THE PROJECT IS IMPLEMENTED BY THE GEORGIAN FOUNDATION FOR STRATEGIC AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES.

The Expansion of Russia in the and project offers the collection s Editor-in-chief: Giorgi Cheishvili of scientific-popular articles which Editor-corrector: Tinatin Evdoshvili aims to cover the Project author: Irakli Gegechkori Georgian-Russian

relations of the Designer: Tornike Bokuchava XVIII-XX centuries in a manner different from the widely propagated perspective of the Russia.

© Georgian Foundation for Strategic and International Studies All rights reserved Ecclesiastical Relations XIX century RUSSIA’S EXPANSION IN THE CAUCASUS AND GEORGIA Between Georgia and the beginning and Russia of XX century

Eldar Bubulashvili Ecclesiastical Relations Between Georgia and Russia during the XIX-XX Centuries

GEORGIAN CHURCH DURING EXARCHS

Russia-Georgian ecclesiastical relations have evolved in the course of political relations between the two countries. They were fragmented for several centuries and became more intense in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Since the second half of the XVIII century when Russia’s southern border reached the Caucasus ridge, Russia’s political and ecclesiastical interests in Georgia have grown. This interest is well reflected in the agreements concluded between Russia and Georgia during this period.

lthough the treaty between Kartl- and Russia in 1783 did not address the issue of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church, Article 8 of the treaty severely restricted its rights. The A of the centuries-old Autocephalous Church of Georgia was to occupy the eighth

place in the Russian Holy Synod after the Peter I, Bishop of the Tobolsk . When signing the treaty, the King of Russia Georgian ambassadors (Garsevan Chavchavadze and Ioane (1682-1721) Mukhranbatoni) protested this article since the Georgian and Emperor (1721-1725)

Archbishop was to be ranked fifth among the first-tier Russian bishops according to the previously agreed draft version of the agreement. In line with Church canons, even this compromise version was a significant violation. The issue was that since the time of Peter I (1689-1725) in Russia, the patriarchy had been abolished and the Church was ruled by the Russian Holy Synod which was headed by a secular person - the Ober-Prosecutor. Thus, the head of the Georgian Church with the title of was hierarchically to all Russian bishops; however, he was equated with the ordinary bishops of the Russian Eparchy in the final version of the treaty. Despite the protest of the Georgian diplomats, it was precisely this version of the treaty that was signed. According to the agreement, the Archbishop of the Georgian Church was considered a member of the Russian Synod. In the future, a separate article was to be drafted to regulate the governance of the Georgian Church and its relationship with the Russian Synod but no such document was ever developed.

1 Ecclesiastical Relations XIX century RUSSIA’S EXPANSION IN THE CAUCASUS AND GEORGIA Between Georgia and the beginning and Russia of XX century

Karl Knorring, Pavel Tsitsianov, The First Governor General General of Georgia of Georgia (1801-1802) (1802-1806)

Ivan Gudovich, Alexander Tormasov, Governor General Governor General of Georgia of Georgia (1806-1809) (1809-1811)

Along with secular authorities, the Church also had high of Georgia was abolished in gross violation of hopes for Russia which propagated a common faith but those Church laws. hopes were not fulfilled. Immediately after the abolition of the Kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti (1801), Tsarism began an active struggle to abolish the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. It The same fate was shared by the Catholicosate of Western was natural that Russia could not tolerate the existence of an Georgia which ceased to exist in 1814. By abolishing the independent Church in a stateless country. The purpose of the autocephaly of the Church of Georgia, Tsarism achieved a empire was clear: Russian ideologues wanted to eradicate the significant political victory. The Russian authorities were well national spirit in the Church of Georgia and turn it into one of aware that the assimilation of the Georgian people required the the subordinated to Russia’s Holy Synod. elimination of the sole spiritual foundation in which the liturgy The Russian appointed Governor General in Georgia, was performed in the . K. Knorring (1801-1802), P. Tsitsianov (1802-1806), I. Gudovich The position of was established in Georgia and the (1806-1809) and A. Tormasov (1809-1811), fought in every possible synodal bureau of Georgia- was created under the way to abolish the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. The leadership of the Exarchate for the purpose of managing the Catholicos-Patriarch of Georgia Anton II (Bagrationi, 1788-1810) eparchies. Georgia’s Exarch occupied a permanent fourth opposed the imperial plans for almost ten years. Russian place in the Russian Synod. The Georgian Metropolitan Varlam unapologetically interfered in the affairs of the Church and often Eristavi (1811-1817) was appointed as the first Exarch. He concocted various provocations against its Archbishop, provoked was the one who developed the project that established the clerics against him and made slanderous accusations. At the Georgian Exarchate. From 1817 to 1917, Russian hierarchs who insistence of the authorities in the fall of 1810, the Catholicos- were ignorant of the Georgian language were being appointed Patriarch Anton was summoned to Russia with a pretense of the as Eparchs of Georgia even though they had no idea of the reorganization of Church where he died in 1827. culture and the history of the nation. Candidates for Exarch went through an exceptional selection process. Their nominations were recommended by the Holy Synod of Russia and appointed By the Russian Emperor Alexander I’s rescript by the Emperor. Only those candidates who were deemed to of June 30, 1811, the autocephaly of the Church be very reliable, dedicated to the interests of the Empire and

