Community Policy Issues in , :

Volume 1: Literature Reviews

Malaspina Geography Field Project Team 2007

Community Policy Issues in Orange Walk Town: A Compendium of Literature Reviews

Malaspina Geography Field Project Team 2007 Edited by Larry Wolfe, PhD

Prepared for Town Council Orange Walk Town, Belize

September 2007

Preface In May and June of 2007, the Geography Department of Malaspina University College coordinated a five-week field project in Orange Walk Town in Belize, population 16,000. The purpose of the field project was to gather community planning information for the town, and develop policy suggestions for consideration of the Town Council. The project involved 19 university students from Geography and other social science departments. The project leader was Dr. Larry Wolfe from Malaspina Geography, with the assistance of Pam Shaw (Geography) and Dr. Victoria Macfarlane (Psychology).

The field school was an opportunity for students to earn university credits while gaining valuable real- world experience outside of Canada. The idea for the project arose from Dr. Wolfe’s previous work in Belize, where he and Dr. Macfarlane (his spouse) taught at the University of Belize and subsequently worked as consultants. A needs assessment for community planning in Belize was conducted by Malaspina Global Studies student Samantha Letourneau in 2006, under Wolfe’s supervision, and she identified Orange Walk Town as a community that might be willing to host the field project. The Orange Walk Town Council extended a gracious welcome.

While in Orange Walk, the project team gathered field data on community planning issues and interviewed numerous residents and government officials. This provided extensive information for planning and seeded the ideas for policies for improving the future life of Walkeños. After return to Canada, the students conducted a review of the published literature on the policy issues they were studying. These literature reviews are the subject of this volume. In addition, they prepared policy analyses with recommendations for consideration of the town and its council. These recommendations are the responsibility of the student team, and have not been endorsed by the Town Council or Malaspina. However, they provide ideas for Orange Walk’s future planning.

In addition to time in Orange Walk, the team also spent a week in Indian Church Village near the Archaeological Reserve. In Indian Church, they took on various volunteer projects such as repairing the community library, conducting a census, and repainting the entrance sign. They also volunteered at the Lamanai site, and learned about the archaeology, ecosystems, and cultures of the region. On their visit, the team also spent a few days at the Community Baboon Sanctuary in Bermudian Landing, Belmopan, and Caye Caulker.

The team wishes to acknowledge and thank the Town Council of Orange Walk for their wonderful generosity and support for this project. It also wishes to thank the Hotel de la Fuente for their hospitality for the many days and nights of our stay. We also wish to thank all Orange Walkeños for their welcoming spirit and the patience they showed to the team as we learned about this wonderful town. As visitors to Orange Walk, the team was delighted by its stay in the town. We believe it is one of Belize’s many beautiful treasures.

Table of Contents

Preface...... i

Table of Contents ...... ii

Introduction ...... 1 Orange Walk Town...... 1 The Project...... 1 Organization of Report ...... 4

Local Government Revenue ...... 5 Introduction...... 5 The Argument for Local Government...... 5 Growing Responsibility and Declining Revenue...... 6 Transfer Payment Systems...... 7 Assessing Fiscal Imbalance for Local Governments ...... 8 Active Public Citizenry...... 8 Taxes...... 10 Alternatives...... 11 Sharing the Burden ...... 13 Planning ...... 14 Tax Collection...... 15 Conclusions...... 15 References...... 15

Social Capital, Community Development, and Crime ...... 19 Issue...... 19 Effects of Social Capital ...... 19 Helping Populations at Risk of Social Exclusion...... 19 Growth of Social Capital through Participation...... 20 Social Capital and the Role of Community Development ...... 20 Networking ...... 20 Safety in Cities...... 20 Controlling Urban Crime ...... 21 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CEPTED)...... 22 Conclusion ...... 22 References...... 22

Solid Waste Management ...... 24 Goals for Twenty-First Century Municipal Solid Waste Management...... 24 Underlying Factors Influencing Waste Generation and Disposal ...... 25 Strategies to Achieve Sustainable Solid Waste Management...... 25 Alternative Options to Handle Municipal Solid Waste...... 26 Conclusion ...... 27 References...... 27

Liquid Waste Management ...... 29 Public Health & Infrastructure...... 29 Groundwater Pollution in Limestone Environments...... 30 Fact Sheet Information: On-Site and Community Systems ...... 31

Ecological Engineering...... 35 Bringing Ideas Together ...... 36 References...... 36

Urban Stormwater Management ...... 39 Urbanization and Urban Hydrology...... 39 Urban Stormwater Management ...... 39 Structural Flood Mitigation Strategies...... 41 Non-Structural Flood Mitigation Strategies...... 44 Financing ...... 44 Conclusions...... 44 References...... 45

Floodplain Management ...... 46 North American Approach...... 46 Similar Climate and Economy ...... 47 Interesting Alternatives...... 48 Conclusion ...... 48 References...... 49

Riverside Development ...... 50 References...... 51

Ecotourism Promotion...... 52 Where to Start? ...... 52 Types of Tourism...... 53 Impediments...... 53 Benefits...... 53 Conclusion ...... 53 References...... 54

Cultural Heritage and Tourism ...... 55 Cultural Tourism - The Upcoming Trend ...... 55 What is Cultural Tourism?...... 55 Issues in Cultural Tourism...... 55 The Third World Problem...... 56 Heritage and Culture Together...... 56 Case Studies...... 56 Conclusion ...... 57 References...... 58

Economic Development...... 59 Introduction...... 59 Literature on Economic Development ...... 59 Economic Growth Strategies ...... 60 Conclusion ...... 63 Reference List...... 64

Pedestrian and Sidewalk Systems ...... 66 Introduction...... 66 The Importance of Sidewalks in Creating a Well-Functioning Central Area ...... 66

Pedestrian Needs...... 66 Standards for the Design of Sidewalks ...... 67 A different approach to planning: New Urbanism...... 67 Conclusion ...... 68 References...... 69

Streets and Traffic Management ...... 70 Introduction...... 70 Rapid Automobile Dependence and Integration ...... 70 Curbing Congestion ...... 70 Safety ...... 71 Accessibility...... 71 Creating a Traffic Plan...... 72 Summary...... 72 Conclusion ...... 72 References...... 72

Parking ...... 74 Introduction...... 74 Problems with Parking...... 74 Parking Strategies ...... 74 Parking Solutions...... 75 Redevelopment ...... 75 Historic Preservation...... 76 Fees-in-Lieu of Parking ...... 76 Off-Site Parking...... 76 Parking Ratio Ordinances ...... 76 The Aesthetics of Parking...... 77 Conclusion ...... 77 References...... 77

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design ...... 78 History of CPTED ...... 78 Intermediate Goals of CPTED ...... 79 Physical Design Features of Concern ...... 79 References...... 81

Public Spaces ...... 83 Why are Public Spaces so Important?...... 83 What Makes Good Public Spaces ...... 84 Conclusions...... 85 References...... 85

Community Image...... 87 Creating a Community Image...... 87 Central Area Revitalization...... 88 Business Improvement Districts ...... 89 Community Design Elements ...... 89 Street Trees and Greenery...... 90 Gateway Features...... 90 In Conclusion...... 90 References...... 91

Public Art...... 92 Forms of Public Art ...... 92 Impacts of Public Art...... 92 Surveys of Public Experience of Public Art ...... 93 Potential for Controversy...... 93 Preserving Historical Significance...... 93 Importance of Youth in Planning...... 94 Benefits of Public Art ...... 95 History of Civic Improvements...... 95 References...... 95

Urban Design ...... 97 Synthesis and Analysis ...... 97 Topography...... 97 Organization...... 98 Best Practices for Design...... 100 Assessments...... 100 Conclusion ...... 100 References...... 100

Land Use and Zoning...... 102 Objectives ...... 102 Urban Densification and Zoning...... 102 Traditional Zoning ...... 103 Mixed Zoning ...... 103 Performance and Process Approaches ...... 104 Alternative Land Use Controls ...... 104 Conceptual Districts...... 104 Conclusions...... 105 References...... 105

Introduction

Orange Walk Town Orange Walk Town is located 65 miles north of and 30 miles south of Corozal in northern Belize. With a population approaching 20,000, the town is the second largest community in Belize. The town is the major city of , which has a population of 40,000. The Town is located in the heart of the sugar producing region of Belize. Belize Sugar Industries operates a large sugar processing plant at Tower Hill just outside town which processes all of Belize’s sugar. Sugar is barged down the New River for export. Orange Walk also has distilleries for producing rum. The sugar heritage gave Orange Walk the nickname of “Sugar City.” Agriculture in the Orange Walk District is diversifying to include other crops, such as onions, potatoes, and soybeans, and marijuana in the past. The marijuana crops gave Orange Walk a “Rambo Town” or “Wild West” image which has since been tempered by government programs to stamp out the business. The town is seeking a more peaceful image, and in fact, now boasts one of the lower crime rates in Belize. Orange Walk has considerable tourism potential. It has a lively and diversified culture, with a distinctive Hispanic flavour. It rests on the bank of the New River – a largely undeveloped river with an abundance of wildlife and natural scenery, with pockets of interesting human development along the river. Boats from Orange Walk bring tourists up a tranquil, scenic neo-tropical jungle river to the Lamanai Mayan archaeological site. The town also is a gateway to many villages and communities in the region. Orange Walk Town has been occupied for centuries. The Cuello site just outside town possibly dates back to 1,000 or 1,500 BC – one of the oldest pre-classic sites of the Mayan world. The Mayan town known as Holpatin was occupied in the Mayan Classic period (approximately 300 to 900 AD). Little evidence remains of Holpatin, which has disappeared under modern Orange Walk Town. Maya continued to occupy the upstream Lamanai site until European contact. In the 1600’s, woodcutters arrived in the region to harvest logwood for export. They floated logs down the New River for export. They settled in the Orange Walk town area. In the 1700s, the Spanish tried to drive the woodcutters out of the region to establish their claim to the area. The attempt failed, and over time, wood production moved to mahogany logging and chicle gathering. Life in the town changed dramatically in the late 1840s with the massive influx of Mestizo refugees from the Caste War in the Yucatan peninsula in . These refugees became the foundation of modern Orange Walk. The British established forts in Orange Walk to defend its claim to the area and cope with Maya invasions. In the 1872, Marcus Canul led a Maya raid on Orange Walk and was eventually defeated in the last and only official battle fought on Belizean soil. The history of Orange Walk District and Town is the basis of a diverse and interesting cultural mosaic. The dominant social group are the Mestizos, with significant populations of Creole, Mennonites, Maya, and Asians. The Mennonites have established large farming colonies upstream on the New River. Orange Walk Town has a Town Council led by Mayor Ravell Gonzalez. There are six councillors: Raul Alcocer, Jamil Matar, Enid Urbina Morales, Rosario Leiva Melendez, Philip De La Fuente and Carlos Perera. All are members of the United Democratic Party (UDP). The Town Council and staff were gracious hosts to the Malaspina field team, generous with their time and information. The residents of the town were also incredibly welcoming and willing to share their information, ideas, and concerns with team members.

The Project The Malaspina Geography Belize Field Team was in Orange Walk Town, Belize, for 21 days between May 5 and June 4. The planning team included 19 student planners, Dr. Larry Wolfe (planner and geography professor), Pamela Shaw (planner and geography professor), and Dr. Victoria Macfarlane (Malaspina Psychology). This project differed from the traditional field school because it involved active engagement of the team in working for a ‘client’ in the host community. In this project, the team worked as volunteer consultants for Town.

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The project team used the rapid assessment approach as well as conventional planning analysis tools to identify and analyse planning issues in Orange Walk Town. In this approach, the team relied heavily on input from the community. The process involved: • Identifying issues important to the Town • Identifying and interviewing knowledgeable people in the community about these issues • Gathering field data on the issues, including fieldwork to identify existing land uses, gathering planning information, studying community issues and features, and examining any documents or existing information • Developing inventory reports cataloguing and analyzing planning information • Discussing emerging results with community representatives • Developing summary reports on inventory information • Analyzing 19 policy issues chosen in consultation with the Town Council and preparing policy analyses and recommendations for Council. This included completion of a literature review on each topic after return to Canada to identify best practices and experience in other jurisdictions. Student work has been collected into literature review and policy analysis compendia. • The compendia have been reviewed by the professors, edited, and sent to the Town Council for their review and consideration. Once finalized, the compendia will be available to the Town Council, the University of Belize Library, and online at Malaspina. • The project reports are solely the opinion of the team members as individuals, and do not reflect the opinions or positions of Malaspina University College or the Orange Walk Town Council. These reports are available for consideration by the Town Council for whatever actions Council deems useful. Academically, the project team members received credit for three fourth-year university courses. These courses were designed to enable students to gain valuable work experience applying what they have learned in other courses. These courses were: ƒ Geog 466: Geography of Belize – learning about Belize and its physical and human environment ƒ Geog 467: Field Methods in Geography I: Community Planning Field Project – gathering data about Orange Walk Town through interviews, meetings, observation, fieldwork and review of existing data sources ƒ Geog 468: Field Methods in Geography II: Community Planning Policy Analysis – searching the published scholarly literature and experience in other jurisdictions for solutions to a community planning issue and proposing policy solutions for Council consideration The Team Malaspina University-College is a public, degree-granting institution that offers both university and college programs. It was established in 1969, and now hosts over 10,000 full-time Canadian students and 1,000 international students from more than 50 countries. It offers graduate and undergraduate degrees, diplomas and certificates. The Geography Department offers Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science majors and minors. Geography features two areas of specialization – Natural Resource Management or Urban Growth Management – and a General stream designed to broaden an understanding of physical and human geography. It also offers an Advanced Diploma in Geographic Information Systems. Geography graduates about 20 majors and 10 minors per year. The project leader was Dr. Larry Wolfe from Malaspina Geography. Pam Shaw (Geography) and Dr. Victoria Macfarlane (Psychology) assisted Dr. Wolfe. Drs. Wolfe and Shaw are professional community planners with extensive experience working in government and consulting, as well as members of the Geography Department. Dr. Macfarlane has an extensive background in program evaluation and has extensive experience as a consultant to governments, communities, and indigenous groups.

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The project team comprised 19 students with diverse backgrounds. These students were the foundation of this project. The 21 days they worked in Orange Walk add up to almost 80 working weeks of field work for community planning in Orange Walk. In addition, they spent many hours preparing for the project before departure, and more weeks doing research and writing after their return. Their labours demonstrate hope for the future of the world if we can engage the energies of youth to tackle the issues we face.

The 2007 Orange Walk Community Planning Project Team Matt Baillie completed his Bachelor of Arts in Geography - Natural Resource Management at the end of the field school. He is a freelance writer and has been published in several newspapers and periodicals; he also works as a DJ for a local radio station. He is currently working towards a post baccalaureate degree in Education. He hopes someday to become a teacher and farmer in his hometown of Nanaimo. Stuart Barker is near graduation at Malaspina, specializing in the Urban Growth Management stream in Geography. He plans to seek a master’s degree in urban design or landscape architecture. He loves to travel and play soccer. Stuart was born and raised in Victoria, BC, and moved to Nanaimo to attend Malaspina. Rachel Birtwistle is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Criminology. Her interests are crime prevention, drug and alcohol abuse, and offender services. Here career plan is to find a job in any one of her interest areas. She currently lives in Victoria, BC on the weekends and in Nanaimo during the week. Annie Brown is a fourth year student working in her double major in Geography and Anthropology at Malaspina. She intends to work on her graduate studies in archaeology and physical anthropology and pursue a career as an archaeologist with an interest in ancient culture and mythology. Her special interests include fossils, art and history. She comes from Holburg, BC and currently lives in Courtenay, BC. Shawna Carrieres is a fourth Year Malaspina Student graduating with a major in the Urban Growth Management stream in Geography and another major in Comparative History. After graduation, she plans to pursue graduate studies to further her career options. Her hometown is Victoria BC and she currently resides in Nanaimo BC. Jade Depue is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Criminology. She intends to pursue a career within the field as a possible parole or probation officer or maybe a correctional officer for youth. She comes from Victoria, BC and currently lives in Nanaimo, BC. Cynthia Field has completed a Bachelor of Arts in Global Studies. After the field project, she stayed in Belize to volunteer with the Association of Tertiary Level Institutions in Belize to assist in the development of a National Policy for Higher Education. She is now working on a three month internship in Belize under the Global Studies program at Malaspina. She is planning to enter law school in 2008 and pursue her career internationally. Cynthia is from Sointula, BC, and currently lives in San Ignacio, Belize. Leah Irvine recently graduated in from Malaspina with a Bachelor of Arts in Geography - Urban Growth Management and a minor in History. She hopes to pursue a career as a city planner, with a special interest in preserving agricultural land. She has lived in Nanaimo for her whole life. Parker Krog is a fourth year university student majoring in Geography under the general stream, and minoring in Global Studies. He intends to go to law school with a special interest in eventually pursuing international trade law. He was born and raised in Nanaimo, BC, where he currently resides Luke Letham is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Geography - Urban Growth Management. He graduates at the end of this year and intends to look for a career as a planner with special interests in community planning, transportation planning and urban design. Luke is from Terrace BC and currently lives in Nanaimo, BC. Hayley Linton majors in Geography at the University of Victoria. Her interests include urban planning, natural resource management, and climatology. She currently lives in Victoria, BC. Darren Lucas is majoring in Geography- Urban Growth Management at Malaspina. He plans to work eventually in the urban design and planning field in a larger urban area. He was born in Vancouver, BC, and is currently living in Nanaimo, BC. John Mackenzie is a Geography major at Malaspina. He has worked as a Student Park Planner for the Comox Strathcona Regional District in BC. He is pursuing a career as a professional planner. He comes from Black Creek, BC. Continued…

Kevin Muise is a Geography student at Malaspina. He has extensive travel experience, including teaching in Japan.

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He currently lives in Nanaimo, BC. Eli Pilyk is a fourth year student majoring in Geography - Natural Resource Management and minoring in Global Studies at Malaspina. She has worked with Nanaimo and Area Land Trust and sits on the board of TD Canada Trust bank's Friends of the Environment Foundation. She plans to start environmentally sustainable businesses with her partner in Turkey in the near future. Eli resides on Vancouver Island, BC where she was born and raised. Myriam Raiche is completing her Bachelor of Arts in 2007 in Geography - Natural Resource Management at Malaspina. She is interested in environmental planning, international development, and resource management - especially related to the protection of water resources. She currently works for a small private water/wastewater company and although future post-graduate educational programs are under consideration, her current employment is an excellent opportunity for work-place learning. Born in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Myriam moved often growing up and now lives in Comox, BC. Gina Sandner is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Psychology. She wants to work on decreasing obesity in youth and is currently training towards her Personal Training Certificate and Dive Instructor Certification. She is an avid SCUBA diver and wants to travel the world, experiencing many cultures. She comes from the interior of British Columbia and currently lives in Nanaimo, BC. Kirsten Thicke completed her Bachelor of Arts in Geography - Natural Resource Management/ Anthropology minor at the end of the field school. Her career plans include working for a provincial agency as a conservation planner or at a non-profit organization. She enjoys traveling immensely and is hoping that her work takes her overseas. She is from Comox, BC, and currently lives in Fort Simpson, Northwest Territories. Ryan Watson is completing his fourth year in Geography at Malaspina. After graduation, he plans to pursue a diploma in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Organization of Report The papers in this report begin with a review of local government revenue (Field) and community development (Depue). These papers discuss the “inputs” of financing and people that are very essential to the development of the town. The next four papers discuss key municipal services of solid waste management (Pilyk), liquid waste management (Raiche), urban stormwater management (Thicke) and floodplain management (Muise). These services are important and urgent items for the community. The community economy is the topic of the next four papers, which address riverside development (Baillie), ecotourism promotion (Irvine), cultural and heritage tourism (Brown), and economic development (MacKenzie). As Orange Walk faces the twenty-first century, its citizens will need new livelihoods to ensure residents have a comfortable life. The next several papers discuss urban streetscapes, including pedestrian systems (Barker), traffic management (Watson), parking (Letham), and crime prevention (Birtwistle). Streets are very important to public safety and enjoyment of residents and visitors, and essential for economic growth. Next, urban design papers address public spaces (Carrieres), community image (Linton), public art (Sandner), urban design (Lucas), and land use and zoning (Krog). These papers look at ways to enhance the aesthetics and character of downtown areas. As literature reviews, these papers are a source of ideas and concepts. The team members develop many of the ideas and concepts in these literature reviews into policy suggestions in a separate compendium of policy analyses that specifically address the needs and circumstances of Orange Walk Town.

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Local Government Revenue By Cynthia C. L. Field

Cynthia Field has completed a Bachelor of Arts in Global Studies. She is currently volunteering with the Association of Tertiary Level Institutions in Belize to develop a National Policy for Higher Education. She is planning to enter law school in 2008 and pursue her career internationally. Cynthia is from Sointula, BC, and currently lives in San Ignacio, Belize.

Introduction and to make decisions about what services to provide, how much to provide, and how to pay This literature review focuses on ways for local for them (pp. 2218, 2003). governments to reduce costs for public services, Hillenbrand (1974) argues that local is the best raise revenue, and develop long term planning form of government to deliver public services for economic growth that will benefit local because it is the most efficient and level of government. government. Local government is able to meet local needs with more immediacy due to the The Argument for Local smaller bureaucracy and interaction of public Government servants with the community. Foldvary and Santa (2001) agree with this analysis and include Debates over whether local or central the value of democracy that local governance governments are more efficient have continued gives to the people. in academia for several years. One of the largest debates of the 1970’s was whether to implement In the 1990s and into this century, the debate has revenue sharing in governments in America and turned to local government autonomy as around the world. Revenue sharing meant responsibility for public services has often been transferring responsibility and funding for downloaded to local governments without the providing services to local governments. In allocating the corresponding revenue raising theory, this would increase efficiency as local capacity to provide the services. The next four governments could deal with local needs rather sections address this argument in detail in the than for central governments to apply next four sections. generalized programs that do not necessarily meet needs. In the end, revenue sharing became Local Government Responsibility common in public policy. Responsibility of local government has grown In the 1980’s the debate was whether revenue significantly over the last century. From the sharing had produced the anticipated impacts and original focus of local government as agricultural met expectations. The consensus appears to be community governance systems to more that revenue sharing had met some expectations, autonomous decision making entities, the shift but that central government still held an has meant more sophisticated administration, enormous influence over service and program accounting and electoral process. delivery. As such, revenue sharing was not The Australian Local Government Association entirely efficient in terms of local democracy. (2007) provides a concise account of the scope Kitchen and Slack (2003) note that analysts of responsibility of local governments in this evaluating the role of government century in . This account reflects the average quantity and breadth of responsibility for …often rely on the benefit model of local governments in developed and, in some cases, government finance. According to this model, the developing nations. essential economic role of municipal government is to provide local residents with those public Local government undertakes four broad services that they are willing to pay for. The categories of functions. These include: subsidiary principle states that the efficient • planning provision of services requires decision making to • coordination be carried out by the level of government closest • service delivery to the individual citizen. Thus, municipalities are • regulatory activities in the best position to determine local priorities

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More specifically, functions include: Why are local governments not receiving • infrastructure and property services, autonomy in finance as would be expected with including local roads, bridges, footpaths, the downloading of responsibility? The answer lighting, drainage, waste collection and provided by the Australian Local Government management Association (2007) is that the central government • provision of recreation facilities, such as has a greater capacity and ability to collect parks, sports fields and stadiums, golf courses, swimming pools, sport centres, public taxes, and therefore the tax collection halls, camping grounds and caravan parks system is more efficient when centralized. The • health services such as water and food Association (2007) argues that since the inspection, immunisation services, toilet Australian system is more efficient, it benefits facilities, noise control, meat inspection and the local governments. However, other sources animal control are not so positive about the centralized tax • community services, such as child care, aged system. care and accommodation, community care and welfare services According to the Federation of Canadian • building services, including inspections, Municipalities (2007), municipal governments licensing, certification and enforcement are becoming increasingly responsible for the • planning and development approval significant cost of delivering services to • administration of facilities, such as airports marginalized individuals. They contend that and aerodromes, ports and marinas, despite the higher cost of living, these urban cemeteries, parking facilities and street areas are the preferred living choice for many parking disadvantaged people. The central government in • cultural facilities and services such as Canada has withdrawn money from social libraries, art galleries and museums • water and sewerage services in some states services over the 1990s as local government • other services, such as abattoirs, sale-yards responsibility has increased. This is problematic and group purchasing schemes for the local governments as they are Local government plays an important increasingly responsible for services the central role in the delivery of services to the government is increasingly unwilling to pay for. Australian community. As such, it This has caused the local governments to seek needs to be properly resourced. autonomy or alternative revenue raising sources ALGA is calling for action on both to subvention (transfer) payments. “Without the issue of cost shifting and local additional revenue tools cities will not be able to government financing. meet the expectations of other governments and the public, without compromising service Growing Responsibility and delivery in other areas” (Federation of Canadian Declining Revenue Municipalities, 2007). The expectations for local government have The Canadian Union of Public Employees has undergone significant change over the twentieth published several pamphlets about local century, from a focus on agricultural government autonomy. Figure 1 demonstrates communities to the climate of social that the transfer payments from central responsibility in urban centers. This shift has government are not keeping with the taken place primarily in developed nations, but requirements of local government. developing nations are moving in this direction This is not just a Canadian problem. The as well. The main issue, however, is not whether Australian Local Government Association notes or not decentralization is occurring, but over how that: it is occurring. According to many sources mentioned below, the process of decentralization In its 2001 review of the Local Government is downloading responsibility for services onto (Financial Assistance) Act 1995, the local governments without the corresponding Commonwealth Grants Commission concluded financial capacity. This means that local that: governments do not have the ability to collect "…the composition of services provided by taxes to cover their new expenditures, but are local government has changed markedly over dependant on central government for the money the last 30-35 years and local government is to pay for providing public services. increasingly providing human services (social welfare type services) at the expense of

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traditional property based services (particularly a large area”. The central government raises roads)". more revenue that it needs to cover its Figure 1: Transfer Shortfalls expenditures, while the state and territory governments and local governments’ expenditure commitments exceed their revenue raising capacity. This is known as a vertical fiscal imbalance (VFI). This is an intentional situation, and one that is offset by the central government providing financial assistance to other levels of government. This can come in the form of revenue sharing and grants. Hillenbrand (1974) advocates two forms of subvention payments to local governments: revenue sharing and block grants. These are grants in large sums for particular projects. Note that both of these forms of revenue were picked up in the following decade, but revenue sharing is by far the most well known form. Block grants require significant administrative time and effort for the creation of documentation including Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities, 2007. applications and evaluations of programs and However, the responses of the Canadian and have not been the choice of most countries. Australian local governments have been very Chen (2001) argues for the grant system of different. As demonstrated in the next section, transfer payment. There is little autonomy in the the Canadian municipalities are requesting Scottish system of local governance. There is autonomy while the Australian municipalities are only one tax under local control, the council tax, requesting increased transfer payments from the which accounts for only a fifth of local spending. central government. The Federation of Canadian This means the local government is heavily Municipalities (2007) argues that dependant on transfer payments from the central Municipal governments will also be able to government. Despite the fact that 95% of town better meet increasing community safety councils in had seen an increase in their pressures. Important investment in policing, tax bills in the period of 1993-2000 by 16.5%, emergency preparedness and crime there has been a real decrease in the Revenue prevention can be made, improving the Support Grant over this period. This means there quality of life in cities. Not only will these is pressure on the town councils to increase the kinds of investment affect residents, but they will also attract additional investment. single tax they effectively control. Simply put, access to a diversity of revenue Canada’s arrangements for local governments sources will allow municipal governments to are similar to Australia, and the Canadian Union engage in city building, rather than simply of Public Employees. However, the Canadian struggling to keep up. municipalities are pushing for greater autonomy In the United States, Jung (2001) notes that a while the Australian municipalities are pushing general local sales tax is often implemented for greater transfer payments. In theory these when fiscal instability is proven. This tax will provide the same fiscal result, however, they capacity is given to local governments in order to define “efficiency” in government differently. diversify the revenue sources available to local The Canadian goal is to gain the ability to raise government. Assessing fiscal instability can be taxes in accordance with budgets. The Australian difficult, however, as discussed later. goal is to have increased revenue provided to the local governments, regardless of whether or not that money has been allocated for certain funds. Transfer Payment Systems This approach does not allow for greater The Australian Local Government Association autonomy or decision-making power at the local (2007) argues that a centralized tax system as the level. This means that the Australian system is most efficient and appropriate method “for a intended to be a primarily central government country with such a dispersed population across decision-making system with local

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administrative capacity. The Canadian system not required to have substantial record keeping intends to have local decision-making autonomy and budget analysis because they do not have the that would provide proper funding for local capacity for large bureaucratic administration. goals. This would provide “efficiency” in that For example, in Australia, according to the local governments would not raise more taxes Australian Local Government Association than necessary, as central government currently (2007), record keeping is inconsistent at best and must do in order to offset vertical fiscal irresponsible at worst. Tracking the results of the imbalance. significant shift to local government administration of public services is difficult in Developing nations are having these arguments this way. Most governments in Australia do not as well. Ghana began restructuring their provide information in the budget papers about government system to increase autonomy in subvention (transfer) payments from the central local government in the mid 1990s. The government. Chen (2000) notes that transfers to Commonwealth Local Government (2007) notes local government can be obscure in terms of that local governments in Ghana receive a accounting. He notes that it is notoriously mandatory 7.5% of the national revenue. Not all difficult to know if local governments are of this money has allocation. The majority must overstretched. go toward local government provided public services, however, local governments can Carvelho et al. (2006) discuss the of provide unique services and implement unique local government accounting in Portugal over a infrastructure and economic development five-year period. The intention was to change the projects with this money. This can be ensured cash-based and budget-oriented system to one because local governments are written into the that included accrual-based financial and cost constitution as receiving a certain amount of accounting. The problem is that even with funding in order to remain autonomous. This is increased accuracy of the system, the economic in line with the Australian system of governance. results may “be seen as more subjective”. This appears bizarre, given the intention of the change Assessing Fiscal Imbalance for to the accounting system. Unfortunately, the Local Governments accounting system of local government can be extremely difficult to assess, and may be Despite the conviction of many local subjective even if considered accurate. In effect, governments that they lack the finances to cover this makes arguments about local government all responsibilities, tracking the additional costs finance stability subjective. Therefore, any and responsibilities has been difficult in many argument that local governments are fiscally places. unsustainable could be considered a subjective opinion regardless of the numbers. Slack (2006) notes that it may not be obvious that municipalities suffer from fiscal imbalance, but this does not mean that they are fiscally Active Public Citizenry stable or sustainable. Municipalities are required The literature argues that an active public to balance their accounts, however, this does not citizenry is often a direct factor in reducing costs always give an accurate picture of the financial for local government in delivering services and situation. maintaining economic stability. [The] required balance has been achieved in Adams (2007) notes that this new form of large part by under-investing in infrastructure institution emerged when the Great Depression and service delivery. Unfortunately the state of municipal infrastructure and the quality of caused the federal government to change the services are much more difficult to quantify framework for maniple financing of public than are fiscal measures and so less is known works. Local governments fully felt the burden, about them. This lack of information does not and US President Roosevelt himself encouraged mean, however, that municipalities are not local governments to establish “non-profit public facing a fiscal crisis. benefit” organizations and corporations to build, Balanced books may not indicate fiscal stability maintain, and run public works. These because there is no capacity for local organizations worked, reducing local governments to keep accurate accounts. government deficits all around the United States. According to the Australian Local Government While many of these organizations relied only on Association (2007), many local governments are

