus i Luleå. Lulea: Universitets- Scott, W.R. (2002). Organizations: Rational, natural, tryckeriet. and open systems (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, Suddaby, R. & Greenwood, R. (2009). Methodologi- NJ: Prentice Hall. cal issues in researching institutional change. In: Scott, W. R., Ruef, M., Mendel, P., & Caronna. C. D. A. Buchanan, & A. Bryman (eds.), The Sage (2000). Institutional change and health care or- Handbook of Organizational Research Methods. ganizations: From professional dominance to London: Sage. p. 176- 196 managed care. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

132 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING CASE THE ROLE OF AUDIENCES IN VALUABLE SPONSORSHIP COLLABORATIONS

PAULA RAHTU

As a project manager at Pink Eminence, I work earned media (articles and video views) was with companies and cultural organisations to more than 30 Milj. euros. In this case, Prince form mutually benefitting partnerships and EA’s audience was a perfect match for Neste, create synergies between two or several actors and the collaboration produced content that was from different fields. These mutually benefitting of interest to the targeted audience. partnerships are formed through sponsorship After finding the right audience, providing agreements. Sponsorship is about collabora- relevant, entertaining and surprising content tion between a sponsor and a property, such is of the essence. Another good example is ‘The as a company and a theatre. In return for fi- Next Rembrandt’. ING, a Dutch banking group, nancial or in-kind support, the sponsor can ex- was looking for a way to stand out amongst its ploit the commercial potential associated with competitors. In collaboration with Microsoft the property to enhance company image, drive and The Rembrandt House Museum, ING cre- sales or differentiate from competitors, among ated The Next Rembrandt, a three-dimensional other things. printed painting made solely from data derived For good sponsorship matches, focusing on from 346 paintings by Rembrandt. The project audiences is essential. A company should con- has been featured in more than 1,400 articles sider the following questions: Which property worldwide. On launch day, ING’s and Microsoft’s has interesting audiences? Whose audiences stock values increased. The painting has been does the company want to attract? and Which exhibited next to real Rembrandts, and the tech- properties are of interest to the company’s own nology developed is now used for restoration of customers? After a property with a desired audi- damaged and partially lost masterpieces. ence is found, the company should consider what The cases presented above were neither easy the audience wants, meaning how the company nor obvious collaborations. A lot of time, effort can serve or help the audience. and energy are needed to find the right audienc- One successful case example is the collabo- es and to create such collaborations. In addition, ration between Neste and the American spoken relevant data and analytics are important: Who word artist and environmental activist Prince are the audiences? Where they are? What do EA. Through two spoken word videos, Neste they think? What do they like? Both quantita- reached millions of people and sparked a dis- tive and qualitative data are required to make cussion about future innovations. The value of a convincing argument. The level of sponsorship is thought to cor- PAULA RAHTU relate with the prevalent economic situation. Rahtu (M.Sc.Econ., MMus in arts management) is cur- During economically challenging times, market- rently working as a account director in Pink Eminence, a company spesializing in communications, partnerships ing budgets are more restricted, and money is and consulting, with its heart in relations between arts spent on activities that can be easily measured and business. She has previously worked with a symphony orchestra, managed a music festival and consulted corpo- and have an immediate effect on a business. Al- rate communications issues. Paula feels enthusiastic about though proper measurement of sponsorship ac- building alliances between brands, non profits and culture creators for a better future. tivities is improving, it is still not prioritised over

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 133 other marketing activities. This lack of priori- rations? Intelligence about these two arenas lays ty does not mean that sponsorship is less effec- the groundwork for finding good matches and tive. When done properly, with a good match creating synergies. On a more concrete note, between the sponsor and the property and clear my job includes sales and reasoning. Good skills objectives and exploitation plans, sponsorship in these areas cannot be emphasised enough. becomes a powerful tool that can have positive The field of arts management is ever evolv- cash-flow effects well beyond the immediate ing. The public funding system is being recon- measurement period. structed, and humane values are being chal- For the past decade, companies have been lenged both nationally and universally. In my strict on spending, and sponsorship, as a term, opinion, the ability to think holistically and get may not be properly understood. Sponsorship to the core of the customers’ business problems is still commonly seen only as a method of sup- and the ability to match and utilise new meth- porting something or donating for something in- ods and technologies are becoming increasing- stead of a marketing tool. However, the situa- ly important. How can we benefit from artificial tion is hopefully improving, as an association intelligence or augmented reality? How will cli- to promote sponsorship was established in Fin- mate change affect the field of arts and culture? land a few years back that brings together differ- What opportunities does technology, in gener- ent actors in the field. Part of the association’s al, provide in the future? How will people’s lives responsibility is to do sponsorship better and change because of all these things? create good examples that can be presented as The future arts manager needs to have suf- best practices. ficient knowledge of multiple fields and, in that For me to excel in my job, I need to under- sense, be a generalist. Also, a strong focus on stand businesses: What is the driving force be- understanding the customers’ businesses as hind them? and What are their decisions based well as a passion to learn, improve and chal- on? However, I need to recognise the mentality lenge oneself continuously are good qualities to of the properties, as well: What is their domain have. These skills are not easy to acquire, but wherein to collaborate? and What restrictions I can promise it will be inspiring and reward- does their core content set to potential collabo- ing to try.

134 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING CASE COMMUNAL MARKETING OF THE KALLIO BLOCK PARTY

VILLE REPO

Helsinki boasts a remarkable variety of cultur- ular citizens to develop the cultural life of their al activities throughout the year, but summer is area of residence. the pinnacle of festivals and cultural events. The Throughout the years of its existence, the summer weekends are packed with various fes- Kallio Block Party has grown from a simple tivals, concerts or non-cultural mass events in- street party organised by a small group of en- cluding sports, food markets and Helsinki Pride. thusiasts into a mass event occupying entire Some of the events are established and have blocks in the district of Kallio. In recent years, been organised for years, whereas new cultur- the event has attracted an estimated 10,000– al actors keep appearing. The competition for 20,000 attendants. In 2017, the annual festival is spaces, funding and, especially, attendants is organised for the seventh successive time. Most high, and reaching the target audience is chal- of the original organisers have moved on to oth- lenging, especially for newcomers. er things, but every year, a new group of volun- Many districts of Helsinki have a tradition teers is formed to arrange the event. of holding village festivals, so-called block par- The event is non-commercial, which means ties. Käpylä and Kumpula both have a tradi- that the event is free for the audience to attend, tion of holding village events that spans dec- and neither the organisers nor the performers ades. These events share the common ideology get financial gain for their contribution. How- of providing free cultural activities made pos- ever, some money is involved in the festival in- sible by volunteer organisers. Among these dis- frastructure. The non-commercial ideology pre- trict festivals, the Kallio Block Party is regard- vents the inclusion of logos and banners from ed as a ‘hip’ event, especially popular among sponsors, although the festival cooperates with the urban young adults. The event is considered a few select commercial sponsors who are kind somehow anarchistic because it takes place in enough to provide infrastructure, such as toilets. the heart of the city on the busy streets nor- Communality is the key word for all the ac- mally occupied by cars, buses and trams. It is tivities of the Kallio Initiative, and social media organised by Kallio Initiative, which is an offi- is the most important marketing method used cially unestablished group of individuals. Kallio because it allows communication directly to the Initiative was established as a reaction to rigid audience with little financial investment. Kallio bureaucracy that was making it difficult for reg- Initiative has a Facebook page with a mass of followers. However, the most important aspect of the page’s communication is that those who