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Anton II (Bagrationi), Varlam Eristavi, Catholicos-Patriarch The first Exarch of Georgia of Georgia (1788-1810) (1811-1817)

the robberies were treated with respect and employed in high positions after being withdrawn from Georgia. Much of the ecclesiastical relics removed from Georgia by the Exarchs are lost and some are kept in Russian and foreign museums and private collections. The consequences of abolishing the autocephaly of the Church of Georgia were severe. During the period of the Exarchs, the number of eparchies, churches and monasteries as well as Georgian clergymen decreased significantly. The boundaries of the eparchies of the Georgian Exarchate Alexander I, corresponded to the Russian administrative boundaries in the Emperor of Russia Caucasus. In Eastern Georgia there was one – the Georgian (1801-1825) Eparchy, two Vikariats - Gori and Alaverdi - governed by the Exarch himself with the help of . The Orthodox experienced clergyman were selected. The Exarch, as one congregation of the districts of Kars, Baku and Yerevan, of the representatives of Russia’s ecclesiastical bureaucratic and Transcaucasia were subordinated to the same government and based on the interests of the state, pursued Eparchy. a policy that was acceptable to Tsarism. The Georgian Exarch In western Georgia at various times there were the Eparchies was conducting his activities in agreement with the local secular of Imereti, -Samegrelo and Sokhumi which, while they authorities of the Caucasus although hierarchically he was not had their own bishops, were governed by the Exarch of Georgia under its subordination. He was accountable only to the Holy through the Georgia-Imereti synodal canton. Synod of Russia. One Russian historian, displeased with the For the purpose of achieving the obedience of the , Exarchs’ work, wrote with regret: “If any Georgian decides it was first necessary to confiscate church property. The to write a true history about the usurpatory activities of the government attempted to resolve the issue in the first half of the Russian Exarchs, we will have to blush, at the extent they were XIX century but was unable to do so because of strong public embarrassing the Russian clergy.” opposition. The secularization of church lands in Eastern Georgia ended by the law of November 13, 1869. Under the Emperor’s decree, all of the property of the Georgian Church Most of the Exarchs, with some exceptions, was transferred to the treasury. A similar event took place in were busy robbing churches and monasteries, Imereti-Guria in 1871 and in Samegrelo in 1880. As a result, and accumulating wealth while they lacked the Russian Treasury generated a solid source of income and authority among the congregation. the Georgian clergy, which was deprived of its funds, became wage dependent on the Treasury and the employees executing the desires of the authorities. Most notable in this respect were Theophilact Rusanov Thanks to Tsarism’s policy, most of the clergymen (1817-1821), Iona Vasilevsky (1821-1832), Evsev Ilinsky (1858- became servants of Russian interests. The Georgian press 1877), Pavel Lebedev (1882-1887) and Paladi Raev (1887- of the second half of the XIX century published numerous 1892). Georgian society raised its voice against the robbery of whistleblower letters. Georgian society strongly criticized the churches and monasteries but the authorities responded to their part of the clergy which did not perform religious rituals without rightful demands with silence while the Exarchs who organized cost, pointing to the grave consequences that this might

