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Full Agreement CONSULTATIONS AND WORKSHOPS Benefits and Risks of the Use of Chlorine-containing Disinfectants in Food Production and Food Processing Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 27–30 May 2008 Use of Chlorine-containing Disinfectants in Food Production and Food Processing WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Benefits and risks of the use of chlorine-containing disinfectants in food production and food processing: report of a joint FAO/WHO expert meeting, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 27–30 May 2008. 1.Food contamination. 2.Chlorine - toxicity. 3.Disinfectants - toxicity. 4.Disinfection - utilization. 5.Food hygiene - standards. 6.Risk assessment. I.World Health Organization. II.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978 92 4 159894 1 (NLM classification: WA 701) ISBN 978 92 5 106476 4 © FAO and WHO 2009 All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 4857; e-mail: [email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; e-mail: [email protected]). The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the FAO or the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Health Organization to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the FAO or the World Health Organization be liable for damages arising from its use. Printed by the WHO Document Production Services, Geneva, Switzerland CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................... ix INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1 1. USE OF CHLORINE-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS IN FOOD PROCESSING ......4 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................4 1.2 Poultry processing........................................................................................................6 1.2.1 Initial loads of bacteria upon entry to processing ..................................................6 1.2.2 Cross-contamination of carcasses during processing ............................................6 1.2.3 Control of contamination during processing..........................................................7 1.2.3.1 Physical...............................................................................................................7 1.2.3.2 Chemical.............................................................................................................7 1.2.4 Effectiveness of control measures .........................................................................7 1.2.4.1 Evaluating the literature......................................................................................7 1.2.4.2 Chlorine-based chemicals (Tables 1.1 and 1.2)..................................................8 1.2.4.3 Non-chlorine-based alternatives (Tables 1.3 and 1.4)......................................10 1.2.5 Conclusions..........................................................................................................11 1.3 Red meat processing...................................................................................................12 1.3.1 Primary red meat processing................................................................................12 1.3.1.1 Effectiveness of chlorine-based control measures (Tables 1.5 and 1.6) ..........13 1.3.1.2 Effectiveness of non-chlorine-based alternatives (Table 1.7) ..........................14 1.3.2 Further red meat processing.................................................................................15 1.3.2.1 Sources, types and control of contamination....................................................15 1.3.2.2 Effectiveness of chlorine-based control measures............................................15 1.3.2.3 Effectiveness of non-chlorine-based alternatives.............................................15 1.3.3 Conclusions..........................................................................................................16 1.4 Fish and fishery product processing ...........................................................................16 1.4.1 Types of chlorine compounds used in fish processing ........................................17 1.4.2 Industry practices.................................................................................................19 1.4.2.1 Chlorine-based solutions for non-product contact situations ...........................21 1.4.2.2 Non-chlorine-based alternatives.......................................................................22 1.4.3 Summary..............................................................................................................22 1.5 Fresh fruits and vegetables .........................................................................................23 1.5.1 Leafy greens.........................................................................................................23 1.5.1.1 Initial load of bacteria upon entry to processing ..............................................23 1.5.1.2 Control of contamination during processing ....................................................24 1.5.1.3 Effectiveness of control measures ....................................................................25 1.5.1.4 Summary...........................................................................................................26 1.5.2 Hydroponic fresh produce....................................................................................26 1.5.3 Sprouts and sprouting seeds.................................................................................28 1.5.3.1 Chlorine-based interventions............................................................................28 1.5.3.2 Non-chlorine-based alternatives.......................................................................28 1.6 Food contact surfaces .................................................................................................29 1.6.1 Disinfection of food contact surfaces using chlorine-based compounds.............29 iii Use of Chlorine-containing Disinfectants in Food Production and Food Processing 1.6.1.1 Function and target microorganisms ................................................................29 1.6.1.2 Active chlorine compounds used......................................................................30 1.6.1.3 Treatment conditions........................................................................................30 1.6.1.4 Effectiveness of the process .............................................................................31 1.6.1.5 Limitations of the process.................................................................................32 1.6.2 Disinfection of food contact surfaces using non-chlorine-based alternative compounds ........................................................................................................................33 1.6.2.1 Alternative compounds used............................................................................33 1.6.2.2 Treatment conditions........................................................................................33 1.6.2.3 Effectiveness of alternative compounds...........................................................33 1.6.2.4 Limitations of alternative compounds ..............................................................35 1.6.2.5 Summary...........................................................................................................35 1.7 References ..................................................................................................................36 2. CHEMISTRY OF DISINFECTANTS AND FORMATION OF DISINFECTION BY- PRODUCTS IN FOOD AND WATER................................................................................48 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................48 2.2 Acidified sodium chlorite ...........................................................................................48 2.2.1
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