VILLE REPO currently are or have been involved with the Repo (MMus in arts management) holds a Bachelor of Cul- Kallio Block Party or other activities organised ture and Arts in Music and Media Management from the Jyväskylä University of Applied Sciences and Master of by Kallio Initiative are collectively distributing Music in arts management from the Sibelius Academy, Un- the message as a community. The Facebook algo- iarts. For the last five years Repo has been working as free- rithm for visibility favours reactive content gen- lance cultural producer in several projects in the fields of music, theatre and dance. erating a response from large groups of people.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING 135 For Kallio Initiative, creating a massive fol- the community, which consists of many layers lowing and a huge community was not planned. both within and outside the organisation. In the Their popularity happened by slow growth heart of the community, there are the owners throughout the years, but the reasons are clear. and employees or, in the case of Kallio Initia- The audience embraces the message and the tive, volunteers. The community can be extend- values of the organisation. Although the values ed outside the organisations to include partners, are not officially written or approved anywhere, customers, supporters or whoever has an in- they live within the collective mind of the organ- terest in the organisation or its values. To ex- isation. These ‘unofficial’ values include commu- tend the community outside the organisation, nality, openness and non-commerciality. the organisation must first enforce its values The Kallio Block Party was the result of fol- within the company. Communality is a valuable lowing the previously mentioned values to cre- asset in marketing, communication, sales and ate a festival with no entry fee that is easily ac- fundraising, among other activities. The peo- cessible for everyone and where none of the or- ple within the organisation are prime ambas- ganisers or performers benefits financially from sadors of the cause, but the message becomes the event. Financial benefit falls to the local en- more compelling when people outside the com- terprises, mainly bars, cafes, restaurants and pany strengthen it. supermarkets in the area. That people feel sup- The Kallio Block Party is only one example portive towards such values and activities that of communality in the cultural field. Although follow those values is understandable. A faithful the massive following was somehow coinciden- following can be beneficial in many ways. For tal, there are other cultural organisations that example, in 2015, the community allowed the have, purposefully or not, managed to create Kallio Block Party to collect 8,800€ through a similar communality. For example, the Flow Fes- fundraising campaign to cover some the costs of tival and Tuska are prime examples of organ- the festival production. In addition, every year, isations that have succeeded in establishing a new people volunteer to organise events and set of values and a product that resonates with promote those values. those values. By demonstrating those values, What are the lessons that commercial actors organisations have created a community of fol- in the cultural field can take from this example? lowers who share those values. The communi- When people adopt a cause, artist or event and ty might not be a close, homogenous commu- feel that it is close to their personal values or nity where everyone knows everyone, but it is identity, they want to share their relationship a group of individuals unified by the values of with others and connect with like-minded peers. the organisation. Cultural actors should establish and embrace

136 ARTS MANAGEMENT: PARTNERSHIP & FUNDRAISING ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 137 Audience & community engagement

New roles for audiences: Cultural manager facilitating produsers

KATRI HALONEN

This article explores the new roles for audienc- tion of producing and consuming, during a comes. A new generation of audience is entering the munity-based street art festival. This produs- field of cultural production, namelyprosumers . er-led production deeply affects the work of the Prosumers produce some of the goods and ser- cultural manager. With this respect, this arti- vices that enter their own consumption, as fu- cle presents the new occupational competenc- turologist Alvin Toffler defines in his book The es needed by cultural managers in charge of art Third Wave. The prosumers have several ways festivals to include user-led prosumers within of participating in the user-led content creation festival production. process and consumption. However, some of the prosumers participate also at different stages of From prosumer to produser the production process. They have been called The term prosumer was introduced by Toffler produsers. Considering the role of produsers, the in his book and defined as people who produce participation of the audience is more frequent- some of the goods and services entering their ly extending from co-creation of prosumers to own consumption (Toffler 1980; chapter 20). co-production of produsers. Most relevant research deals with fans turn- This article discusses the management chal- ing into prosumers who have an input on the lenges that arise from produserism, a combina- products they consume. Thus, prosumption viewers, and audiences, are allowed to greatly expand their role in the process (see also Bird

KATRI HALONEN 2011; Bruns 2006; Bruns & Smith 2011; Grin- Halonen (PhD in Sociology, Fil.lic. in musicology) works nell 2009; Nakajima 2011; Ritzer & Jurgenson currently as a Principal Lecturer of cultural management at Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences. 2010). The key drivers in this development are Her research interests include topics such as co-crea- Web 2.0 surroundings and social media, where tion and co-production processes, intermediary profes- people can serve as their own media production sions in the field of culture, creative leadership, futures forecasting of creative industries and complementary unit and have at least a couple of people as an currencies. She is an active practitioner in the RDI field audience. For example, social platforms such as specialized in cultural entrepreneurship, regional development and innovation. Tumblr and YouTube are becoming increasingly

138 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

important arenas for prosumers and museum that selects artwork and artists for the festival curators, cultural managers and other cultur- based on its own vision. Yet, the produsers do al service professionals to build new communi- get to organise the art event and carry enough ties and engage their audiences in a meaningful responsibility to continue their work. conversation. As the audience shifts towards becoming pro- However, Bruns (2006) uses the term produsers, the role of an arts manager is changing. duser to describe someone who is a combination Therefore, a new set of management tools are of producer and consumer and often involved needed to increase active prosumer involvement in user-led content creation that takes place in in performing arts creation and production. This an interactive environment. There is a key dif- article intends to conceptualise produsers as a ference in these terms despite both being part new breed of cultural intermediaries and dis- of the new roles for consumers and audiences. cuss the implications from a case study of a com- A produser not only encourages the audience munity-based street art festival. to have input on the products, but aims to en- This article is based on empirical data from gage the audience in the production process, the Arabia Street Art Festivals conducted in as well. In prosumer and produser discussions Helsinki, Finland in 2015 and 2016. The data (Bird 2011; Bruns 2006; Bruns & Smith 2011; include production reports, annual reports, lo- Grinnel 2009), the produser consumer is re- cal media articles and social media discussions. garded as an active actor who completes pro- Two different levels of produserism are taken duction as a produser. into account: the overall production of the whole The production process has been tradition- festival and production of a single event. In this ally managed by cultural managers, with some case, the single event involves a visual artist interaction with prosumers. However, produsage collective showcasing its work for locals dur- (Bruns 2006) describes a collaborative and con- ing the festival and taking advantage of Web 2.0 tinuous process that builds on existing content afterwards. Thus, the purpose of this article is in pursuit of further improvement. According- to understand participatory consumers also in- ly, produsers see art work as a used-led pro- volved in producing an art event as examples of cess that is the basis for collaborative volun- festival produsers. Through this purpose, this teer work of content creation, production and article broadens the traditional notions of au- consumption. The produsers, thus, cannot be dience and production. regarded as traditional volunteer workers directed by managers. Instead, these people set Arabia Street Art Festival personal and collaborative goals for their joint Arabianranta is a residential part of Helsinki production process, in which consumption can and located by a sea bay famous for its birds be done simultaneously with creation, re-crea- and rapids formally used as waterworks. The tion and production. Swedish King Gustav Vasa founded Helsinki in For these reasons, a street art festival was Arabianranta in 1550, but the centre is now 10 an appropriate arena for exploring the concept kilometres to the south. One of the most impor- of produserism in this article. The art work pre- tant factories located in this neighbourhood is sented at the festival is selected from existing Arabia ceramics, which was once the biggest groups of artists or, in some cases, created dur- ceramics factory in Europe. Arabianranta has a ing the festival. The term produser suggests that population of 10,000 people, a workforce of 5,000 there is a distinction between professional arts people, more than 300 enterprises and 6,000 managers and unpaid consumers acting as pro- students and know-how professionals. The Ara- ducers. In this case, the traditional artistic di- bianranta district has a ‘laboratory’ for housing, rector has been replaced by a production team and since 2007, there has been testing for ser-