3 Ecclesiastical Relations XIX century RUSSIA’S EXPANSION IN THE CAUCASUS AND GEORGIA Between Georgia and the beginning and Russia of XX century

Theophilact Rusanov, Evsev Ilinsky, Exarch Exarch (1817-1821) (1858-1877)

Iona Vasilevsky, Pavel Lebedev, Exarch Exarch (1821-1832) (1882-1887)

century. They killed Georgian and burned and destroyed ecclesiastical sanctities. Most churches and monasteries were staffed by Russian monks from the inner provinces of Russia. Some of the existing monasteries were transformed into employee-based monasteries and were funded by the state. Some others were non-employee-based and they existed only at the expense of donations. Georgian monks were banished from Saphara, Dranda, Bichvinta, Mamkoda and other monasteries. The Enlightener of Georgia, Nino’s burial place at the Bodbe Monastery was completely in the hands Paladi Raev, of Russian monks and the liturgy was performed there in the Exarch Slavic ecclesiastical language. (1887-1892) Those Georgian monks who remained in the Georgian monasteries converted to the Russian model had been secretly engender. As a result of this situation, the alienation between supervised to do nothing against the government. Periodically, the congregation and the clergy emerged. Most clergymen the head of the monastery supplied the Russian ecclesiastical affected by foreign forces could no longer respond to the body with secret materials about their activities. national aspirations of the Georgian people. Russian officials tried to perform the liturgy at the congregation Slavic liturgical practices were established in the Church. churches subordinated to the Exarchate in the Slavic Georgian churches were divided into categories similar to ecclesiastical language but due to the large resistance of the the monasteries in Russia. The number of monasteries of the population, they only partially accomplished their task. In non- first and second category was quite insignificant while most Georgian and mixed congregations (, Russians, etc.), of them were assigned to the third category. Most Georgian the liturgy was performed in the Slavic ecclesiastical language churches and monasteries were completely shut down and while in Georgian parishes the language was Georgian. left unattended. That is how the Lavra of David Gareji was The result of the religious policy of the Russian authorities destroyed as it was attacked by Lezgins in the middle of the XIX was that the churches named after various in Georgia

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The Lavra of David Gareji were renamed and sanctified in the names of Russian saints. symbol of the conquest of the Caucasus, the authorities laid Because of this, churches named after Alexander Nevsky the foundation of the Alexander Nevsky Grand Temple, the and Mikhail Tvereli were especially proliferated. In one of the so-called Sobor, in central . The construction of the old districts of Tbilisi, Saint Abo’s Church - Saint Abo was Sobor was completed in the late XIX century. The abandoned considered the patron saint of Tbilisi - was consecrated in the Georgian churches and monasteries were either destroyed due name of the Russian Saint Mikhail Tvereli and his icon was set to a lack of care or left in the hands of representatives of other in place. The city’s community complained but the Georgian denominations. Exarchate did not pay attention to their legitimate request. During the exarchate, the significance of the Svetitskhoveli In order to destroy the centuries-old traditions of the Cathedral was diminished. It lost its historical function and Georgian Church, the Exarchate did not celebrate days of became a regular parish church. Priests were no longer honoring Georgian saints: David the Builder, King Tamar, consecrated in Svetitskhoveli. The disappearance of this Queen Ketevan, David and Konstantine Mkheidze, and others. tradition was aimed at erasing the historical memory of the For the sake of obligation, a liturgy commemorating Saint Georgian nation. Nino was conducted in the Russian language only in the Sioni Theological staff were prepared in the Russian religious Tbilisi Cathedral and at the Bodbe Monastery but without any seminaries of Tbilisi (1817-1917) and (1894-1904). celebration. Old Georgian liturgical hymns were banned. Some In addition, there were graduate religious schools in of the Russian officials equated the pronunciation of Georgian Mazras where teaching was conducted in Russian. Parish- hymns to the sound of a bleating goat while one of the Russian Ecclesiastical schools were accessible to the faithful parish. hierarchs compare them to a dog’s barking. Such schools were opened by the clergy at their own expense. From the second half of the XIX century, the conversion of Free Parish-Ecclesiastical schools for the lower social strata, the old Georgian Christian temples into the Russian fashion along with elementary education, would strengthen students’ began. This distorted many Georgian churches. The multi- religious beliefs. These schools taught the native language, dome and so-called “onion dome” Russian-style churches divine law, Georgian hymns, the Russian language, elementary were built and sanctified mainly in the names of Russian arithmetic, vocational professions, church history and saints. The government bestowed great political importance Georgian history. The authorities wanted to use parish schools on the opening of the new temples. In the early 1860s as a for the purposes of Russification. Due to the resistance of the