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 8 Literature Reviews

service fees and payments, others required local governments and undermining faith in financing from federal governments. government systems. They go on to argue for decentralization to the point of volunteer Brannan, John and Stoker (2006) suggested that governance in extreme cases like this because a governments will always be ineffective in the …successful economy and society needs face of extreme politics. financial, physical and human capital, but they also need social capital. That is, they need the Graddy and Morgan (2006) discuss the strategies capacity for people to be able to construct for California community social organizations in programmes and projects together at relatively terms of implications on public policy. They low cost, in terms of effort, and in a way that discuss the formulation of a public policy overcomes the barriers of social and economic interest group that would oversee the formulation distance. Social capital exists, therefore, in of an intermediary board between social interest particular relationships and its presence groups and local government. This board would enables the relationship to function more find a need in the community and match the local effectively and for the mutual benefit of participants. government with a social interest organization in order to find a solution. This cuts down on By involving the citizenry, local government can bureaucracy and leaves local government free to increase participation in crime reduction focus on services and responsibilities. This also activities, regeneration and housing, education, makes sure funding is found within the public health. It can improve accountability in community and not necessarily through local local government and rejuvenate democratic government, though the partnership does call for mechanisms. This may require restructuring of financial servicing of the social organizations local government administration, but is found to and projects on occasion. Once the lines of be worth the effort in Scandinavian and communication are open between social interest European countries according to Brennan, John groups and other social interest groups and local and Stoker (2006). government, there can be larger projects taken on Foldvary and Santa (2001) argue that the with fewer burdens on the public system. completely decentralized city is as effective as Swaine (2003) argues against local governments any federal system in terms of efficiency and giving tax-breaks to charities because local development. From this perspective, they argue governments are already constrained in revenue that local governance can be just as effective, or income, and charities do not benefit the local more so, as local volunteer organizations take economy that much. Swaine does not take into responsibility for infrastructure and development account infrastructure maintenance by charity of certain areas of town. This is an excellent organizations, however, as do Fauvelle-Aymar argument for communities to raise the level of (1999) and Foldvary (2001). Both Fauvelle- volunteer effort and the number of organizations Aymar and Foldvary indicate that local while the local government is lacking subvention governance can directly benefit the local payments. Zech (1982) supports this in an government in terms of cost savings. Adams analysis of the “public choice” dynamic. In (2007) goes even further and indicates non-profit theory, citizens will care more if they are directly organizations can raise revenue for local involved, and they will volunteer more time if government, though this is normally not a charity the public is given a direct role in implementing organization but rather a public interest and directing public services. Groups organization or corporation focused directly on campaigning with lobbying, writing letters, and delivering public services. However, Adams is political activities are likely to comprise the relevant because there is the issue of charity same people that get involved in the delivery of organizations raising money for public services, the services. Volunteers also last the longest if and therefore saving costs of local government they are strong social organizations allowed a on services or local government receiving direct strong presence in the community. Free riders payment by charity fundraising. should be expected, but strong public participation should reduce the number of free Eikenberry (2006) discusses donor circles, that riders in the system simply by peer pressure. is, fundraising efforts initiated by a particular charity where donors have no significant voice in Foldvary and Santa (2001) argue that extreme how the funds are used. Local social politics is the most direct method of discrediting organizations could raise these funds and use

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 9 Literature Reviews

them toward public services. They could also economic growth. The Orange Walk Town allocate these funds for other projects and Council is not interested in raising local taxes, services. even as their ability to provide public services and pay staff is tested. Despite local Becker-Olsen and Hill (2006) discuss branding government’s disapproval of taxation as a means of non-profit organizations in order to gain to raise revenue, this is a broad topic area that funding. Branding can give funding needs to be discussed, even in terms of organizations an idea of the larger scope of the alternative forms of taxation and the impacts on receiving organization. When a funding local governance and democracy. organization knows to the overall goals of the recipient organization, the funder is more likely Fauvell-Aymar (1999) notes higher taxes in to involve themselves in the projects and plans, developing countries affect political stability and and even fund more than one part of the overall the ability of government to carry out programs plan. Communities and their councils may not and projects. Because of this, governments may always be able to brand themselves, however, be unwilling to tax citizens to the level they need non-profit organizations working towards public to in order to run the town properly. This can services may be able to brand themselves and also lead to poor governance because the access funding from their efforts. government is unable to meet the needs of the people. Summary Fauvelle-Aymar (1999) also argues that • Adams (2007), Brannan, John and Stoker governments may maintain inefficient systems (2006), and Zech (1982) explain the benefits because they do not have the ability to create of non-profit organizations working with effective tax systems due to administration municipal governments in terms of revenue constraints (education level of ministers, creative and democracy, while Graddy and Morgan planning ability, strict laws). Along these lines, advocate an intermediary board between governments often maintain inefficient systems social organizations and government to free so that the current government party does not local government officials and keep have to be the “bad party” for implementing communication professional and open. higher taxes, which would mean losing the next • Fodvary and Santa (2001) argue that the election while providing the other party a higher completely decentralized city would be tax base. Pagano and Johnson (1999) take this a more effective than government bureaucracy step further discussing tactics for governments to at any level. appear as though they are not raising taxes. • Becker-Olsen and Hill (2006) discuss Pagano and Johnson (1999) argue that reliance techniques for non-profits to gain funding on property taxes is associated with higher from grant organizations, while Eikenberry revenue burdens and issues of attaining the discusses donor circles through non-profits full tax revenue available. This is because for public services and projects property tax revenue can be constrained by several factors, including politics, tax evasion, • Tax breaks for charitable organizations are and more responsibility for local governments contentious in that non-profits provide can stretch beyond the available property tax services for the community that can promote base. economic and social development, according to Fauvelle-Aymar (1999), According to the Australian Local Government Adams (2007) and Foldvary (2001); Association (2007), the local governments of however, tax breaks for charities can remove Australia get three percent of the tax collection a valuable tax base for local government of the federal government. This includes according to Swaine (2003). property tax, goods and service taxes and income tax combined. As property tax is relatively Taxes stable, any increase in the amount collected comes from the other taxes. Taxation on incomes Taxes are a difficult area for government. While is generally thought to steadily grow as per governments rely on taxes to raise revenue to capita income steadily increases in a healthy fund public services, taxation can be burdensome economy. Goods and service tax also increases on the population, politically unpopular for local as people in a healthy economy begin to spend councils, and criticized for potentially slowing

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 10 Literature Reviews

more on consumer items. Total taxation revenue throughout its term. There are maximum limits rose 8% between 2002-03 and 2003-04. on the tax rate for each of the taxes imposed. A similar board was set up in a nearby district to The Australian Local Government Association pay for a professional stadium. moves on to explain how taxes are calculated in various states. There are two types of values Summary calculated: first the gross rental value for urban land and buildings, and second, the unimproved • Fauvelle-Aymar (1999) makes two relevant land value for rural land. To calculate the rate, points: high taxes affect political stability councils multiply a rate in the dollar, determined and governments may maintain inefficient by the level of revenue the council wishes to tax systems because of a lack of raise dependant on their proposed budget, by the administration capacity land value. These rates can be influenced by the • Fauvelle-Aymar (1999) and Pagano council setting minimum rates, having fixed Johnson (1999) agree that politics is a charges, differential rates for different categories constraint on local government taxes in of land use and two-tiered rating systems, such terms of collection, evasion, and as charging a different rate for properties that expenditure responsibility versus transfer exceed a certain value level. Councils can create payment amount special taxation rates for certain sectors of the population, such as commercial property owners, • There are different revenue systems to avoid raising rates on the general population. available for local governments. Two examples, Wisconsin, USA, and local In Wisconsin, according to Runde (2007), the governments in Australia, as described by local government gained control over three Runde (2007) and the Australian Local optional local tax sources, all authorized for Government Association (2007) in their general use: the county sales tax, registration fee respective publications, illustrate the for certain motor vehicles and a tax on diversity of legal options. Local government establishments providing short-term lodging for can gain access to income, goods and the public, i.e. hotels, motels and hostels services taxes and country sales tax and (hospitals, nursing homes and religious motor vehicle tax in two structural systems accommodations are exempt). This helped of revenue: direct authority over these reduce the reliance on the ridged property tax taxation options, or subvention payment as a available in the jurisdiction, and promote local part of the whole collection by central government aiding local “lodging” businesses. In government. order to adopt these fees in Wisconsin, an ordinance needed to be adopted by the county Alternatives board or municipal government imposing the fee. For the motor vehicle fee, the organization Standard Forms of Revenue collecting the fee retained ten cents per fee collected in order to pay for administration costs Deyle and Falconer (2007) note the standard where the rest of the fee goes to the government. revenue of local government comes from taxes, Beyond this, in 1994 Wisconsin introduced an utility fees, user fees and service charges, impact act that created a “local exposition district” that fees, special assessments. is separate and distinct from municipality, state • Most taxes serve as “general revenue” which and county borders. This local exposition district are used to fund basic local government is formed with a board that is in charge of services. collecting taxes to repay a certain bond or collection of debts. This area had a government • User fees are “analogous to private market imposing three taxes: room tax, food and prices”, used primarily to cover the costs of beverage tax, and a car rental tax. The board for a public service. this jurisdiction is sponsored by local businesses, • User fees and service charges: similar to and is composed of 15 individuals from both the private market prices, but usually involve a public and private sectors, appointed by local subsidy of part of the cost of the service. and state governments. The government limits These can be voluntary, mandatory, or based the use and collection of these fees until the on consumption. bonds or debts are repaid, though the board can take on new collection duties for other debts

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 11 Literature Reviews

• Impact fees are used to finance the capital Skidmore and Peddle (1998) discuss impact costs of building infrastructure for public fees, a monetary charge imposed on the services, including roads, water and sewer builder or developer of a new housing unit as facilities, parks and recreational buildings a condition for approval at some stage of the and schools. Governments can collect project. These discourage residential impact fees from developers, or on an development, and according to Skidmore and individual basis of affected citizens. Peddle, they may indirectly reduce economic development as well, however, in a • Special assessments are similar to taxes in developing nation where revenue is limited that they are compulsory, however, they are this may be an effective means of raising limited in that the service the fee is charged income. for must directly impact the individual citizen. Eikenberry (2006) notes that potlucks are an excellent fundraising option. Also noted in this Pietilä (2005) notes that funding from article are “giving circles”. Pool funds are often international organizations and governments funded by members of the organization. People can come in two forms: grants and loans. can pay to take part in the organizations, though Alternative Forms of Revenue this is an aspect of social organizations in developed nations only so far. On the other hand, The team’s policy analyses for Orange Walk people in the organization can be educated about Town will emphasize alternative forms of grant writing which can give the organization a taxation and alternative sources of revenue. huge advantage in fundraising efforts. At the While these academic papers present many same time, explaining to these volunteers that alternative forms of revenue, this is by no their efforts are socially responsible and ethical means all of the possibilities. can boost the effort and gains of volunteer Bowyer (1957) discusses the shift from property efforts. It is important to maintain the tax dependence for local governments in Iowa to independence of the organization because it other sources of revenue and the impacts of this keeps politics out of the organization, but the shift. The local governments benefited from organization can still directly and indirectly lower dependence on more “rigid” forms of benefit the local government. taxation such as property tax. The shift was Pagano and Johnston (2000) note that increasing towards service fees and income taxes. The shift expenditure and responsibility by local appears to be inevitable for localities in government can be offset by fees and “general- developed nations throughout the Twentieth fund taxes”. Taxes can be raised for a “general Century. Pagano and Johnston (2000) agree that fund”, or a fund not set for any particular a lower reliance on property taxes directly purpose. The tax can be small and built into benefits the local government in terms of taxes already on people in the locality. There revenue flexibility and income. Growth in tax may be a backlash of people, media and revenue from property tax is comparatively low opposition parties for these taxes. If the compared to service fees and income taxes. opposition party finds a general tax fund they Lobo and Rantisi (1999) conclude after have a tendency to try to show that this fund is exhaustive research and analysis that there is a excessive taxation on the people. General tax positive relationship between investments made funds are not recommended by Pietilä (2005), by local government in infrastructure and the who discusses local government in Nambia and development and incline in productivity in urban Lithuania. areas. This means economic growth, and Golgowski and Dowling (nd) review several economic growth means higher per capita methods of funding for public works income tax and an indirect growth in property opportunities. They advocate the use of general values and therefore property taxes. This is a revenues for public works services and long-term revenue raising opportunity, but one maintenance, however, these funds may not be that fits with several objectives of local available or may be allocated to a “majority government: raising revenue, developing local public benefit” system for which a specific infrastructure and promoting economic project may not meet the requirements. Projects development, and indirectly promoting their re- benefiting a minority of the population may election. require assessments of the benefit to each

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 12 Literature Reviews

taxpayer, and a fee imposed on taxpayers assessment, and they have put out a policy paper according to the benefit they receive from the analyzing the benefits of cost sharing: service. To be truly a successful nation, one that Specific highway projects are paid for by user offers opportunity, prosperity and livability fees (toll booths), indirect user fees (fuel taxes) for all, the view of cities and the and other general revenue sources such as accompanying intergovernmental relationships need to be modernized to property and sales tax, according to Sorensen st reflect the 21 century. and Taylor (2006). Studies show that this is an effective method of raising revenue. San Diego This is not a new concept. The United States has 1-15 HOT lanes raise $2 million USD annually, already implemented an Advisory Council on with only half going to maintenance and Intergovernmental Relations because so many operational costs. The rest subsidizes public jurisdictions are cooperating for service delivery transportation vehicles and goes towards general and infrastructure maintenance. Inter- service revenue for the city. governmental service transfers are legally binding agreements between two or more Summary general-purpose local government units in which • Lobo and Rantisi (1999) conclude that there one pays the other for the delivery of a particular is a positive relationship between service to multiple jurisdictions, and receives all investments in infrastructure made by local of the payment in taxes and subvention and fees government and the productivity of urban from the citizens for the service. Joint service areas. This is a long-term revenue raising agreements are those that exist between two or option and a short-term expenditure. more units of government for planning, financing, and delivery of a service to the • Subvention payment: Hillenbrand (1974) citizens. discusses block grants as subvention payments; Pagano and Johnston (2000) Orange Walk Town may be too far from Corozal advocate general revenue funds from the or other towns to share service burdens central government, though Pietilä (2005) economically. The main benefits are for closely disagrees when discussing local connected jurisdictions. The villages nearby do governments in developing countries. not have town councils to deliver services such as garbage collection, so this may not be an • Fees imposed on the public: Skidmore and option for Orange Walk. They do share some Peddle (1998) discuss “impact fees” charged services, such as Legal Aid between Corozal and to developers; Watson (1996) discusses Orange Walk, and these sorts of services could “development charges” which are similar, be looked into in order to save costs. For but Golgowski and Dowling (accessed instance, purchasing a backhoe between Corozal 2007) also advocate impact fees. and Orange Walk town may save both • Alternatives: Eikenberry (2006) notes jurisdictions money, and make sure the potlucks are good for immediate need equipment is used to its capacity. However, fundraising efforts, as are “giving circles”, transporting the backhoe to Corozal and back the pooled funds of members of a charitable may cause premature wear, as machines are organization. measured in work hours and can be damaged in transportation. Sharing the Burden Another form of “sharing the burden” of public service administration is public-private Many local governments do not cooperate in partnerships (P3s). These are highly contentious, servicing communities, according to Leroux and however. The Canadian Union of Public Carr (2007), yet there are economic benefits for Employees warns against P3s because of the doing so. Trans-jurisdictional services can short-term and long-term ramifications in other maintain low service costs, minimize spillover jurisdictions around the world. In Canada, there effects and manage boundary-spanning have been major fiscal losses incurred on the infrastructure. Coopoo (2000) confirms these behalf of the public system. Eweje (2006) looks benefits in an analysis of South Africa. The at the costs and benefits of multinational Federation of Canadian Municipalities Big City corporations in developing nations, specifically Mayor’s Caucus (2003) agrees with this Nigeria and South Africa. Corporations have

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 13 Literature Reviews

been pressured to create infrastructure for local reimbursed through the tax increment money or towns and villages such as roads, wells and through the issuance of bonds. facilities for public services. Corporations need Summary legitimacy in the community to operate effectively. As well, a few corporations in • Leroux and Carr (2007) advocate Nigeria have begun supplementing the cooperation between local governments to educational system in order to create the skilled save on maintenance and infrastructure costs workers they need for factories and management. for public services and recreation facilities. On the other hand, many corporations do not benefit the communities and countries as much • The Federation of Canadian Municipalities as they themselves benefit. There are no (2003) warns against public-private common standards and no requirement of social partnerships after significant public sector benefit on corporations. Oil companies in fiscal losses and mismanagement of public Nigeria were particularly pressured in the 1980’s infrastructure by private business. and 1990’s to which they responded somewhat • Jurdana and Susilovic (2006) and Ewoh positively at first, however, violence and (2007) argue for public-private partnerships. suppression became a means by which the people, government and corporation began to act • Eweje (2006) looks at the benefits of to protect their interests. Baring extreme cases multinational corporations in community like this, multinational corporations tend to listen development in developing countries. to their stakeholders. It can be effective for the community to have a large stake in the company. Planning Jurdana and Susilovic (2006) advocate public- Planning is a large part of raising revenue for private partnerships as an absolute must in local government. While this is not immediate, developing tourism within urban city centers. the effects are beneficial over the long term. Cities can compete with beach resorts as destinations for travel given there is a dynamic Floodplain management can directly impact the tourism industry. Infrastructure for the tourism revenue of the local government (Deyle and sector has a direct impact on the industry in Falconer, 2003). One way to promote cost- terms of growth and sustainability. Bahiigwa et savings over the long term is to ensure proper al. (2004) argue that private business is more floodplain management. efficient than local governments in developing When the cost of real estate jumps, the revenue nations, and as such private tenders for public base for the local government should as well, services can be significantly. given the government is able to raise property Public-Private Partnerships, as explained by taxes according to personal wealth. Economic Ewoh (2007), do have benefits in particular benefits from tourism are often hidden from the service areas. Benefits include: the ability to public (Jurdana and Susilovic, 2006), yet tourism leverage assets, reduce capital investments, can have an important impact on urban economic reduce costs or decrease outlays to achieve development. Facilities for tourists can be used infrastructure, intellectual property, or financial by local residents as well, making this industry goals; an increase in the value of property and of benefit for the town in several ways. Tourism other assets; and the creation of new capacities development requires a plan and cooperative or assets. There is flexibility in the system that relationships between local government, non- benefits local government as well. These have governmental organizations, tourism agencies had the effect of stopping the raising of taxes in and social organizations. Cities must maintain an jurisdictions in America in the past, as attractive appearance for visitors, be accessible referenced by Ewoh about Massachusetts and and have a unique urban character and New Mexico. Ewoh notes that the Hoosier Dome infrastructure to attract tourists. Foldvary and in Indianapolis was built in a public private Santa (2001) note that higher costs can be partnership and is a revenue generating facility incurred by urban sprawl, so planning for dense for the local government since the 1980s. urbanization rather than subdivisions can be an Projects that are implemented while tax effective cost-saving measure. increment revenues are being generated are usually finance by a developer who is later

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 14 Literature Reviews

Tax Collection They may be harder to apply in smaller urban centres like Orange Walk. The Australian Local Government Association (2007) reports that Australian municipal councils There are several sources for local government have the authority to take property and sell it to revenue, but it will take time to change recover lost revenue if property taxes are unpaid legislation affecting the authority of local for three years. Because of this measure, tax government in Belize. This may limit any large- evasion is not a significant problem in Australia. scale or short-term changes to the system. Local At the same time, many state governments are government needs are urgent. given the power to decide the value for rating For specific infrastructure projects, there are unimproved valuations of unused land, which options available, though normally funding for local councils cannot influence. However, local these projects come from “general revenue”. councils can determine the “capacity to pay” of Since general revenue is limited for some town people in their jurisdictions, thereby influencing councils at this time, these options need to be set the collection of the value rating for unused land. aside for long-term planning and opportunity. Every two years councils in Australia have a While many of these projects would require statutory requirement to conduct a review of subsidization, there are ideas about gaining property values based on market movements and access to project funding through government recent sales trends. There is a physical inspection and non-governmental organizations. of sample properties. The council uses the total In the end, proving local government fiscal value of the municipality as the base against instability may be difficult if not impossible, as which a council strikes its rate in the dollar. The suggested by several authors including Slack rate due on each property is calculated by the (2006) and Carvalho et al. (2006). Therefore, multiplying the rate in the dollar by the total policy analyses should focus on alternatives and market value of the land plus the improved value options available to town councils, rather than on of the property, or the unimproved market value analyzing the local governments fiscal stability. of the land, or the annual rental value of the property minus the landlords costs (insurance, References land tax, maintenance costs), or 5% of the total market value of the land plus improvements for Adams, Carolyn. Urban Governance and the farm properties. Control of Infrastructure. Public Works Management & Policy, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 164- Bahiigwa et al. (2004) note that local 176, January 2007. government taxation in Uganda was seriously http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph flawed, having significant tax evasion with no p?sessid=8b9498191adeb93b564d37c736da4b65 legal authority of government to ensure &server=www- collection or go after evaders. Flat rate taxation ca1.csa.com&check=92c57c31b2abf3c2febd4a0 is unfair to low-income earners, but the ability of 3f9e858de&db=sagepol-set- local government to assess each property value is c&an=10.1177%2F1087724X06297318&mode= limited by administrative constraints, making flat pdf&f1=1087- tax the only option. 724X%2C11%2C3%2C164%2C2007 Conclusions Allan, Ian J. Evaluating Alternative Revenue Sources. The Government Finance Officers There has been a movement in 1990s toward Association Research Bulletin, Research & local government autonomy and revenue raising Analysis on Current Issues. January 1992. capacity. How much this movement will affect www.gfoa.org/services/dfl/bulletin/BUDGET- Belize is unknown. However, there are Unreserved-Fund-Balance.pdf indications that Belize is moving toward some decentralization, or at least there is a movement Andelson, Robert V. Land-Value Taxation of local governments toward this end. around the World. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 59, No. 5, There are many suggestions for improving Supplement. (2000), pp. i-xlii+1-490. municipal finances. The problem is that many of http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2801/cgi- these options discussed have been implemented bin/jstor/printpage/00029246/ap060241/06a0002 in large urban centers or developed nations. 0/0.pdf?backcontext=results&dowhat=Acrobat&

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 15 Literature Reviews

[email protected]/01cce4 www.idasa.org.za/gbOutputFiles.asp?WriteCont 4060f114113fde132b9&0.pdf ent=Y&RID=474 Australian Local Government Association. Deyle, Robert and Falconer, Mary Kay. Revenue Official web-site. (last updated17 June 2007), Options for a Risk-Based Assessment of Accessed 2, July 2007. Developed Property in Hurricane Hazard Zones. http://www.alga.asn.au/policy/finance/austax/8. Journal of Land Use, Vol. 18:2. Spring 2003. who.php http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/landuse/vol18_ 2/deylefal.pdf Bahiigwa, Godfrey; Ellis, Frank; Iversen, Vegard. Rural Taxation in Uganda: Implications Eikenberry, Angela M. Giving Circles: Growing for Growth, Income Distribution, Local Grassroots Philanthropy. Nonprofit And Government Revenue and Poverty Reduction. Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Vol. 35, no. 3, pp Research Series No. 35. January 2004. 517-532, September 2006. www.cmi.no/publications/publication/?1735=rur http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph al-taxation-in-uganda-implications-for-growth - p?sessid=8b9498191adeb93b564d37c736da4b65 11k - &server=www- ca1.csa.com&check=41cdcccdbd67e900c3f2229 Becker-Olsen, Karen L.; Hill, Ronald Paul. The 0dd715df8&db=sageman-set- Impact of Sponsor Fit on Brand Equity: The c&an=10.1177%2F0899764006287482&mode= Case of Nonprofit Service Providers. Journal Of pdf&f1=0899- Service Research, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 73-83, 7640%2C35%2C3%2C517%2C2006 August 2006. http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph Eweje, Gabriel. The Role of MNEs in p?sessid=8b9498191adeb93b564d37c736da4b65 Community Development Initiatives in &server=www- Developing Countries: Corporate Social ca1.csa.com&check=7eb1ea042945ef6587934c4 Responsibility at Work in Nigeria and South 923385de5&db=sageman-set- Africa. Business & Society, Vol. 45, no.2, pp. c&an=10.1177%2F1094670506289532&mode= 93-129. June 2006. pdf&f1=1094- http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph p?sessid=523d7a4f82363beaedb4e55cbec69d36 Brannan, Tessa; John, Peter; Stoker, Gerry. &server=www- Active Citizenship and Effective Public Services md3.csa.com&check=7b71064f335712084c683e and Programmes: How Can We Know What a5614d6a5f&db=sageman-set- Really Works? Urban Studies, Vol. 43, Nos 5/6 c&an=10.1177%2F0007650305285394&mode= pp. 993-1008. May 2006. pdf&f1=0007- http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2785/ehost/pdf?vid=13 6503%2C45%2C2%2C93%2C2006 &hid=3&sid=8a028d7b-6827-4d01-af31- 030febe3a0c9%40SRCSM1 Ewoh, Andrew I.e. Public—Private Partnerships in a Texas Municipality: The Case of the City of Canadian Union of Public Employees. (2007) Houston Tax Increment Reinvestment Zones. Facts & Implications. Accessed from the official Public Works Management & Policy, vol. 12, Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE) no. 1, pp. 359-369, July 2007. website: http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph http://cupe.ca/updir/New_Revenue_Sources__Fa p?sessid=8edbf1a0d84c83ccaf52b834de3e06b8 cts_%26_Implications.pdf &server=www- Carvalho, Joao; Jorge, Susana; and Fernandes, md3.csa.com&check=42afb8df5b1205e61d7cbb M. Jose. New Local Government Accounting in 763d857908&db=sagepol-set- Portugal. Public Money & Management. c&an=10.1177%2F1087724X07302584&mode= September 2006. pdf&f1=1087- 724X%2C12%2C1%2C359%2C2007 Commonwealth Local Government Forum website. Good Practice Scheme: Ghana. No Fauvelle-Aymar, Christine; The Political and publishing date available. Accessed July 18. Tax Capacity of Government in Developing 2007 from: http://gps.clgf.org.uk/ghana.html Countries. Kyklos. Vol.. 52, iss. 3, pp. 391-413 1999. Coopoo, S. Women and Local Government http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2785/ehost/detail?vid= Revenue. Siyanda. Community Agency for Social Enquiry (CASE) and Idasa. June 2000.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 16 Literature Reviews

9&hid=22&sid=3ebc10e8-9ee2-43ba-ac26- 3352(199305%2F06)53%3A3%3C220%3AMR 15fdfa5fccf7%40sessionmgr3 CAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 Federation of Canadian Municipalities, Big City Jung, Changhoon. (2001) Does The Local- Mayor’s Caucus. Sharing the Wealth for a Option Sales Tax Provide Tax Relief? The Strong and Prosperous Canada: A Proposal to Georgia Case. Public Budgeting & Finance. the Government of Canada for Sharing Revenues Accessed July 27, 2007 from: with Canada’s Big Cities. May 3, 2007. http://www.blackwell- www.halifax.ca/council/mayor/documents/FCM synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0275- OneCentNow.pdf 1100.00037?journalCode=pbaf Foldvary, Fred. E.and Santa, Clara U. The Jurdana, Dora Smolcic; and Susilovic, Zrinka. Completely Decentralized City: The case for Planning City Tourism Development: Principles benefits based public finance. American Journal and Issues. Tourism and Hospitality of Economics and Sociology. vol. 60, iss 1, pp. Management. Vol. 12 issue. pp. 135-44. 403-18. January 2001. December 2006. http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2785/ehost/pdf?vid=13 Kitchen, H.M., Slack, E. (2003). Special Study: &hid=13&sid=2fe4e764-002b-49b4-a4f7- New Finance Options for Municipal 6d332dd0af8f%40sessionmgr2 Governments. Canadian Tax Journal, 51(6), Golgowski, Gregory and Dowling Aaron. East 2216-2238. Central Florida Regional Planning Council http://www.ctf.ca/pdf/03ctjpdf/2003ctj6- Review of Approaches and Techniques Used to kitchen.pdf Assist in Financing the Retrofitting of Existing Leroux, Kelly; Carr, Jered B. Explaining Local Urban Storm Drain Systems. No publishing date Government Cooperation on Public Works: available. (Accessed July 10, 2007) from: Evidence From Michigan. Public Works http://stormwaterfinance.urbancenter.iupui.edu/P Management & Policy, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 344- DFs/Golgowski.pdf 358, July 2007. Graddy, Elizabeth A.; Morgan, Donald L. http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph Community Foundations, Organizational p?sessid=8edbf1a0d84c83ccaf52b834de3e06b8 Strategy, and Public Policy. Nonprofit And &server=www- Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. md3.csa.com&check=3a412a59101c8cb14c803d 605-630, December 2006. fa9cc6ceca&db=sagepol-set- http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph c&an=10.1177%2F1087724X07302586&mode= p?sessid=8edbf1a0d84c83ccaf52b834de3e06b8 pdf&f1=1087- &server=www- 724X%2C12%2C1%2C344%2C2007 md3.csa.com&check=9c15e51bccf7447f241a9cb Lobo, Jose and Rantisi, Norma M. Investment in 6f9469bcc&db=sageman-set- Infrastructure as Determinant of Metropolitan c&an=10.1177%2F0899764006289769&mode= Productivity. Growth and Change. Vol 30. pp. pdf&f1=0899- 106-127. Winter 1999. 7640%2C35%2C4%2C605%2C2006 http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2785/ehost/pdf?vid=3 Hillenbrand, Bernard F. Counties: The Emerging &hid=22&sid=fa88c9d8-5bdb-49a7-b9d0- Force: in Federal-Local Relations. Annals of the c7fd2b7df84c%40sessionmgr8 American Academy of Political and Social Local Government System in Ghana. May 31, Science, Vol. 416, Intergovernmental Relations 2006. Accessed July 15, 2007 at: in America Today. pp. 91-98. November 1974. http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:hXwkLB http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002- FnkfcJ:www.kunnat.net/attachment.asp%3Fpath 7162%28197411%29416%3C91%3ACTEF%3E %3D1%3B161%3B279%3B280%3B60954%3B 2.0.CO%3B2-4 60957%3B61655%3B105795%3B112089%3B1 Hy, Ronald John; Boland, Cindy; Hopper, 12090+Ghana+local+government+revenue&hl= Richard; Sims, Richard. Measuring Revenue en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=bz Capacity and Effort of County Governments: A Manvel, D. Allen. The Fiscal Impact of Revenue Case Study of Arkansas. Public Administration Sharing. Annals of the American Academy of Review, Vol. 53, No. 3. pp. 220-227. May-Jun Political and Social Science, Vol. 419, General 1993. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0033- Revenue Sharing and Federalism. pp. 36-49.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 17 Literature Reviews

May 1975. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002- %20fisal%20imbalance%20paper%20Jun%2006 7162%28197505%29419%3C36%3ATFIORS% .pdf 3E2.0.CO%3B2-P Slack, E. (2006) Large Cities Under Stress: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Challenges and Opportunities. Retrieved July 15, Development (2002). OECD Territorial review 2007, from the University of Toronto Institute on of Canada. Paris: OECD. Municipal Finance and Government Web site: http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2002doc.nsf/43bb6 http://www.utoronto.ca/mcis/imfg/pdf/Big%20ci 130e5e86e5fc12569fa005d004c/42158ef983225 ties%20report%20- 772c1256bc100560c01/$FILE/JT00126526.PDF %20March%203%202006.pdf Pietilä, Pekka. Role of Municipalities in Water Sorensen, Paul A.; Taylor, Brian D. Innovations Services in Namibia and Lithuania. in Road Finance: Examining the Growth in Public Works Management & Policy, vol. 10, no. Electronic Tolling. Public Works Management & 1, pp. 53-68, July 2005. Policy, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 110-125, October http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2658/ids70/resolver.ph 2006. p?sessid=8b9498191adeb93b564d37c736da4b65 http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2796/ids70/linking.php &server=www- ?linktype=FulltextPDF&record=ids%3Asage- ca1.csa.com&check=b0a925ca973916362a33f87 set- c30eb66a4&db=sagepol-set- c%2FPWM_2006_11_2repl1_cln3.wais+86012+ c&an=10.1177%2F1087724X05280756&mode= sageman-set- pdf&f1=1087- c&SID=523d7a4f82363beaedb4e55cbec69d36 724X%2C10%2C1%2C53%2C2005 SWAIN, JOHN A. (Reviewer); Review of: Runde, Al. Local Government Revenue Options. Property-Tax Exemption For Charities: Mapping Local Government Revenue. Distributed by the the Battlefield. Journal of Economic Literature, Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau. January December 2003, v. 41, iss. 4, pp. 1311-12 Brody, 2007. Evelyn, ed. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute http://www.legis.state.wi.us/lfb/informationalpap Press. 2002. ers/15.pdf http://ezproxy.mala.bc.ca:2785/ehost/detail?vid= 1&hid=4&sid=4d9cfd43-1ef5-45fd-98b6- Selsky, John W.; Parker, Barbara. Cross-Sector 852dd2ddf990%40sessionmgr8 Partnerships to Address Social Issues: Challenges to Theory and Practice. Journal Of Watson, Cam. Calculating Development Management, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 849-873, Charges, Plan Canada, pp. 28-9. January 1996. December 2005. www.impactfee.org/2004_program.pdf http://nvs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/33/3/458

Skidmore, Mark; and Peddle Michael. Do Development Impact Fees Reduce the Rate of Residential Development? Growth and Change. Vol. 29. pp. 383-400. Fall 1998. http://www.blackwell- synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468- 2257.1998.tb00026.x Slack, E. (2004) Revenue Sharing Options for Canada’s Hub Cities. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from the University of Toronto Institute on Municipal Finance Government Website: http://www.utoronto.ca/mcis/imfg/pdf/revenuesh aringoptions.pdf Slack, E. (2006) Fiscal Imbalance: The Case for Cities. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from the University of Toronto Institute on Municipal Finance and Government Web site: http://www.utoronto.ca/mcis/imfg/pdf/municipal

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 18 Literature Reviews

Social Capital, Community Development, and Crime by Jade Depue Jade Depue is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Criminology. She intends to pursue a career within the field as a possible parole/probation officer or maybe a correctional officer for youth. She comes from Victoria, British Columbia and currently lives in Nanaimo, British Columbia.