140 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT vices and products called Helsinki Living Lab leads to a state of affairs in which the cultural with the residents. manager focuses on atmosphere management A key community actor in the area is a local rather than task management. Still, at the end association called Artova, which has been work- of the day, the main producer is responsible for ing in the area for almost 40 years promoting the budget and finances, safety, permissions community-based free-of-charge events. The needed for the event and overall management. key actions are orchestrated by activist inter- The trainee producer was a cultural manage- est groups that focus on several areas, such as ment student at Metropolia University of Ap- arts, nature and leisure, beekeeping and urban plied Sciences who was paid for her work. The farming. These groups plan events and collect rest of the group was volunteer locals, street local people with shared interests together to art enthusiasts from other parts of Helsinki and strengthen their sense of belonging to the com- students from local schools. munity. The cultural manager trainee-based festival The Arabia Street Art Festival is a 10-year- management model includes a mentoring sys- old event that takes place in the spring in Hel- tem; for several years, the cultural management sinki. It is a produser-based community festi- trainee has mentored the next trainee and pro- val facilitated by Artova. The Arabia Street Art duction crew to take over production. Artova Festival has more than 25,000 festival partici- hires the trainee and decides on the budget, but pants. Last year, the festival included more than thereafter, the authority is given to the produs- 150 performances in the fields of circus, music, ers team, who are autonomous in its decisions. dance, theatre, graffiti art and murals. In addi- Accordingly, each produser is given a task on tion, second-hand sales, street food and a car- the basis of their own interest. When sharing nival atmosphere are key parts of the festival. the tasks, it is estimated how much time each The budget of the festival is approximately 5,000 produser is willing to give and what level of de- Euros, which includes the salary of a cultural cision power they wish to have. Volunteers are management trainee. The festival is an impor- asked what kind of effort they would like to give, tant part of the community identity. not what they can do. In this way, the festival produserism serves as a playground to try out Produsers at Arabia Street Art Festival new production tasks and roles. An essential term used along the way is ‘enjoyable volunteer- Team-based production process ism’. As Artova states, the festival aims to have Because the Arabia Street Art Festival occurs a “home-made feel to it, but [be] professionally in the spring, the production cycle starts in late organized ” (Artova 2017). Thus, tasks are to be autumn and is often initiated by the trainee who completed, but not taken seriously. worked on the last festival. This trainee also On a practical level, the produsers are split helps to seek new prosumers to join the crew. into teams that work for six months before the The programming starts in January followed by event. The paid university trainee facilitates the marketing and event preparations so the festival work of a group of approximately 25 volunteer is ready in May. The produser team consists of a produsers. The teams have been built around paid producer trainee and a group of volunteer different themes including music, circus, thea- produsers. The key words in recruiting produs- tre, children, recycling, communications, com- ers are network, fun, self-realisation and learn- pany cooperation and set design and decoration. ing something new. The produsers seek collec- Both produser facilitators (2015 and 2016) have tiveness and possibilities for self-development, described their managerial actions as “taking which are often integrated within the context care of programming, timetables, budget, re- of their studies. Answering their needs, thus, cruiting of volunteers, applying for mandatory

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 141 permits and business cooperation” (produser The artists who had not done something sim- facilitators 2015 and 2016 learning diaries, see ilar began to see the walking tour also as pro- Halonen 2017). Although the task list was typ- motional possibility. Many of the artists began ical for an event organiser, the challenges and to take part in the production process as pro- learning outcomes from the process emphasised dusers. These artists re-organised their studi- boosting the spirit, enthusiasm and engagement os so visitors could fit in and had discussions within produser teams. Both facilitators under- about whether they should clean up the studi- lined that each event was characterised by each os or show their ‘messy’ authentic surround- produser team. ings of paints and used brushes. Art work re- Because the produser facilitator has help ceived price tags, and many artists made busi- with these tasks, the time saved is used in cre- ness cards showing their contact information. ating and maintaining a positive spirit and Some created special offers for the day; for ex- checking regularly that things are still work- ample, one entrepreneur organised a vintage ing as planned. There seems to be variation on portrait photography service. what kind of work suits produsers best. In the The aim of the studio tour was to promote current case, joint programming and event man- visual artists in the area. At the same time, agement logistics seem quite workable among the produser facilitator (university trainee) different areas of cultural. During both festival had objectives to activate artists and build a years, there were challenges in finding volun- network among them. There was a hope that tary communications team members, who are the artists from the network would eventually essential in putting the program together, com- come up with a plan to increase sales of their municating with numerous co-operation part- art work through co-marketing. The business ners and taking care of media relations. One at- objectives were not directly discussed when tempted solution to this problem was splitting formulating the project. Yet, the business tar- up the tasks and dividing them among several gets were strongly present in discussions; when produsers; however, this solution proved to be talking about local awareness of visuals artists difficult. Still, keeping the tasks in the hands of working in the area, the producer was refer- only one produser created too big of a workload. ring to marketing, finding new client potential, At the end of the day, the facilitator stepped in getting the potential customer to make an ap- to producer role when prosumers had difficulty pointment, recommending the local artists in implementing tasks. their networks and getting customers to buy art. Although the producer emphasised not Transforming from artist to produser using the business targets as sources of mo- Part of the street art festival in 2016 was a pro- tivation, these targets were present through ject that aimed to highlight the visual artists in the project. It was surprising that the artists Arabia. This project was done in cooperation avoided discussing the business targets when with small artist-based companies and the local planning the project. A lack of sales was still university of applied sciences. The artists were one of the main disappointments the artists collected and pitched the idea of highlighting named after the walking tour. the visual artists working in the area through During the organisation of the walking tour, walking tours of their studios. Together, 22 ar- awareness of the business potential was raised. tistic entrepreneurs committed to the project. For example, the produser facilitator noticed The commitment was strong. The producer that some of the artists might be interested in made a test round and noticed that many art- printing some of their work on canvases and told ists had come up with new ways of bringing the them about the possibility of co-working with walking tour attendees back to their studios. digital textile printing students at the Metropo-