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Saphara Monastery population, this goal was not fulfilled. Patriotic teachers and clergymen in church-parish schools served to strengthen the Christian faith and national feelings in the young generation without any remuneration. With the pre-designed teaching methods, aims and objectives the religious schools in Georgia were very different from the similar Russian schools. The purpose of the clerical schools in the inner provinces of Russia was youth intellectual development while at the outskirts, and in Georgia in particular, they also had some political overtones. The purpose of the theological schools was the Russification of the local Iakob Gogebashvili population and bringing up faithful subjects of the Empire. (1840-1912) Because of such an impact, Russian authorities attached great importance and did not spare any money on expanding the network of theological schools. The teaching of national Russian teachers, as representatives of the prevailing nation, subjects (Georgian history, geography, literature, church were arrogant, humiliating and insulting to their Georgian history, Georgian hymns, etc.) was prohibited in schools except counterparts. There was also a secret supervision of Georgian for parish-ecclesiastical schools. Clergymen from Russia’s teachers. Unreliable Georgian teachers, who were trying to inner provinces, faithful to the Emperor, were specially brought cultivate a desire in students to study in their native language, in and appointed as the heads and the teachers of the parish- were often fired. In this regard, I. Gogebashvili the well-known ecclesiastical schools. The small number of Georgian teachers teacher and public figure, was particularly obstructed and he working in the schools were selected through a rigorous was fired from teaching in a theology seminary on the grounds process because they had to act only in the interests of the of being an unreliable person. state. Their rights were significantly restricted. There was a The situation of the students in the theological schools was big difference between the salaries of Georgian and Russian grave. This was especially noticeable at the Tbilisi Theological teachers working in the same school. The salaries of the Seminary. Boarding students were cut off from their home Russians were several times higher than those of the Georgians. environment. Even after the learning process accompanied

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Bichvinta Monastery, Cathedral of Virgin Mary

Seminary Student, Dimitri Kipiani I. Lagiashvili (1811/1814-1887) with strict internal regulations was completed, local Russian of students were usual occurrences. The prevailing harsh officials continued didactic work with them. For the purpose of regime caused great discontent among the student body. They the Russification of students, the management of the school looked for spiritual nourishment outside of the school. Many started to convert their surnames into Russian. This was seminary students became atheists because of the reckless explained by the fact that it was difficult for them to pronounce policies of the clerical authorities. They were actively involved Georgian surnames. in the work of the Georgian public and Marxist-revolutionary The Georgian Exarchate mounted pressure on the students organizations in the 1880s and 1890s. of the Tbilisi Theological Seminary. According to internal The tension at the Tbilisi Theological Seminary reached its regulations, they were forbidden from leaving the boarding climax in 1886 when an expelled seminary student, I. Lagiashvili, house without permission, talking to each other in Georgian fatally wounded the of the seminary, Chudetsky. The and reading secular works. The boarding school students were reaction of the Exarch Pavel (1882-1887) was completely strictly supervised. The distrust among the pupils grew and unjustified. As one of the Russian historians tells us, on the day denunciations became frequent. The unjustified punishments of the rector’s funeral: “Raising his scepter, he [Chudetsky]