Social capital is the capacity of a community to fallen through the cracks. Building on the pre- work together for common benefit of the existing organizations would be somewhat cost community without personal gain. High social effective because they already exist and for the capital means that a community has strong most part have volunteers that are willing to volunteerism, effective non-government work. This option is plausible for a developing organizations, and generous donations to worthy country because it would be a low cost expense. causes. Issue Helping Populations at Risk of Social Exclusion Social capital is evident in Orange Walk through fund drives for health care for individuals, Throughout this policy research initiative on existing non-government organizations, and “social capital as a public policy tool” Frank et volunteers working on beautification projects al. (2005) and in conjunction with the and public events. On the other hand, many non- government of Canada looked at how a social government and volunteer organizations are not capital perspective will be for the most part functioning and community activities and successful in areas of policy. One of the first projects are less than effective. The degree of angles is helping populations at risk of social social capital is not as well developed as it exclusion; since Belize could possibly suffer should be; if the community works together from this, these solutions might be useful. social capital will be stronger. Another angle is promoting community development efforts. Within the community Most communities could improve their social programs such as the neighbourhood crime capital and skills in community development. prevention could be a public policy objective that Limited skills result from struggles between would benefit from an explicit consideration of political parties, lack of community involvement, people’s social networks. Investing time in lack of skills sets, and division of communities learning about peoples social networks will help into different cliques. unify the community. Crime prevention is limited in many According to Frank et al. communities because of scarce resources. In order for crime prevention to flourish, residents a focus on social capital allows for a closer examination of the capacity of individuals and of communities need to work together and create groups to forge linkages among themselves and a plan that works within their allowed budget. with organizations at the local level. It allows for This literature review was compiled to give a an understanding of how links between various broader sense of the topic. members in the community can lead to a more coordinated approach to action and involvement, better access to untapped resources, and the Effects of Social Capital creation of new community resources. Putnam (1992) states that good social capital There are a few key messages when it comes to improves community life and promotes unity. social capital research. For one, the unit of study When the community is working together for is not an individual, group or community. Rather one common goal, it encourages people to keep it is the social relations between these entities. moving forward and building on their good Empirical investigation should focus on network fortune. Putnam states that in Eurasia structure (the presence of social capital) and on communities are struggling with deficiencies in network dynamics (how social capital operates). social capital and the possible solution would be In order to advance research on individual and to “patiently reconstruct” organizations that have collective social capital, new innovative research

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 19 Literature Reviews

instruments can be combined with more existing set of resources within the community traditional research methods. Using a country on which intervention may be based, a ‘public such as Belize would benefit them and help other good’ goal in its own right, and also a resource countries dealing with the same problems. By that can contribute towards sustained opening up the country for research, Belize could autonomous development after the intervention prosper and this would provide researchers with is deemed complete”. information needed to write their reports. This would be a low cost effective way for Belize to Networking get more information on how to advance their social capital and community development. Nan Lin (2000) wrote inequality in social capital. Lin argues that there are two principles: Growth of Social Capital through Inequality of social capital occurs when a Participation certain group clusters at relatively disadvantaged socioeconomic positions, and Lévesque et al. (2005) wrote “the social capital the general tendency is for individuals to held by individuals, and can develop further associate with those of similar group or through participation in the labour market”. By socioeconomic characteristics delving into the labour market individuals can (homophily)… The second principle suggests a general tendency in networking: help create a social capital and “one could say the tendency for individuals to interact and that it forms a resource that facilitates the share sentiment with others with similar actualization of cultural capital by fostering characteristics. Thus members of a social labour market integration, thereby increasing the group tend to form networks involving other value of financial capital”. By increasing the members from the same group. financial capital of a community or town will By branching out and networking with people help in the community development aspect of outside of the comfort zone, the socioeconomic things. When a town has more funds then it can class, individuals might be able to create a more expand and continue to grow. According to advantageous social network, in turn creating a Lévesque (2005) “since social capital derives better social capital. This process does not cost from social relations, it is important to take into money, individuals just have to get out into the account the conditions that promote or impede community and talk to people who are higher up the establishment of relations and the and make connections. According to Lin, “cross- mobilization of resources. Building ties and group ties facilitate access to better resources and circulating resources are impossible in the better outcomes for members of the disadvan- absence of trust and shared norms and values”. taged group. Nevertheless, such ties are the By communicating within the community, there exception rather than the rule; homophily and are shared norms and values that help with structural constraints reduce the likelihood of building on social capital because everyone is on establishing such ties for most of the the same page. disadvantaged members”. Since moving up the ladder is harder individuals with authority and Social Capital and the Role of power should help the disadvantaged individuals Community Development and get their ball rolling. Helping less According to McClenaghan (in Kilpatrick et al, advantaged people would help the community as 2003), “community development education is a whole because then there could possibly expected to foster the building of social capital”. contribute within society. Kilpatrick et al. (2003) critique McClenaghan’s work and present their own “theoretically Safety in Cities informed account of social capital as a means of Wekerle (1996) wrote, “planning for safety in understanding the role of community cities” which looks at “understanding why development, the challenges that it can face and people respond to crime with fear, especially in the role of adult education for community urban spaces” within Canadian cities. Since development”. Orange Walk Town is an urban area, urban In their research Kilpatrick et al. found that “the safety is a key solution to crime prevention and value of social capital for community knowledge. According to Wekerle, development is threefold: it represents both an

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 20 Literature Reviews

…managers of such urban spaces as parks by involving the community in both the and transit systems have noted over the definition and solution of potential and real years that urban residents respond to signs problems, Safe City initiatives have been of incivility with fear and avoidance. Yet responsive to local conditions and have these signs of incivility – graffiti, garbage, taken positive steps to address the poor maintenance, boarded buildings, bad widespread fear of crime in urban areas. lighting and limited sightlines – are visual social cues that the environment is not well If the community residents are involved in the tended. Ill-considered urban design, which prevention/reduction of crime then they will be creates blank walls, isolated public spaces aware of what to look for and inevitably be less and limited outdoor seating, is also a signal fearful within their own homes or out in the that nobody cares. community. On a whole, this will create better Creating a community awareness of graffiti, social capital because citizens will be working garbage, poor maintenance, etc, will help the together and making sure everyone is safe overall outlook on the town. If the community around them like with a block-watch type residents are aware that these particular problems system. affect the general appeal of their town, maybe individuals will step up and start to do something Controlling Urban Crime about it. Creating a better environment may Wekerle et al. (1996) elaborates on the solutions enable promotion of tourism, if the town looks to crime control and prevention within cities. appealing for visitors passing through then they According to Wekerle et al. “the solutions are will possibly want to stop and see what else a viewed as training and education, job creation, community has to offer. A town can solve the economic development and job creation in issue of blank walls by introducing community poorer communities”. In this article, the Safe art, which would brighten up the area and again Cities approach “is a response to urban crime promote tourism. If there is something more the that encourages partnerships between national town can offer to travelers the more they are government, cities, neighbourhoods and going to want to stay for a visit. citizens”. This article states that even the Wekerle talks about the important and powerful people in government have to lend a helping hand in order to safe cities initiatives which are rooted in the implement Safe Cities initiatives. Since the Safe experience and priorities of each locality, and typically include multiple stakeholders: Cities initiative could possibly increase funds community residents, politicians, municipal within the community, the government would staff, the police and the business most likely prosper by lending a helping hand. community. By keeping the community safe, the government will become a trustworthy ally for the The safe cities initiatives are adapted to each city community, which could possibly increase specifically, which means everything is productivity and social capital. According to personalized and usually has a better success Wekerle et al., there are approaches to rate. According to Wekerle, controlling urban crime: A safe city program aims to make urban 1. Law and Order: safety the concern of all citizens. Safe city Focuses on: initiatives harness the resources and • More police legitimacy of city government and combine them with the experience of residents • Tougher laws committed to improving urban safety. By • Stiffer sentencing becoming involved in defining their own • Urban boot camps needs and local solutions, ordinary citizens ASSUMES: crime and fear of crime take ownership of the urban safety problems results from too many criminals and lax that exist in their parks, neighbourhoods and justice system workplaces. LEADS TO: police state, fortress Citizen involvement keeps costs low enough to mentality, private security solutions, withdrawal from city, and cocooning allow this option to take place, and it will also involve the community with promoting social 2. Root Causes: capital. If residents are working together then it Focus on: is possible for growth and community • Training and education development. According to Wekerle,

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 21 Literature Reviews

• Job creation there are no visible signs of criminal activity, • Economic development there is a less significant chance that criminal • Youth socialization activity will occur. According to Wekerle et al., ASSUMES: crime results from poverty, CEPTED is one approach to the design and marginality, or social breakdown management of urban space to reduce the LEADS TO: youth outreach work, focus incidence and fear of crime. It involves on schools, long-range community detailed situational crime analysis to identify development work localized patterns and the micro- environmental conditions that might be 3. Safe Cities: creating opportunities for crime to occur”. Focus on: • Partnership between government and In essence, CEPTED looks at different situations citizens, especially marginalized and environments to assess what would be the groups best adjustment for the space in question. See • Prevention of criminal behaviour also Birtwistle in this volume. through environmental design, community development, education Conclusion • Combine social prevention and physical changes Orange Walk Town as a whole has many • Urban safety as a catalyst for change strengths but also a few weaknesses. Overall, the ASSUMES: fear of crime is as important residents are extremely friendly and hospitable, as crime itself; citizens are experts on but they noted that they could be working more urban violence closely together to accomplish their goals. Many LEADS TO: local-level immediate organizations are working together within solutions to improve safety in housing themselves to prosper but in order to increase estates, transportation systems, city social capital the entire town needs to work centers, and parks. Long-term solutions together. In any community, when residents relating to youth crime, education, avoid seeing situations as competition against community development and prevention of violence against women each other and begin working towards common goals, it will begin to see positive outcomes. In this article, the Safe City approach seems as These may include better social capital, tourism though it would be the most effective within a growth, crime reduction, and community growth. small community. This approach emphasizes the If the town becomes more inviting for outsiders partnership between government and and tourists alike then individuals might consider community; Belizean communities should visiting or even moving to the community. Low consider this approach. The government needs to cost options exist, and these could have very realize that it is not all about them but that it is positive effects on the life of a community. about the residents within the community at hand. References Frank, Jeff., Demers, Catherine., and Judge, Crime Prevention Through Robert. (2005). Social Capital as a Public Policy Environmental Design (CEPTED) Tool. Policy Research Initiative. Another city initiative according to Wekerle et Kilpatrick, Sue., Field, John., Falk, Ian., and al. is crime prevention through environmental McClenaghan, Pauline. (2003). Social Capital: design (CEPTED) which “recognizes that our An Analytical Tool for Exploring Lifelong buildings, streets, open spaces and parks are not Learning and Community Development. British merely the settings in which crime occurs, but Educational Research Journal, Vol. 29(3), pp. that the fabric and design of public places can 417-33. deter criminal activity and enhance urban Lévesque, Maurice., et al. (2005). Social Capital safety”. By creating a better environmental in Action: Thematic Policy Studies. Policy design such as proper lighting, security measures Research Initiative. on homes and businesses, friendlier spaces, less graffiti and more art, clean parks, proper foliage Lin, Nan. (2000). Inequality in Social Capital. in order to prevent hiding places, the community Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 29(6), pp. 785- as a whole should see a decrease in crime. If 795.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 22 Literature Reviews

Putnam, Robert. D. (1994). Social Capital and Public Affairs. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 47(8), pp. 5- 19. Wekerle, Gerda.R, and Whitzman, Carolyn. (1996). Controlling Urban Crime: what can cities do? Safe Cities: Guidelines for Planning, Design, and Management. York University. Wekerle, Gerda. R. (1996). Planning for safer cities. Safe Cities: Guidelines for Planning, Design, and Management. York University.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 23 Literature Reviews

Solid Waste Management by Eli Pilyk

Eli Pilyk is a fourth year student at Malaspina University-College. She is majoring in Geography - Natural Resource Management and minoring in Global Studies. She has worked with Nanaimo and Area Land Trust (NALT) and sits on the board of TD Canada Trust bank's Friends of the Environment Foundation. She plans to start environmentally sustainable businesses with her partner in Turkey in the near future. Eli resides on Vancouver Island, BC where she was born and raised.

Municipalities have used landfills to dispose of facility (Henry et al, 2006). Landfills produce solid wastes for many years because this method leachate with heavy metals, ammonia, is a cheap, easy, and familiar way to deal with pathogens, and toxic organic compounds, so waste. They site landfills often based on treatment facilities can double as hazardous convenience rather than environmental waste disposal sites (Gray, 1997) for wastes that suitability (Gray, 1997). Distance and travel should not go to landfills. Vents to release time to and from a potential sites influence methane gas created by anaerobic microbes in location choices. Often, municipalities in both the decomposing material reduce the chances of developed and developing nations use old gravel spontaneous combustion occurring in the waste pits, mines, or quarries as dumpsites (Gray, piles. Operators can capture methane and use it 1997). In developing countries, illegal in various other industries to generate electricity dumpsites such as roadsides are very common or produce hydrogen. too. Old gravel pits in the United Kingdom have Waste is a resource, and needs to be treated as polluted surface and ground water resources due such. Recycling reduces our need for raw to the permeability of underlying rock and soil natural resources (Gray, 1997; Gordon, 1986). types (Gray, 1997). Operators can easily keep metals, plastics, glass, Often, governments in developing nations do not paper, and organics out of landfills with manage or monitor the majority of dumpsites to recycling strategies, facilities, and markets maintain sanitary environmental conditions and (Henry et al, 2006; McDougall &Hruska, 2000). prevent toxic chemicals entering them. This In Jordan, researchers found that solid waste threatens ecological integrity and human health. contained up to 62% organic material, 16% “The current legal challenge is to eliminate [our] paper, and 13% plastic. Especially in such dependence on land disposal…” (Gordon, 1986) countries with warm climates, organics and employ new techniques to manage municipal decompose quickly due to high temperatures, solid waste. thus creating perfect conditions for microbial pathogens to flourish (Mrayyan & Hamdi, 2006). Goals for Twenty-First Century Composting is a solution to maintain nutrients Municipal Solid Waste for return to farmland, and a way of reducing – in Jordan’s case – approximately half of solid Management waste being sent to landfills. Municipalities Municipalities should only use landfills for waste need to gather solid waste composition statistics that cannot be reused, recycled, or disposed of in to determine the best management methods and any other way (Gray, 1997). In the past, wastes equipment suited to their communities. An were disposed of in garbage dumps, which where integrated solid waste management plan and wastes were just dumped and left to rot or were policy should be innovative so as not to require burned. To maintain environmental sanitary additional funding (McDougall & Hruska, 2000). conditions in a landfill, on the other hand, City planners of Curitiba, Brazil, have involved operators must put soil cover over the waste all sectors of the community and found daily. In addition, they must line the landfill numerous solutions for most components of with an impermeable surface to prevent leachate garbage (Rabinovitch, 1992). percolation into ground water. This water can be either recycled through the waste heap, or piped away and treated at a liquid waste treatment

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 24 Literature Reviews

Underlying Factors Influencing ground water resources will affect future Waste Generation and Disposal generations who will have no recourse on the culprits (Gordon, 1986). Industries in Population growth increases waste generation, developing nations are not penalized either, due but lack of public environmental awareness is a to the lack of monitoring and enforcement. major factor (Mrayyan & Hamdi, 2006 & Developed nations have laws to govern industrial Rabinovitch, 1992). Environmental education in waste production and management such as schools and daycares teaches children to be Environmental Quality Acts. They also regulate aware of their actions and their affect on the hazardous materials, medical waste, imports and environment; the children take action by exports of chemicals (Mrayyan and Hamdi, diffusing this information to their parents, 2006). alleviating some of the demand to provide public information. The cycle pays for itself as Financial mismanagement and lack of equipment operators sell recyclable materials and put the also causes poor road conditions in developing revenues back into such social programmes nations. Collection vehicles suffer breakdowns (Rabinovitch, 1992). such as punctured tires and general mechanical damage from the rough roads. Road condition Lack of funds is the second most common issue may also affect the accessibility of dumpsites, in developing nations’ solid waste management. making landfills inaccessible in many tropical Revenue collection from a poor majority is often countries during their rainy season (Henry et al., futile, and monies that are collected are 2006). This encourages dumping in illegal areas mismanaged “which results in a persistent lack and numerous dumpsites. Frequent use by of funds to expand and improve municipal solid heavily loaded trucks causes damage to roads, waste handling” (Henry et al., 2006). Reducing exacerbating accessibility problems. Lack of and preventing the amount of waste produced by municipal funds hinders purchasing of repair both industries and consumers is the best use of parts or newer equipment to deal with collection solid waste management monies, as collection, and bulldozing of waste. disposal, and hazardous site clean-up costs will be avoided (Gordon, 1986). Strategies to Achieve Sustainable Political differences between local and national Solid Waste Management political parties also affect government support All sectors of society must participate to reduce and funding. For example, governments need to their generated amount of waste and reuse what support provision of public services, including they can rather than discarding so many solid waste collection (Henry et al., 2006). products; educating community members “Highly-centralized national governments which including businesses and industries about the deny city authorities the power, resources and ‘Three Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’ is an political structure to allow them to address their important step to achieve this (Henry et al., environmental responsibilities to their 2006). When companies minimize their demand inhabitants are obviously the least likely to act for new resources and employ the Three Rs, they on [environmental] problems” (Satterthwaite, may find it more profitable and energy efficient 1997). (Gordon, 1986). Entrepreneurial opportunities Developing nations often do not enforce laws exist for local residents when local governments governing toxic waste and illegal dumping due invite the private sector to help with municipal to inhibited ability of police force or municipal waste management. Innovation and new councils (Henry et al., 2006). Violations are methodologies are developed and promoted as common, yet seldom penalized (Gordon, 1986). ideologies change with environmental awareness Developed countries have strict laws and the (Gray, 1997). officials to enforce them, which prevent most Enlightening the public about environmental hazardous waste entering the landfills. They also health and amenity values is most important have hazardous waste treatment sites to dispose towards implementing change (Rabinovitch, of these materials safely (Mrayyan and Hamdi, 1992). Governments can educate citizens 2006). Both hazardous waste disposal sites and through a variety of methods: youth community sanitary landfills degrade over time, posing involvement, Earth Day event participation, environmental threats as breakage and leakages informative staff meetings, workplace policies, occur. Irreversible contamination of soil and Adopt-a-Street incentives, and newspaper

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 25 Literature Reviews

announcements. Governments can also decentralizing control through partnerships with encourage residents, business owners, and the private sector can help to alleviate such industrialists to participate in environmental problems (Henry et al., 2006). Small-enterprise quality preservation activities by empowering involvement can contribute funds to a sanitary them to develop monitoring programmes to landfill project, and collaboration with the address environmental problems in their municipality will positively affect overall solid communities. The government of Peru waste management. Pressuring industries to encouraged citizens of Ilo, a community of construct and utilize waste treatment facilities 44,000 people, to join the Multi-sectoral alleviates costs that governments for developing Technical Commission and local management hazardous waste treatment centres (Díaz et al., committees to recover their town by evaluating 1996). The creation of institutions and environmental impacts and contriving short-term empowerment of government to ensure waste and long-term goals for improvement. Along minimization occurs is also necessary, as they with government promotion, NGOs also can coordinate market exchanges between supported these committees (Díaz et al., 1996). producers and creators as well as provide waste- reduction information to businesses and Governments can only manage solid wastes consumers alike (Gordon, 1986). effectively when they penalize illegal dumping, and all areas receive adequate collection service. Policies that view waste as a resource will help Alternative Options to Handle to reduce the reliance and use of landfills. Municipal Solid Waste Assembly of an inventory of illegal dumpsites The major obstacle hindering developing and the preparation of a scheduled time-line of countries from effectively managing their solid events for clean-up will complement community waste is funding. environmental awareness campaigns. Penalizing illegal dumping will increase revenues for waste The remarkable innovations in addressing disposal because the collected fines will help to environmental problems in many Latin cover clean-up costs of those identified illegal American cities, especially those that most dumpsites (Mrayyan & Hamdi, 2006). Taxing affect low income groups, are often strongly linked to political changes which landfills may not be feasible in developing have made city authorities more countries as it may encourage increased illegal accountable and democratic and increased dumping; however, they may reallocate existing their revenue base (Satterthwaite, 1997). resources for improved waste management (Satterthwaite, 1997; McDougall & Hruska, Governments can make political decisions 2000). through community involvement. Concertación is a process that uses stakeholder participation to Operators need to compile data into an inventory develop and implement strategies towards report that shows all expenses and revenues of reaching the community’s future goals, which the current management system. They should can include improving living conditions, also prepare an Environmental Impact enhancing ecological amenities, and reducing Assessment (EIA), which are valuable pollution sources (Díaz et al., 1996). attachments to funding proposals (Mrayyan & Hamdi, 2006). University students are a good Reduction and reuse can be encouraged through resource for obtaining a ‘free’ EIA to avoid high-priority legislation that offers companies excess costs to constrained municipal budgets. incentives to use less packaging for their Analyzing the data using models to determine products and create more eco-friendly products. problems and desired outcomes will enable The shelf-price for products that produce decision-makers to draw informed conclusions hazardous waste during the manufacturing from an “…economic and environmental point process are artificially low, making them appear of view” (Ljunggren, 2000). affordable, but transferring their disposal costs to the consumers and ultimately their consumers’ Holding producers responsible for the packaging municipalities (Gordon, 1986). These kinds of of their products can be a different angle to legislation encourage ‘green’ production, thereby achieve success in the use of resources and persuading businesses to adopt eco-friendly ultimately reduce waste (Gray, 1997 & Gordon, production strategies. Raising general 1986). As local authorities lack the ability to environmental awareness of their impacts on the implement waste management legislation,

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 26 Literature Reviews

Earth can also encourage waste reduction (see those to dispose of old materials as new products Rabinovitch, 1992). are invented. For recycling to be successful, operators need to find markets for the collected material and must References sort the waste for easy pick up. For example, Díaz, Doris Balvín; Follegatti, José Luis López; cardboard and paper collected can be sold to a and Hordijk, Micky. “Innovative urban cardboard box manufacturing company that can environmental management in Ilo, Peru.” reuse the materials in their products (Mrayyan & Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 8, No. 1, Hamdi, 2006; Rabinovitch, 1992). New (April 1996): 21-34. industries can establish themselves when different resources – recycled materials – Garzón, Camilo et al. Solid Waste Management become available. Governments may give Project BL-0021. Belize Solid Waste concessions to industries involved in recycling Management Authority. (2002): 1-11. such as a land grant in order to establish their Gordon, Roberta G. “Legal Incentives for business (Henry et al., 2006). Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling: A New Approach to Hazardous Waste Management.” Composting poses a major advantage for solid The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 95, No. 4. (Mar., waste management everywhere, especially in 1986): 810-831. agricultural communities. ‘Recycling’ nutrients alleviates farmers’ need for fertilizers, while the Gray, J. Murray. “Environment, Policy and removal of organics from municipal waste Municipal Waste Management in the UK.” significantly reduces the amount headed to Transactions of the Institute of British landfills. Marketers who are unable to sell their Geographers, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 1. fruits and vegetables give their ‘waste’ produce (1997): 69-90. to the local composters rather than paying the Henry, Rotich K.; Yongsheng, Zhao; Jun, Dong. tipping fee at the municipal dumpsite. Operators “Municipal solid waste management challenges can sell the compost soil to farmers for revenues in developing countries – Kenyan case study.” that keep the composters in business. The Waste Management, Vol. 26, (2006): 92–100. International Composting Corporation in Kalogo, Youssouf; Habibi, Shiva; MacLean, Nanaimo, BC, Canada uses ‘front-end charges’ Heather; Joshi, Satish V. “Environmental where residents and businesses pay for the Implications of Municipal Solid Waste-Derived collection of their organic waste to cover the Ethanol.” Environmental Science & Technology, ICC’s operating costs. Operators could allocate Vol. 41, No. 1 (2007): 35-41. a portion of the garbage collection fees that residents and businesses pay for this purpose, but Ljunggren, Maria. “Modelling national solid low-income people will not be able to afford waste management.” Waste Management & many additional fees, so this needs to be taken Research, Vol. 18 (2000): 525-537. into account when planning in developing McDougall, Forbes R. and Hruska, Joseph P. countries. “Report: the use of Life Cycle Inventory tools to support an integrated approach to solid waste Conclusion management.” Waste Management & Research, Vol. 18, (2000): 590-594. “Dreams without actions are useless; actions without dreams make no sense. But when dream Miranda, Liliana and Hordijk, Michaela. “Let us and action unite a positive vision of the future is build cities for life: the national campaign of born” (Díaz et al., 1996). Governments can Local Agenda 21s in Peru.” Environment and achieve effective solid waste management and Urbanization, Vol. 10, No. 2, (Oct. 1998): 69- planning through “conscious technical, political, 102. economic decisions made in response to [the] Mrayyan, Bassam & Hamdi, Moshrik R. existing trends” in a particular community “Management approaches to integrated solid (Rabinovitch, 1992). Understanding the waste in industrialized zones in Jordan: A case of problems and finding no-cost or low-cost Zarqa City.” Waste Management, Vol. 26, solutions is doable as long as governments (2006): 195–205. consult with all legitimate stakeholders. Solid Rabinovitch, Jonas. “Curitiba: towards waste management is constantly changing to sustainable urban development.” Environment meet new markets: those for recyclables and

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 27 Literature Reviews

and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2, (Oct. 1992): 62-73. Satterthwaite, David. “Environmental Transformations in Cities as They Get Larger, Wealthier and Better Managed.” The Geographical Journal, Vol. 163, No. 2, (July 1997): 216-224.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 28 Literature Reviews

Liquid Waste Management by Myriam Raiche Myriam Raiche is completing her Bachelor of Arts in Geography – Natural Resource Management in 2007. She is interested in environmental planning, international development, and resource management - especially related to the protection of water resources. She currently works for a small private water/wastewater company and although future post-graduate educational programs are under consideration, her current employment is an excellent opportunity for work-place learning. Born in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Myriam moved often growing up and now lives in Comox, British Columbia.

Orange Walk Town is a growing urban centre in design a targeted liquid waste management plan Belize with dense residential areas served by suitable for the long-term. septic tanks and various types of pit latrines. Due to possible malfunctioning septic systems Public Health & Infrastructure operating in the area, septic effluent contaminants could pose threats to public and Malfunctioning or inappropriately designed environmental health. Limestone environments, liquid waste collection and treatment systems are which underlie most of Belize, can be especially an often-indiscernible source of pollution and susceptible to contamination and require special disease. Unfortunately, the ill effects can be long protection and monitoring programs. The lasting, especially if problems are not solved reviewed literature makes clear that mismanaged quickly. Fortunately, literature pertaining to and failing liquid waste treatment systems can public health and sanitation is profuse. damage the environment and through Specifically pertaining to the issues in hydrological processes, carry contaminants into developing countries, Mara (2001, 2003, 2005), ground and surface waters. This creates an Ludwig, Mohit, and Gunaratnam (2003), and undesirable situation with serious health risks to Moll, McElroy, Sabogal, Corrales, and Gelting local residents, visitors, wildlife, and (2007) inform us of the need for appropriate ecosystems. Research suggests that effective technology in order to achieve global sanitation liquid waste treatment systems, which conform and reduce occurrences of communicable to high environmental standards, will invariably diseases. protect public health. Ludwig et al. (2003, 152) summarizes a typical The opening topic summarizes how liquid waste pattern for development of liquid waste infrastructure can affect public health and some treatment systems in industrialized countries: of the issues prevalent in developing countries Their early stages often utilize individual with hot climates. The following section building disposal units (usually a septic discusses the potential for contamination of tank/leaching system), which are properly ground and surface water, especially in limestone designed, hence give adequate performance until environments. (Orange Walk Town’s source of build-up of the central areas becomes so dense drinking water is well water from underground that a significant portion of the individual units aquifers, making protection of water resources fail. imperative.) This paper subsequently explains Once that happens, a municipal sewer system is various methods and systems of liquid waste usually installed but conventional sewer systems, disposal along with other environmental used in industrialized countries, are expensive to considerations. The concluding topic shows how build, maintain and operate. This may not be different systems can work together or how to financially plausible in less developed countries. develop these systems in stages. The need of proper training for operation and Many alternative liquid waste treatment systems maintenance of a large centralized treatment do exist, some developing countries have put plant is another constraint. Less-expensive these systems to practical use. If system options need to be designed and considered as sustainability is considered in addition to capital well as alternative methods of funding so that a and operational costs, Orange Walk Town can viable liquid waste treatment system can become a priority for populations in all income and social levels.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 29 Literature Reviews

Bond (1999) writes a compelling paper for Since outside literature, specifically about infrastructure improvement in post-segregation Belize, is not overly forthcoming on sanitation South Africa. Belize may not have South policy and infrastructure, in-country case studies Africa’s racial issues but both have vast and assessments conducted by global differences between socio-economic classes. He organizations such as, the World Health appeals based on public health and Organization or USAID, can be valuable. The environmental degradation, saying that the Case Study of (2000) and the augmented cost of infrastructure and service Belize Water and Sanitation Sector Analysis development will be balanced by a lowered cost (1995) reports provide some information on to health care and environmental remediation in Belize’s sanitation methods, regulatory bodies, the future. “Environmental pollution results in design, and contamination issues. Granted, these actual costs to health, property, and quality of reports are a little outdated and improvements life. The environment is a public good and the have been made since their analysis, but some of public as a whole must take responsibility for it” the problems persist and the same types of liquid (p.52). Problems of poorly built or sited latrines waste disposal systems are still in use in and septic systems are delineated and may Belizean communities. coincide with some of the issues found in many areas of Belize: low-lying floodplain, saturated Groundwater Pollution in or non-absorbent soils, and high water tables, all Limestone Environments of which can cause septic overflow and lead to spreading of disease. Poor geologic conditions, Numerous published articles discuss construction, and management of water and groundwater pollution vulnerability, especially sanitation services are the main causes for this as pertains to limestone and karstic stance against septic or latrine use and his environments. Kacaroglu (1999) bases his advocacy of a more centralized sewage treatment findings from case studies in Turkey, Parise and centre. Pascali (2003) from investigations in Apulia, in southern Italy, and Bodhankar and Chatterjee Bond (1999, 49) summarizes that “on-site (1993) give evidence of groundwater sanitation systems do pose significant risks to the contamination in India. Limestone has limited spread of disease, if conditions are less than suitability for septic systems, due to evidence of ideal” due to biological and chemical groundwater contamination of karst aquifers, contaminants. Biological contaminants include which are not always well protected. To do this, bacteria and viruses; chemical contaminants characterization of “occurrence and circulation” include nitrates and phosphates. Mara (2003, patterns taking place in karst groundwater, 453) writes that “an absence of adequate water specifically aquifer recharge, storage, and flow and sanitation in urban areas leads to disease” are needed. The “type of recharge (from such as cholera and diarrhea. Especially concentrated to diffuse system), of the flow dangerous to children, diarrhea can cause death (from conduit to diffuse system) and the size of and “in infancy is associated with poor cognitive the storage system are the main factors affecting function in later childhood”. the distribution, behavior and the degree of the An important factor mentioned is the need for pollution” (Gunay et al., 1995, cited in education programs on hygiene practices and Kacaroglu, 1999, 347). sanitation maintenance that will help eliminate Kacaroglu (1999, 348) asserts that groundwater disease and environmental deterioration. Moll et quality monitoring is essential in preserving al. (2007) looked at eight Central American water resources and useful as a preventive communities that Hurricane Mitch affected 1998. measure of groundwater pollution. He also They statistically analyzed sanitation provides steps needed for a monitoring program. interventions by the American Red Cross for The first step involves data collection of their positive or negative impacts on selected geological, hydrological, and hydrogeological communities. Unfortunately, they only analyzed characteristics of the area as well as sites in Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and contamination sources and their properties. Guatemala with no mention of Belize. Most of Specifically: the communities were rural or periurban which does not give over to a good comparison with 1. sources of pollution… Orange Walk Town. 2. properties of the pollutants… 3. attenuation mechanisms of the pollutants