142 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT lia University of Applied Sciences. Tour guides good management? The key actions in this case were selected from the students bearing in mind was flexible facilitation of the produser teams possibilities for networking. The feedback ex- and atmosphere management. pressed the artists’ gratitude for organising this Because official agreements and contracts project and their hope for cooperation in the did not exist, the volunteer produsers needed future. This cooperation is a key challenge in to be tied to the production work through a psy- ‘light-produserism’, in which joint actions are chological agreement. The produser facilitator facilitated by a cultural manager student. Re- depends on the produsers greatly, and it is es- garding the walking tour, the artists were only sential that the produsers do not lose their mo- interested in their studio service, acting more tivation and disappear. Although de-motivating like prosumers than produsers. tasks and unpleasant obstacles might occur at When preparing for the 2017 art festival, the several points of the production process, one artists wanted to organise joint actions. Still, way to strengthen the psychological partner- they lacked the volunteer produser facilitator, ship was by combining volunteer work with proj- and a university trainee once more stepped into ect-based university studies, which is a typical the role with a target of empowering the artists mode of learning at the university of applied sci- group to stronger produserism, which also in- ences. For the cultural management students, cluded facilitating the network. Presently, art- the challenge is building the festival production ists are planning a joint Internet gallery to pro- process into the learning process that serves mote sales. Considering the difficulties involved learning targets in the curriculum and build- in bringing business into the art world and pro- ing a credible system that enables evaluating moting sales in person at one’s studio, the Inter- the learning outcome. The produser facilitator net-based sales environment may allow artists spent a lot of time building and regularly re-con- to have a comfortable distance from the busi- firming the psychological bond between the fes- ness aspects. tival and produsers. An important part of produser facilitating is Facilitating produsers: constant feedback. The produser facilitator put From task management to atmosphere great effort into identifying situations in which management positive feedback was appropriate. This feed- The Arabia Street Art Festival portrays the back was often given through one-on-one inter- festival on its webpage as a versatile present- actions, team meetings, by phone or via Face- er of current Finnish street art in surprising, book chat. Also, important milestones, such as non-commercial, multiform, experimental and getting an official license to paint a large mural ecological ways. Key ideological starting points or breaking 10,000 Facebook fans, were cele- for the residents are to hold stronger author- brated together. The cultural manager constant- ity in planning uses for local city spaces and ly sought opportunities to celebrate the little widen the concept of ‘home’ to include outside successes along the way. spaces, such as parks, yards and streets. For Although the produser teams had deci- volunteers, these ideologies create a high level sion-making authority, when there was conflict, of motivation since the festival actions effect the decisions were made by the cultural man- one’s extended home. The shared ideological ager facilitating the teams. This process was starting points of the festival are considered slow because it was important to ensure that important and as a starting point for co-work- everyone was heard, agreed to compromise and ing. However, the following questions remain: follow the decisions and continued their volun- What is management work like in a produser teer produser work in a good mood. Through- collective? and What are the key qualities of out the production phases, the cultural manag-

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 143 er focused on listening to produsers, mentoring References them during challenging moments, and ensur- Artova ry (2017). http://artova.fi/vapaaehtoisek- ing that the atmosphere remained inspirational, si-arabiankatufestivaali. Accessed September confidential and enjoyable. 2017. Becker, H. S. (1974). Art as collective action. Ameri- Conclusion: Cultural manager transforming can Sociological Review, 39(6), 767-776. into a produser facilitator Bird, S. E. (2011). Are we all produsers now? Cultur- al Studies, 25(4-5), 502-516. This article discussed a community-based street Bourdieu, P. (1996). The rules of art: Genesis and art festival and the management challenges that structure of the literary field. Stanford, CA: arise from produserism. The study found that in Stanford University Press. the festival setting, the cultural manager is often Bruns, A. (2006). Towards produsage: Futures for seen as the key actor that engineers the process user-led content production. In F. Sudweeks, H. from conception to realisation. This article sug- Hrachovec, & C. Ess (Eds.), Proceedings of the gests a new role for cultural managers in festival International conference of the 6th Cultural Atti- settings. The key areas of the role are facilitat- tudes towards Communication and Technology, Tartu, Estonia (pp. 275-284). ing produsers work and managing atmosphere. Transforming an audience to participants Bruns, A. & Schmidt, J-H. (2011). Produsage: A closer look at continuing developments. New Review and further to co-production produsers is a chal- of Hypermedia and Multimedia, 17(1), 3-7. lenging process. The cultural manager facilitat- Grinnell, C. K. 2009. From consumer to prosumer to ing the process needs a set of new competences produser: Who keeps shifting my paradigm? (We and needs to perform more typical responsibili- Do!). Public Culture, 21(3), 577-598. ties within event management. The new occupa- Halonen, K. (2017). Kulttuurituottajasta yhteisö- tional position of produser facilitator requires tuottajaksi. Monitomijaisen käyttäjälähtöisen co-creation, co-production and crowdsourcing tuotannon orkestrointi. In. S. Mikkonen & E. management skills combined with good commu- Ala-Nikkola (Eds.), CoINNO. Palvelukehittämi- sellä sykettä vapaa-aikasetorille (pp. 72-84). Hel- nication, teamwork and atmosphere manage- sinki: Metropolia Applied Sciences. ment ability. Still, when working in the cultur- Nakajima, S. (2011). Prosumption in art. American al sector, the rules of the art world (Bourdieu Behavioral Scientist, 56(4), 550-569. 1996) apply. The project management has to un- Napoli, P. M. (2011). Audience evolution: New tech- derstand the value of each artist and art work nologies and the transformation of media au- when programming and running the festival. In diences. New York, USA: Columbia University addition, there must be strong understanding Press. of community management and event manage- Ritzer, G. & Jurgenson, N. (2010). Production, con- ment to build produser processes. sumption, prosumption: The nature of capital- Following the rules of art world, the main out- ism in the age of the digital “prosumer.” Journal of Consumer Culture, 10(1), 13-36. come of the process is the artistic work. Often, Toffler, A. (1980). The third wave. New York, USA: in the produser process, the facilitated process Bantam Books. leading towards the joint action might be the most rewarding part of the project. The focus transfers from the artistic goal to finding the inspiration, beauty and learning possibilities from the voyage itself.

144 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT ESSAY DEFENDING OR RE-DEFINING ARTS AND CULTURAL VALUES: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES

VIOLETA SIMJANOVSKA

Introduction and economic values of the arts and culture, how At the present moment, there is surprisingly can the real role and value of arts and culture little knowledge and understanding among arts best be defended and delivered, or performed? organisations and public bodies about what it is The world today is mainly characterised by that people value in an artistic or cultural ex- crisis, occurring in different fields (safety, refu- perience and what they really think about the gees, economy, social aspects), by increased hu- quality of that experience as well as about why man mobility, accelerated with the open global people buy the ticket or take active part in a cul- market, and by new forms of communication tural, community-based activity. Public bodies that have resulted from the development of new also require more and more indicators (of which technologies. A sense of vulnerability that aris- economic indicators are most desirable) to jus- es from existing challenges as well as insecurity tify their spending on the arts and culture. In and fear about the future have contributed to this polarisation between the personal, social the growth of xenophobia, racism, intolerance and human rights violations, occasionally esca- lating into conflict. Regarding cultural production, distribution