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Mamkoda Monastery

cursed the Iverian church and he himself, damned by the was revived, aimed at Christianizing the inhabitants of the people, fled from Georgia.” Dimitri Kipiani, the leader of Kutaisi’s Caucasus highlands and, thereby, preparing the solid ground noblemen, responded to the anti-Georgian action of the Exarch. for the expansion of the Empire’s southern borders. The In his letter to the Exarch Pavel, he stated that if this fact were abovementioned society was engaged in missionary work true, he would have to leave the country he himself cursed. in the highlands of Georgia and in other parts of the country Dmitri Kipiani’s actions against the Exarch provoked outrage in where had been weakened for various reasons. the Russian administration of the Caucasus. By the decision of In the second half of the XIX century, the “Theological the St. Petersburg Imperial Court, Dimitri Kipiani was arrested Commission of Ossetia” was replaced by the “Society for the and exiled to Russia where the Emperor’s agents took his life Restoration of Orthodox Christianity in the Caucasus” (1860- in 1887. The Exarch Pavel was given the highest award of the 1917) which, at the behest of the Emperor and the Russian government and appointed as the Metropolitan of Kazan. Synod, sought for the ideological enslavement of Caucasian The theological education introduced by the Russian highlanders subjugated by force. authorities has had a severe impact with seminary students The government attached great importance to the training of upon graduation and Georgian clergymen having difficulty personnel to invigorate missionary activities. A special unit was speaking and preaching in their native language while also set up in the Tbilisi Theological Seminary whose graduates had not knowing the plight of the parish, among other things. The to study the history and life of the people they were intended caretakers of the Caucasus School District, K. Yanovsky, to visit as missionaries alongside studying Christian morality. I. Levitsky and Ioann Vostorgov, were particularly Mostly, the Russian clergy was dispatched to the highlands distinguished by their anti-Georgian activities in the theological although the authorities considered the involvement of non- schools. Russian clergy also permissible. In addition to spreading the Russia attached great importance to missionary activities faith, a missionary was obliged to establish a close bond with the in conducting its religious policy in the Caucasus and, in local population and share their plight; however, there was to be particular, in Georgia. On September 15, 1815, by the decision no criticism about the existing political regime. On the contrary, of the Holy Synod of Russia, the “Ossetian Theological their work was to persuade the population to “believe in the true Commission” (established in the 1840s and closed due to the glorious Russia.” In addition, the primary task of the missionaries ineffective activities of the Russian clergy in the late 1800s) was to bring the local population closer to Russian customs and

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Sioni Cathedral

traditions, not only religiously but also in terms of lifestyle. a prayer service to be set up in Megrelian and Svan for which In order to achieve its goal, the Russian authorities did purpose “Our Father” and other prayers were translated. not spare money with amounts increasing year by year. Georgian society raised their voice against this policy and, most Together with the Russian clergy, Georgian clerics were sent importantly, the locals did not accept the translated prayers. as missionaries. With their involvement, the “Society for the In the second half of the XIX century, Tsarism reinforced Restoration of Orthodox Christianity in the Caucasus” achieved its anti-Georgian policy in Georgia’s ancient indigenous part considerable success in the highlands of Georgia. The society of . In order to assimilate the indigenous population started active missionary work in Saingilo, Samtskhe- of Abkhazia, Georgians and Abkhazians and colonists of and . The desire of the Russian officials was to forcibly different nationalities were settled there. Along with changing convert Georgian Muslims to Christianity which would naturally the demographic picture, the monasteries in Abkhazia were have a devastating effect on the Georgian population of occupied by Russian monks and liturgies were held in Russian. Saingilo and Adjara. Against the reactionary forces of Russia, In order to Russify the region and disrupt Georgian-Abkhazian Georgian society warned the authorities that the conversion of cultural and historical unity, the government took important Muslim Georgians to Christianity against their wishes, not only measures: the Russian monastery of Simon Kananeli was by force but also by preaching, was a terrible idea. Because founded in 1875, the Eparchy of Sokhumi was restored in of the chauvinist policy of the Russian missionaries, the local 1885 with Russian priests appointed as , an Abkhaz population was distrustful of them. alphabet based on the Russian alphabet was created for Despite the imperial purposefulness, both missionary Abkhazians and the “Liturgy of John the Golden-Mouthed “ societies played a role in strengthening the weakened faiths and “Blessings” were translated into Abkhazian for the purpose in the Georgian highlands (, , and of introducing worship in the Abkhazian language but the Adjara), also building new churches and monasteries, and translation was so inferior that it became impossible to use. In establishing religious schools. order to separate Abkhazia from Georgia, a new project was In order to disintegrate the national unity of the Georgian developed in the early XIX-XX centuries according to which the people, Tsarism declared the Megrelians and Svans to be non- District of Abkhazia and the Eparchy of Sokhumi were to join Georgians and began “taking care” of creating for them an the District of Kuban. alphabet. The Russian secular and clerical authorities wanted Georgian patriots living in the Sokhumi District raised