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 30 Literature Reviews

4. water sources and their locations… limestone); improper construction/installation 5. waste disposal sites and disposal methods… and maintenance; improper disposal of chemicals into the system; use of septic tank additives; 6. geology and karst geomorphology of the outgrown system capacity; lack of appropriate area distances from surface and/or groundwater 7. groundwater recharge areas and watershed sources; crowding of septic systems (MSUE, boundaries 1998c, 1). Signs of a failed septic system are 8. groundwater circulation in karst aquifer… unpleasant odours, system backflows, soggy soil, 9. rainfall, stream and spring discharges, and “increased weed or algae growth in nearby” their fluctuations water, and decline in water quality (USEPA, 1999, 3). 10. groundwater fluctuations levels 11. relations of surface waters and groundwater Recommended soil tests for septic system siting include (1) the percolation rate, which measures Quinlan and Ewers (1985) recommend dye- the rate at which water moves through the soil; tracing as a useful monitoring technique for (2) the long-term acceptance rate, which is more karstic areas in order to establish flow patterns comprehensive and looks at soil texture, from specific surface sites to their disposal site; structure, color, consistency of soil layers, and this will show which, if any, conduits exist topography to judge effluent filtration capacity between the input site and any known springs or for the long-term (USEPA, 1999, 3). streams (cited in Kacaroglu, 1999, 350). Due to the changeability that can occur in groundwater Ways to reduce the occurrence of septic system quality throughout the year, Kacaroglu urges that failure through “zoning, subdivision regulations, “groundwater quality monitoring in karst terrains special purpose ordinances, [and] educational when studying the existing pollution or the campaigns” listed in MSUE’s Fact Sheet 1 possibility of pollution in future, be carried out (1998c, 2): before, during, and after storm… events rather 1. Educate residents about the threat to drinking than with monthly, seasonal, semi-annual or water from failing septic systems annual samples” (1999, 350). 2. Establish and enforce safe setback (min 100 ft between septic and waterways) and isolation (min Not having found a soil or geologic survey of 50 ft between septic and drinking water wells) Orange Walk Town, it is uncertain what type of distances limestone properties and hydrologic processes 3. Require connections to main sewer systems when are found here, but these articles give evidence to available the susceptibility of groundwater contamination 4. Establish septic system management districts by carrying pollutants through cracks and (can be special assessment, special use or special fissures that can be found in calcareous rock. drainage districts) where residents adhere to septic tank pumpout and maintenance schedule Fact Sheet Information: On-Site 5. Amend the local building code to require the use and Community Systems of water conservation appliances, shower heads and toilets in new homes Information documents published by the United 6. Develop stringent regulations for siting and States Environmental Protection Agency (1999), construction of septic systems particularly where Michigan State University Extension (1998), and soil and environmental conditions are Texas Agricultural Extension Service (Lesikar, inappropriate n.d.) are useful for understanding septic design, 7. Cluster zoning using septic system density siting requirements, and maintenance needs. restrictions They discuss water table and bedrock depth 8. Work with officials to develop local sanitary considerations, soil saturation, set back codes distances, and septage characteristics in an easy 9. Institute large lot zoning to ensure enough land is to read writing style. They also explain septic available for the drainage/absorption field system failure detection and management options. Permits, site evaluations, and inspections are useful tools which can supplement community They list reasons for septic failures as: poor and institutional management options to ensure siting (i.e. system may be functioning but is regulations are followed. Renewable permits can located over an unprotected aquifer or fractured assure “quality of the effluent and/or quality of

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 31 Literature Reviews

the groundwater or surrounding surface water 3. Grinder Pump Systems – instead of a septic tank, sources must fall within the limits set by the each home has an electrical grinder pump which local sanitary codes for the permit to be renewed. grinds up the solids and pumps the sewage The cost of inspections and lab work can be through small diameter pipes to a central treatment center or a main sewer. Higher offset by charging fees for permit renewal” maintenance costs to keep pipes clear and pumps (MSUE, 1998b, 2). working because of higher turbidity but system Where conventional septic systems or can serve 50-100 homes per mile of sewer. Solids conventional sewer systems are not possible, can end up in the drainage field. alternative on-site and community disposal 4. Vacuum Sewers – sewage from each home systems may work. These systems can also have travels by vacuum through small diameter pipes their own siting requirements; therefore, proper to a central vacuum station. From there, it is pumped to a central treatment facility or a main assessment is still required before sewer. Requires more skilled maintenance than implementation of any liquid waste disposal other alternative systems but can serve 50-100 system. A household waste disposal system homes per mile of sewer. treats waste from one property or home while community systems provide waste treatment for 5. Cluster Systems – small diameter gravity pipe sewers collect wastewater and transport it a short several properties or homes. MSUE’s Fact Sheet distance to a neighborhood absorption field or 2 (1998, 1-2) provides some explanation: sand filter. Septic tanks must be pumped out Household system options: regularly, absorption field or sand filter must also be serviced regularly. Suitable for subdivisions of 1. Sand Filters – Effluent from the septic tank is a few dozen homes or small neighborhoods. filtered, then pumped using an electric pump over Currently used for lake front homes in certain a sand filter and finally discharged to a drainfield. areas of the US. Requires maintenance visits 2 to 3 times per year including occasional replacement of top sand 6. Recirculating Sand Filters – septic tank effluent layer. is cycled back through the sand filter several 2. Non-Sand Filters (Waterloo Biofilter) – uses a times prior to discharge either to the absorption sponge-like media (open cell urethane foam) for field or to a disinfection unit and surface treating filtered effluent from the septic tank. discharge. System requires a recirculation tank Adv: can be housed in an above ground structure where water that has been through the sand filter and the filter size is smaller than a conventional is mixed with septic effluent. A pump in the tank sand filter. Requires maintenance of biofilter and pumps the contents over the sand filter. The pipes pump (visits 2-3 times per year). and sand filter must be maintained regularly (2-3 visits per year). In a New York village, a 3. Aerobic Treatment Units – effluent from the recirculating stone filter treats up to 400,000 septic tank flows into the main treatment gallons per day serving over 1,300 households. (aeration) chamber where aerobic organisms decompose wastes. Sludge must be pumped out of the septic tank every 2-3 years and out of the Of these options, aerobic treatment units can aeration chamber annually. The aerator requires have high wastewater treatment quality but the annual maintenance visits. system can be expensive and needs proper 4. Mound Systems – septic tank effluent is pumped maintenance. The mound system for household into a drainfield built in a mound of sand fill and treatment and the cluster system for community gravel. The sand/gravel layer filters the effluent treatment may be the best options with the least before it reaches the natural soil. Recommended added inputs in the case of improving existing where soils are permanently or seasonally septic systems - depending on findings of saturated less than 3 ft from the surface. environmental conditions. Communities can use Community Systems: cluster systems in areas that lack proper 1. Small Diameter Effluent Sewers – effluent from conditions for conventional septic systems, i.e. each home septic tank is transported through poor soil conditions or close to a water source, small diameter plastic pipes to a central treatment while household septic systems can be used for center or a main sewer. Pipes require shallow properties within regulatory conditions (Lesikar, narrow trenches. Septic tanks must still be n.d., 2). According to Lesikar, an engineering pumped out regularly. System can serve 50-100 specialist, a combined small diameter gravity homes. sewer with cluster systems and on-site septic 2. Small Diameter with Septic Tank Effluent systems has certain advantages over Pumping (STEP) – Same as above but uses a conventional septic systems or centralized pump system to move effluent in flat or low-lying treatment plants. The alternative system (n.d., 7): areas.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 32 Literature Reviews

1. can be used in areas with low to very high expensive than those discharging directly into development density waterways and include: lagoons, fixed media 2. is appropriate for rural to urban filters (sand, gravel, or textile filters, and landscapes biofilters), subsurface dispersal systems (on-site systems, gravity distribution, pressure 3. has moderate costs distribution, and drip distribution), and surface 4. uses moderately complex technology dispersal systems (spray distribution systems) He also states that for cost effectiveness, land- (Lesikar, n.d., 5). based treatment systems are usually less

Table 1: Comparison of Hypothetical EPA Rural Community Technology Costs for Three Types of Wastewater Management Systems Annual O&M cost Total annual cost plus Total capital cost (annualized capital O&M (1995 $) Technology Options (1995 $) (1995 $) Centralized Systems $2,321,840 – 3,750,530 $29,640 – 40,260 4216,850 – 342,500 Alternative SDGS Collection & Small 598,100 3,720 55,500 Cluster Systems On-Site Systems 501,000 13,400 54,500 Note: The rural community consists of 450 people in 135 homes. (Adapted from EPA, 1997) O&M: Operation and maintenance. SDGS: Small diameter gravity sewers. Source: Lesikar, p.6, from http://twri.tamu.edu/wqedu_pubs/B-6098.pdf

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Decentralized Systems require more maintenance and technical knowledge as well as higher capital costs (p.83). Parkinson and Taylor (2003) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of decentralized 2. “Waste stabilization ponds include anaerobic approaches to wastewater management. Various ponds, facultative ponds that combine aerobic theories and pilot projects have been researched and anaerobic processes, and… aerobic and presented in an informative way, including maturation ponds”. The main disadvantage is the topics such as anaerobic and aerobic treatments need of large land areas. Advantages are of waste, re-use of treated sludge and wastewater simplicity of the system, high retention time for agricultural purposes, and the need for proper leading to high pathogen reduction, potential for policies and political support. This paper is growing fish such as tilapia in the ponds, and valuable for its insight into the appropriateness using treated effluent for irrigation. Operators of various treatment methods for use in urban, can grow plants such as duckweed and water periurban, or rural settlements. Options hyacinth in the nitrogen-rich pond environments discussed are anaerobic treatment, waste and produce agricultural fertilizer from the stabilization ponds, and constructed wetlands: harvested plants (p.83-84). Operators should take caution, however, not to introduce invasive 1. Anaerobic treatment includes conventional species to the local environment. They should septic tanks, anaerobic waste stabilization ponds, consider local species where possible. (Note: anaerobic filters, and upward-flow anaerobic Hyacinth can be invasive!) sludge blanket reactors (UASBs). “In hot climates, septic tanks can remove 60 per cent or 3. Constructed wetlands, also called reedbeds, more of the organic load of ‘normal strength’ are a low-cost option for secondary treatment; in sewage, but they achieve little in the way of Nepal, this system is used for treatment of grey pathogen reduction”. The other anaerobic water and septage. Unfortunately, Grau (1996), methods give improved treatment output, “85-90 cited by Parkinson and Taylor (2003, 84), makes per cent removal of organic load”, but also the statement that “[b]ecause of the problems with mosquitoes, it has been argued that

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wetlands may not be a suitable form of Simplified Sewerage/Condominial wastewater treatment for use in areas where Sewerage/Backyard or In-block sewerage malaria occurs.” Therefore, constructed Mara (2001, 2003, 2005) is a firm supporter in wetlands, though successful in areas of Nepal, simplified sewerage for use in developing may not be so appropriate for Belize’s tropical countries. Also known as condominial sewerage, climate, high mosquito population and it was developed and implemented in Brazil in opportunity of malaria contraction. the 1980s and now has over 1,200 km of Parkinson and Taylor (2003, 80), both civil condominial sewers. Pakistan, Bolivia, Sri engineers, offer their support of decentralized Lanka, and South Africa have adopted this systems for periurban areas as a “household- system, even altering some aspects to suit local centred environmental sanitation approach” needs. Its main draw is its affordability for low- where waste treatment takes place as close to the income and marginal areas but the system can source as possible. Regrettably, a major also be used in middle to high-income areas. To constraint of these systems is land availability summarize, the key to its cost effectiveness is since constructed wetlands and waste using small diameter piping (min 100 mm) in stabilization ponds require large land areas for shallow trenches with relatively flat gradients (1 waste treatment. For dense urban centres without in 200 or 0.5%). Only wastewater, no solids or access to affordable land, these two options may sludge, passes through the plastic pipes. Instead not be the most suitable treatment methods. of placing the pipes under roads, such as in Another constraint is that conventional systems, they are located within the housing block, in the front or back garden, or [d]ecentralization requires greater coordination between government, the private sector and civil under sidewalks. society, and there is a need to look at the most The graph in Figure 1 shows the relative costs appropriate institutional arrangements for between three different collection systems with managing decentralized wastewater systems and for monitoring and regulating those organizations simplified sewerage becoming “cheaper than on- that are responsible for their monitoring. One of site systems at the quite low population density the consequences of decentralization may be a of ca. 160 people per hectare” (Sanitation lack of attention to pollution control… Connection, 2001). In 2001, construction costs in (Parkinson & Taylor, 2003, 87) Brazil were only US$22 – 34 per person (Mara, 2001a, 300). Four strategies recommended in order to promote wider acceptance and success of Settled Sewerage/Small-Bore decentralized systems are “advocacy, Sewerage/Solids-Free Sewerage development of appropriate policies, institutional The Sanitation Connection website (2001), strengthening, and training” (Parkinson & created by the University of Leeds and faculty Taylor, 2003, 88). Advocacy at the household member Duncan Mara, gives a summary of and political level is needed in order to endorse settled sewerage. Developed in Zambia in 1960, the health and environmental benefits possible it has been implemented in areas of Australia, with improved wastewater management. Waste Nigeria, the US, Colombia, Brazil, and South management policies should link with water Africa. The idea is that small diameter sewer resource management policies for a more pipes connect household septic tanks to a main comprehensive approach to water protection and sewer which transports waste to a central monitoring. Institutional strengthening whereby treatment centre (see figure 2). Again, only central agencies or departments act as wastewater (blackwater) flows through the pipes facilitators, providing technical and as the sludge is stored in the septic tank, which organizational assistance while communities take will need to be pumped regularly. Lift stations a more active role in regulating, monitoring, and may be needed in very flat areas, but since no enforcing needed policies and activities. Training solids are flowing through the system, a cheaper of relevant treatment technologies for water pump can be used instead of a sewage appropriate personnel is needed to ensure pump. adequate operation and maintenance of disposal systems (p.88-89). These recommendations, though speaking on decentralized systems, can be tailored for any waste disposal method. Low Cost Sewerage

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University of Leeds’ School of Civil Engineering (2001) at http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/Sewerage/. These systems are far less expensive than conventional sewer systems, less complicated, and suitable for unplanned, irregularly built communities. Regular maintenance is, of course, required as well as trained operational personnel.

Figure 1: Graph showing annual costs of conventional, simplified sewerage, and on-site systems in Natal, Brazil: 1983. Source: Mara, Duncan. University of Leeds. (2001b). Sanitation Connection website from http://www.sanicon.net/titles/topicintro.php3?topicId= 8

Figure 3: In-line lift station for settled sewage with drop inlet and hose connector for use during power failure. Source: Mara, Duncan. University of Leeds. (2001b). Sanitation Connection website from http://www.sanicon.net/titles/topicintro.php3?topicId= 8

Figure 2: Diagram of settled sewerage. Ecological Engineering Source: Mara, Duncan. University of Leeds. (2001b). Sanitation Connection website from Rose (1999) discusses ecological engineering of http://www.sanicon.net/titles/topicintro.php3?topicId= wastewater treatment. Green machines, living 8 machines, wetlands in a greenhouse all represent the same idea of using plants and micro- Both simplified sewerage and settled sewerage organisms to naturally break down waste. By resemble community systems described in the treating in a greenhouse environment, the MSUE Fact Sheets. The simplified sewerage increased temperature helps to decompose the systems in Brazil typically treat wastewater with waste more quickly within a confined waste stabilization ponds but other options are environment. Fewer mechanical inputs are available to be used in conjunction with the low required and the use of solar energy provides cost design of simplified and settled sewerage. cost savings for electricity. Technical information and equations are available in an online manual put together by the Solar Aquatics Systems was originally designed by John Todd of Ecological Engineering

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Associates. Facilities have been implemented in 4. proven tourist attraction, educational facility eastern Canada and France with high quality and winter refuge treatment of wastewater with no need for 5. potential for seasonal irrigation, habitat chemical additives. The facilities can be located restoration and water reuse 6. green image and value-added features that in central urban locations, have virtually no facilitate community acceptance unpleasant odours, present a built greenspace 7. cost competitive with conventional view rather than a concrete building, and offer concrete/chemical-based systems tourist potential. In Belize, the greenhouse 8. potential for synergistic integration with structure can be adapted to reduce building costs horticultural production facilities and take advantage of its tropical climate. Several small facilities can be implemented close Bringing Ideas Together to the source of waste rather than one large treatment centre. This will allow shorter pipe All the low cost options have the possibility of distances for wastewater transportation. being designed to conform to the local needs of Compared to conventional sewers and treatment Belizean communities. Depending on financial plants, this option provides a low-cost ability, environmental conditions and local alternative. Various living machines have been acceptance, small diameter pipes could be used implemented in the US and a scaled down together with cluster systems. The transported version is functioning in La Paz, Mexico. wastewater, if treated in a Solar Aquatics System, could take advantage of its space-saving Re-use options include using the treated properties and would reduce the amount of land wastewater for landscape irrigation or for required compared to a waste stabilization pond. growing ornamental plants. Growing vegetation There is so much technology available and so for human consumption with the treated many different ideas for wastewater management wastewater is so far still under research. Job that communities could design their own unique creation for less-technical positions can be systems. valuable in developing countries since properly trained and certified operators are scarce. If a conventional system is the sought-after solution, Ludwig et al. (2003, 154) have some practical considerations: A very common mistake is the provision of a mechanical type biological treatment plan (to furnish secondary treatment) when the most feasible solution is often to begin with a simple stabilization pond, then as community growth proceeds and wastewater volumes are increased, to convert this to an aerated pond, and next to an extended aeration plant (simple to operate), and finally to a conventional high-rate activated sludge plant, with shifts made when indicated by increasing land prices.

For Belizean communities, community systems Figure 4: Solar Aquatics System demonstration. and on-site systems may be more suitable at this Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment at time. Also important: studies in Brazil (Mara, http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/programs/3354e29.pdf 2001b) have shown that household and community management of these systems has The Solar Aquatics System, according to the been inadequate and need to be supplemented by Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s report trained personnel for proper maintenance and (n.d., 1-2), is an appropriate liquid waste operation. treatment system for communities wanting the following features: References 1. sub-surface discharge of the effluent to a Bodhankar, Ninad; Chatterjee, B. (1993). nitrate-sensitive aquifer Pollution of limestone aquifer due to urban waste 2. seasonal septage or boat wastes disposal around Raipur, Madhya Pradesh, India. 3. treatment capacities ranging from 22 to 4500 Applied Karst Geology: Proceedings of the 4th cubic m/day (serving 100 to 20,000 people) Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 36 Literature Reviews

the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of collection and treatment technologies. Fact Sheet Karst, Panama City. 25-27. 2. Local Government and Drinking Water Fact Bond, Patrick. (1999). Basic infrastructure for Sheet Series. Online version from socio-economic development, environmental http://www.gem.msu.edu/pubs/localoff/factsheet protection and geographical desegregation: s.html South Africa’s unmet challenge. Geoforum. 30, Michigan State University Extension (MSUE). 43-59. Retrieved June, 2007, from Geobase (1998b). Management programs for on-site and database. community wastewater treatment systems. Fact Case study of Hurricane Keith. Annex 1 – Case Sheet 3. Local Government and Drinking Water Study 4. (2000). Retrieved July, 2007 at Fact Sheet Series. Online version from http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/8/14978/ http://www.gem.msu.edu/pubs/localoff/factsheet Annex%201%20-%20Case%20Study4.pdf s.html Kacaroglu, Fikret. (1999). Review of Michigan State University Extension (MSUE). groundwater pollution and protection in karst (1998c). Small-scale septic systems: Their threat areas. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 113, 337- to drinking water supplies and options for local 356. Retrieved June, 2007, from Geobase government. Fact Sheet 1. Local Government database. and Drinking Water Fact Sheet Series. Online version from Lesikar, Bruce. Texas Agricultural Extension http://www.gem.msu.edu/pubs/localoff/factsheet Service. Texas A&M University System. (n.d.). s.html Alternative collection systems. On-site wastewater treatment systems series. (Report No. Moll, D.M.; McElroy, R.H.; Sabogal, R.; B-6098 8-00). Retrieved July, 2007 from Corrales, L.F.; Gelting, R.J. (2007). Health http://twri.tamu.edu/wqedu_pubs/B-6098.pdf impact of water and sanitation infrastructure reconstruction programmes in eight Central Ludwig, H.F.; Mohit, K.; Gunaratnam, D. American communities affected by Hurricane (2003). The Truth about public health protection Mitch. Journal of Water and Health. 5(1), 51-66. and community sewerage and water supply Retrieved June, 2007, from Malaspina sanitation in developing countries. The University-College Library online database. Environmentalist. 23, 151-157. Retrieved June, 2007, from Malaspina University-College Ontario Ministry of the Environment. (n.d.). Library online database. Solar Aquatics System (SAS) for water purification. Environmental Technology. (Report Mara, D. (2001a). Appropriate wastewater No. 500-08-98R PIBS 3354E29). Retrieved collection, treatment and reuse in developing August, 2007 from countries. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/programs/3354e29.pdf Engineers: Municipal Engineer. 145(4), 299- 303. Abstract retrieved July, 2007, from Geobase Parise, M. and Pascali, V. (2003). Surface and database. subsurface environmental degradation in the karst of Apulia (southern Italy). Environmental Mara, D. (2003). Water, sanitation and hygiene Geology. 44, 247-256. Retrieved June, 2007 for the health of developing nations. Journal of from Geobase database. the Royal Institute of Public Health. 117, 452- 456. Retrieved June, 2007, from Malaspina Parkinson, Jonathan and Taylor, Kevin. (2003). University-College Library online database. Decentralized wastewater management in peri- urban areas in low-income countries. Mara, D. (2005). Sanitation for all in periurban Environment & Urbanization. 15(1), 75-90. areas? Only if we use simplified sewerage. Retrieved May, 2007, from Geobase database. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply. 5(6), 57-65. Abstract retrieved July, 2007, from Rose, Gregory D. (1999). Community-based Geobase database. technologies for domestic wastewater treatment and reuse: Options for urban agriculture. Cities Mara, Duncan. University of Leeds. (2001b). Feeding People. CFP Report Series. Report 27. Sanitation Connection website. Retrieved July, Retrieved July, 2007, from 2007 from http://idrinfo.idrc.ca/archive/corpdocs/117783/re http://www.sanicon.net/titles/topicintro.php3?top p27_e.html icId=8 United States Environmental Protection Agency Michigan State University Extension (MSUE). (U.S. EPA). (1999). Decentralized Systems (1998a). Alternative on-site and community Technology Factsheet: Septic Tank – Soil

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Absorption Systems. (Report No. EPA 932-F-99- 075). Online version from http://www.bvsde.paho.org. University of Leeds. School of Civil Engineering. (2001). Simplified Sewerage website at http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/Sewerage/ USAID et al. (1995). Belize Water & Sanitation Sector Analysis. Draft Final Report. Part 3. Pan American Health Organization website. Retrieved July, 2007, from http://www.bvsde.paho.org/muwww/fulltext/anal isis/belice/belice.html.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 38 Literature Reviews

Urban Stormwater Management by Kirsten Thicke

Kirsten Thicke completed her Bachelor of Arts in Geography - Natural Resource Management/ Anthropology minor at the end of the field school. Her career plans include working for a provincial agency as a conservation planner or at a non-profit organization. She enjoys traveling immensely and is hoping that her work takes her overseas. She is from Comox, BC, and currently lives in Fort Simpson, Northwest Territories.

This literature review considers urban Urban Stormwater Management stormwater management in developing countries and the different aspects involved in Nineteenth Century Drainage implementing a successful urban stormwater Management Practices management plan. It concentrates on literature The emphasis in stormwater management in from the past decade and includes information developing countries differs from stormwater from academic papers and articles, government management in developed countries. In reports and books. This information will be used developed countries, the emphasis is on in a policy analysis report for management of environmental preservation and runoff quality urban stormwater drainage in Orange Walk control. In developing countries, the main Town, Belize. concern is to manage the quantity of water and to avoid loss of life and property damage (Silveira, Urbanization and Urban 2002). Many cities in developing countries do Hydrology not have the resources to manage that the quantity of stormwater runoff let alone the water Urbanization is occurring at a very rapid rate quality. The practice of ensuring that storm throughout the world but the rate of urbanization runoff drains as quickly as possible, with little is particularity fast in developing countries. regard to what happens downstream is referred to Much of this urbanization in developing by Silveira as the nineteenth century ‘sanitary countries is unplanned and with insufficient model’ (2002). The sanitary approach by investment put into infrastructure and services. drainage engineers often takes little account into This includes drainage infrastructure (Parkinson the natural drainage patterns, waterways and and Mark, 2005; Parkinson, 2002; Silveira, 2002, wetlands in an area (Parkinson, 2002). The Nascimento et al., 1999; Mascarenhas et al., sanitary model is also known as ‘hygienism’, 2005). A lack of adequate drainage which stresses a healthy urban environment infrastructure planning can lead to severe using scientific principles (Nascimento et al., flooding problems not only in the areas of new 1999). By removing sewage and stormwater as development, but also in existing developments quickly as possible, the hygienism/sanitary downstream. model aims at reducing flood and disease risks. Urbanization is directly linked to stormwater In this model, water is ideally conveyed in an runoff because of the correlation between underground system to aid in circulation and impermeable urban surfaces and runoff keep unsightly runoff hidden (Nascimento et al., coefficients (Silveira, 2002). Impermeable 1999). surfaces are surfaces, such as paved areas, that The sanitary model is unfortunately the most do not allow absorption of water into common practice in developing countries groundwater. These surfaces increase the rate because it is cheaper to apply and more simple and amount of runoff, thus increasing the need than the environmental approach (Silveira, for a drainage system that can handle a large 2002). In the sanitary/hygienism approach there volume of water. As more areas are rendered is little consideration taken into the quality of impermeable to make room for growth, the need runoff. This can have severe environmental for improved drainage increases. This cycle implications. Due to the large discharge of continues and flooding becomes more constant water, flooding downstream of highly and more severe. impermeable areas is possible and probable.

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Modern Drainage Management protect the natural habitat, and promote the urban Practices water environment for amenity value. There are several different types of drainage Some developing countries have successfully management techniques available and many of implemented environmental models of drainage these fall under the modern drainage and other countries are considering these management approach. Ontario’s Ministry of methods. In Mumbai, there were torrential rains Transportation (1999) defines the modern and flooding that occurred in July 2005. Many drainage management approach as a “method of lives were lost and the costs were very high. managing drainage systems using the most up to Because of unplanned and rapid growth of the date procedures which take current drainage area, many natural drainage channels and basins practices into account”. Approaches that fall were encroached upon, causing widespread under modern drainage management are the ecological destruction and exacerbating flooding. environmental model, sustainable urban drainage A large-scale drainage project was undertaken systems (SUDS) in the UK, best management and according to Jain (2006), “there is an urgent practices (BMP’s) in the USA and alternative case to protect the remaining mangroves, creeks techniques (AT’s) in France (Armitage et al., and green areas, and to restore the original 2006; Marsalek and Chocat, 2002). Marsalek drainage basins, water channels and culverts in and Chocat (2002) use the term BMP to refer to the reclaimed areas” (42). Rather than focusing grouped and individual stormwater management solely on augmenting the carrying capacity of measures and use SUDS to refer to the drainage existing drains, and deepening and widening the system as a whole. rivulets, a broader environmental approach is important in preventing flooding disasters and Environmental Model, SUDS, BMP’s ecological destruction in Mumbai. and AT’s Integrated Water Resource The environmental model is discussed at length Management by Silveira, and “proposes a new stable equilibrium for the urban hydrological cycle, Closely associated with SUDS is the principle of with retention and infiltration works providing integrated water resource management (IWRM) control of runoff at the source” (2002, 32). This and integrated urban water management control reduces the amount of surface runoff and (IUWM) (Armitage et al., 2006; Parkinson and water discharge and lessens the environmental Mark, 2005). The Global Water Partnership impacts from runoff. This environmental (GWP) summarizes IWRM “as a process that approach requires multidisciplinary technical promotes the coordinated development and knowledge and concerted action throughout the management of water, land and related resources town or city (Silveira, 2002). SUDS/BMP’s/ to maximize resultant economic and social AT’s are similar to the environmental model in welfare in an equitable manner without that they are concerned with the amount and compromising the sustainability of vital quality of runoff however they incorporate other ecosystems” (Parkinson and Mark, 2005, 35). factors of the water resources as well. According IWRM is used to develop policies and legal to Parkinson and Mark, SUDS/BMP’s/AT’s instruments to ensure that activities that can “utilize a variety of different control measures, affect water resources can be regulated. which aim to reduce pollution problems, Essentially, the IWRM approach considers issues conserve natural water resources and also of environmental protection, human health and enhance the amenity value of watercourses in the natural resource management (Parkinson and urban environment” (2005, 104). On their Mark, 2005). Using IWRM can help countries website, CIRIA explains that SUDS “is a deal with their water issues in sustainable, concept that includes long term environmental economically effective ways (Srinivas, nd). and social factors in decisions about drainage Related to IWRM is integrated urban water [and] takes account of the quantity and quality of management (IUWM). Srinivas conveys on his runoff, and the amenity value of surface water in website that the IWA refers to IWRM as the the urban environment” (2007). The objectives management of the entire watershed catchment of sustainable urban drainage, according to area and IUWM is a component of IWRM, and Parkinson and Mark (2005), are to reduce runoff applies to the problematic urban level (Srinivas, and prevent urban flooding, conserve water Date Unknown). According to Parkinson and resources and protect their quality, preserve and Mark, IUWM incorporates certain aspects of

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IWRM “in order to develop solutions for the Integrated water resource management is specific challenges related to the management of important because all aspects are interconnected. water systems within the context of the urban Without a good solid waste management environment” (2005, 33). program and good communication between those in charge of solid waste and those in charge of Integrated Urban Water Management stormwater drainage, solid waste will continue to Armitage et al. define IUWM as “the practice of clog drains and render them ineffective. In many managing freshwater, wastewater and cases, it is the same with water supply, stormwater as links within the resource stormwater drainage and wastewater. If management structure, using an urban area as the wastewater is entering the storm drains, along unit of management” (2006, 27). IUWM refers with abundant solid waste, there is a possibility to the belief and practice that one cannot manage that these pollutants could enter the water supply water supply, stormwater and wastewater and contaminate it. Thus, an integrated separately. They are linked within the resource management approach with co-ordination management structure (Armitage et al., 2006). between agencies will improve elements in each According to Parkinson and Mark, “urban water type of water management. management involves the management of all forms of infrastructure and services related to Structural Flood Mitigation water in the urban environment” (2005, 43). Strategies IUWM examines how water supply, wastewater, and solid waste management systems, as well as Drainage Infrastructure urban drainage, flood protection and road Considerable data is needed to determine the systems interact and uses this to develop type of drainage infrastructure required in a appropriate infrastructure and management system, including the amount of rainfall techniques (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). (intensity and duration) and an estimation of the IUWM can be used and applied specifically to runoff and overland flow. The most important the management of stormwater. There are a aspect to consider when planning and designing number of objectives that come with integrated an urban drainage system is the return frequency urban stormwater management and these can be of flooding (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). broken down into short-term, medium-term and “Storms of specific return frequencies are used long-term objectives (Parkinson and Mark, for design purposes and to analyze the hydraulic 2005). Short-term objectives include flood performance of a drainage system under different protection and prevention, the control of wet weather conditions” (Parkinson and Mark, sediment and erosion and the protection of 2005, 100). The return period is chosen by environmental health. Medium-term goals taking into consideration the land use and include the prevention of pollution, water consequence of flooding. conservation (specifically rainwater reuse and Types of drainage infrastructure are changing surface and groundwater recharge) and from older piped systems to environmentally preservation of the natural hydrology. Long- sensitive ‘green’ infrastructure. According to term goals include urban drainage that creates a Marsalek and Chocat (2002) this green healthy, recreationally usable environment, with infrastructure encompasses “attractively protected natural habitats. The conservation of landscaped ponds, wetlands, infiltration sites and resources is the final long-term objective in swales” (13). integrated urban stormwater management (Parkinson and Mark, 2005) Major versus Minor Drainage Many countries have adopted IUWM for storm Systems drainage. Several South African communities There are several types of urban drainage system are using IUWM to improve their stormwater configurations and these can be separated into and wastewater drainage situation. The city of minor drainage systems and major drainage Ipoh in Malaysia has also used an integrated systems. Minor drainage systems encompass the approach to solve their stormwater drainage actual constructed drains, pipes and open problems as has the city of Vientiane in Lao channels whereas the major system includes P.D.R (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). overland flow and natural drainage channels (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). Major drainage functions as flood water relief through “streets,