VIOLETA SIMJANOVSKA and promotion in worldwide terms, there is a Simjanovska (PhD) (born in Bitola, Macedonia) first gradu- tendency towards monopolisation, where a num- ated from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (BSc) after ber of owners dominate this market (Obuljen & which she continued her education in music and started to work as a cultural operator in one of the firsts independent Smiers 2006, 3). Monopolisation reduces the di- cultural organizations in the Balkan region. She has signifi- versity of offers as well as artistic expression, cant experience in managing international programmes and projects in the cultural field, in particular in cultural produc- which in turn threaten democracy, the main re- tion, research, analyses and evaluation as well as preparing of quirements of which are variety in articulation, cultural policies in the Balkan region. She holds a Ph.D. in Cul- tural Policy and Cultural Management and works as an expert opinion and expression. and consultant for the European Commission, USAID, Swiss Public cultural policies tend to experience Cultural Programmes, European Cultural Foundation, among reduced funding on account of funding being others. Currently, she is working as a Lecturer in Arts Man- agement at the Sibelius Academy, University of Arts Helsinki. directed towards other segments, and they face

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 145 difficulty in finding sufficient arguments for the less towards all who are different, will they be economic value of culture, often setting param- reluctant to leave their comfort zone or will they eters which do not correspond with the overall develop policies which encompass pluralism in values of art and culture, thus placing social val- orientation and freedom of expression, making ue at the margins. This rather dangerous ten- room for diversities, not necessarily with some dency has a direct impact on democracy and economic impacts? daily living, as it polarises views on diversity. A For example, will Denmark reconsider its cel- lack of investment in sensitising citizens to basic ebration of the 50th amendment to immigration human principles such as freedom of expression, control? (Integration Minister Inger Støjberg, cultural diversity, pluralism of orientations and posted a photograph of a celebration cake on openness leads to strengthening of the opposite, social media after her 50th amendment to tight- which includes xenophobia, racism and discrim- en immigration controls was ratified in March ination. Therefore, positions on art and cultural 20171, Pasha Robinson, L. 2017). Another exam- programmes envisaged for communities are of ple is the UK, where politicians and the media significant importance. have compared refugees to vermin and crimi- In this context, where space of cultural diver- nals, provoking xenophobic attacks. (In addi- sity is narrowed both “inward” and “outward”, tion, in 2016, then Home Secretary, Theresa the cultural and political discourse has changed May, set out her intention to create a ‘hostile to a rather extreme extent. Therefore, there is a environment’ for illegal immigrants, prohibit- need for a new debate which invites public policies to rethink their values and courses of action. 1 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/eu- A dilemma is raised: Will governments (societ- rope/danish-integration-minister-inger-st-jberg-fu- ies) close themselves off more and more, focus- rious-backlash-celebrating-tougher-immigra- ing on their ethnocentrism, will they be ruth- tion-laws-a7632161.html

146 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT ing refugees from working or studying, mak- between people, notably the youth, and reinforce ing their lives unbearable2, Mara De Wachter, mutual understanding. It can also be an engine E. 2017). Or will citizens, who are professionals for economic and social development. As we face possessing knowledge and skills, although they common challenges, culture can help all of us, in have associations with otherness in their names Europe, Africa, Middle East, Asia, stand togeth- (mostly associations with Islam), cease to be er to fight radicalisation, and build an alliance of treated as invisible by public institutions and civilisations against those trying to divide us...”4 private companies and be able to get employ- But how do these statements about the val- ment like everyone else? Will we build bridges ue of culture reflect in the everyday life of cit- and make room for diversities or will we build izens, and how is the value of culture and the barbed wire walls, as Hungary did in the latest arts translated into action and transmitted to migrant crisis? And will we be more sensitive all citizens? How can culture and the arts fulfil to arts and cultural activities that reflect on all their potential and make our lives better and of these issues? what benefits have we experienced so far? The power of culture, understood in its wid- est context, “as a complex whole which includes Changing perspectives of the arts and cultural knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, programmes that engage the community and any other capabilities and habits acquired by In March 2016, the Staatskapelle Berlin, the a human as a member of society” (Tylor in Sey- Konzerthausorchester Berlin, the Berliner mour-Smith 1986), and with all its diversity – as Philkarmoniker and their chief conductors Sir a precondition for peace, source of intellectual, Simon Rettle, Ivan Ficher and Daniel Barenbo- emotional, and spiritual wellbeing, as a resource im hosted an event to welcome people who had for socio-economic development, is now more escaped terrible conflict and destruction, losing important than ever. their homes in their home countries. The event In this context, conditions are currently be- was organized under the patronage of Feder- ing created for the secondary role of culture to al Chancellor Angela Merkel. Many volunteer be abandoned in meeting the millennium goals aid workers, community workers who helped or the priorities of the European Union. There- the refugees when they arrived in Germany, fore, it was not by chance that, at the Millen- were present at the event. The programme of nium Summit3 of world leaders in New York the evening consisted of pieces from Mozart, in September 2010, the importance of culture Prokofiev and Beethoven. However, what was was publicly recognised for the development the meaning of this cultural event? What was of humanity and for its contribution towards offered to society and to the world? The answer the achievement of the Millennium Develop- is much more than audience satisfaction. Can ment Goals. Later, in Europe, the High Rep- events like this or their added value be ‘meas- resentative of the European Union for Foreign ured’? Yes, but all those data could not cap- Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President ture their real importance. As mentioned on of the European Commission, Federica Mogher- the event organizer’s website, “It was a moving, ini, for the first time clearly indicated the role unforgettable evening for everyone involved, and and value of culture and announced the cre- the oft-quoted, miraculous ability of music to build ation of serious instruments at the European level: “Culture is a powerful tool to build bridges 4 Available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/4038/Mogher- 2 Available at: https://frieze.com/article/refu- ini%20and%20Commission%20aim%20to%20 gee-tales put%20culture%20at%20the%20heart%20of%20 3 Available at www.un.org/en/mdg/summit2010/ EU%20international%20relations Cashed-Similar.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 147 bridges between people and cultures was impres- however, misinterpretation and misunder- sively evident”.5 standings remain, as politicians and policymak- How can the intangible importance of events ers appear to care more about economic out- like this be articulated to politicians and deci- comes while the public and art managers and sion makers, who are interested mostly in eco- professionals (e.g. in the non-for-profit sector) nomic indicators? How can the value of the arts are concerned with intrinsic value. McCarthy and culture be defined in order for it to make a (2004) argues that these intrinsic effects can difference? Experts, academics and researchers enrich individual lives and that they also have face a real problem setting measures for the val- a public spill-over component, through which ue of the arts and culture, and lengthy discus- they cultivate the kind of citizens required in sions on this issue continue. a pluralistic society. Further, McCarthy states The fact is that the cultural sector gover- that social bonds are created among individuals nance in many countries faces a crisis of legiti- when they share their art experiences through macy (Holden 2006). At all levels of governance reflection and discourse and that a particular in local, regional, and national levels, culture fac- expression of common values is gained through es funding cuts in comparison with fields such as artworks that are significant to a people’s expe- health, security, etc. Art organisations are con- rience and life (McCarthy et al. 2004). There- sequently constantly struggling to prove their fore, one of the reasons for the dysfunctional significance. Convincing decision makers and relationship between policymakers, art manag- politicians about the importance of culture and ers and citizens is the different approaches and the arts was and still is a hard job and has not understanding of the intrinsic value of the arts been successful in most European countries. Art and culture in general. managers and art professionals have focused on The challenge, which is already being tak- satisfying the policy demands of their funders in en up in places such as Berlin, is to create a an attempt to gain support for their activities, different relationship between culture, politics for example through results such as number and the citizens and to reflect on important is- of tickets sold, number of media reviews, em- sues that concern all of us, using public money ployability numbers, number of products sold. for this. In practice, this requires knowledge, These various indicators, however, cannot pre- skills, understanding, courage, confidence and cisely capture the hidden or intrinsic value of braveness, especially on the part of art manag- culture and the arts. ers and professionals, in finding innovative ways The concept of ‘cultural value’, related to to open a dialogue and build greater trust and publicly financed arts and culture, has provid- legitimacy with citizens. The same applies for ed politicians with an understanding of why decision makers! culture is important and is helping institutions The ‘Welcome Refugees’ action at the Nation- to explain themselves and communicate with al Gallery Ateneum in Helsinki that took place in each other (Holden 2006). According to Hold- March 2017 is another example. The graffiti art- en, intrinsic (personal), instrumental (social ists EGS, as part of their work Europe’s Great- and economic) and institutional (public) value est Shame #11, placed a banner on the facade constitute a framework for creating a common of the National Gallery. This was exhibited for language among art managers, professionals, seven days, coinciding with a demonstration by politicians and the public (ibid). asylum seekers at the Railway Square in front Despite this conception of cultural value, of the Ateneum. By exhibiting the artwork on the facade, the Ateneum supported a petition signed by many culture and arts professionals 5 Available at: https://www.digitalconcerthall.com/ that was released on 10 March, 2017. The action en/concert/23677