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Ilia Chavchavadze Akaki Tsereteli (1837-1907) (1840-1915)

Bishop Bishop Gabriel Kikodze Alexander Okropiridze (1825-1896) (1825-1907)

their voices against the Russian regime and demanded the , Akaki Tsereteli, Iakob Gogebashvili, and liturgy be held in Georgian and the dismissal of Russian- others, devoted much time to addressing the pressing issues oriented clerics from their schools who would be replaced by facing the Church of Georgia. They laid bare the anti-Georgian Georgian teachers instead. The Governor of Kutaisi opposed ecclesiastical policies of Tsarism and demanded the teaching the movement of Georgian patriots. He intensified repression of the Georgian language and other national subjects in in the Sokhumi District. The initiators of the movement were religious schools, etc. subjected to harassment. The Governor-General of Kutaisi, In 1889, a church museum was established in Tbilisi by the in a secret report of 1900 to the Governor General of the initiative of the historian, Dimitri Bakradze, in order to save Caucasus, stated that it was necessary to “remove the school the old Georgian manuscripts and church sanctities. During and the church from the Georgian priesthood in order to have the museum’s existence (1889-1921), many ancient Georgian the liturgy in churches and schools conducted in the Slavic manuscripts and monuments of material culture survived language in order to prevent such movement and disorder. destruction. The museum also became a science center. This way, we will save the local population from Georgian More than two dozen scientific papers were published under influence.” According to the Governor, the introduction of the its stamp. Both Georgian and foreign scholars utilized the Russian language in the parish-ecclesiastical schools and the materials preserved in the museum. invitation of the Russian teachers “will in the future facilitate the Georgian clergymen were actively fighting against the integration of the local population with the Russian population.” ecclesiastical policy of Tsarism such as Gabriel Bishop Ultimately, “this measure will fundamentally change the (Kikodze, 1825-1896), Alexander (Okropiridze, 1825-1907) and situation in the Sokhumi District and everything will be in the others. With the support of Gabriel Bishop in western Georgia, interests of the state.” a professional musician, Filimon Koridze, wrote down the old Both Georgian society and the clergy never reconciled Georgian hymns in Imereti and Guria. In eastern Georgia, Priest the loss of their autocephaly and the immorality of Russian Alexander (Okropiridze), at his own expense and with the help officials. The struggle for the independence of the Church of the “Georgian Church Hymn Reconstruction Committee,” of Georgia has played an important role in the national recorded and published several hundred Kartl-Kakhetian liberation movement. In the second half of the XIX century, hymns. In addition to these two priests, the recording and prominent public intellectuals, the so-called “Tergdaleulis,” promotion of Georgian church hymns was greatly supported by

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Philimon, Vasil (Bishop Stepane), Andria, Polievktos and Petre Karbelashvilis