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surface swales, ditches, streams, and/or other Underground versus Surface flow conduits which provide a relief mechanism Drainage and flow path for flood waters” (Brown et al., 2001). Parkinson and Mark (2005) also note that Underground piping is the most common form of roads can play an integral part in flood drainage in developed countries. It is also mitigation and drainage however; roads must be common in areas that follow the hygienism constructed properly to handle large volumes of model (Nascimento et al., 1999). Underground water effectively. In Madhya Pradesh, India, systems are aesthetically pleasing however they several roads were constructed lower than are more expensive to implement and more surrounding urban areas and the backfill was difficult to maintain. Parkinson and Mark (2005) used to elevate the surrounding properties. This note that in low-income developing countries the road system is part of the drainage network and expense of piped systems is prohibitive. In this reduces flooding to surrounding properties case, open drains are a more viable option. (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). Often, only minor Surface drains are a cheaper, simpler option than drainage systems are considered, however in underground drains. Surface drains tend to humid tropical countries such as Belize, the accumulate more garbage than underground minor drainage system cannot accommodate the drains but the chances of blockages are less. In amount of water entering the system. This the case of a blockage, it is easier to locate and excess water becomes overland flow. In many remedy the problem than in underground drains. instances, major drainage is disregarded With a good solid waste management program however, it is important to include and consider and routine maintenance, the problem of garbage major drainage as part of the system and accumulation can be lessened. Surface drains examine how the major and minor drainage can be less hygienic and unsightly however; they systems interact (Parkinson and Mark, 2005) are cheaper and easier to install and maintain Separate versus Combined Drainage making them a better option for Orange Walk Systems Town. There are different types of surface drains that use different lining materials and Separate drainage systems consist of one sizes. It is necessary to determine the runoff drainage network that conveys surface runoff coefficient before deciding on the size, shape and during wet weather and one that conveys urban material of the drain. wastewater (sewage). Ideally, the urban wastewater system would lead to a treatment Runoff Control Measures plant where it would be treated before being Runoff control measures are part of the structural discharged. Combined drainage systems flood mitigation strategies that are of vital transport wet weather runoff as well as urban importance. If runoff is controlled and lessened, wastewater in the same drainage network and the chance of flooding decreases significantly. this should also lead to a treatment facility. As is Figure 1 shows the different technologies and the case in many developing countries, these techniques used to control the amount of surface systems are quite expensive to implement and runoff. there is littler consideration for urban wastewater (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). In areas where Detention Ponds versus Retention combined systems are present and not Ponds implemented correctly, health risks can surface In an urban area, stormwater runoff can be due to contaminated waters and breeding areas partially controlled using detention and retention for mosquitoes (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). In ponds. These facilities fall under community- some cases, combined sewers may overwhelm level best management practices and require a treatment facilities and overflow during storm significant amount of land (Marsalek and events. In Belize, urban wastewater is Chocat, 2002). Detention ponds are lower lying sometimes drained directly into the storm drains areas that are designed to hold water in times of or into septic tanks. This practice contributes to heavy rainfall and slowly release it into the the pollution of the discharging waters and to drainage system. Parkinson and Mark state that excess water runoff during the wet season. “detention basins are storage tanks designed to ‘detain’ runoff and then drain completely after stormwater runoff ends and becomes dry

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Surface Runoff

Reduce flow from Attenuation of Increase capacity of Attenuation in entering drainage runoff at source drainage system drainage system

Diversion Infiltration Attenuate Install overflows Attenuate in Attenuate in inflows drains storage

To other Surface Roof storage Surface flooding On-line pond catchement

Soakaways In downpipes Oversized sewer Off-line pond

Swale Gully outlets On-line tank

Basin Gully spacing Off-line tank

Trench Surface pond

Boreholes

Figure 1: Options for runoff control. Figure adapted from: Parkinson, J., & Mark, O. (2005). Urban stormwater management in developing countries. London: IWA Publishing.

between storms” (2005, 94). Detention ponds have do be dealt with. If the pollutants are dealt can also be called extended detention dry ponds. with sufficiently, these retention ponds can The benefits of detention ponds are significant. become aesthetically pleasing recreational areas They reduce the frequency of erosive floods and (Marsalek and Chocat, 2002; Parkinson and are very cost effective (Brown, 2001). Mark, 2005; Jain, 2006). Retention basins on the other hand are designed On-Site technologies for controlling to retain a specific amount of water indefinitely runoff and often have a discharge point where water can go when the specified holding capacity is Mascarenhas (2005) defines on-site detention exceeded. They “comprise a permanent pool, facilities as reservoirs in which “storage littoral zone (1/3 of the pond surface area), and measures are applied on-site, before their linking dynamic storage and are designed for the to the micro-drainage network” (197). This type removal of total suspended solids (TSS)” of storage can be done on rooftops and rainwater (Marsalek and Chocat, 2002). Problems can catchments or underground. Infiltration arise with these ponds due to the accumulation of trenches, soakaways and swales are other contaminated sediments and these sediments

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examples of on-site technologies for controlling Participatory budgeting whereby residents and runoff (Parkinson and Mark, 2005). the government meet and decide together what the investment priorities are can increase the If on-site technologies, detention facilities and importance of drainage investments. A retention facilities are used together, the result participatory approach can also allow citizens to can be zero run-off drainage. Zero run-off see how their taxes are being spent. If they drainage would greatly alleviate the pressures decide that drainage is not being dealt with put on drainage systems in tropical countries adequately because of budgetary constraints, during the wet season. they might be more accepting of tax increases.

Non-Structural Flood Mitigation Conclusions Strategies Several steps can be taken to implement a Non-structural flood mitigation strategies can be successful drainage system or to repair one that very effective when used in conjunction with is ineffective. structural flood mitigation strategies. Examples of non-structural flood mitigation strategies First, it has to be decided what the objectives of include improvements to solid waste the drainage system are. The objectives could management, land use planning and development simply be to drain water away as quickly as control, institutional co-ordination and flood possible in which case; the community can proofing and warning (Parkinson and Mark, follow the hygienic or sanitary model. If 2005). Another non-structural approach is however, it decides that ecological integrity and through public education and participation. For natural drainage systems are important as well, environmental stormwater management to be then SUDS, BMP’s or AT’s might provide the successful, the acceptance of the community is best solutions. The chance of success of a vital (Silveira, 2002). The community can play a project will be increased when these approaches huge part in ensuring that an environmental are use in conjunction with the principles and model of drainage is successful and as a result, it objectives of integrated water resource can thus reduce the chance of flooding and management (IWRM) and integrated urban environmental degradation. stormwater management. There are several structural and non-structural Financing ways to mitigate flooding and encourage successful drainage. These methods can be Financing for drainage infrastructure and implemented individually or can be grouped maintenance is often lacking in developing together. When used together, the chance of countries. With limited budgets, governments mitigating floods is increased and the resulting often delay drainage projects because the socio-economic and environmental damage is flooding generally only happens part of the year lessened. and only affects a portion of the population. Drainage systems are expensive to implement Drainage infrastructure is expensive to install however using a system that uses best and expensive to maintain. Traditional management practices “often require lower approaches to financing these works in initial investments and provide higher level of developing countries do not seem to work services than the conventional systems” effectively and alternative financing methods are (Marsalek and Chocat, 2002, 11). A new trend needed. There many options but it is important to help finance drainage is to implement a user to involve the public because after all, they are pay system and collecting drainage fees. Fees paying through their taxes. If they know how can be reduced for users that reduce their runoff their money is being spent, they may be more generation (Marsalek and Chocat, 2002). willing to increase their payment amounts. Alternatively, a service charge can be implemented where users pay for their drainage In Orange Walk Town, stormwater drainage depending on the runoff that their property networks are largely unplanned and do not generates. This may help encourage homeowner function effectively. A stormwater management to reduce their runoff, thereby reducing the stress plan is needed that encompasses infrastructure, on the drainage system (Parkinson and Mark, management techniques, flood mitigation 2005). strategies and financing options. With a management plan in place, Orange Walk will

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 44 Literature Reviews

ideally be able to find solutions to control the Ministry of Transportation (1999). Drainage quantity of water in the system and will ideally management glossary of terms. Government of be able to start looking at improving the quality Ontario, Canada. Queen’s printer for Ontario. of water runoff. Retrieved June 30, 2007 from: http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/english/engineering/dr References ainage/glossary.htm#m Armitage, N. (2006). Towards a new stormwater Nascimento, N. O., Baptista, M. B., & Kauark- management approach. Water Wheel, 5(5), 25- Leite, L. A. (1999). Stormwater management 27. problems in a tropical city - the Belo Horizonte case study. Impacts of Urban Growth on Surface Brown, S. A., Stein, S. M., & Warner, J. C. Water and Groundwater Quality, (259), 299- (2001). Urban drainage design manual: 305. Hydraulic engineering circular 22, second edition No. FHWA-NHI-01-021 HEC-22) Nhapi, I., Siebel, M. A., & Gijzen, H. J. (2006). Federal Highway Institution. A proposal for managing wastewater in Harare, Zimbabwe. Water and Environment Journal, CIRIA (2007). SUDS Sustainable drainage 20(2), 101-108. systems: promoting good practice. Retrieved June 30, 2007 from: Parkinson, J. (2002). Urban drainage in http://www.ciria.org/suds/background.htm developing countries - challenges and opportunities. Waterlines, 20(4), 2-5. Environmental Protection Agency (2007). BPMS in a flash. Retrieved July 15, 2007 from: Parkinson, J., & Mark, O. (2005). Urban http://www.stormwaterauthority.org/bmp/bmp_p stormwater management in developing resentation.aspx countries. London: IWA Publishing. Harris Country Flood Control District (2007). Parkinson, J., & Tayler, K. (2003). Decentralized Project Brays. Retrieved July 18, 2007 from: wastewater management in peri-urban areas in http://www.projectbrays.org/detention.html low-income countries. Environment & Urbanization, 15(1), 75-90. Jain, A. K. (2006). The concept of bio-drainage in flood prevention and the avoidance of water Sanitation Connection (2002). Developing scarcity. International Journal of Environmental successful runoff control programs for urbanized Studies, 63(1), 39-48. areas. Retrieved July 19, 2007 from: http://www.sanicon.net/titles/title.php3?titleno=5 Kauark-Leite, L. A., Nascimento, N. O., & 50 Baptista, M. B. (1999). Stormwater master planning in developing tropical countries. Silveira, A. L. L. (2002). Problems of modern Impacts of Urban Growth on Surface Water and urban drainage in developing countries. Water Groundwater Quality, (259), 401-407. Science and Technology, 45(7), 31-40. López-Avilés, A. (2007). Flash flooding in Srinivas, H. (Date Unknown). IUWRM Spain: Geomorphological approaches supporting Integrated urban water resource management. flood frequency analysis, and the implications Retrieved July 4, 2007 from: for the design of structures. [Electronic version]. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/iwrm/ Water and Environment Journal (OnlineEarly Ursinus College Environmental Studies (2007). Articles), Retrieved June 28, 2007, from Wetland Project. Retrieved July 18, 2007 from: Blackwell Synergy database. http://academic.ursinus.edu/env/wetland_project. Marsalek, J., & Chocat, B. (2002). International htm report: Stormwater management. Water Science Zhai, G., Fukuzono, T., & Ikeda, S. (2007). and Technology, 46(6), 1-17. Multi-attribute evaluation of flood management Mascarenhas, F., C., B., Miguez, M. G., in Japan: A choice experiment approach. Magalhães, L., P., C. & Prodanoff, J., H., A. [Electronic version]. Water and Environment (2005). On-site stormwater detention as an Journal (OnlineEarly Articles), Retrieved June alternative flood control measure in ultra-urban 28, 2007, from Blackwell Synergy database. environments in developing countries. Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities, (293), 196-202.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 45 Literature Reviews

Floodplain Management by Kevin Muise

Kevin Muise is a Geography student at Malaspina. He has extensive travel experience, including teaching in Japan. He currently lives in Nanaimo, BC.

This literature review addresses floodplain Council (who assist with evacuation) and the management and possible solutions to the routine National Emergency Management Office flooding that occurs in vulnerable areas in (NEMO), which is part of the national Orange Walk Town. The literature examined in government. Also at least 200 to 250 families this review is concentrated in two main areas. would be subject to less health and safety risks Firstly, it discusses what developed nations have during the wet season. done to identify problems with development in floodplain areas, tested preventative measures, North American Approach and solutions that been proven effective. Secondly, it reviews what nations with similar The Floodplain Management Association (FMA) climate and economy to Belize have done about (Bloom, 2007) has extensive information on how similar issues. to prevent property damage due to flooding. Their information shows what residents can do With all bodies of water, there are areas that to minimize flood damage. Conversely, the US flood occasionally. The relatively flat areas that Federal Emergency Management Agency flood regularly when water levels rise are known (FEMA) website is aimed more to serve groups as floodplains. Since these areas are usually flat, or communities on floodplains. Since the FMA and very close to a large source of fresh water, website deals with more personal scenarios, they are often where development occurs. In the individuals have the power to decide what option case of Orange Walk Town, there are two main best suits their need according to how high their areas that are developed and flood, and are risk is to flooding, and how much money they considered floodplains areas (as opposed to have to put towards flood damage prevention. issues with drainage). Those areas are the This website suggests options such as sand Louisiana district, which borders the New River, bagging, building on stilts, elevating furnaces and the area surrounding the Robert Burns Pond. and electrical panels, and constructing barriers to Between the months of June and November, rain prevent floodwaters from entering the building, falls more frequently and water levels can rise while promoting the idea of emergency action quickly. The National Emergency Management plans like NEMO already does. This information Organization (NEMO) evacuates people living would be valuable to the residents of Orange on the floodplains and places them in shelters Walk Town who live in flood prone areas such usually for two to three weeks at a time. as the Louisiana district. Further education on Although they are encouraged not to, people flooding scenarios and preventative measures, often return to their flooded homes, or never that have been tested and proven reliable, would leave. help better prepare residents, and possibly help People move to floodplain areas usually have reduce demand for hurricane shelters due to little knowledge of the area and little disposable flooding. This article may not be very relevant in income. Often housing construction is started all senses as it is aimed towards Americans with without requesting permission or getting different building codes, access to many building permits. As a result, many houses are materials, and probably more disposable income poorly constructed and are not built with a to spend on flood prevention. While not all the proper foundation or stilts. There are an solutions offered are expensive, some are not estimated 100 to 150 families in the areas beside feasible for some Belizeans. the New River, and another 100 families from FEMA (2006) has detailed information on most the Robert Burns Pond area that must be disasters that occur in the United States and evacuated every year. If there were flood gives helpful advice of what residents in prevention systems in place, it would lift a huge vulnerable areas should do before, during, and financial burden from both Orange Walk Town after a flood regarding their personal safety, such

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 46 Literature Reviews

as sandbagging on short notice, or building Larson (2001) is similar to Buholzer but is aimed barriers to keep water out of buildings for a more at an American audience. Many of the long-term solution. The website also includes a suggestions for proper flood control could be database of maps of areas that flood, as well as used in Belize, such as building on stilts, or information on recovering from flood damage, establishing zoning laws for floodplains but and suggestions not to return home after a flood others are too expensive, or not feasible due to until waters have subsided. This type of the tropical climate in Belize. The best part about information would be useful to residents of this article is that it addresses the way that Belizean communities. Some aspects of the humans build on the floodplains, and encourages FEMA website might be borrowed for use on the low impact, so that the floodplains can operate as NEMO website, or in NEMO flyers. The FEMA naturally as possible, just as Ellis-Sugai and website has an extensive database for tracking Godwin (2002) suggest. floods, and flood history. This means that Connecticut (1987) is useful in defining proper anyone with internet access can check if their floodplain management standards and storm property has ever flooded, and if they are at risk. water management standards, similar to the laws This approach would be very useful in a and practices suggested by Buholzer (2007) and pamphlet or information sheet handed out to Larson (2001). This article also deals with community residents since it is on such a small coastal flood issues which may not as relevant to scale, this would not be very expensive. inland riverine towns, but the zoning laws could Ellis-Sugai and Godwin (2002) provide prove to be a valuable template. information on what a floodplain is, and how floods affect the natural environment. There is Similar Climate and Economy some good information on how to stabilize riverbanks and minimize impacts floods have: Tingsanchali et al. (2005) conducted a flood leave as much vegetation there as possible and hazard and risk assessment study in Bangladesh. leave it undeveloped so that floodwaters can The residents living on these floodplains are very drain into the soil as they would naturally, poor, live in areas that get flooded frequently, thereby relieving pressure and lessening flood and are unaware of how floods may affect their intensity downstream. They tell how floodplains lives or what they can do to prevent them. flood routinely, but, in a natural state, are filled Tingsanchali et al. is an excellent example of with vegetation and permeable soil that absorb what a full hydrological study, or flood hazard the water and drain it more quickly. They also and risk assessment study, could provide. The explain how humans interfere with natural article is technical and quantitative, giving floodplains by developing in these areas specific numbers and percentiles according to covering the permeable soil and removing the how much risk a given group of people is at with vegetation. They do not discuss effects on predicted rainfalls, and consequent floods. This humans (aside from property damage) or very project was most likely expensive and on a larger meaningful preventative measures. This work scale than that of Belizean communities. helps educate people who do not know what a However, Belize has very little floodplain floodplain is and how it works from an information or accurate maps of areas that are environmental point of view. Ellis-Sugai and vulnerable to flooding. A study like this could Goodwin (2002) provide a comprehensive report develop accurate, up-to-date maps of areas that to explaining how floodplains work, and why are at risk of flooding and allow the central building on floodplains or removing vegetation government to save lives, property and tax can have negative effects. dollars by banning floodplain development, instituting more strict building codes in high risk Buholzer (2007) contains a model of what areas, and eliminating unnecessary evacuations. floodplain zoning and building code laws should This information would educate the people of look like. It contains useful and clear rules that Belize that would otherwise build in dangerous insure that all parties involved know the risks areas without taking the proper precautions. and rules of living and developing on floodplains. This paper could be used as a Rashid et al. (2007) conducted a study on urban template in conjunction with a flood issues in slum areas just outside the capital hydrological/floodplains study to create a city of Dhaka. Similar, but much more customized report for Belizean communities. comprehensive studies should be easier and faster to complete for Belizean communities.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 47 Literature Reviews

This article focuses on the people with limited various news sources such as The Playa Maya resources that must deal with floods frequently, (Bandick, 2004) and the Ottawa Sun (Gaunt, rather than the Tingsanchali at al (2005) study 2007). Belize has minimal recycling programs, that focuses more on what areas would be and so plastic bottles are just taking up space in hardest hit by floods. The information gathered landfills. It may be possible to solve two could easily be distributed among the population problems at once by using these bottles as of a community, and everyone would have a foundations for houses in flood susceptible areas. chance to be heard. There are solutions in this People are already using garbage covered in article not addressed by the North American sites white mud as fill to build their houses on in some and articles, such as relocation and property areas of Orange Walk Town. It might be possible exchange. The downside of a study like this is to collect only plastic bottles and construct the cost. Although the results tell a lot about the houses on a floatable foundation instead, so that area in question about floods, flood damage, and if people insist upon building in floodplain areas, people’s willingness to relocate, it would most they will not have to be evacuated in case of likely have to be completed on a voluntary basis. flood. This article also does not cover explore options Spiral Island is not the only case of people doing of perhaps using relocation grants to flood-proof this. The Uros tribe of Peru also constructs homes or add preventative measures to existing floating buildings on Lake Titicaca. The homes. tribesmen harvest totora reeds, and bundle them Asian Development Bank (1991) outlines together in order to create a floating foundation alternatives for flood control and proven (Istvan, 2007). Another possibility would be the practices in tropical environments. These same approach people living on floating cabins practices include building houses that can be on a lake or ocean in North America use: a base quickly and easily dismantled and moved in case of metal drums (like those donated by Shell or of flood. It also discusses cyclone damage Belize Sugar Industries to the town for use as prevention that may prove useful to Belizeans if trashcans) sealed, and filled with air. If larger a hurricane strikes. companies with excess materials would donate barrels or other floating materials to help make Meerman (2006) reports on the ecology on the floating foundations for houses in flood prone New River Lagoon in Orange Walk District. He areas, the money the government saves in gives detailed information of the plant and unnecessary evacuation costs can be used for animal life in that area. There are examples of other things. There are also examples of floating what a cross section of the lagoon and or parts of buildings in Holland (Macleans, 2007) that use the river should look like, with some limited polystyrene core pontoons to float lightweight, information on floodplains and marshy areas. wood frame houses. This last solution is the most There is also information on the dangerous expensive, but has been proven effective in animals (namely crocodiles) that may inhabit floods as high as 5.5 meters. In all cases, the flooded areas and pose a threat to humans, as buildings are anchored to the ground in some well as toxicology information. This report way to make sure they do no float off their focuses on ecology, but shows how the ecology property. Whether or not solutions for flooding in this particular river should work, and how the using floating foundations is feasible is up for environment would handle floods without human debate, but it’s an interesting solution that might intervention. be more realistic than moving people out of the floodplain areas. Interesting Alternatives McCallum (2005) reports on an artificial island Conclusion with a house on it that Richie Sowa, a British The articles examined in this review were expatriate, built on the Caribbean coast of diverse both culturally and in approach. Not all Mexico. The island, known as “Spiral Island”, of these approaches are applicable to Orange had a base that was constructed out of a lattice of Walk Town or other Belizean communities. bamboo poles. Connected to the poles were mesh Rivers and floodplains are all unique. However, bags filled with plastic bottles that were sealed in the solutions from these papers offer many ideas. order to hold in air. Using about 250,000 plastic Moving people from the floodplains into areas bottles he was able to float his island and stay less susceptible to floods is obviously best, but high and dry. This island has been covered by people are often not willing to leave their homes,

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 48 Literature Reviews

not even for incentives such as grants, property FEMA Agency (April 18th 2006). Flood. or guaranteed employment (Rashid et al., 2007). Retrieved June 22nd 2007, from Building on stilts is a good idea as well, but it http://www.fema.gov/hazard/flood/index.shtm does not solve the problem of people who are Gaunt, Jon & Moore, Jane & Shanahan, Fergus. already living in existing homes not built on Plastic island paradise. Retrieved July 3rd 2007, stilts. Inspectors must enforce building codes, or from http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,5- codes are useless. Education of what can happen 2002410050,00.html to homes and people living in floodplain areas without proper flood protection is essential to Istvan, Zoltan (July 3rd 2003). Rough Waters for prevent property damage and health risks due to Peru’s Floating Islands. Retrieved July 3rd 2007, flooding. NEMO has started by promoting from awareness with such events as NEMO awareness http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/0 week, and by giving information on their 7/0703_030703_laketiticaca.html website. Officially, NEMO is for emergencies Larson, Larry & Plasencia, Doug (November such as hurricanes, so routine flooding of 2001). No Adverse Impact: A New Direction in floodplains areas due to heavy rainfall is not part Floodplain Management Policy. Published in of their responsibility. NEMO does help people Natural Hazards Review Nov. 2001. in need of shelter due to routine flooding, but this is not its main purpose. The idea of a McCallum, Randy (2005). Richie Sowa’s Spiral floating foundation for houses is interesting. Island. Retrieved July3rd 2007, from http://spiralisland.westkootenayunplugged.com/i References ndex.php th Ainsworth-Vincze, Cameron (March 26th 2007). Meerman, Jan (June 18 2006). Ecological It’s kind of like living on a cruise ship. Macleans Characterization of the New River Lagoon, Magazine Orange Walk District, Belize. Report prepared for the Freshwater Programme Belize, Belize Asian Development Bank (1991). Disaster City. Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific. National Library of the Philippines. Rashid, Harun & Hunt, Len & Haider, Wolfgang nd th (February 2 2007). Urban Flood Problems in Bandick, Suzanne (September 15 2004). Dhaka, Bangledesh: Slum Residents’ Choices for Reishee Sowa - a man and his island. Retrieved rd Relocation to Flood-free Areas. Retrieved June July 3 2007, from 22nd 2007, from http://www.playamayanews.com/article235.html http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/a23p1 Bloom, Donna & Todt Iovanka. Protecting 1j728q983m5/fulltext.pdf Individual Properties Against Floods. Retrieved nd Tingsanchali, Tawatchai & Karim, Mohammed June 22 2007, from Fazlul (March 14th 2005 ) Flood hazard and risk http://www.floodplain.org/individual_properties. analysis in the southwest region of Bangladesh. htm Retrieved June 22nd 2007, from Buhozer, William (2007). British Columbia http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi- Planning Law and Practice. LexisNexis: bin/fulltext/110430035/PDFSTART2. Markham, Ontario, Canada. Connecticut, Flood Management Regulations for State Agencies (April 30th, 1987). Connecticut, Flood Management Regulations for State Agencies, Connecticut. Ellis-Sugai, Barbara & Godwin, Derek C (July 8th 2002). Going with the Flow: Understanding Effects of Land Management on Rivers, Floods, and Floodplain. Oregon State University: Oregon Sea Grant.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 49 Literature Reviews

Riverside Development by Matt Baillie Matt Baillie completed his Bachelor of Arts in Geography - Natural Resource Management at the end of the field school. He is a freelance writer and has been published in several newspapers and periodicals; he also DJ's for a local radio station. He is currently working towards a post baccalaureate degree in Education. He hopes someday to become a teacher/farmer in his hometown of Nanaimo.

Mierzejewska (2004) discusses on the roles of the river for human recreational and education green-space in a community and the use as well as restoring its fish-bearing potential. development of western views on green-space, as Naud (1995) describes the various types of well as the current reasons behind most waterfront development that have been used over conservation in urban areas today. She discusses the centuries, including the advantages and various advantages and disadvantages to having disadvantages of each. Public access and use is green-space. This includes the ecological, emphasized as very important for the good of a economical and psychological advantages of community, lest it be monopolized for having green-space within the city. commercial and private use. Also emphasized Macleod (nd) discusses the effects of green space was the need for aesthetically appealing and a river on the population of Waterloo, waterfront infrastructure that made for pleasant Canada. She discusses how multiple uses and view corridors for both local residents and values are integrated into a vision of the river in visitors to the area. Finally, one of the most Waterloo. “Public spaces can no longer derive important factors in a ‘good’ waterfront is its their form solely from economic or aesthetic amount of impact on the waterway itself, along doctrines. They must be developed with an with the plants and animals indigenous to the understanding of natural process and used to region. regenerate the cityscape”. Li et al. (2004) outline the various uses and Afflect (1995) discusses how changes to the benefits of green space within an urban area. Montreal waterfront in 1972 united the city and This includes brown lands, agricultural land, brought about a cultural centre in a time when recreational areas and conservation areas. the city was going through a cultural crisis. He Establishing priorities is very important, stresses the importance of public space where especially when considering the needs of people people can congregate. He argues that planners within an urban area. This includes public should focus on aesthetic appeal in the creation access, recreational areas and water use. Urban of public spaces. The article reviews how a parks are very important, especially on the island waterfront walk can re-vitalize an area of the city of Hong Kong, where land is at a premium and that was falling into disrepair and was people are crowded very close together. Indeed, experiencing plummeting property values. they suggest some cities such as New York are examples of cities that have done an exemplary Pedroli et al. (2002) describe the effects of job; at both protecting their green space for the riverside development in Europe. They enjoyment of the public and as a habitat for recommend that policy designers alter the native species. dynamics of the river as little as possible. This keeps riparian habitats intact. If this cannot be Mills (2002) discusses contemporary water-front accomplished, then the maintenance of a variety foot-paths. It spoke of what types of paths are of landscapes that are networked together is preferred today to the ones used by pre-European preferable. This maintains the bio-diversity of contact people. The difference results from the fragile river ecosystems. In addition, the authors changed use of trails from primarily transit to detail various human activities and the recreation. Gordon et al. (2004) evaluated the consequences they have upon the river system. impact a trail has on a community’s health. This study, conducted in the United States, included a Jackson (1992) details a river re-vitalization survey of trail users. This survey described project in Ontario, Canada, that took place some factors that encouraged and discouraged trail use. years ago. This project focused on maintaining

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 50 Literature Reviews

Jim (1986) recommends ways to design parks so Gordon PM, Zizzi SJ, Pauline J. Use of a that user activities have a minimal impact on the community trail among new and habitual landscape. Hong Kong parks have a size of ~75 exercisers: a preliminary assessment. 2004 Oct. sq feet/capita, thus keeping the landscape in a URL: park state is of utmost importance. Jim reports http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2004/oct/04_005 the types of activities that minimized impacts on 8.htm. the land as well as layouts that kept people from Jackson, Lawrence. (1992) Giving life back to a doing irreparable damage to the land. Jim also river. Canadian Geographic. Vol. 112, Iss. 5; pg. notes that crowded parks have different 92. Sept 1992. psychological effects than pristine parks, as the Jim, C. Y. (1986) The Country Parks Programme point of parks is supposed to give citizens a get- and Countryside Conservation in Hong Kong. away. Soil compression is a major problem, as is The Environmentalist. Vol 6, Iss. 4; pg 259. erosion and littering. Li, Feng; Rusong Wang; Juergen Paulussen; and Rahaman and Varis (2005) analyze the evolution Xusheng Liu. Comprehensive concept planning of the concept of Integrated Water Resources of urban greening based on ecological principles: Management (IWRM) at international a case study in Beijing, China. The Knowledge conferences over past few decades. They Innovation Project of Chinese Academy of describe the evolution of the world-view on how Sciences. www.elsevier.com/locate/landurbplan water is considered both internationally and on 24 April 2004 the local level in developed and developing Macleod, Michaela. The Causeway, the Landfill, countries. They argue that there is the lack of and the River: Shaping Moncton’s Environs. The integration between various stakeholders using University of Waterloo. fresh-water. Freshwater resources are affected and affect so many aspects of our lives, such as Michael G. Wing, Kelsey Edwardsen, Mary Beth energy, transportation, recreation and agriculture McNair, Evan Miles, Kelly Wilson, & John not to mention human health and well-being. Sessions. (2007) Developing a sustainable water- delivery system in El Salvador. Sustainability: Wing et al. (2007) describes an “engineers Science, Practice & Policy. E-journal Vol. 3, without borders” program to create a sustainable Issue 1, Spring 2007. fresh-water delivery system in a rural village in Mierzejewska, Lidia. The Natural Environment El Salvador and a rural village in Belize. A in the Sustainable Development of Towns: The group of students from Oregon State University Example of Poznan. Adam Mickiewicz did much of the fieldwork. They describe the University. Dela 21, 2004, 593-602. experiences the students had working in a third world country and discussed the importance of Mills, Peter. (2002). Hawaiian Social Integration thorough planning to avoid making critical and Trails. Asian Perspectives Vol. 41, Issue 1, policy errors. Spring 2002. Naud, Leonce. (1995) Rivers: a user's guide for Preid (1997) details the use of traditional the general public. Ecodecision. Vol/Issue 17, ecological knowledge as a low-cost and highly Summer 1995. pg 31. effective alternative to foreign development plans. By using the traditionally utilized Pedroli, Bas, Geert de Blust, Kris van Looy and bulrushes along the shore of Lago San Pablo in Sabine van Rooij. (2002). Setting targets in Ecuador, local residents not only foster strategies for river restoration. Landscape ecological sustainability and rehabilitation but Ecology. Issue 17 (Suppl. 1): 5–18, 2002. also can produce many products from said Preidt, Robert. (1997). No foreign know-it-alls bulrushes. The article further reports that the needed: Two Canadian-led watershed projects in goal of the study is to promote traditional Latin America. Toronto Star. Feb 8th, 1997. ecological knowledge in watershed use all across Rahaman, Muhammad Mizanur and Olli Varis. Latin America. (2005) Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges. References Sustainability: Science, Practice & Policy. E- journal Volume 1, Issue 1, Spring 2005. Affleck, Gavin. The River and the City: Building a New Landscape. Vice Versa. Vol./Issue 49, Jul 1, 1995, Pg 7.

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Ecotourism Promotion by Leah Irvine “For tourism to be a truly beneficial economic strategy for any community, it must also be dedicated to improving the quality of life of the people who live and work there, and to protecting the environment.” (McIntyre 1993) Leah Irvine recently graduated in from Malaspina with a Bachelor of Arts in Urban Growth Management and a minor in history. She hopes to pursue a career as a city planner, with a special interest in preserving agricultural land. She has lived in Nanaimo for her whole life.