148 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT and the message in the heart of the city welcom- References ing refugees provoked huge reactions both for Mc Carthy, K., E. Ondaatje, L. Zakarus & Brooks, A. and against. The banner was paid for through (2004). Gifts of the muse: Reframing the debate donations initiated by ‘Refugee Hospitality Club’ about the benefits of the arts. The Rand Corpo- Facebook group and not through public money. ration for the Wallace Foundation, available at http//www.culture.gov.uk/images/publications/ The art manager of the gallery received threats supportingexelencein thearts.pdf. from Finnish citizens6, in contradiction to the Holden J. (2004). Capturing cultural value. Demos public message. The most important thing was Available at: www.demos.co.uk that this event provoked discussion, raised ques- Holden J. (2006). Cultural value and the crisis of le- tions and underlined reality. The importance of gitimacy. Demos available at: www.demos.co.uk this action cannot be measured, however. Obuljen, N. & Smiers, J. (eds.) (2006). UNESCO’s This example shows that such projects are of Convention on the protection and promotion of enormous importance as they address import- the diversity of cultural expressions: Make it ant issues and open dialogues and discussions. work, Zagreb: Cultural Link IMO However, they could also cause problems for pol- Seymour-Smith, C. (1986). Macmillan Dictonary of iticians, such as a lower number of voters in the Anthropology. The Macmillan Press LTD. next election. In addition, there is no measurement of the economic impact of a project that Web sites engages the community. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/4038/Mogherini%20and%20 Conclusion Commission%20aim%20to%20put%20cul- ture%20at%20the%20heart%20of%20EU%20in- Art managers and professionals will play an im- ternational%20relations portant role in the near future in changing per- https://www.digitalconcerthall.com/en/con- spectives on the value of the arts and culture cert/23677 and will place greater pressure on policymak- https://frieze.com/article/refugee-tales ers about the intrinsic social value of culture. www.un.org/en/mdg/summit2010/Cashed-Similar Perhaps it is time to use winds that blow from positions of power to acknowledge the importance of arts and culture activities that engage the community and how these activities can shape our mental maps, beliefs, attitudes and personal values. All countries, even Scandinavian countries, face problems, but nobody will change things if we, the people who work in the field, do not make an effort and raise our voices towards rethinking and re-shaping understanding of the importance and value of the arts and culture.

6 Statement of the director of the National Art Gal- lery (Atheneum), Susanna Petterson, at the 8th Nordic Conference for Cultural Policy, in her introductory speech.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 149 CASE THE FINNISH HOSPITAL CLOWNS ASSOCIATION: A PIONEER IN THE FIELD OF ‘WELFARE ART’

KARI JAGT

‘welfare art scene’ for 15 years. As the artistic director of The Finn- ish Hospital Clowns Association (Sairaalaklovnit ry), I work with the concrete issues of welfare and art on a daily basis.

Hospital clowns in Finland Hospital clowns give support to children in care facilities, bringing en- couragement and joy to situations with burdening or limiting factors. Hospital clown artists work in pairs and make the rounds in paediatric Multiple artists, organisations and special pro- wards to entertain and cheer up small patients jects working within welfare art or art with a and their family members. The ‘clown doctors’ social impact have emerged in Finland over the make children forget their illnesses for a mo- last few years. One could even say that this fo- ment, giving them permission to have a good cus has become more of a norm thanks to new mood and laugh in the middle of a normal hos- ways of engaging audiences and co-creating art pital weekday. The happy memory of a hospital with various social groups (e.g., elderly people, clown visit lasts for a long time and helps fami- prisoners or school children). Applied ways of lies process the hospital experience afterwards. making art have also started to gain much de- Hospital clowns’ work at hospitals is regular served appreciation. Art in institutions has even and continuous, and they have the same regula- developed into an integral, interesting and actions for secrecy, background and hygiene as do tive part of the Finnish art scene. all other hospital and paediatric workers. Hos- At the time of my graduation from the De- pital clowns work in close cooperation with the partment of Arts Management, I started work- staff and are always mindful of the child’s con- ing in an organisation that has been around the dition. The ward rounds begin with a meeting with the staff, and the children are always asked permission for encounters. Every clown day is KARI JAGT reported, recording all encounters. Jagt (MA, MMus in arts management) has worked as Ar- The Finnish Hospital Clowns Association tistic Director of Finnish Hospital Clown Association since January 2017. Before that, he has worked as an actor spe- operates in all university central hospitals in cializing on children and youth theatre, and in various pro- Finland: Helsinki, Turku, Tampere, Kuopio and jects related to theatre education and audience development. Jagt has a position of trust in the Finnish Actors’ Oulu. The association has weekly 12 operational Union (applied theatre and free groups council). Kari Jagt days in these university hospitals. In addition, graduated from the Theatre Academy in 2004 and from the Sibelius Academy Arts Management Master’s Degree Pro- the association operates in three central hospi- gramme in 2017. tals once per month (Lahti, Hämeenlinna and