the Karbelashvili brothers (Philimon, Vasil [Bishop Stepane], During the reactionary period (1907-1910), autocephalists Andria, Polievktos and Petre), Ekvtime Kereselidze and others. suffered great persecution. The Bishop Kirion Sadzaglishvili In the last quarter of the XIX century and the beginning of the and the Ambrosi Khelaia were deported from XX century, a new generation of Georgian clergymen raised Georgia to distant eparchies. Clergymen who were considered on the ideas of the “Tergdaleulis” appeared on the stage. to be unreliable were forbidden from carrying out any religious These were the Bishops Kirion Sadzaglishvili and Leonide services. Okropiridze, the Archimandrite Ambrosi Khelaia, the Deacon The foreign press published interesting material on Russian Kalistrate Tsintsadze and others. Many public deeds were violence in Georgia. Varlam Cherkezishvili, a well-known introduced by their initiative. The Georgian clergymen, through anarchist at that time stationed in England, along with his wife, periodical press or book publishing, informed readers about and H. Nevinson and N. Dryhurst, specialists of international the history of the Georgian Church, objectively illuminating law, and siblings Oliver and Marjory Wardrop, who were very the ecclesiastical policies of Tsarism. Besides fighting for the much in love with Georgia, greatly helped this cause. freedom of the Church, they also fought for the restoration of In early 1910, with the help of Varlam Cherkezishvili, a part the lost statehood. of the Georgian community and the Georgian clergy sent an During the revolution of 1905-1907, Georgian clergymen and extensive appeal to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople public figures raised the issue of the restoration of autocephaly requesting autocephaly. The gendarmerie only heard about of the Georgian Church once more. The Emperor’s government this after the letter reached Constantinople. The Ecumenical rejected the lawful demand of the Georgians because he saw Patriarch carefully attended to the request of the Georgians political separatism in this request. The authorities, however, and despite the insistence of the Russian ruling circles, it still made some concessions; namely, that the Emperor regarded the abolition of the autocephaly of the Georgian ordered the issue of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church to Church as illegal. be resolved by the next Russian ecclesiastical congregation. A small part of the public and the clergy pinned hopes on the Earlier, a special commission was set up at the Russian and were ready to sign a Uniate in return for autocephaly. Synod which started discussing the issue from early 1906. Akaki Tsereteli and the Catholic priest, Mikheil Tamarashvili, The commission, as expected, denied the Georgian nation’s stationed in Rome were involved in this process. This intention legitimate demand to restore autocephaly. was not realized for the fear that in case of a Uniate, Russia

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Ambrosi Kirion II (during the secular life (during the secular life - - Besarion Khelaia) Giorgi Sadzaglishvili) (1861-1927), (1855-1918), Catholicos-Patriarch The first Catholicos- of All Georgia Patriarch of All Georgia and Archbishop after regaining of Mtskheta-Tbilisi autocephaly. in 1921-1927.

Kalistrate Leonide (during the secular life (during the secular life - Kalistrate (Bichiko) - Longinoz Okropiridze) Tsintsadze) (1861-1921), (1866-1952), Catholicos-Patriarch of Catholicos-Patriarch All Georgia of All Georgia and Archbishop and Archbishop of Mtskheta-Tbilisi of Mtskheta-Tbilisi in 1919-1921. in 1932-1952.

would not return the churches, the monasteries and other resting place there. After receiving permission, he departed properties to the Georgian Church. to Georgia but died along the way in Pyatigorsk. The movement of autocephaly acquired particular political Georgian émigré politicians denounced the violence significance in the early 1910s. The Social Democrat, E. of Tsarism. On May 9, 1916, a telegram was sent to the US Gegechkori, and the Socialist-Federalist, V. Gelovani, President, Woodrow Wilson, from the Stockholm-based requested the autocephaly of the Georgian Church multiple League of Russian Oppressed Nations which included times at the fourth State Deliberation Meetings. representatives of all of the nations within the . Some Russian scholars also supported the request of On behalf of the Georgian people, the text was signed by M. the Georgians such as Professor Nikoloz Durnovo, who Tsereteli, a Georgian immigrant. In the text of the telegram, frequently published interesting publications and monographs the issue of the religious oppression of the Georgian nation in Russian periodicals on Russian anti-ecclesiastical policy occupied a significant portion. That same year, the “Committee as well as the legitimacy of restoring the autocephaly of the of Independent Georgia” in Switzerland issued an “Appeal Georgian Church and the protection of its rights. The Exarch, to Educated Humanity” stating that Russia had “destroyed Pitimir Oknov, who served in Georgia from 1914 to 1915, Georgia’s autonomy and the autocephaly of the Church which was sympathetic to the Georgian autocephaly movement had been granted to Georgia for more than a thousand years” but as the press at the time noted: “The ultimate solution to against the wishes of the nation and ecclesiastical law and that this issue did not depend on him.” The Exarch Pitimir had a “the policy of Russification dominates even in the matters of close relationship with Georgian public figures. But the liberal faith. The Slavic language occupied the place of the Georgian Exarch was unacceptable for the authorities. He was soon language in the churches.” M. Tsereteli made his appearance recalled from Georgia and appointed as the Metropolitan at the Third Peace Conference in Lausanne on July 8, 1916 of Petrograd. It is noteworthy that after leaving the country, with the same message. The appeal served its purpose - once with his direct help, a Georgian church was opened in again reminding intelligent humanity of Georgia’s heavy burden Petrograd where the liturgy was conducted in Georgian. under Russia. After the Sovietization of Russia, a resigned Metropolitan The Russian authorities advanced several projects to asked the government of democratic Georgia to grant him the reorganize the Georgian Church. One of the projects was to permission to arrive in Georgia in order to find a permanent abolish the Exarchate of Georgia and create a Caucasian