The scholarly literature on tourism is vast. tourism to expand? What do the local residents Thousands of well-written articles, journals, and want to happen here? Who is the target market? books discuss all aspects of tourism. There are There are many different ways the local residents just as many that deal with eco-tourism and could view the expansion. They could also developing countries. This suggests that tourism incorporate other goals into tourism, for example is one of the largest and rapidly growing establishing protected areas. The tourists could industries (Boxhill, 2003). There are many be charged an entrance fee to view the protected reasons why this industry is expanding globally, areas. Studies on tourists paying entrances fees such as a decrease in the airfares and the increase to view protected areas have been successful of leisure time of people in the developed (Hill 2006). Perhaps they want their town to be countries. There are few articles written on the nightclub centre, which would attract both . However, there is extensive national and international tourists. Or do they experience in other countries. want to attract nature lovers? This, again, would Orange Walk is interested in economic attract national and international tourists of all alternatives to supplement its sugar cane ages. Who do they want their target market industry, and tourism is an option for the town. population to be national or international tourists? Do they want to attract a certain age Where to Start? group, or interest group? To what scale do they want the expansion of tourism? Perhaps, mass One of the first steps in introducing a new tourism, with the main example being that of industry, such as tourism, is to communicate Mexico, with international hotels. Or perhaps with the residents of the host town (Naidoo small-scale tourism with the owners being from 2005, Boxhill 2003, and Hamton 2001). This is the surrounding area. However, whatever way important because council will need local people they decide is best for them, there are other to be involved with the industry and “because of locations around the world that have attempted to the close contact between guests and hosts, it can do so. Therefore, tourism planners can decide lead to more severe changes in local culture” how they want the tourist industry in their town (McKenzie, 2006). Therefore, not only should to evolve and they have many examples of how local residents be enthusiastic about tourism, to do so and how not to do so. As Ian Boxill they also have to be educated about the benefits from the University of West Indies in Jamaica and problems that tourism could bring to the states, “to succeed, tourism planners in Belize community. Many residents of Orange Walk are need vision, will and confidence. Tourism is a not thinking of tourism as an option for the town serious business which requires careful planning, (McKenzie, 2006; interviews with town evaluation and administration” (p.150). There are residents). Local entrepreneurs need to be aware also communities in Belize that can be studied of ways to generate an income from the new since they already have a tourist industry, and industry. Tourism also has the potential to be both on different scales of the tourism spectrum. harmful in many ways, environmentally, and One is San Pedro, which is an example of mass socially which is no surprise (Brenner, 2002). tourism. The other is San Ignacio, which is an The community needs to establish a example of small-scale tourism. communications plan as first step in communicating with local residents and businesses. How do the local residents want

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Types of Tourism businesses are often individually or family owned and tend to allow for more contact There are many different types of tourism such between locals and guests” (2). Second, as mass, large-scale, small-scale, nature-based, alternative tourism “requires less capital to eco-, luxury, community-based and alternative construct facilities than mass tourism, meaning tourism. Many of these types overlap and are that people who typically could not start their mutually supportive. Some could be more easily own businesses have increased opportunities to incorporated to some communities than the do so” (including Belizean women) (2). others. Eco-tourism as defined by Vaughan, “…suggests a type of tourism involving small to Impediments medium-sized operators, low environmental impact infrastructure, a recognition of local There are five main impediments to tourism culture and a willingness to forego some Western development. There will be a higher demand on comforts in the interests of sustainable services and utilities, such as water, waste development (p.285).” Eco-tourism normally disposal, and electricity. Tourism also puts a encourages a type of tourism that benefits a higher demand on the environment. In addition, town, instead of overwhelming it. large numbers of international tourists can create cultural impacts on local communities. Further, Eco-tourism does not take over like luxury or competition is strong within an already strong mass tourism. Mass tourism includes cruise tourism industry in the Caribbean. Finally, ships, international hotels, and all-inclusive another impediment to tourism may be a lack of resorts. These types of tourism often do not awareness among the local residents and directly benefit the local economy; operators businesses. Residents may not think of their from other countries make most of the money communities as an attractive tourist location. rather than a host country. The cruise ship industry in Belize is a major example. Therefore, mass and luxury tourism may not Benefits advisable for many Belizean communities. Tourism can also have benefits. Tourism can For communities with relatively small bring more ways to generate revenue and populations and nascent tourism industries, diversity to the economy. Tourist industry will small-scale, community-based, alternative, eco- also provide more work opportunities for women tourism (which includes nature-based) may be a in the community. A tourism industry better option. These approaches promote low encourages education in areas such as business impact tourism that encourages public management, tourism, history and environment. involvement, local development, and Furthermore, tourism may create opportunities conservation of special areas to sustain the for eco-tourism revenues from protected areas, biodiversity of the area. and at the same time creating more recreational activities. Two researchers, Kristine McKenzie from the University of Auburn and Ian Boxhill from the The benefits can out weigh the impediments if University of the West Indies both recommend careful steps are taken to keep the local residents alternative tourism for Belize (which means a and surrounding environment on the top of the small scale, nature-based tourism). Boxhill list to protect and to keep in mind their best states three important factors. One, that “Belize interests. should place greater emphasis on the quality of the visitor rather than the quantity” (147). Two, Conclusion he encourages a “tourism development policy, Tourism is the fastest growing industry which respects peoples way of life, engages them worldwide because of the increased leisure time in a way that is psychologically, intellectually and fuel-efficient airplanes. The Caribbean is a and economically beneficial; and sustains popular tourist location. A recent trend in global ecological systems” (148). Finally, he tourism has gone away from mass tourism, like encourages a “tourism that focuses on all-inclusive resorts and has shifted towards developing the cultural and ecological gifts of alternative tourism. Tourists want to see exotic the country” (148). locations in their natural setting. A growing McKenzie suggests two reasons for Belize to trend in tourism is trips to places “off the beaten adopt alternative tourism. First, “alternative track.”

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References Boxhill, Ian. (2003). Towards an alternative tourism for Belize, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15(3): 147- 150. Brenner, Ludger and Adrian Guillermo Aguilar. (2002). Luxury Tourism and Regional Economic Development in Mexico, The Professional Geographer 54(4): 500-520. Gossling, Stefan. (1999). Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystems functions? Ecological Economics. Human Ecology Division, Lund University: Sweden. 29(2); 303-320. Hampton, Mark P. (2004). Heritage, local community and economic development, Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3): 735-759. Hill, Trevor, Etienne Nel and Dayle Trotter. (2006). Small-scale, nature-based tourism as a pro-poor development intervention: Two examples in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 27: 163-175. Kirshner, Sheldon. (2004) Brazil’s great Amazonian rainforest is tailor-made for eco- tourism, Canadian Jewish News, 34(9):45. Lloyd, Kate. (2004). Tourism and transitional geographies: Mismatched expectations of tourism investment in Vietnam, Asia Pacific Viewpoint 45(2):197-214. Victoria University of Wellington: Blackwell Publishing. Meadows, Robin. (2006). Ecotourists Will Pay More – a Lot More – to See Birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7(2). McKenzie, Kristine. (2006). Belizean women and tourism work: Opportunity or impediment? Annuals of Tourism Research. Auburn University, USA. 34(2); 477-496. Naidoo, Robin, Wiktor L. Adamowicz. (2005). Economic benefits of biodiversity exceed costs of conservation at an African rainforest reserve, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA (PNAS). 102(46); 16712- 16716. Vaughan, David. (2000). Tourism and biodiversity: a convergence of interests? International Affairs 76(2): 283-297.

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Cultural Heritage and Tourism by Annie Brown

Annie Brown is a fourth year student working in her double major in Geography and Anthropology at Malaspina. She intends to work on her graduate studies in archaeology and physical anthropology and pursue a career as an archaeologist with an interest in ancient culture and mythology. Her special interests include fossils, art and history. She comes from Holburg, BC and currently lives in Courtenay, BC.

Cultural tourism is taking the world by storm is not. “It isn't just recreation (however today. In the past the majority of travelers were enjoyable it may prove). It isn't outlet shopping looking for pristine beaches, fancy hotels and (though a good gift shop and bookstore can shops. Now tourists are more interested in the prolong the memory of the visit). It isn't looking people in those locations. There is less focus on at much-photographed scenery (though it isolating the tourists from the local residents. involves an informed appreciation of the Instead, interaction between the local cultures landscape). It isn't escapism (though it can lift and outsiders is encouraged. The culture includes the visitor out of the hum-drum of every day)” the clothing, food, and architecture, and in (2000). Calhoun is saying that it is not the act essence, whatever “makes a culture” is that defines cultural tourism, but rather the introduced to those outside. Belize is no memories one gains from the excursion, and the exception. With its many cultures, cultural overall experience of leaving ones 'safe zones'. tourism could become a booming business. The He explains that in order to experience the full town and district of Orange Walk could be the culture, one must be where the people are: you central location for cultural tourism. The cultures must see and smell the same as they do, eat as present range from the ancient Maya, to Mestizo, they do and spend time where they do. It is this Mennonite, and smaller groups such as the more experience overall that defines the tourism. If we recent Chinese. seclude ourselves at a resort beach, we rarely gain an understanding of people in a host Cultural Tourism - The Upcoming country. This is his message. Smith (1996) Trend presents a similar definition, “cultural tourism does not imply culture conceived for tourism, but Clancey (2001) suggests cultural tourism is rather defines a form of tourism which adapts “...the world's largest service industry and the itself to local cultural life”. Thus cultural tourism single largest item in international trade of can not be “made up”. We cannot conceive a services” (2001). Calhoun (2000) also agrees culture out of thin air; if we do, the local culture stating that, “Cultural tourism is one of the could be lost or confused. It is best for tourists to fastest growing segments of the tourism industry see something that is untouched. attracting visitors who tend to stay longer, spend more, and travel in the off-season”. This in itself Issues in Cultural Tourism can be seen in Belize with their booming tourism industry. Because of this, smaller towns in However, cultural tourism is not without its countries around the world are attempting to tap problems. Smith (1996) explains, “the industry into this industry. Calhoun states that, tends to promote sun-worshiping over a sense of “According to industry statistics, by 2010 discovery on the part of tourists”. This furthers tourism in general will be the world's largest Calhoun's point. If a person only sun worships industry” (2000). then they will not see particularly much. Unfortunately, this is still one of the more What is Cultural Tourism? common forms of tourism to date. Smith takes this idea a step further. He states, “in What is “cultural tourism?” And, what sets this the rush for tourist dollars, splendid, natural, or form of tourism apart from all other types of cultural sites are often menaced by the hasty tourism? Most would view cultural tourism as construction of hotel facilities” (1996). Although seeing other peoples, different places, clothing, not mentioned, this also includes the destruction activities (e.g. ceremonies, plays, or festivals) and food. Calhoun describes tourism by what it

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of important cultural sites and historical believable in a location to be successful. buildings. Heritage is key. Surprisingly, exoticism adds to this idea. “There is only one, unattractive but The Third World Problem unavoidable: the market. Tourism to indigenous communities, in this context, is the least bad A central controversy associated with third world option for indigenous people” (Snow and tourism is the questions of who benefits. “One Wheeler, 2000). Furthermore, “[to] participate claim commonly made by critics of third world in this industry, Indians do not need tourism is that transnational corporations tend to sophisticated infrastructure or other capital gain ownership control of tourism-oriented investments; their customs, dress, language, and enterprises and thus the bulk of the tourism (exotic) appearance, as well as a clean fairly benefits”(Clancey, 2001). Many third world secluded village will suffice” (2000). This idea countries feel threatened when foreign of exoticism is very popular and many would be investment is only looking out for their own surprised to find their previously made interests rather than the needs of the local people. preconceptions of those ethnic groups to be Kuntz (1999) puts this nicely “Tourism...is about wrong. With these realities such as, “[over] the promoting a richer dialogue between cultures.” past century, heritage protection regimes have an irreplaceable experience is created through been established throughout the world to getting to know people from a different culture. conserve the heritage of the colonized, whose own notions of heritage as cultural property have Heritage and Culture Together previously gone unrecognized” (Thorley 2002). Back to heritage, “it is no secret that It is not just the concept of culture in tourism that contemporary architectural discourse frequently makes cultural tourism important. It also views heritage conservation as an obstacle to involves the history and important sites of that progressive ideas” (McClelland. 2005). This place or culture. Meyer (1995) states that point from McClelland (2005) is very true even “...cultural heritage should not only be for the locations in third world countries. Many considered something of value or something architects and developers would rather bulldoze irreplaceable and which should therefore be a historic site than deal with the hassle of protected by law and administrative procedures, heritage preservation or finding a new location. it should also be located, studied and interpreted Quite often these locations are destroyed without within its meaningful local, historical, others knowing. With the aid of cultural tourism geographical and temporal contexts”. His many of these locations can be saved, due to argument is about preservation. If these their relevance to the industry as well as the irreplaceable values, e.g. the culture, its history entire country. and historical sites and so on, no longer exist then there is no heritage and there is no culture, and subsequently no cultural tourism remains. Case Studies This in turn means no learning from other Today as mentioned above, cultural tourism is cultures. Psychogiopoulou (2005) supports this becoming quite popular. We can find it in view with her statement, “The preservation of locations large and small around the world. Each cultural heritage has been gradually perceived as giving its own unique taste on what tourism is transcending geographical boundaries and and who they are. The goal: to teach others from domestic jurisdictions to become part of the far away, to sell goods and make money, and to cultural patrimony of humanity in the interest of stretch resources and find new ways for income. the whole international community”. Further, she points out that, “heritage conservation, when According to the Aboriginal Tourism and Cross- carried out in an appropriate sustainable manner, Cultural Understanding Project Background may prove a major spin-off for the revitalization Report (2006), “International indigenous of local economies, in particular as regards communities are recognizing the important role promotion of cultural tourism and artisan tourism can play in building bridges between activities” (2005). Once more another point, cultures.” Further, they state, “Aboriginal Footer (2004) suggests that, “To benefit from communities across Canada are increasingly cultural tourism, Webb says a town, county or turning to tourism development as a means to region must have enough of its heritage pursue both economic interests and cultural preserved”. Clearly cultural tourism has to be revitalization. Despite the obvious benefits, participation in the tourism industry raises issues

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and concerns for Aboriginal communities, council will support the involvement and varying from the socio-economic and cultural recognition of local artists, organizations, events, benefits to concerns relating to the maintenance projects, and programs in the region” (2006). and respect for traditional values, authenticity The goal is simple. They want everyone to notice and impacts on future generations to name just a their art, and style and with that the culture. few.” In many areas of Canada the local First Nations create gift shops featuring local Lessons carvings, paintings, clothing and many more • Healthy Cultural Tourism is about the items. It’s not a hidden fact that the goal is to local people, not just the tourists. generate funds but rather it is also to continue the culture, by practicing the skills needed to create • Cultural tourism is about experiencing those items. Some groups also hold dances for the culture, by active participation the public and major celebrations to teach rather than just observation. outsiders as well as their own people. • Festivals draw people from all around, The Utah Division of State History (1995) take advantage and make them as big as documents similar trends. However, they have possible. gone a step past just documenting the • Positive advertisement is key. People phenomena to creating and acting in it. They will want to know where to go and it state that, “heritage tourism, as we would like to helps to be a ‘must see location.’ implement it, enhances a community first for the residents and then for the tourists. The following • It is easiest to make smaller changes dimensions of heritage tourism, identified by than larger drastic changes. Jamison, provide the building blocks upon which we can develop our own heritage tourism • Heritage and history is part of culture. industry: • Heritage sites are a draw and must be • Handicrafts Festivals and events preserved. • Language Heritage resources • The older the Heritage site the better. • Gastronomy • Use the Hotels to become a destination. • The work environment and technology Tell them about the new Orange Walk, • Art and music give them pamphlets and tell them of festivities. Most often they will be the • Religion first tourists will ask. • Architecture • Help from outsiders is good but keep in • Education mind the bigger picture must stay • Sense of place locally run. • Dress.” (1995) • Do not just focus in the immediate They then go on to describe several strategies location. Spread the word as far as that they believe will help continue the interest in possible. cultural tourism. Each point covers a part of culture from history to customs. This must all be Conclusion kept in focus, otherwise as mentioned above, a By understanding what cultures can do for fabricated culture would be created diluting the tourism we must keep in mind what tourism can real image. do for that culture. Ideas can be passed on, To go even further abroad, the Aboriginal customs and heritage can be preserved, and Tourism and Cross-Cultural Understanding others can learn from each other. What these Project focuses on the arts and changes in articles have been saying is cultural tourism may Ballarat, Australia. This also works well but very well help cultures by strengthening the need serves a specialized group. In their article, they for knowing customs, histories, and ways of life state several points such as “Fostering Local and to teach these to others to gain a deeper Creative Capacity: Council will nurture and understanding. In essence, cultural tourism celebrate the creative talents of local people, represents a sharing of who we are. There is no local abilities and achievements. Where possible, need in a world, where travel can take only mere

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hours and communication is almost Cultural Heritage Management. South African instantaneous, to keep oneself isolated. There is Journal of Ethnology. Vol 18, Issue 4, p 159. currently a need to learn more about the Retrieved July 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: fundamental differences of cultures and develop Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. a better understanding. Psychogiopoulou, Evangellia. (2005). Euro- Mediterranean Cultural Cooperation in the Field References of Heritage Conservation and Management. Aboriginal Tourism and Cross-Cultural European Foreign Affaris Review. Vol 10, Issue rd Understanding Project. (2006). Aboriginal 2, p 237-255. Retrieved July 3 , 2007 from Tourism and Cross Cultural Understanding Ebsco Host: Academic Search Elite, Project Background Report. Retrieved July 10th, www.ebscohost.com. 2007 from World Wide Web, Smith. Jorge, R.L. (1996). Sun Sand and Society. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pc- UNESCO Sources. Issue 85. p 23. Retrieved July ch/pubs/tourism/documents/2006-02/2_e.cfm#a2 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: Academic Search Calhoun, Charles. (2000). Promoting Cultural Elite, www.ebscohost.com. Tourism. Maine Policy Review. p. 92-99. rd Snow, Steven G. Wheeler, Cheryl L. (2000) Retrieved July 3 , 2007 from World Wide Web, Pathways in the Periphery. Tourism to http://www.umaine.edu.com Indigenous Communities in Panama. Social City of Ballarat. (2006). Arts and Cultural Science Quarterly. 2000. Vol. 81 Issue 3. p732- rd Development in the city of Ballarat 2006-2010: 749. Retrieved July 3 , 2007, from Ebsco Host Project Report, Strategy and Action Plan. Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. th Retrieved July 10 , 2007 from the World Wide Thorley, Peter (2002). Current Realities, Web, Idealised Pasts: Archaeology, Values and http://www.ballarat.vic.gov.au/library/scripts/obj Indigenous Heritage Management in Central ectifyMedia.aspx?file=pdf/10/63.pdf&str_title= Aurtralia. Oceania. Vol 73, Issue 2, p 110. Arts%20&%20Cultural%20Development%20Str Retrieved July 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: ategy%20- Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. %20Project%20Report%20&%20Action%20Pla n.pdf Utah Division of State History. (1995). Preserving Our Past Through Heritage Tourism: Clancey, Micheal. (2001). Mexican Tourism: Developing A Heritage Industry. Retrieved July Export Grown and Structural Change since 1970. 10th, 2007 from the World Wide Web, Latin American Research Review. Vol. 36 Issue rd http://history.utah.gov/heritage_tourism_toolkit/ 1. p128-150. Retrieved July 3 , 2007 from general_information/documents/htplan.pdf Ebsco Host: Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com Footer, Kevin Carrel. (2004). Final Destination Culture. Americas Vol. 56, Issue 1, p 3-4. Retrieved July 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. Kuntz, Lucia Iglesias. (1999). The Right Road to Compostela. UNESCO Courier. Vol. 52 Issue 7/8, p51. Retrieved July 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. McClelland, Michael. (2005). Learning from the Distillery District. Canadian Architect. Vol 50, Issue 2, p. 20-24. Retrieved July 3rd, 2007 from Ebsco Host: Academic Search Elite, www.ebscohost.com. Meyer A (1995). From Hunting Grounds to Digging Fields: Observations on Aspects of

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Economic Development by John Mackenzie John Mackenzie is a Geography major at Malaspina. He has worked as a Student Park Planner for the Comox Strathcona Regional District in BC. He is pursuing a career as a professional planner. He comes from Black Creek, BC.

Introduction Literature on Economic It is common to put an equal sign between Development economic growth and economic development. Different perspectives emerged in the literature However, development is a much more complex on economic development. While some authors concept. It includes elements such as self- focused on the importance of strong government sustaining growth; structural change in patterns intervention, taxation, redistribution and concern of production; technological upgrading; social, for equality, others focused primarily on political and institutional modernization and economic growth, private investment and widespread improvement in the human condition evaluating progress on a monetary basis. This (Adelman & Yeldan, 2000). Growth, on the paper presents common themes that emerged other hand, is simple increase in size. In from this literature review. September 2000, 147 leaders from countries around the world gathered in New York and Economic Growth issued the Millennium Declaration, which Economic development is a popular discussion outlined their collective commitment to topic in the context of globalization. sustainable development and poverty reduction. Globalization is a process characterized by Later that same year, the eight Millennium increasing global interconnectivity and Development Goals (MDGs) along with 18 integration of political, economic, social and targets and 48 indicators to measure progress, technological contexts across countries. From an were also agreed upon. The Millennium economic point of view, one of the direct Development Goals are to (CIDA, 2000): impacts of globalization has been increased • eradicate extreme poverty and hunger multinational enterprises (MNEs). MNEs • achieve universal primary education increase a country’s inward foreign direct investment (FDI), bringing along “know how,” • promote gender equality and empower superior technologies, capital and new resources women that can contribute to a country’s development, • reduce child mortality both economic and social. • improve maternal health The investment development path (IDP) theory • combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other suggests there is a positive correlation between a diseases country’s development level (by using the • ensure environmental sustainability, and GNP/capita as a proxy to development level) and develop a global partnership for the country’s international investment position development—all by 2015 (Dunning, 1981). The latter is measured by the flow of foreign direct investment. The results of Growth is important to development. Many a study in Portugal imply that international argue that we cannot achieve poverty reduction investment both accompanies and influences without significant broad based economic economic growth (Buckley & Castro, 1998). The growth. The purpose of this literature review was IDP theory also acknowledges the importance of to understand better what has been learned about government participation in increasing a effective economic development strategies country’s attractiveness to FDI, by creating internationally and to identify policy issues public goods meant to increase the national level might be considered in the creation of a of competitiveness (Buckley & Casson, 1998). “sustainable development plan” for Orange Walk Town, Belize.

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Economic Development capital. “Know how”, other physical resources and public and private infrastructure are also Studies in international business concentrate on factors to drive economic growth (Kane, 2004). various aspects of infrastructure and government policy, but focus primarily on international a. Land business activity – a rather narrow perspective. Land is an essential factor in producing The World Development Report prepared by the economic activity. Economic development United Nations Development Programme strategies focused on land usually aim to (UNDP) gives a broader perspective of the revitalize certain districts or develop human development. The UNDP publishes an underutilized land. Denver’s two largest military annual Human Development Report that installations are examples of land reutilization. addresses issues such as poverty, education, The military closed the Lowry Air Force Base sanitation and so on. The report seeks to measure and Fitzsimons Army Medical Base (FAMB) in the human development of each country through 1994 and decommissioned them in 1997. its “Human Development Index” (HDI). HDI is a Redevelopment of the properties in subsequent composite index of both social and economic years resulted in thousands of jobs being created variables, including the standard of living – and increased population in the area (Leccese, measured as GDP/capita; the country’s 2005). knowledge level – measured as adult literacy and school enrolment and life longevity – measured The enterprise zone in Evansville, Louisiana is as life expectancy at birth. another example of public services revitalizing a peripheral area through tax. In this area, TABLE 1 – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX – CENTRAL governments exempted business inventories AMERICA 2004 from property tax in the enterprise zone. A part of the tax benefits received by the companies Rank Country HDI Life Education operationsGDP/capita in the zone is given up to the Urban expectancy index EnterprisePPP$(*) Association, which was later used for at birth social purposes, such as: building day care 1 Norway 0.965 79.6 0.99 $38,454 centers of designing computer trainings. 2 Iceland 0.960 80.9 0.98 $33,061 3 Australia 0.957 80.5 0.99 Cleveland,$30,331 Ohio uses housing subsidies as a 48 Costa Rica 0.841 78.3 0.87 revitalization$9,481 tool. The benefits of such subsidies 58 Panama 0.809 75.0 0.88 are difficult$7,278 to assess because, while the costs of this method are mostly direct, the benefits are 95 Belize 0.751 71.8 0.77 $6,747 101 El Salvador 0.729 71.1 0.76 mostly$5,041 indirect. Thus, the house property tax rates of neighbouring areas may increase and 112 Nicaragua 0.698 70.0 0.75 $3,634 generate revenues to the local budget. Also, the 117 Honduras 0.683 68.1 0.77 $2,876 economic activity in the subsidized 118 Guatemala 0.673 67.6 0.68 neighbourhoods$4,313 increases as the state of these Source: UN – Human Development Report, 2006 ( ) areas is improved. However, inner city district * Note: PPP$ = Power Purchase Parity in USD revitalization is typically associated with highly developed cities, where the bulk of the This paper discusses both “economic growth” population has migrated to peripheral areas for strategies and “economic development,” more comfort and the center serves for business recognizing that both are needed for a activity mostly. Thus, the houses in the central comprehensive approach to sustainable areas are abandoned. economic development in Belize. b. Labour Economic Growth Strategies The most common regional economic Most strategies adopted to increase and enhance development goal is labour-related and often economic development focus on delivering refers to increasing local jobs. A good program higher economic growth. Austrian et al. (2002) aimed at reducing long-term unemployment is emphasizes the role of factor-based strategies to the JobNet program in Portland, Oregon. JobNet achieve regional economic growth. The most is a placement and training program run by important factors (that are viewed as assets) Portland’s economic development agency generating economic growth are land, labour and through which companies that benefit from economic development aid are required to hire

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 60 Literature Reviews 61 disadvantaged, displaced and unemployed growth can turn out to be challenging for people. These companies are not forced to hire authorities because the cost of creating the people recommended through this program, but infrastructure to support the new jobs may they are asked to consider the JobNet candidates overweight the benefits of having the jobs. with priority. c. Capital During recession, some regions experience high unemployment rates among young people even Capital refers to money, equipment, or other hard though salary ranges are lower for youth. In assets used to generate income. Capital Europe, it is common for local authorities to programs aim to increase the business activity, subsidize a part of the employee’s salary, up to which in turn will generate more value, more 50%, as long as the employee is at his or her first jobs, improve the local economic activity and job and only for a pre-determined period. This contribute to economic development. measure helps young people increase their work Most capital programs focus on facilitating experience and gain more value in the workforce companies’ or individual’s access to capital. An market, reduces unemployment rates, and helps example of facilitated access to capital is the companies to be optimally staffed. micro business development program Micro, in In some instances, the education system falls Arizona. Micro is a non-profit organization that behind with the new generation developments grants small credits, $500 to $10,000 to micro and creates a gap between what the former enterprises. The enterprises have to meet certain system delivers in terms of workforce material requirements, such as to have never benefited and what organizations need in order to generate from a commercial credit prior to the application. economic development. Employee-oriented MICRO credits are also focused credits for training programs are one solution to reduce this certain activities, such as crafts and some food gap. The Durham Technical Institute in North products. Such organizations can stimulate small Carolina provides customized training for business activity and channel it to areas that are resident companies and assists them in finding more likely to have a high success rate. In 2006, potential trainees. The institute benefits from a Muhammad Yunus won the Nobel Peace Prize large number of subsidies from the state and for his work using micro credit with the where possible, integrates individuals from the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh (Yunus, 2003). disadvantaged population segments into its d. Public Sector programs. Most of the trainings are targeting “new hires”. However, some training is meant to The public sector’s contribution to a region’s enhance trainees’ skills. The institute’s economic development often refers to taxes and contribution extends further by providing regulations, the efficient use of land, management assistant to client companies (Batt infrastructure investment, education and public & Osterman, 1993). services. However, the public sector can extend its contribution. From an economic point of Creating local jobs is not an easy task because in view, Kane (2004) argues that the public sector many instances when local authorities attract should show concern for sunken infrastructure companies to create jobs, not all of these investment, legitimate and illegitimate negative positions go to local residents. Residents, spillovers, market failure, the impact of however, pay local authorities to create local economic stagnation or decline on the political jobs and studies have shown that most outlook and last, but not least, the social impact individuals are willing to give up some their of economic development. income in order not to have to relocate (Bartik et al., 1992). While it is important for the local Sunken Investments labour force to maintain a mobile capacity, authorities should focus on stimulating These investments refer to those resources that companies to hire residents. This objective is are not used to generate economic growth important both from the economic and political because both public and private investors point of view. Local authorities can offer overlook them. Usually, these resources can be companies incentives to hire certain categories of found in abandoned industrial sites or people and choose those categories to fit the problematic urban areas. One way to revitalize local workforce and one of these incentives may these areas would be to use this available be financial. Financial benefits targeting job infrastructure before the actual growth occurs because when that happens, the required money

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 61 Literature Reviews 62 to purchase the resources would be significantly particular interest because it drives poverty higher (Bartik, 1995). (Bartik, 2003). Public service intervention is often needed in cases where social, economic Spillovers and physical deterioration of poor neighborhoods The concept of spillover describes benefits or is identified. costs that occur as a side effect of economic Considerations for Economic activities. In some instances, the actions Development undertaken by organizations generate unintended benefits or costs for the community. Spillovers Globalization can be negative, such as pollution, or positive, such as training and education for the resident Globalization is the phenomenon of greater population. With negative spillovers, interconnectedness of local places with the world government intervention is justified by the need in an economic, social, cultural, and to reduce negative effects on the community’s technological sense. In many instances welfare. In the case of positive spillovers, public “Globalization is viewed as a reliable service intervention is justified whenever substitute for a domestic development strategy. benefits such as training and education are That is the conclusion any casual observer can overlooked and/or underused by the community come to by hearing the policy advice of the and instead only utilized by self-interested world’s major international development economic agents (Kane, 2004). organizations and mainstream economists. Combining integration into the world economy and good governance will deliver the fruits of Market Failure development, the underdeveloped world is Market failure is commonly associated with told” (Sanchez, 2003). three situations. The first comes because of However, “…the question remains: is this market uncertainty; the second comes from the genuinely a new development agenda or simply organization’s ability to make gains from market the same neo-liberal prescription in new imperfections and take advantage of economies clothes?” Whatever the case, Sanchez argues that of scale; and the third is generated by the Latin America has embraced open trade and freer transactional benefits and costs. Public sector capital markets, but subsequent growth has fallen intervention is justified whenever it is aiming to short of expectations. Many authors, like increase transparency of information flowing Sanchez, argue that too much attention on among economic agents or between them and the international markets has diverted attention from community. More specifically, public services “getting things right at home”. Alternative can help by making information available to suggestions are instead made which focus on organizations and communities such as potential domestic savings, tax reform, education and production locations, available capital sources or employment. business leadership sources. The Role of Women Economic Impact on Political Outlook “Women are responsible for half of the world’s The economic performance of a region production and between 60 and 80 percent of the influences political activity. When economic good in most developing countries. Not only are performance is not satisfactory, the population women the mainstay of the agricultural food pressures politicians for better performance, sector, labour force and food systems, they are which in turn pressures the public service to also largely responsible for post harvest improve its performance as well. activities. However, women’s fundamental contribution is continually under-appreciated and Social impact under-supported and is often adversely affected Good economic performance can have positive by prevailing economic policies and other social effects on the community. One positive development conditions (CIDA Promoting outcome associated with positive economic Sustainable Rural Development through performance is increased employment. As Agriculture). The importance of the role of employment improves, household income women in underdeveloped countries cannot be increases and long-term unemployment overstated. Advancing equality and opportunities decreases. Long-term employment is of