150 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT Jyväskylä). In 2016, hospital clowns had 495 op- from research collaboration on the significance erational days in different university hospitals and benefits of clownery in medical and nurs- during the year, which was the biggest number ing science. Our organization actively develops in the history of the association. Annually, the work forms of social clownery and is a pioneer clowns have gathered an audience of more than in their application. We are well-established as 44,000 people, including children, family mem- art operators in welfare services and innova- bers and hospital staff. tive experts integrated in the social service and The hospital clowning activities were brought health care system. to Finland by Lilli Sukula-Lindblom, who studied Currently, we concentrate on developing hospital clownery in New York at the turn of the new working methods to support children dur- millennium. When she came back to Finland, she ing various medical procedures. For example, founded the organisation with Tom Lindblom during a surgery process, hospital clowns can and Ilkka Viippola in 2001. The first group of support children by diminishing their anxiety professional artists were trained as clown doc- and fears. Studies and examples from abroad tors the same year. Sukula-Lindblom worked as have proved the effectiveness of the concept the organisation’s artistic director until 2014. (e.g., Kocherow et al., 2016). ”Professional artists acting as hospital clowns Visioning the future work for people in extreme situations, on their It seemed both fascinating and challenging for terms, with them. In these encounters, art is a me to start as the association’s new artistic di- shared activity. For this, clownery offers a situ- rector. The association has a dual-director mod- ation-sensitive tool and a clear wordless agree- el: a managing director responsible for fund- ment between the clown and the child. Art may raising, public relations and administrative du- not be able to cure the patient but it can offer a ties and an artistic director responsible for the stop in everyday life and thereby also new per- quality of work, development of the content, spectives to life.” (Laura Rämä, aka Clown hospital liaising and organisation of the daily Doctor Hartsa-Liisa Mono, has worked as a activities. The association’s third monthly paid hospital clown since 2011) employee works as a coordinator in the fields We see the benefits the clowns’ work creates of both directors, as well as of the day-to-day in hospitals daily through children’s improved operations of the clowns. All hospital clowns patient experiences. Clown support in medical are professional performing artists working on procedures may also reduce the children’s need a freelancer basis. for pre-procedure medication, speed up the re- One of my first tasks was to take part in the covery process and save money. We hope that, vision work, and we defined the following strat- in the future, our work will be examined through egy for the association: an objective impact study to provide results that We offer high quality, internationally regard- support our goals of developing hospital clown- ed hospital clownery for children and adoles- ing into a special profession and creating an es- cents in Finnish hospitals, taking into account tablished funding model for the work. nationwide accessibility. We work in close and ever-developing cooperation with the medical References staff, making the clown part of the care team Kocherow, S., Hen, Y., Jaworowski, S., Ostrovsky, to support the child during medical procedures. I., Edelman, A.J., Gozal, Y., & Chertin, B. (2016). Medical clowns reduce pre-operative anxiety, We engage in strong international cooperation, postoperative pain and medical costs in children specialising in the possibilities of hospital clown- undergoing outpatient penile surgery: A Rand- ery during procedures and in psychiatric care. omized, Controlled trial. Journal of Pediatrics Our operations gain interesting new insights and Child Health. 52, 877-881.

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 151 CASE LOWERING THE BARRIERS TO CULTURAL PARTICIPATION

AURA LINNAPUOMI

When thinking about challenges related to my cur- care organizations in a certain region, city or rent job, one of the biggest issues that comes to my municipality. The social and health care organi- mind is staying focused. zations involved distribute Kaikukortti to their low-income customers. The customers can then My employer is Culture for All Service (Cul- obtain free tickets with Kaikukortti from the ture for Equal Terms Association), and our field cultural organizations involved. is very wide. Our task is to recognize and support The Kaikukortti model was created in work- change in structures and policies of the cultural shops. We invited organizations that were inter- field so that diversity and accessibility questions ested in the aims of the project to plan the model would be taken into account in all activities. We together. This was our strategy to get as high a try to facilitate processes that lead to cultural level of commitment to the model as possible, life in which everyone has the possibility to make and to find as sustainable solutions as possible choices as a user and to work as an artist or as from the perspective of the potential users, the an arts organization employee and to study arts social and health care organizations and the art without facing obstacles for example created by organizations. Our long-term aim is to have Kai- badly designed and not accessible environment kukortti put to nationwide use. So far it has been or by normative attitudes. In practice, our work put into use in the city of Espoo (pilot period is done in close collaboration with different ex- was in 2015) and in the county of Kainuu (pilot pert organizations, such as disability organiza- period was in 2016). The city of Lappeenranta tions, gender and sexual minority organizations, is testing the card now (from summer 2017 on- and language minority organizations. ward), and this fall we are supporting several For the last three years, my own task has new regions which want to test the card in 2018. focused mainly on financial and social accessi- Our main task in the workshops and in all bility. One relevant example is a project called Kaikukortti work has been trying to keep the “Kaikukortti” (“Echo card”), which aims to low- basic value of our organization – the value of er the financial and social barriers to cultural participation as a basic right – at the core of the participation for adults, young people and fam- model. That said, it has been very important to ilies living with low income. “Kaikukortti” is a recognize and articulate the benefits of Kaiku- card for people living in poverty to use cultural kortti not only from our own perspective, but services for free. also from the perspective of the organizations The model behind Kaikukortti is a network involved. As Haataja (2016, pp. 23-24, 43) noted, of cultural organizations and social and health “From the social and health care perspective, the benefits include the potential positive effects cultur- AURA LINNAPUOMI al participation can have on the life quality and on Linnapuomi (MMus in arts management) is working as specialist in Culture for All Service in Helsinki, Finland. the sense of communality of the Kaikukortti hold- She focuses on the accessibility issues and leads the Kai- ers or users. From the art organization perspective, kukortti project. Aura’s working history consists of a variety of tasks in the cultural field, including producer of the the benefits include, for example, getting a new tool children’s music theatre group, facilitator in Capgemini for outreach work and for improving accessibility.” Finland Ltd, and development tasks for Finland’s National The key skill the Kaikukortti project has re- Board of Antiquities. Aura graduated from the Department of Arts Management in 2010. quired from me is facilitating planning and de-

152 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT cision-making processes. The arts management critical of norms is also important because not background has supported me in this task. It all the accessibility solutions require funding; has also helped in recognizing which questions sometimes it is simply awareness of different relating to the model and its future are perhaps needs and a willingness to change accustomed more important to tackle with the art organiza- ways of working. tions involved, and which questions can be left I hope future art managers build socially sus- aside. On the other hand, a clear challenge for tainable art and cultural activities and organi- me has been to learn and understand the struc- zations. Creating structures and processes in tures and working processes of the social and which equality and the human rights perspec- health care field, as the field is new for me, and tive is taken in to account in all planning, bud- it is also undergoing an enormous amount of geting and decision-making is a starting point. reform at the moment in Finland. Sources: The skills the future arts manager needs? Haataja, M.(2016). Kaikukortti-kysely – Kaikukor- The right to participate in cultural life is a ba- tin haltijoiden ja Kaikukortti-kumppaneiden kokemuksia Kaikukortti-toiminnasta sekä ke- sic human right, as stated in the United Nation’s hittämisideoita. Espoon Kaikukortti-kokeilu 1.4.– Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 31.12.2015. Kulttuuria kaikille -palvelun julkaisuja (27 §). Recent Finnish legislation the future arts 4/2016. Kulttuuria kaikille -palvelu / Yhdenver- manager should be aware of is, for example, taisen kulttuurin puolesta ry. the new Law on Equality (Yhdenvertaisuuslaki Älä oleta - Normit nurin! Normikriittinen käsikirja 1325/2014). This law includes an important arti- yhdenvertaisuudesta, syrjinnästä ja vapaudesta cle (15 §) for service providers and employers to olla oma itsensä 2013. Suomen Ammattiin Opiskelevien Liitto – SAKKI ry, Seta ry, Suomen realize reasonable adjustments so that a person Lukiolaisten Liitto SLL ry, Finlands Svenska with disabilities can equally use services, par- Skolungdomsförbund FSS rf. Printon, Tallinn. ticipate and work. Seta-julkaisuja 22. During my time in the Culture for All Ser- vice, I have noticed that an art manager’s job Links: in the future is to make sure that all personnel More information about Kaikukortti nationally: have accessibility and diversity knowledge. This www.cultureforall.fi/kaikukortti_in_english kind of knowledge can be emphasized in training More information about Kaikukortti in Espoo: and in recruiting. One practical tool is to put on www.espoo.fi/en-US/Culture_and_sport/Culture/ “norm critical lenses,” which can help an arts Culture_for_everyone/Kaikukortti manager and the entire staff become aware of More information about Kaikukortti in Kainuu: the values and the backgrounds they represent. https://sote.kainuu.fi/kaikukortti (in Finnish) These values and backgrounds can also uncon- More information about Kaikukortti in Lappeenran- ta: www.eksote.fi/eksote/hyvinvoinnin-ja-tervey- sciously have an effect on decision-making and den-edistaminen/kaikukortti (in Finnish) on the notion of “us inside” and “them outside” www.facebook.com/kaikukortti (in Finnish) (typical norms are for example the hetero norm, www.cultureforall.fi/en.php the norm of two genders and the norm of undis- abledness). (Älä Oleta 2013) Being conscious and www.facebook.com/kulttuuriakaikille (in Finnish)