12 Ecclesiastical Relations XIX century RUSSIA’S EXPANSION IN THE CAUCASUS AND GEORGIA Between Georgia and the beginning and Russia of XX century

John Oliver Wardrop Evgeni Gegechkori (1864-1948), (1881-1954), British diplomat, Menshevik, Member traveler and translator, of the III State Council United Kingdom High from Kutaisi Province Representative for in 1907-1912. the South Caucasus One of the leaders and Georgia of the Social Democrat (1919–1921). faction.

Marjory Wardrop (1869-1909), British scholar Varlam Gelovani and translator, sister of (1878-1915), Oliver Wardrop the High Member of the Representative of the IV State Council United Kingdom from Kutaisi Province, to Georgia. Socialist-Federalist.

Varlam Cherkezishvili (1846-1925), Georgian Revolutionary, an Anarchist, public figure in the revolution- ary movement of Nikoloz Durnovo Russia and Georgia (1876-unknown), (In the photo with his Russian historian wife and child). and philologist.

Metropolitan instead, removing Georgia from the ecclesiastical demand was made to the Caucasus Viceregent by the Abkhaz and political space once and for all. Due to the resistance of parliamentarians who arrived in Tbilisi on April 26, 1916 Georgian society, this plan was not able to be implemented. (Dimitri Marshania, Giorgi Sharvashidze, Astamur Inalifa, etc.). According to the second project, the Sokhumi Eparchy in Abkhazian lawmakers also demanded from the authorities Abkhazia had to break away from the Georgian Exarchate that the Georgian language be taught in Abkhazian schools. and join the Black Sea Diocese. Tsarism was hoping for the The unanimity of the Abkhazians and Georgians thwarted the support of the local population but was disappointed. On April Empire’s plan. 16, 1916, the Abkhazians sent a letter to the Russian Synod Despite Russia’s hundred-year domination and the Empire’s requesting the Sokhumi Diocese to remain within the Georgian violence, the Georgian nation, at the expense of great Eparchy. According to them, Abkhazia has historically been resistance, has maintained its centuries-old religious and an integral part of Georgia and since ancient times the national traditions and opposed the viciousness of the Empire. liturgy was conducted in the Georgian language. The same

13 Ecclesiastical Relations XIX century RUSSIA’S EXPANSION IN THE CAUCASUS AND GEORGIA Between Georgia and the beginning and Russia of XX century

Literature Consulted: A History of the Orthodox Church of Georgia, 1811 to the Present,” Bennett & Bloom, London, 2006. 1. E. Bubulashvili, “From the History of the Exarch Pavel Lebedev’s life 5. J. Gamakharia, “Abkhazia and Orthodoxy (1st Century - 1921),” (1882-1887),” TSU, East and Caucasus, No. 3, Tbilisi, 2005. Tbilisi, 2005. 2. E. Bubulashvili, “The Issue of the Georgian Church in the Agreements 6. В. Браил, О положении Грузинской православной церкви Signed between Russia and Georgia in the Second Half of the в царской России; из книги - Церковные вопросы в России, XVIII Century,” Annals, No. 13, Tb., 2017. СПБ, 1896. 3. E. Bubulashvili, “Autocephaly of the ,” 7. N. Durnovo, “The Fate of the Georgian Church,” Tbilisi, 1996. in Georgian and English languages, Tb., 2017. 8. Что сделала Россия в течении столетия (1808-1901) для грузинской 4. E. Bubulashvili, “WITNESS THROUGH TROUBLED TIMES. церкви и общества в духовно-религиозном отношении, Тиф., 1901.

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