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 62 Literature Reviews 63 for women would have numerous economic and …with people’s assets and capabilities and social benefits. seeks to build on them. A livelihood is said to be sustainable if it can adapt to stresses and shocks, maintain and enhance its capabilities Education and assets and at best enhance opportunities A serious constraint on the growth rate in Latin for the next generation. This approach American countries is the meagre education level recognizes that the root of all human of the workforce, whose current level of development and economic growth is schooling stands at around 5.3 years on average. livelihoods – not jobs per se, but the wide, According to world schooling patterns and its infinitely diverse range of activities people engage in to make their living together with level of development, the region’s workforce has assets or entitlements they own or can access. two years’ less of schooling than it should, or Hence, it integrates considerations of income stated otherwise, around 40% less schooling than generation: the production of sufficient, other similarly developed areas around the globe nutritious food, women’s empowerment and (Londono, 1996 in Sanchez). Education assists environmental management (CIDA, economic growth in two ways. First it raises the Sustainable Rural Dev). rate of accumulation of human capital and This broader concept of sustainable development second, it increases the rate of productivity may more accurately reflect a “genuine progress growth. “Economists at the Inter-American indicator” rather than merely focusing on Development Bank have calculated that if increasing a country’s GDP. governments’ education effort increased schooling by one year above current trends, potential growth could be raised one percentage Conclusion point a year, or about half the estimated effect of Economic development is a complex concept all structural reforms to date!” (IADB, 1997 in that encompasses more than economic growth. Sanchez). Economic development has many impacts within a region socially, politically, environmentally Community Led Approaches (LED) and economically. Economic development Research on local economic development in accompanies and drives human development, small communities across Canada shows that which is a more holistic and broader concept of “local initiatives have a significant and additive development requiring attention. effects on the adoption of Economic Economic development can be viewed as being Development Strategies by small communities” within the public authorities’ responsibility. This (Turvey). “Studies on local development are literature review uncovered several goals aimed most important to those communities affected by to achieve local, regional and country economic structural changes in the economy, those development and strategies to reach the goals. persistently shaped by “boom and bust” cycles Most strategies focus on creating new jobs, and those inherently vulnerable to regional and which suggests that authorities think of labour as global forces and pressures (e.g. resource towns one of the most important factors in and single industry communities). “Over the past development. Other issues noted in this literature few decades, there is a widespread support for review, which were primarily economic in LED to ameliorate problems, changes and nature, included capital and land. Capital is challenges posed by economic restructuring, essential to enhance business activity, through global competition and rapid transformations in the public service intervention facilitating access the world economy.” Community-led approaches to capital sources. Land is a factor that can also demonstrate a commitment to empowerment generates economic development by revitalizing based approaches rather than “top down” certain districts or by identifying opportunities intervention, which in past efforts has created related to the underutilization of land. more problems that it often solves. Public sector participation in economic Sustainable Livelihoods development is also important because the market itself is not capable of addressing social, Another important consideration is promoting political and environmental issues due to its activities that create “sustainable human imperfections and limitations. Some of the most communities”. The Canadian International common imperfections refer to asymmetric Development Agency’s (CIDA) approach to information that generates market failure, sunken sustainable livelihoods begins

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 63 Literature Reviews 64 investments and markets power. Public Bartik, T. J. 1995. Economic Development intervention is meant to achieve better results Strategies. Staff Working Paper No. 95-33. socially and economically; stimulate economic Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute. growth, create jobs, minimize negative social Available at: effects and maximize positive ones while http://www.upjohninst.org/publications/wp/95- facilitating access to better technologies, 33.pdf. business “know how” and skill-development Bartik, T. J. 1993. Who Benefits from Local Job training. Growth, Migrants of the Original Residents?, While this supplementary public service Regional Studies, vol.27: pp. 297-311. intervention is important in an economic Bartik, T. J., Butler, J. S. & Liu, J. T. 1992. development plan, it is also worthwhile Maximum Score Estimates of the Determinants considering the broader social issues and context of Residential Mobility: Implications for the that impact economic development. Value of Residential Attachment and Globalization, the role of women, education, Neighborhood Amenities, Journal of Urban community-led solutions and sustainable Economics vol. 32: pp. 233-256. livelihoods are all-important factors to consider in any Economic Development Plan. As stated Batt, R. & Osterman, P. 1993. Workplace by Rodrick, 2000 in Sanchez “strategic use of Training Policy: Case Studies of State and Local international trade and capital flows is part of a Experiments, Working Paper No. 106, Economic development strategy; but does not substitute for Policy Institute: Washington, DC: pp. 33-36. it”. Important issues worthy of consideration Buckley, P. & Casson, M. 1998. Models of the include, who is benefiting from economic Multinational Enterprise. Journal of growth in a region? As stated by Development International Business Studies, vol. 29(2): pp. International Desjardins (DID) in CIDA (2003) 21-44. “Enhancing the asset base of the poorest represents an essential means of reaching the Buckley, P. & Castro, F. B. 1998. The goal of poverty reduction”. It is hoped that this Investment Development Path: The Case of literature review may assist in pursuit of these Portugal. Transnational Corporations. Vol. 7(1): important goals. pp. 1-15. Castro, F. B. 2000. Foreign Direct Investment in Reference List the European Periphery – the Competitiveness of Adelman, I. & Yeldan, E. 2000. Is This the End Portugal, PhD, Leeds University Business of Economic Development? Structural Change School. and Economic Dynamics, vol. 22: pp. 95-109. Dunlap, T. P., Burkhalter, B. B., Watson, D. J. & Agarwal, S. 1994 Socio-Cultural and the Choice Fitzpatrick, J. A. 1995. Reshaping the Local of Joint Ventures: A Contingency Perspective, Economy through a Revolving Loan Fund Journal of International Marketing, vol. 2(2): Program in an Entrepreneurial City. Economic pp. 63-80. Development Quarterly vol. 9(1): pp. 74-79. Austrian, Z., Norton, J., Center for Economic Dunning, J. 1980 Toward an Eclectic Theory of Development, Maxine Goodman Levine College International Production: Some Empirical Tests, of Urban Affairs & Cleveland State University. Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 2002. What Works in Economic Development 11(1): pp. 9-31. Practice? An Evaluation of Strategies and Tools. Dunning, J. 1981. Explaining the International Paper prepared for the John S. and James L. Direct Investment Position of Countries: Knight Foundation. Towards a Dynamic and Development Bartik, T. J. 2003. Local Economic Development Approach”, Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, vol. Policies. Staff Working Paper No. 03-91. 117: pp. 30-64. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute. Kane, M. 2004. Public Sector Economic Available at: Development: Concepts and Approaches, http://www.upjohninstitute.org/publications/wp/ Northeast-Midwest Institute – The Center for 03-91.pdf. Regional Policy.

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Geraci, V. J. & Prewo W. 1977. Bilateral Trade Flows and Transport Costs, The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 59(1): pp. 64-74. Human Development Report 2006. Published for the Unite Nations Development Programme (UNDP), http://hdr.undp.org. Jackson, S. & Markowski, S. 1996. The Attractiveness of Countries to Foreign Direct Investors, Australian Journal of Management, vol. 21(2): pp. 113-138. Leccese, M. 2005. BRAC – The Denver Experience. Economic Development America, vol. 2: pp. 4-7. Lipsey, R. E. & Weiss, M. Y. 1981. Foreign Production and Exports in Manufacturing Industries, Review of Economic and Statistics, vol. 63(4): pp. 448-494. Marinescu, I. 2006. The Internationalisation of the Portuguese Automobile Firms. Master Dissertation. The Faculty of Economics: University of Porto. Resmini, L. 2000. The Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in the CEECs – New Evidence for Sectoral Patterns, Economics of Transition, vol. 8(3): pp. 665-689. Rohde, S., Cash, J. & Ammarman, K. 1990. Study of the Capital Access Program, Working Paper prepared by the Michigan Strategic Fund staff. Scaperlanda, A. E. & Mauer L. J. 1969. The Determinants of US Direct Investment in the EEC, The American Economic Review, vol. 59(4): pp. 558-568. Valente, C. N. & Esperança, J. P. 2005. Trends and Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment Outflows from Lower-High-Income Countries: The Case of Portugal, Paper presented at the 2005 1st Iberian International Business Conference. Veugelers, R. 1991. Locational Determinants and Ranking of Host Countries: An Empirical Assessment, KIKLOS, vol. 44(3): pp. 363-382.

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Pedestrian and Sidewalk Systems by Stuart Barker Stuart Barker is near graduation at Malaspina, specializing in the Urban Growth Management stream in Geography. He plans to seek a master’s degree in urban design or landscape architecture. He loves to travel and play soccer. Stuart was born and raised in Victoria, BC, and moved to Nanaimo to attend Malaspina.

Introduction professional and government offices. They should possess open spaces in the form of parks This literature review addresses pedestrian and plazas. Corbett stresses that on their own infrastructure and its importance in creating these spaces amount to little, however when complete and viable communities. connected together by-way-of sidewalks, the Many communities throughout the world have pedestrian can move about easily and is able to experienced dramatic growth over the past few gain safe access to all the town center’s decades. In this growth, most communities have offerings. Corbett also states that a well- focused on accommodating the automobile. As a connected pedestrian pathway not only creates a result, they have often neglected infrastructure better sense of space for its users, but can greatly for other modes of transportation such as transit, increase economic activity in commercial areas cycling, and walking. as well. A review of the literature from Corbett and Carmona has provided a good basis for the There is growing concern throughout many parts importance of having a well-connected sidewalk of the world of the negative effect automobiles system. have, not only the natural environment, but also on social and economic realms as well The principal reason to improve a central areas (Christopherson, 2006). As a result, many cities pedestrian system is to attract customers by and towns are shifting away from planning making their experience more pleasurable. An around the automobile and instead putting increase in customers will eventually lead to increased emphasis on planning for pleasant and increases in sales and profits. Untermann (1984) efficient pedestrian systems. This literature states that it is generally accepted that with review thus focuses on promoting a more attention to parking, beautification, creating pedestrian-friendly urban environment. image and identity, and solving pedestrian problems can increase sales by 15 percent. The Importance of Sidewalks in Many communities face a situation where there Creating a Well-Functioning is little or no off-street connectivity between Central Area land-uses. It is not a matter of getting people to walk, many do, however; pedestrians are often Corbett (1981) defines a town center as being forced on to roadways to move about the city small, easily accessible by the residents of a creating an unsafe, non-pleasurable experience. community, and the focal point of much of the So what is it that pedestrians need? community’s commerce and social activity. The increased reliance on automobiles leads to urban Pedestrian Needs sprawl, which in turn, leads to deterioration of many of town centers. Heavy auto traffic has Pedestrians are the most important player within also made the town center a less pleasant place to the transportation network. It is thus crucial to be. identify exactly what pedestrians need. Mateo- Babiano (2005) examines the attributes of a Corbett states that one way of creating pleasant sidewalk environment that would encourage town centers is to place an increased emphasis higher utilization of streets. Mateo-Babaiano on pedestrian infrastructure, even going as far as identified a pedestrian need hierarchy, based on creating pedestrian-only areas within the center. the human need theory. The theory assumes that Corbett (1981) and Carmona (2003) both the attributes lower in hierarchy must be at least identify that for a town center to function well, it partially satisfied before attributes higher in should have a mix of shops, stores, businesses, order may become an important source of restaurants, sidewalk cafes, schools and motivation.

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Mateo-Babiano has constructed five levels of Standards for the Design of needs in the hierarchy. At the base of these needs Sidewalks is mobility. This refers to the amount of time and distance it takes to get from point A to point A definitive set of construction standards is B. It is essential to have pedestrian routes that critical for creating a high-quality sidewalk minimize the distance and time it takes to get system. Sidewalks that vary in design (height from one location to another. and width) create a potentially hazardous situation, forcing pedestrians to watch their Next, pedestrians need to feel protected, free footing instead of being visually stimulated by from danger or injury, such as pedestrian-vehicle the built environment. conflicts. Undoubtedly, cities, towns and villages have Third is pedestrian ease, which refers not only to different sets of building standards for sidewalks. comfort or convenience but also free of In addition, different standards for construction annoyances and problems. Examples of may apply depending on the type of road- obstacles to sidewalk use are sidewalks without whether it is a collector street, main street, or continuity, having steep inclines or being residential street. Lynch and Hack (1984), The difficult to access. Urban Land Institute (1960), Koppleman and Fourth is the need to enjoy the walking DeChiara (1975) agree that the absolute experience. This has to do with the quality of minimum width of a sidewalk should be three the environment and aesthetics of the urban feet (one meter). The height of the sidewalk environment. Do features of the built and natural should be between 6-8 inches to provide at least environments stimulate interest? Are there a minimum separation between the pedestrian shops, cafes, and entertainment options? If the and vehicle traffic. answer is “no” to either of these questions, it is Areas accustomed to greater amounts of likely that the pedestrians experience will be less pedestrian traffic require wider sidewalks. Core enjoyable. commercial areas typically require wider The final level has to do with identity. This sidewalks to accommodate for higher pedestrian refers to sense of place, sense of belonging and flows, thus ensuring a pleasurable walking the historical significance of a given area. This experience (Untermann, 1984). In lower-density comes in the form of such features as residential areas, narrower sidewalks may monuments, statues and historical buildings, all suffice. However, in most cases the wider the of which can add to an individual’s sense of better. Ultimately, it is up to the discretion of belonging and enhances one’s sense of place. town planners or engineers to identify the appropriate size. Other factors may also be Mateo-Babiano’s concept of the hierarchy of important to consider in the construction of pedestrian needs seems to cover all the sidewalks, such as the amount of available land, requirements necessary to encourage a positive or the amount of available funds. relationship between the pedestrian, and the built environment. However, Mateo-Babiano somewhat undermines the objective of the A different approach to planning: hierarchy of pedestrian needs by stating that the New Urbanism needs are not absolute and that the needs of The New Urbanism approach to planning pedestrians depend on various preconditions. emerged in the early 1980’s. The aim was to use Similar literature aimed at the pedestrian urban design to modernize historic urban environment (Calthorpe and Kelbaugh 1989; patterns (Ellin, 1996). Using physical design as Rodriguez 2003) identify all of the hierarchical a tool to improve the quality of life residents needs described above as being important within urban and suburban areas, the idea of new elements for the creation of effective pedestrian urbanism promotes the creation of diverse, systems, adding credibility to Mateo-Babaiano’s walkable, compact, mixed-use communities in an hierarchy of pedestrian needs. Much of the attempt to create complete communities (New literature in the realm of pedestrian systems Urbanism.org, ) fully understand the concept of acknowledge that mobility, protection, ease, new urbanism it is important to examine the ten leisure, and identity are all important facets in basic principles, as follows: creating a desirable pedestrian environment.

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• Walkability- Pedestrian friendly street projects in the United States seems to support design (buildings close to street, tree this statement. Steuteville (2002) found that of lined streets and on street parking), as 472 new urbanist developments either built, well as pedestrian only corridors under construction, or in the planning stage in • Connectivity- Providing a high quality the United States, 57 percent of these were pedestrian network and public realm greenfield developments and 43 percent were enhances the walking experience infill developments. So the question remains, can new urbanism be an effective tool in • Mixed-use and diversity revitalizing central areas? Deitrick and Ellis • Mixed housing (2004) examine four inner-city neighborhoods in • Urban design Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania that applied new urbanist design principles. The study is so fresh • Traditional neighborhood structure- that an overall conclusion cannot be reached on Create an evident center and edge of a the overall viability of the new urbanism town or neighborhood. Importance of approach. However, with a defined set of quality public spaces and civic art is principles and the number of users growing, new essential urbanism has established itself as a solid means • Increased density by which to plan inner city areas. • Transportation options- Pubic transit, In a time when we see the crumbling and demise bicycling, and walking of so many urban centers, the new urbanism • Sustainability approach is one of a few planning initiatives that attempts to turn back time. Taking us back to an • Quality of life era when downtowns thrived, when pedestrians This review will focus on the principles were able to move freely and safely through the regarding pedestrian systems and walkability of streets. For the purposes of this paper, by the urban environment. Because the concept is providing a set of design guidelines, the goal is relatively new (Garde 2006; Ellis 1996) positive to create an urban environment that provides for and negative effects of new urbanism are not yet civic art, a host of stores, shops and cafes, parks clear. and open spaces all of which walkers can access through a well-connected pedestrian network. For pedestrian systems, many positive effects have been identified. Rodriguez (2006) and Kunster (1996) argue that the new urbanist Conclusion approach to planning encourages residents to Many different elements are necessary for the engage in a greater amount of physical activity. creation of a walkable community. Central area Rodriguez compares two different businesses can benefit immensely from creating neighborhoods, one that incorporates a new a more pedestrian friendly environment. An urbanist approach to planning, the other, a examination of construction standards for neighborhood that is planned solely around the sidewalks identified that three feet is the absolute automobile. The findings showed that residents minimum width required to provide a suitable within the new urbanist walkable community pedestrian environment. However, where traveled far fewer vehicle miles and made more possible, communities should build wider walking trips than those residing in the sidewalks in key commercial areas to automobile dependant neighborhood. The accommodate heavier pedestrian traffic. Finally, reasons for this are many. Neighborhoods and new urbanism offers an alternative set of central areas that adhere to the new urbanist guidelines by which to plan communities. approach are geared towards the pedestrian, Instead of planning solely for the automobile, contain intriguing design features, have a well- new urbanism considers all modes of connected sidewalk system, higher population transportation. This prevents the dominance of densities, plethora of open spaces and parks, and the automobile and provides for a more provide a host of shops and stores within a five pleasurable walking experience. In any context, minute walk of their homes. sidewalks are vital for the well-being of the Some writers label new urbanism as a movement community and those who live within them. that only applies to suburbs (Marcuse 2000; Marshall 1996). The number of new urbanist

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References Urban Land Institute (1960). Community Builder’s Handbook. Washington, D.C.: The Calthorpe, P and Kelbaugh, D. (1989). The Institute. Pedestrian Pocket Book. NY, New York: http://www.newurbanism.org/pedestrian.html Princeton Architectural Press.

Calthorpe, P and Fulton, W. (2001). The Regional City. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Christopherson, R and Byrne, M. (2006). Geosystems: A Introduction to Physical Geography. Toronto, Canada: Pearson Education Inc. Corbett, M. (1981). A Better Place to Live: New Designs for Tomorrows Communities. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press. Deitrick, S and Ellis, C. (2004). New Urbanism in the Inner City, Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(4), pp.426-442. Ellin, N. (1996). Postmodern Urbanism. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Garde, Ajay. (2006). Designing and Developing New Urbanist Projects in the United States: Insights and Implications, Journal of Urban Design, 11(1), pp. 33-54. Koppelman, L. and DeChiara, J. (1978). Site Planning Standards. New York, N.Y.: McGraw- Hill. Kunster, James. (1996). Home From Nowhere. NY, New York: Shuster Inc. Lynch, K and Hack, G. (1984). Site Planning. 3d ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mateo-Babiano, Iderlina. (2005). Theoretical Discourse on Sustainable Space Design: Towards Creating and Sustaining Effective Sidewalks, Env.14, 300-314. Published online at (www.interscience.wiley.com). NewUrbanism.org. (2007) Information Website. (http://www.newurbanism.org/pedestrian.html). Rodriguez, D et al. (2006). Can New Urbanism Encourage Physical Activity? American Planning Association 72(1), pp.43-52. Steuteville, R. (2002). New Urbanism Rocks, Despite Sluggish National Economy. New Urban News, pp.1. Untermann, R. (1984). Accommodating the Pedestrian: Adapting Towns and Neighborhoods for Walking and Bicycling. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.

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Streets and Traffic Management by Ryan Watson

Ryan Watson is completing his fourth year in Geography at Malaspina. After graduation, he plans to pursue a diploma in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Introduction al., 2006). As part of the urban framework, traffic management encompasses and overlaps As becomes more and more other policy areas, such as parking, revenue, and dependant on the automobile, towns like Orange beautification. An example of integration, May Walk are facing a large influx of vehicle traffic. et al. mention the implementation of “park and Orange Walk’s streets were built during a time ride” facilities in order to encourage the use of a when today’s traffic volumes were not foreseen, newly established bus or rail line, with each making it difficult to accommodate current measure positively reinforcing the other. A demands. This has resulted in increased traffic traffic-related example would be introduction of congestion, reduced safety of users (motorists, traffic calming or speed reducing features along pedestrians, and cyclists), and loss of main streets to encourage through traffic to take accessibility and efficiency. This paper discusses the alternative bypass route around a town. several articles pertaining to traffic control and management in a search for potential low-cost or Attard (2005) also calls for sustainability and a no-cost solutions to the traffic problems. forward-looking approach to land use planning as it pertains to transportation. Attard also Rapid Automobile Dependence highlights barriers to the implementation of such traffic planning policies that, similar to Belize, and Integration include lack of funding, lack of organization In studies of Malta, Attard (2005) stresses the and/or cooperation between the different levels importance of an integrated transport system. of government, and the reluctance by the better- This means ensuring that adequate public and off to ride crowded buses, opting instead for the alternative modes of transit are available, and privacy and status symbol of a car. Attard then that adequate pedestrian and cyclist suggests public awareness and pressure on the infrastructure exists, with the intention of government by citizens can be a catalyst for reducing the numbers of cars on the road. These solutions to such problems encountered in Malta approaches seem like excellent, if obvious, ideas as well as other parts of the world. in theory, but their implementation may be of little use in developing countries. Walking and Curbing Congestion cycling already tend to be extremely common methods of getting around these countries, and This review analyzed several sources to learn many towns are too small for town-run public why problems of congestion arise. Attard (2004) transit systems to be feasible. The “integrated found that limited space and high costs of public approach” also fails to address situations where transport were causes of congestion in Malta major highways also serve as main streets, (Attard, 2004). Arnott et al. (2007) note the meaning that there is likely a great number of effects of limited parking availability, which vehicles that pass through the town are not often forces motorists to “cruise” until space actually local traffic. This applies to Queen becomes available rather than simply parking Victoria Avenue in Orange Walk. some distance further away from their destination; this leaves more cars on the road Integration of traffic planning also refers to than need be at any given time. strategic linkages between transportation and land use planning and other policy areas (for Hours of business operation are the same among example, education). It uses tools and measures most businesses in larger centers, creating a rush from the different approaches to meet achieve hour at the beginning and end of each workday. common goals in multiple policy areas (May et This affects downtown areas with dense clusters of retail and service establishments and

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 70 Literature Reviews 71 institutions. These areas often become time and inconvenience to motorists, which, in impassable during the times such as the end of many cases, ends up causing difficulties for school days or the start of banking hours pedestrians. For example, traffic signals are (especially on paydays). often timed for the benefit of cars, and pedestrian rights-of-way are reduced when road expansion Staley and Balaker (2007) put the blame for takes place. Trade-off between vehicle and congestion directly on planners and policy pedestrian traffic thus needs to be balanced makers themselves, harbouring a “wishful during the planning process. Ishaque and Nolan thinking” approach in their encouraging alternate also discuss pedestrian compliance and how long modes of travel. These often prove less efficient walkers are willing to wait for a cross signal at than the automobile, congestion notwithstanding. an intersection before simply crossing when it With efforts and funds focused on these types of may be unsafe to do so. Where there are limited projects, the road networks themselves tend to be or no pedestrian controls at intersections, neglected, and are, as a result, not upgraded at a pedestrian wait times on busy streets could be rate that is consistent with projected growths in rather long. This leads to frustration and the volumes of vehicle traffic. impulse to just take a chance and cross the street Many suggestions to alleviate congestion in the when it may not be safe to do so. Such aspects of literature are more suitable for major cities in the road safety must be carefully weighed when developed world. Some, however, could be completing a traffic plan for a community. A adapted to the existing street system of smaller relatively safe and efficient way of incorporating towns. Simply expanding road capacity is often the need for pedestrians to cross major streets not financially or spatially possible in developing would be to incorporate the prominent median countries. Staley and Balaker (2007) suggest feature, using it and its gaps officially as that better management of existing street systems pedestrian refuge, allowing pedestrians to cross might reduce congestion. This would include, to the middle when safe, and crossing the other for example, redesignation of some one and two half when it becomes safe to do so. An example way streets and better timing or coordination of is Queen Victoria Avenue in Orange Walk. traffic control devices. An example would be Ishaque and Nolan call this technique the installation of traffic lights at busy intersections staggered pedestrian-phase scenario, and cite it or implementing a pay parking system to as the best road-crossing alternative in terms of discourage motorists from making unnecessary delays for both vehicles and those on foot. trips into key areas. Accessibility Safety Some communities have established pedestrian- Safety of motorists and pedestrians is a concern only areas. An issue for this approach is the in all parts of the world. Serious accidents effects on accessibility vehicles to parts of the inevitably result from excessive speeding, lack of town and on businesses. Castillone and Hasan traffic control devices, and a lack of sufficient (1998) cite many reasons often given for the pedestrian infrastructure. Brindle (1997) closure of a street, such as excessive speed, discusses ways of applying such traffic calming numbers of vehicles, safety, and so on. They measures to slow traffic down and keep drivers also suggest things to consider when deciding alert as they navigate the streets. Brindle whether to close a street or not, such as access, describes methods such as the establishment of effect that the excess traffic will have on physical barriers and streetside landscaping (such adjoining streets, significance of traffic problems as median greenery and pedestrian ramps in enough to warrant closure. They describe ways Belize), and the closing of particular streets to of balancing the residents’ own concerns and vehicle traffic altogether. Brindle also stresses what they would like to see happen with the importance of designating streets, where feasibility, cost, and municipal concerns. possible, into the urban street hierarchy, for Alternatives to street closures, such as traffic assigning specific calming measures to streets of calming measures, are also put forth, as they appropriate scale. make it clear that significant negative impacts often arise from the closure of streets. Many of Ishaque and Nolan (2007) suggest careful these effects relate to residential neighbour- consideration of the pedestrian population when hoods, but downtown areas may still benefit. completing traffic planning and analysis. Often, excessive attention is paid to minimizing wait

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Creating a Traffic Plan Summary Much literature of the literature on traffic Several key ideas arise from the articles above, management and planning comes from a including: Western and developed world perspective. It is therefore important to consider this context in • Integration between traffic management and applying these approaches, including factors land use, as well as other policy areas such as finance, culture, technology, and others. • Limitation of traffic volumes in areas where Xiaoyan et al (2006) lay out a step-by-step guide road expansion is not feasible for creating such a plan. The authors identify six • Application of traffic calming measures key policy objectives that to consider as parts of • Consideration of pedestrians as they relate to a whole: economic efficiency, liveable streets vehicle traffic and neighbourhoods, environmental protection, equity and social inclusion, safety, and • Consideration of vehicle accessibility contribution to economic growth. Each of these through town objectives are measured using an agreed upon • Meeting of defined traffic goals and indicator, such as numbers of accidents, objectives emissions, or travel times. Using these objectives • Use of appropriate indicators in evaluating and indicators, traffic planners can focus on effectiveness meeting defined goals in a more effective manner than the traditionally used cost-benefit analysis tool, which tends to shift the emphasis Conclusion away from the users of the system and their well Though most articles on the topic of traffic being. Although designed for , some management come from a western metropolitan of the guidelines would be useful in a Belizean perspective, many of the basic principles still context. have much value when considering the problems Ferrari (1999) seeks ways of taxing the users of of Orange Walk Town. Though it might be urban road systems by using tolls, cardons, smaller, the same traffic problems that appear ticketing, or other forms of fee payments to elsewhere in the world also crop up in Orange address street conditions such as congestion, Walk, but simply on a smaller scale. The traffic road quality deterioration, and noise. However, policy analysis for the town will carefully in a developing country city, imposing such fees consider these lessons. would be nearly impossible logistically and would likely cause dissent from residents. He References suggests that throwing money at the streets to Attard, M. (2005). Land transport policy in a make them wider or otherwise “better” without small island state - the case of Malta. Transport considering surrounding land uses or street users Policy. 12, 23-33. would not solve any road network problems. This is not the case, as there are numerous other Brindle, R. (1997).Traffic calming in Australia - ways to improve an existing road network. more than neighbourhood traffic management. Institute of Transportation Engineers. ITE In discussing planning for traffic around an Journal. 67, 26-34. existing built environment, van de Coevering and Schwanen (2006) correlate traffic levels in Castellone, A. J., & Hasan, M. M. (1998). urban areas to factors such as numbers of Neighborhood traffic management: Dade parking spaces, population density, age of County, Florida's street closure experience. surrounding buildings, socioeconomic situation, Institute of Transportation Engineers ITE household size, employment in area, and Journal. 68, 28-34. numerous others. In analyzing these factors, one can not only determine how much traffic a Ferrari, P. (1999).A model of urban transport management. Planning Policy. 33, 43-56. particular area might be expected to have at a given time of day, but also gain somewhat of an Ishaque, M. M., & Noland, R. B (2007). Trade- understanding of the reasons why cars and their offs between vehicular and pedestrian traffic occupants go where they do. This further using micro-simulation methods. Transport highlights the crucial link between traffic Policy. 14, 124-138. management and land use planning.

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Ison, S (2007).Alleviating urban traffic congestion, by Richard Arnott, Tilmann Rave, and Ronnie Schob. Journal of Regional Science. 47, 644-646. May, A. D., Kelly, C., & Shepherd, S. (2006). The principles of integration in urban transport strategies. Transport Policy. 13, 319-327. Staley, S., & Balaker, T. (2007). How traffic jams are made in city hall. Reason. 38, 30-38. van de Coevering, P. & Schwanen, T. (2006). Re-evaluating the impact of urban form on travel patterns in Europe and North America. Transport Policy. 13, 229-239. Xiaoyan, Z., Paulley, N., Hudson, M., & Rhys- Tyler, G. (2006). A method for the design of optimal transport strategies. Transport Policy, 13, 329-338.

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Parking by Luke Letham Luke Letham is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Geography - Urban Growth Management. He graduates at the end of this year and intends to look for a career as a planner with special interests in community planning, transportation planning and urban design. Luke is from Terrace BC and currently lives in Nanaimo, BC.

Introduction residential and non-residential neighborhoods where parking lots line the street and garage This literature review examines parking facades are buffered by parked cars in wide regulations, standards and procedures in North driveways (WCEL, 2007). America, concentrating on literature of the past five years. Parking Strategies Every time a vehicle moves, it requires parking Everyone within the community will benefit at its destination. This makes parking facilities a from parking planning, including business vital component of the roadway system. People owners, employees, and customers. Accessible look for convenient and affordable parking. parking is always an attractive marketing However, parking that is difficult to find, message drawing customers to downtown areas inadequate, inconvenient, or expensive will (Rich, 2007). Not only do businesses benefit frustrate users. This in turn contributes to from it but the whole city or town does as well. spillover parking problems in other areas. Most A parking plan also helps reduce traffic city planning requirements speak of parking lots congestion in many cases. This can be done by in terms of demand, for example how many situating parking spaces and garages off busy spaces are needed per housing unit or hotel room streets and near bus terminals, subways stations or square foot of office space. The public is not and other forms of public transportation. Also, fooled though as they see parking lots as ugly with evenly distributed parking areas, traffic but they are a fact of life and an accepted eyesore congestion will be reduced and there will be an (Miller, 1992). increase in public safety, which in turn benefits everyone, mainly businesses. Some parking Problems with Parking strategies include: Parking is increasingly becoming an issue lately ƒ Sharing parking between different uses, for because of our dependence on the automobile example an office and a restaurant, that and the continued growth in car ownership. This require parking at different times of the day makes communities less pedestrian friendly. ƒ Locating parking lots or stalls behind People will not walk though if there is abundant buildings to minimize the impact of parking and unpriced parking. However, solutions are on neighborhoods being created for these problems (Kenney, ƒ Setting back garages from the front façade 2004). of the house. This will ensure that building Increasing parking and excessive asphalt is not entrances are accessible always the answer. Constructing parking lots is ƒ Allowing businesses to count nearby on- expensive and money being used on these street parking as part of their parking projects could otherwise be used on more useful requirements projects such as community centers or downtown ƒ Using minimum and maximum parking revitalization. The trend of building big box standards to ensure that adequate parking is retail outlets and malls has also catered to the provided but not overbuilt automobile and sapped business from downtown areas. Large parking lots also have ƒ Encourage on-street parking to increase environmental impacts, take up vast amounts of safety by buffering pedestrians from moving space, and replace more efficient land uses. traffic and slowing traffic (WCEL, 2007) Aesthetics is also a concern as big parking lots replace beautiful parks and aesthetically pleasing tree-lined streets. This is not happening in

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Figure 1: Peak Parking Demand hundreds of dollars per space in annualized costs, increasing business overhead costs, and taxes that are ultimately passed on to customers Weekday Peaks and citizens. Banks Another solution is to add remote parking areas. Schools This means developing additional parking where Distribution facilities land is relatively inexpensive and available (off- Factories site parking for an individual building or facility, Medical clinics or fringe parking for a commercial district). Incentives and information need to provided to Offices encourage longer-term parkers (particularly Professional services commuters) to use the remote parking. Some Evening Peaks ways to accomplish this can include signs, brochures, pedestrian improvements, shuttle Auditoriums services, free transit zones, regulations Bars and dance halls (particularly limits on the length of time a Meeting halls vehicle can be parked at more convenient spaces) Restaurants and pricing (remote parking is unpriced or relatively inexpensive) (TDM, 2007). Overall, Theatres this option is less expensive than increasing Weekend Peaks central area parking supply. It allows for use of otherwise unused land, such as odd-shaped or Religious institutions contaminated parcels. By shifting parking spaces Parks and traffic, it allows increased density and Shops and malls reduces traffic impacts in central areas, improving efficiency and environmental quality. This table indicates peak parking demand for different land use types. Parking can be shared efficiently by Redesigning current parking facilities is another land uses with different peaks. option to maximize parking and make it more Parking prices are also an important part to efficient. Other suitable solutions for redesigning parking as they can be used to encourage existing parking facilities include using currently employees to park further away from their wasted areas like corners, edges, and un- workplace. This would then create more open developed land as well as reserving some spaces spaces for customer parking (Rich, 2007). for motorcycles and compact cars. Concentric parking rates are used to manage Another effective solution is to develop a plan to parking in downtown areas. By establishing deal with occasional periods of high demand different prices in various on-street lots, off- (such as busy shopping days, special events, or street lots, and municipal garages, parking will emergencies). This plan may include policies become easier and more efficient. Charging that prioritize use of parking. This would make higher rates in retail-rich downtown areas and the most convenient spaces available to gradually reducing rates away from commercial customers and rideshare vehicles, and direct centers tends to move those vehicles needing employees to use less convenient spaces. There long-term parking to lots further from the should also be information for motorists on valuable core areas (Rich, 2007). where to find additional parking, shuttle services and free transit zones, and special TDM Parking Solutions programs that encourages use of alternative modes (Chrest et al, 1990). Parking solutions are becoming more innovative as problems intensify and become more complex. One of the first options to look at Redevelopment would be to increase parking supply. To do this A variety of parking exceptions can encourage you would need to have developers, businesses rehabilitation and redevelopment of existing or governments build more parking facilities. areas. Major restoration projects, increased This practice is widely used and is quite residential development, and the introduction of acceptable politically. On the other hand, major traffic generators in older, developed areas developers, businesses or governments incur

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 75 Literature Reviews 76 have created a new interest in creative solutions Off-Site Parking to parking problems. Under some zoning ordinances, vehicles may use off-site parking where space is not available on Figure 2: A major traffic generator – hotels, site. Many communities also specify maximum offices, and convention facilities distances between any off-site parking facility and the land uses it is intended to serve. Off-site parking is used widely in older developed areas where small, multiple landowners, and physical restraints (sites broken up by alleys, easements, existing street patterns) prevent the construction of on site parking (Smith, 1992).