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 153 154 ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP ARTS MANAGEMENT: LEADERSHIP 155 Future directions in the research and practice of arts management

TANJA JOHANSSON AND MERVI LUONILA

This jubilee publication in arts management has to do with novel approaches that recognise has covered a wide range of research, cases the blurry nature of the boundaries between the and practices in the field of arts management public and private spheres and whereby new and we as editors are extremely grateful to all value and initiatives emerge from collaboration. the authors who contributed to this and shared These interfaces enable brave new directions their expertise on different topics. The publica- for research and practice, which will hopefully tion at hand shows also the impact of the Arts broaden the field of arts management to new Management Master’s Degree Programmes, in and interesting arenas. both Helsinki and Kuopio, on the development Second, we need a more in-depth under- of research and practices on marketing, brand- standing of the phenomenon of ‘festivalisation’ ing, fundraising, leadership, audience develop- in order to gain further and better insights into ment, community engagement, entrepreneur- the production and consumption of the arts ship and event management in the field of arts. in the future. Festivals have the potential to In 20 years, the programme has managed to es- strengthen and maintain a vibrant art and cul- tablish its place on the national and internation- tural life and to further our social and cultural al scene of arts management education; howev- well-being. Accordingly, there is something fun- er, the future development of the programme damentally different in the way in which festi- requires continuous emphasis. vals produce and stage artistic works, such as We would like to highlight three major future concerts, dance performances and theatre plays, directions that require attention in the field of and in the way in which we as audiences experi- arts management: a closer investigation of the ence these works. Therefore, festivals have the private and public interfaces, a deeper under- potential to ‘shake up’ the established ways of standing of the festivalisation of arts, and an in- making and staging art. However, regardless of depth inquiry of diversity and societal engage- some seminal studies on festival participation ment in artistic productions. First, a closer in- and management, several challenges remain. It vestigation into the public and private interfaces is therefore important to critically examine the

156 ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT value and relevance of the phenomenon of fes- dialogue between the respective organisations tivalisation and its potential impact on the pro- as well as facilitate the active role of arts organ- duction and consumption of the arts. isations locally, nationally and globally. Finally, arts management scholars and prac- Thus, we believe that arts management re- titioners are making sense of the continuous search and practice will grow in importance, changes in society. As such, thoughtful analy- which will lead to new connections and forms ses of diversity and societal engagement in arts that will pave the way for a greater impact on organizations, projects and productions are re- the arts. As described throughout this publica- quired to understand the complexity and con- tion, Finnish arts management professionals, nectedness of the issue. Even though extant re- as well as the academic discourses surround- search has considered the interconnections and ing arts management, are equipped with valid meanings of the arts in present-day society, a tools and contributions that will enable them to management approach is needed to improve the participate in that development nationally and strategic cornerstones for further directions. globally, both now and in the future. This approach might foster a knowledge-based

ARTS MANAGEMENT: AUDIENCE & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 157 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

5 IL VIAGGIO – MATKA BRYSSELIIN: SIBELIUS-AKATEMIAN OOPPERA 2015, PHOTO: ERKKA MALKAVAARA

7 IL VIAGGIO – MATKA BRYSSELIIN: SIBELIUS-AKATEMIAN OOPPERA 2015, PHOTO: ERKKA MALKAVAARA

9 SHAKESPEARE–SIBELIUS: MYRSKY – PRESSIKUVAT 16.11.2015 (C) MARKO MÄKINEN

19 SIBA/MUSIIKKITEKNOLOGIA/ MUTEFEST 2015: MAIJA HYNNINEN: PIX GRAECA ILONA JÄNTTI PHOTO: WILMA HURSKAINEN

43 SIBELIUS-AKATEMIAN OOPPERA: FIGARON HÄÄT 22.–29.4.2016 PHOTO: UUPI TIRRONEN

67 LÄHIRUOKAMESSUT PHOTO:JUHO PAASO-RANTALA

61 SIBELIUSAKATEMIAN KONSERTTI. MUTEFEST 2013. PHOTO: SUSANNA KEKKONEN

80 GIGLE PROMOTION MATERIAL

83 16.10.2015 HELSINKI, KINO ENGEL, NATALIA VASKINOVA, KAISA KORTELAINEN, SANNA SADEHARJU, ELIAS LASSFOLK, SIBELIUS-AKATEMIA - 2016 PHOTO: JUKKA RAPO

101 SIBELIUS-AKATEMIAN OOPPERA: FIGARON HÄÄT 22.–29.4.2016 PHOTO: UUPI TIRRONEN

109 SIBA / JOULUN TARINOITA: HANNU JA KERTTU / TIETÄJIEN LAHJA 26.11.–3.12.2016 PHOTO: UUPI TIRRONEN

139 AN IMAGE FROM THE ARCHIVE OF THE FINNISH HOSPITAL CLOWNS ASSOCIATION. PHOTO: KARI JAGT.

146 SIBA/MUSIIKKITEKNOLOGIA MUTEFEST 2015: LOS DUO SERGIO CASTRILLÓN, JAMES ANDEAN PHOTO: WILMA HURSKAINEN

150 KIDS CREATING STREET ART TO COLOR THEIR NEIGHBORHOOD AT ARABIA STREET FESTIVAL. PHOTO: KATRI HALONEN.

157 SIBA/MUSIIKKITEKNOLOGIA MUTEFEST’14: MECHANICAL AND LIVE MUSIC III LIBERO MUREDDU PHOTO: SUSANNA KEKKONEN

158 ARTS MANAGEMENT

ISBN 978-952- 329-085- 3 (hard copy) ISBN 978-952- 329-086- 0 (PDF) ISSN 0359-2308.