Parking Ratio Ordinances Parking Ratio Ordinances establish the minimum number of spaces a development project must provide for a given land use and project size. These ratios are typically drawn from generic parking generation rates. This means it ignores some site-specific and project-specific characteristics and other variables that would help to more accurately reflect market reality.

Figure 3: General Standards for Minimum Below are some examples of zoning provisions Parking Requirements that can enhance and encourage redevelopment projects.

Historic Preservation Significant tax credits and public investment in historic areas have contributed to major redevelopment projects. Since many of these landmarks predate the automobile, parking can be a major obstacle in reuse and rehabilitation.

Fees-in-Lieu of Parking In some business districts, communities allow for payments of fees-in-lieu of required off-street parking. Payments made by developers are typically based on the costs or a percentage of the cost of providing parking in these locations. By consolidating parking in centralized public lots or structures and allowing developers an alternative to providing parking on-site, a fee-in- Even though parking ratio ordinances are a lieu system can encourage in-fill development widely used tool by many local governments, and redevelopment in existing downtowns or there are many problems associated with the historic buildings. It can also improve the overall ratios and the subsequent oversupply of parking. efficiency of parking provision by addressing the By using these methods and regulating parking, needs of the area as a whole, rather than the it leads to vast expanses of parking. This in turn needs of each individual site (Smith, 1992). separates land uses, reduces densities, impairs walkability, and creates obstacles to providing transit and pedestrian friendly communities. From a developer’s perspective, inflated parking ratios reduce the development potential of a site,

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 76 Literature Reviews 77 requiring more land to be used for parking as http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/tss/research/zon opposed to a higher and better use, and adding alwaiting/ significant costs to development projects Ehrlich, R. and Steele, M. (2003). “Driving (Ehrlich, and Steele, 2003). Urban Environments: Smart growth parking Best practices.” Retrieved June 28, 2007 from, The Aesthetics of Parking http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/localgov/docs/sm Aesthetics are a vital key in creating effective art-growth-parking.pdf and proper planning for parking lots. Kenney, D. (2004). “How to Solve Campus Landscaping of parking lots is a way of Parking Problem Without Adding More maintaining community appearance and property Parking.” Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol.50 values (Smith, 1992). In many cases, Issue 29, 2p. landscaping is deleted from development plans because of unexpected construction costs or Miller, C. (1992). “Carscape.” Washington Street unanticipated space requirements for parking. Press: Indiana. This means that landscaping is usually looks like Rich, R. (2007). “Driving Business.” American an afterthought as the improvements become City & County, Vol. 122 Issue 6, 4p. awkwardly spread out over the building site. A good zoning code for parking focuses on all the Smith, T. (1992). “Flexible Parking details of appearance, including setbacks, Requirements.” American Planning Association: buffers, berms, trees, fencing, landscaping, Chicago. lighting, signage, and paving materials (Smith, Smith, T. (1992). “The Aesthetics of Parking.” 1992). American Planning Association: Chicago. Conclusion TDM Encyclopedia. (2007). “Parking Solutions.” Retrieved July 2, 2007 from, Management and planning of parking in central http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm72.htm business districts is essential when trying to control sprawl, congestion, and pedestrian safety. West Coast Environmental Law. (2007). “ Smart There are many problems that occur on our Bylaws Guide-Scale Parking to Neighborhood streets like: blocking of access to premises or Needs.” Urban Growth and Development. junctions by parked cars, roads obstructed by Retrieved June 27, 2007 from, double parked delivery vehicles, traffic flow http://www.wcel.org/issues/urban/sdg/Part4/park disrupted by vehicles ‘patrolling’ the area ing looking for parking spaces and local residents unable to find parking spaces close to their homes (DFT, 2005). Addressing parking issues is always a tough task as there are many different problems as well as solution. There should be policy that all land uses should be accompanied by a sufficient amount of off street parking so facilities can hit peak periods to maximize and control use. In contrast, there should not be an excessive amount of parking areas. Overall, parking is important when understanding other systems such as traffic flow, connectivity, and sidewalks and pedestrians.

References Chrest, A., et al. (1990). “Parking Structures.” Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York. Cunningham, J. (2006). “Stack Em’ Up High.” Professional Engeneering, Vol. 19 issue 10, 1p. Department for Transport. (2005). “Appendix A: Literature Review.” Retrieved July 1, 2007 from,

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Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by Rachel Birtwistle

Rachel Birtwistle is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Criminology. Her interests are crime prevention, drug and alcohol abuse, and offender services. Here career plan is to find a job in any one of her interest areas. She currently lives in Victoria, BC on the weekends and in Nanaimo during the week.

CPTED is the “proper design and effective use of the built environment that can lead to a History of CPTED reduction in the fear and the incidence of crime, “The study of crime and the environment has its and an improvement in the quality of life” origins in the 19th-century studies of dangerous (McCormick, 2006). “CPTED is an approach to places” (Cozens et al., 2002). “However, it was planning and development that reduces not until Newman’s defensible space that crime opportunities for crime. Communities, and design were seemingly empirically linked” neighborhoods, individual homes, and other (Cozens et al., 2002). Newman believed that a buildings, streets, and parks can all be made city or neighborhood would be better able to take safer through the application of design principles control and discourage crime in their area of that make it more difficult” to carry out criminal residence or work through altering physical and/or deviant acts (Royal Canadian Mounted design. Furthermore, he believed that alterations Police (RCMP), 2007). In essence, CPTED to the physical environment could affect the provides a common sense way to improve the selection of both crime site and criminal act of safety of one’s environment through deterring criminals. Overall, the idea behind defensible and preventing criminal and deviant behaviour space is that “the physical characteristics of an (Toronto Police Service, 2003; Jeffery, 1977). area can influence the behavior of both residents “CPTED provides the opportunity to design in and potential offenders” (Lab, 2004). crime prevention and design out crime” (Peel Newman outlines four elements of defensible Regional Police, 2007). CPTED is a primary space. The first is territoriality, which is a sense crime prevention program that focuses on of ownership over an area (Lab, 2004). removing or changing physical and social Territoriality encourages residents to interact and environmental factors that are thought to foster watch out for each other. Furthermore, it criminal and deviant behaviour (Lab, 2004). promotes a desire to look out for one’s Furthermore, it is both a proactive and reactive community. crime prevention strategy utilized by planners, law enforcement officials, security professionals The second element is natural surveillance, and everyday users of space (CPTED Ontario, which is “the ability to observe activity, whether 2003). “Emphasis is placed on the physical inside or outside without the aid of special environment, productive use of space, and devices” (Lab, 2004). In other words, behavior of people to create environments that surveillance is the ability of residents to observe are absent of environmental cues that cause one’s neighborhood without intention. opportunities for crime to occur” (CPTED The third element is image, which is “a Ontario, 2003). neighborhood having the appearance that it is not This essay will examine five aspects of CPTED. isolated and is cared for, and that resident’s will First, it discusses the history of CPTED. Second, take action” (Lab, 2004). This can be it explains the intermediate goals of CPTED. accomplished through regular garbage clean up, Third, it presents the physical design features of graffiti clean up and maintenance of an area. concern. Fourth, it assesses the applicability of The final element is milieu, which is “the CPTED in Belize. Last, it reviews CPTED in placement of a home, building, or community in third world countries. a larger area characterized by low crime” (Lab,

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2004, p.36). Newman argues that these four social cohesion through physical design features elements can be accomplished by altering the and building pride in the area” (Lab, 2004). physical environment (Lab, 2004). Defensible Furthermore, the goal “is to extend [a] sense of space and CPTED assumes that potential ownership from private space into semi-private offenders are influenced by costs and benefits of and even public spaces” (City of Victoria, 2004). an action (Lab, 2004). Thus, making alterations This can be accomplished through designing to the physical environment “may be one way to symbolic barriers through landscaping and bring about higher costs relative to benefits” designing spaces around buildings such as, (Lab, 2004). foundations, benches, playgrounds, arches and seating walls (City of Victoria, 2004). Newman had many elements of his theory correct; however, some areas need revision and expansion. Thus, CPTED was born. Essentially, Physical Design Features of CPTED is the revised and expanded version of Concern Newman’s defensible space theory. Kushmuk CPTED focuses on reducing the actual level of and Whittemore (Lab, 2004) made a number of crime and the perceived fear of crime by altering revisions. They argue that the effect of physical the environment. “CPTED can be applied to design changes on crime is indirect and operates identify and remove potential problems in through four intermediate goals (Lab, 2004). proposed developments. It can also be used to These will be outlined below. correct existing design problems that may invite crime” (RCMP, 2007). Some changes in the Intermediate Goals of CPTED physical environment that CPTED suggests are Four intermediate goals underlie CPTED. Proper lighting, surveillability, closed –circuit implementation of all four goals can result in a television, property identification programs, reduction in crime and fear of crime (RCMP, alarms, locks, doors, other access factors, street 2007). The first goal is access control, which is layout and traffic. The following sections discuss “the ability to regulate who comes and goes from the effectiveness of each of these. an area or building, with the intent of limiting Lighting access to legitimate users” (Lab, 2004). This can be accomplished by “using physical barriers, According to the CPTED Guidelines, adequate security devices and tamper-resistant materials” lighting is effective in reducing both crime and (RCMP, 2007). fear of crime (City of Victoria, 2004). Lighting can have an effect on crime levels and the fear of The second goal is surveillance, which is crime through many ways (Lab, 2004). “For “actions that enhance the ability of legitimate example, lighting may lead to increased outdoor users to observe the presence of others and their activity and, in turn, greater surveillance. activities” (Lab, 2004). This can be Lighting may also enhance the ability to detect a accomplished through allowing a clear, crime in progress or identify an offender” (Lab, unobstructed view of surrounding areas; 2004). “Good street lighting provides security clustering dwelling units, creating visible entries and can prevent accidents, as well as facilitate and walkways; using see-through fencing; using vehicular and pedestrian flow” (City of Victoria, white or light colored paints; putting up windows 2004). “Advocates often point to the deterrent wherever possible; placing activity generators potential of lights, which may make potential such as playgrounds and coffee shops wherever offenders choose less well-lighted areas for their possible; and using guards and security cameras crimes. Lighting should allow potential victims whenever feasible (City of Victoria, 2004). to see their surroundings and may lead them to The third goal is activity support, which is avoid less well-lit locations” (Lab, 2004). “functions that assist and enhance interaction Overall, a number of studies have been done to between citizens and other legitimate users in the test the effectiveness of lighting and results look community” (Lab, 2004). This can be promising (Lab, 2004). accomplished by encouraging the use of public Surveillability space and by creating local events that involve the community (RCMP, 2007). Surveillability has an impact on three areas; prospect, refuge and escape (Lab, 2004). The final goal is motivation reinforcement, which is “enhancing feelings of territoriality and

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Prospect refers to the ability of individuals 2004). Therefore, despite the fact that it needs to to see an area. Refuge deals with the be tested more, there is some positive feedback. presence or absence of concealment, in which offenders could hide from potential Alarms victims. Escape addresses the ability of both offenders and victims to escape from an area “Alarms represent another possible deterrent to before or after an offence. In essence, offending” (Lab, 2004). The effectiveness of physical design features that affect alarms has been tested, and has revealed that surveillability should alter both fear and they are a strong deterrent for criminal activity victimization levels’ (Lab, 2004, p.43). (Lab, 2004). There are two types of surveillability. The first is Locks, Doors, Bars and Related passive surveillance, which is the ability of users Access Factors to observe their area of work or residence throughout the course of their day (CSIR “Access control can be improved through the Building and Construction Technology, 2007). installation of various devices that make entry The second is active surveillance, in which more difficult” (Lab, 2004). Examples of this are police and security officials conduct formal “using physical barriers, security devices and surveillance (CSIR Building and Construction tamper-resistant materials to restrict entrance” Technology, 2007). Overall, many of the studies (RCMP, 2007). “These will not eliminate crime, that have been conducted on the effectiveness of but a motivated offender will need to work surveillability have revealed that “surveillability harder and find more effective ways of gaining has an impact on both crime and fear of crime” entrance” (Lab, 2004). This is known as target- (Lab, 2004). hardening (RCMP, 2007). Target-hardening methods and access control factors have been Closed-Circuit Television quite effective in deterring crime (Lab, 2004). Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) is in essence, Street Layout and Traffic a camera that is placed in an area of choice that reports an image to a screen or television, so that The layout of streets and flow of traffic has an the viewer can see what is going on in the area effect on crime. Street layout and traffic affect where the camera has been placed. The crime “through the accessibility that potential camera(s) are usually placed in such areas as offenders have to an area. Dead-end streets, cul- elevators, public lobbies, parking lots, garages de-sacs, one-way streets, and street entrances and stores (Lab, 2004). This gives residents, that project a private atmosphere are assumed to store owners, and security officials the peace of cut down on the level of use by strangers and mind of knowing what is going on around them. increase the presence of legitimate users” (Lab, The studies that have been conducted to test the 2004). Through reviewing the effectiveness of effectiveness of CCTV have revealed that CCTV street layout and traffic, it has become apparent does not have an impact on the level of crime or that dead-end streets, cul-de-sacs and one-way the fear of crime in the areas which they are streets actually do experience less crime and located (Lab, 2004). residents are less fearful of crime (Lab, 2004). Property Identification Programs Overall, it is apparent that many of the changes to the physical environment outlined by CPTED “The basic idea behind such programs is to make have proven to be effective in combating both it more difficult for offenders to dispose of actual crime levels and perceived crime levels. marked items” (Lab, 2004). The property Thus, most of the recommendations made by identification program is a good idea, however, CPTED should be considered during the not enough people have participated in it and not implementation process. However, the enough testing has been done to say whether it is effectiveness of each physical design feature effective or not (Lab, 2004). Even though the does vary from case to case. Thus, the effectiveness of the program is unknown, two effectiveness of CPTED in a country such as positive results are known. “First, the programs Belize in which it has not been tested or piloted seem to engender good police-community before is uncharted territory and therefore the relations due to heavy police involvement in the effectiveness of each physical design feature programs. Second, it appears to introduce people may vary. to the broader realm of crime prevention and leads to other crime prevention activities” (Lab,

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CPTED in Developing Countries most effective when implemented in communities that have a strong sense of One of the most exciting aspects of CPTED is its collective efficacy (RCMP, 2007; Lab, 2004). ability to improve the quality of life in Collective efficacy is definitely present in many developing countries (Kruger et al., 2004). Belizean communities. This is evident in the Because CPTED involves inexpensive common- number of volunteers that take part in the sense solutions to practical environmental Citizens on Patrol Programs and the problems, it is often successful in developing Neighborhood Watch Programs. Third, many of countries. Overall, CPTED has been successfully the physical changes that CPTED suggests, such implemented in many countries such as Chile, as lighting, surveillability, locks, doors, other Brazil, Columbia, South Africa and Jamaica access features, street layout and traffic could all (Kruger et al., 2004; Kruger, 2007; Public Policy be easily and effectively implemented. Fourth, of Crime and Violence Prevention, 2007). CPTED has been implemented in other CPTED has also been successfully implemented developing countries and has been quite in many developed countries such as the UK, successful. USA, Canada, The Netherlands and Australia (CSIR Building and Construction Technology, Conclusion 2007). The common denominator throughout all In conclusion, CPTED would have major of the countries in which CPTED has been benefits for Orange Walk Town. Overall, the successfully implemented is the acceptance and proper design and effective use of the built effort put out by the people that reside there. environment could lead to a reduction in the fear Therefore, if CPTED is to work in a country and incidence of crime, and an improvement in such as Belize, the people must be an integral the quality of life of many Belizeans. In addition, part of the implementation process (Kruger, communities, neighborhoods, individual homes, Stephens, Vargas, 2004). For example, the buildings, streets, and parks could all be made fundamentals of CPTED must be taught to law safer through the application of design principles enforcement officials, security professionals, that make it more difficult to carry out criminal community/city planners and everyday users of and deviant acts (RCMP, 2007). space. This can be accomplished through informal and formal educational classes explaining that “proper design and effective use References of the built environment… can lead to a Cozens, P., Hillier, D., Prescott, G. (May 2002) reduction in the fear and the incidence of crime, Criminogenic Associations and Characteristic and an improvement in the quality of life” of British Housing Designs (Electronic version) residents of Belize (McCormick, 2006). International Planning Studies, 7(2), 119-136. Furthermore, the main features of CPTED and each feature’s effectiveness must be explained. CPTED Ontario (2002) Crime Prevention Once the community has a knowledge base of Through Environmental Design. Retrieved what CPTED consists of, then they can partake February 5, 2007, from in the CPTED process, and thus increase its http://www.cptedontario.ca/. probability of being successful. CSIR Building and Construction Technology Applicability of CPTED in Belize (2007) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Retrieved June 12, 2007, CPTED is a cheap and effective means of crime from prevention, and would be a viable option for http://www.cpted.co.za/cpted_summary.pdf. Belizean communities. CPTED would likely be successful in reducing both crime and fear of Design Center for CPTED Vancouver (2003) crime. There are a number of reasons why Design Center for CPTED. Retrieved March 4, CPTED is likely to be successful. First, because 2007, from http:www.designcenterforcpted.org/ CPTED can be accomplished with a small Pages/EnvCrim.html. budget, it is likely to be accepted by the town Kruger, T. (2001) CPTED in a Developing councils and law enforcement officials. Country. Retrieved June 12, 2007, from Furthermore, it is likely that since CPTED www.csir.za/websource/ptl0002/docs/boutek/aka consists of inexpensive common-sense solutions ni/2001/nov/cpted.pdf. to crime that a great difference can be made within a short time span. Second, CPTED is

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Kruger, T., Stephens, R., Vargas, M. (2004) Practice, and Conflict (Electronic version) Public Participation in Developing Countries. Journal of Architectural &Planning Research, Retrieved June 12, 2007, from 22(4), 271-357. http://www.buildnet.co.za/akani/2004/nov/pdfs/t The City of Victoria (2004) Crime Prevention hirdworldcountries.pdf. Through Environmental Design. Retrieved Lab, S.P. (2004). Crime Prevention: February 5, 2007, from www.city.victoria.bc.ca/ Approaches, Practices and Evaluations (5th ed.). common/pdfs/planning_cepted.pdf. Anderson Publishing. Toronto Police Service (2003) Crime Prevention Lilly, J.R., Cullen, F.T., Ball, R.A. (2002). Through Environmental Design. Retrieved Criminological theory: context and February 5, 2007, from http://www. consequences (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: torontopolice.on.ca/crimeprevention/environmen Sage. tal.pdf. McCormick, J. (May 2006) Designing Against Crime (Electronic version) Parks & Recreation, 41(5), 34-39. Parnaby, P. (January, 2006) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design: Discourses of Risk, Social Control, and Neo-liberal Context (Electronic version) Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 48(1), 1-19. Peel Regional Police Force (2007a) A Safer Community. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from www.peelpolice.on.ca. Peel Regional Police Force (2007b) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from www.peelpolice.on.ca. Peel Regional Police Force (2007d) Modular Lotting: The Trelawny Experience. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from www.peelpolice.on.ca. Peel Regional Police Force (2007c) Physical Security Wrapped in CPTED Clothing. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from www.peelpolice.on.ca. Public Policy of Crime and Violence Prevention (2007) Regional and National Approaches. Retrieved June 12, 2007, from http://sitesources.worldbank.org/INTHAITI/Res ources/CaribbeanC&VChapter10.pdf. Royal Canadian Mounted Police (2007) An Introduction to Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Retrieved February 5, 2007, from http://www.safecanada.ca/ link_e.asp?category=2&topic=14. Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) (2007) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Retrieved February 5, 2007, from http://www.safecanada.ca/link_e.asp?category=2 &topic=14. Schneider, R. (2005) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design: Themes, Theories,

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Public Spaces by Shawna Carrieres Shawna Carrieres is a fourth Year Malaspina Student graduating with a major in the Urban Growth Management stream in Geography and another major in Comparative History. After graduation she plans to pursue graduate studies to further her career options. Her hometown is Victoria BC and she currently resides in Nanaimo BC.

This literature review explores the importance of (2001) consider the best form for great public good public spaces within a community. Orange spaces would be to use open and abandoned Walk Town is a vibrant place with many places to remove traffic, reduce reliance on cars attractive public spaces that can be enjoyed by and create attractive spaces for people to use. all members of society. To improve on the Public space within a town should be socially public’s view and community pride in Orange inclusive and not simply cater to one type of Walk it is very important to consider citizen’s citizen. According to Swanwick et al. (2001), wishes for public spaces. This review argues that children primarily use spaces for play, which public spaces are important in creating a healthy promotes their social development, living environment for the community. It understanding, creativity, confidence and encourages the decision makers and citizens of interaction as they grow. This also gives their Orange Walk to continue the already well- caretakers opportunities to be involved in various established work on creating a variety of spaces forms of public interaction. that enhance healthy development in the town. Public space is a very good tool for natural Good public spaces will promote development in surveillance of street activities (Jacobs, 1961). all levels of the town’s development. Enhancing This can lead to fewer social problems while well-established public spaces will create an improving interactions among people. Jacobs is environment for improvement in business fronts, most famous for the concept of “eyes on the streets and connectivity, tourism, community street.” This means people are using public involvement and pride. This review elaborates on spaces and watching what goes on there, thus the importance of public spaces and illustrates less crime will occur within the area. Public that public spaces must be focal points of a space can be accessible by creating spaces that community. are sensitive to local needs while enhancing safety and security. Run-down areas can become Why are Public Spaces so more attractive for public use and will encourage Important? the people to use areas surrounding public space Public space can create beneficial public use; more frequently. This could mean that more boost civic pride; create more energy efficient people shopping in the shops and markets around land uses, avoid polluting developments; and South Park at more times of the day, week and encourage the understanding of town’s heritage. year. This would improve the business income Impacts of good public spaces include contact in the area. with nature, opportunities for exercise, and Along with the social impacts of public space, involvement in social, cultural and community businesses within the town will prosper from activities. All of these are beneficial to people’s public space improvements. DoE and ATCM physical and mental health and encourage social (1997) found empirical evidence to suggest that interaction and education opportunities. Public well planned, implemented and maintained urban spaces create more opportunities for social space improvements can have a positive impact interaction such as sporting activities, chatting in on the trading performance of most town centre appropriate areas, meeting to play in the park. businesses. Modest improvements will be These activities will occur more frequently in sufficient to offset the costs of most schemes, higher quality environments. without taking into account other benefits such The quality of space influences the nature of as reduced crime and accidents, and increased social and other activities. Space establishes the private sector investment. Good public spaces framework for these activities. Gehl and Gemzøe

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of movement, legibility, adaptability, and diversity in uses. The USA-based Project for Public Places, Inc. (2000) is a non-profit organization that offers technical assistance, research, education, planning and design. The project includes data form over 1,000 public space projects. It found that successful public spaces include four main functions: ƒ access and linkages ƒ purpose and activities ƒ comfort and image Figure 1: Queen Elizabeth Park, Orange Walk ƒ sociability Town The project suggests many public places fail due create an attraction of investment (Council of to Europe 1986) which creates employment opportunities; support for tourism; and increases ƒ a lack of places to sit and areas to gather in property value for both residential and ƒ poor entrances and visually inaccessible commercial property. McAnespie (1999) spaces indicated that 48 percent would pay more for ƒ features that are not functional like unused property located close to a green space or open water features or playground areas space. Birkenhead Park, Merseyside and Central ƒ paths do not direct people to go where Park, New York are well known examples of people want to go public parks that have been catalysts for investment (Council of Europe 1986). ƒ domination of a place by vehicles and parking in the central area (see Letham section); What Makes Good Public Spaces ƒ blank walls without public art (see Sandner Characteristics of good public space depend section) or dead zones around the edges of a upon the user and the purpose of the space. place However, there have been several attempts to ƒ inconveniently located transport stops (see draw up generic lists of what do make good Watson section) public spaces. The above sources seem to create an image of what creates good public spaces and ƒ a lack of things ‘going on’ shows that some trends seem to all be the same. Urban public space can often lack places for CABE and DETR (2001, 2000) analyzed the sitting and relaxing; and things to watch other characteristics of successful public space and people or a water feature (Hass-Klau, 1999; provide various objectives for good urban design Hass-Klau 1990). Public spaces are often a calm and public spaces. These objectives can create setting that serves as a refuge from hot very important environments where people can temperatures. Adding more trees adds to the gather, greet, interact and develop community appeal of the spaces, bringing both something to contacts and images. By considering what the admire and great sources of shade. This attracts general public views as important public spaces citizens and visitors to take more time to enjoy these characteristics can create. From various the areas around the public spaces like shops, sources most of these factors are quite common eateries and other important centers. across the board. The view that the public’s Further research has found that people want interest is of highest importance for creating clean streets with less litter, graffiti and traffic. these spaces is often neglected, but is strongly There is also concern about anti-social advocated (Alexander 1977; Lynch 1960). The behaviour, especially alcoholics in public spaces report suggests that successful streets, spaces, (Departments of Landscape and Geography, villages, towns and cities have common University of Sheffield 1994). This is discussed characteristics including: character, continuity in Birtwistle (see section) work on Crime and enclosure, quality of the public realm, ease Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). People have differing expectations of

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accessibility and usability of public spaces, thus traffic congestion needs to be considered. The entire community should have access to public spaces. Clearly all residents should be able to use public space. This will bring people together and boost community spirit of the town.

Conclusions From the literature, it is clear that public spaces need to be substantial focus of community planning in all communities. There are major benefits from improving and creating new public spaces. Luckily, Orange Walk already has abundant and beautiful public spaces and

rejuvenation of these spaces is not going to be an Figure 2: Shaded Park Benches in Queen Elizabeth overly trying task. With the obvious community Park, Orange Walk Town spirit in Orange Walk, it is possible for Orange parks, however, research in Britain from a panel Walk to create exemplary public spaces. With of civilians has shown (People's Panel – Wave 5 creativity, Orange Walk could become one of Research MORI 2000) that safety, cleanliness, Belize’s most desirable places to live and visit. tidiness and provision of separate areas for dogs is important. References Graffiti is now considered a quality of life crime Alexander, C. (1977) A Pattern Language, that causes people in public spaces to suffer (Ley Oxford: Oxford University Press. and Cybriwsky, 1974). Not only does graffiti have negative effects on social aspects of the Brantingham P. L. & P. J. Brantingham (1993). community but it also affects the economy of a Nodes, paths, and edges: Considerations on the town. It lowers property values and retail sales as complexity of crime and physical environment. people are less likely to shop in an area with Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 3-28. graffiti. Graffiti reduces enjoyment of public Buerger, M., E. Cohn, and A. Petrossino. 1995. spaces such as parkland and civic areas. It also Defining the hot spots of crime, operationalizing causes the area to look unsafe and makes people theoretical concepts for field research. In Crime concerned about their personal safety and place, J. Eck and D. Weisburd, eds. Monsey, (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1993). If graffiti NY: Willow Tree Press. is not removed promptly, the space invites more graffiti as the “tagger” is confident that their CABE and DETR (2001) The Value of Urban “tag” will be displayed for some time. Graffiti Design, London: Thomas Telford. sends out a message that “nobody cares” about Council of Europe (1986) Recommendation No. the area. This creates an open invitation for R (86) 11 of the Committee of Ministers to littering, loitering and more graffiti (Buerger et Member States on Urban Open Space, online at al., 1995). This is analogous to the ‘broken http://culture.coe.fr/infocentre/txt/eng/ercm8611. window theory’ that suggests that if you don’t htm (accessed on 06 November 2001). repair the first broken window on a street, more will be broken. Eventually, the process escalates Corsi, M. (2002). The child friendly cities until a ‘tipping point’ is reached and the initiative in Italy. [Electronic neighbourhood goes to ruin (Gladwell, 2000). version].Environment & Urbanization, 14(2), Thus it is very important to remove graffiti (and 169-179. From Urban Studies & Planning: A fix broken windows) as promptly as possible. SAGE Full-Text Collection database. Traffic congestion is commonly cited as a major Departments of Landscape and Geography, The and growing urban economic and environmental University of Sheffield (1994) Breaking the issue and also prevents good pedestrian Downward Spiral: Current and Future environments (Ewing, 1994). Pedestrian Responses of Children to their Town Centre, friendly environments are very important for Undertaken as part of the ‘Futuretown’ education

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 85 Literature Reviews 86 pack, sponsored by Boots the Chemist and Marks and Spencer plc. DETR and CABE (2000) By Design, Urban Design in the Planning System: Towards Better Practice, London: Thomas Telford. DoE and ATCM (1997) Managing Urban Spaces in Town Centers: Good Practice Guide, A report for the Association of Town Centre Management, sponsored by the DoE, London: The Stationary Office. Ewing, R. (1994). Residential street design: Do the British and Australians know something Americans don’t. Transportation Research Record, 1455, 53-62. Gehl, J. and Gemzøe, L. (2001) New City Spaces, Copenhagen: Danish Architectural Press. Gladwell, Malcolm. (2000). The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. Hass-Klau, C. (1990) The Pedestrian and the City, London: Belhaven Press. Hass-Klau, C., Crampton, G., Dowland, C. and Nold, I. (1999) Streets as Living Space: Helping Public Places Play their Proper Role, London: Landor. Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Future of Town Planning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Ley, David and Cybriwsky, Roman (1974). “Urban Graffiti as Territorial Markers”. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 64, 491-505. Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. McAnespie, K. (1999) Benchmarking and Performance Indicators for Best Value: Parks and Open Spaces, Reading: ILAM. MORI (2000) Consumer Focus for Public Services – People’s Panel Wave 5, March – April. Project for Public Spaces (2000) How to Turn a Place Around: A Handbook of Creating Successful Public Spaces, New York: Project for Public Spaces. Swanwick, C. Dunnett, N. and Woolley, H. (2001) Improving Urban Parks, Play Areas and Green Spaces: Interim Report on Literature Review, Unpublished, Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield.

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Community Image by Hayley Linton

Hayley Linton is a Geography major from the University of Victoria. Her interests include urban planning, natural resource management, and climatology. She currently lives in Victoria, BC.

There are many differ rent aspects of community buildings, as well as litter-free streets tend to image ranging from street trees, to public art to attract families and businesses and eventually the sidewalks. Many cities and towns post their neighbourhood will receive a good reputation as city’s improvement plans on the Internet for a nice, safe place to live. Dobson discusses this residents and other people to view. Some of cycle of events as “urban signaling”. Community these were very useful for identifying ideas for groups can prevent urban decay by forming Belizean communities. These articles and partnerships with schools and businesses, websites reviewed have many good ideas and painting over graffiti, and mowing lawns to possibilities in this review. create community networks that make things easier to accomplish as more people become Creating a Community Image involved. Dobson (2002) focuses on the built aspect of a Dobson (2002) focuses mainly on activities that community including the fences, building the community can take part in. It is applicable maintenance, architecture and signs. Communi- where a community is interested in helping ties are defined by what they look like. Many improve its image. Painting signs and murals towns and cities add special lampposts, signs, and creating groups to maintain the neighbour- gates, flags and clocks to their downtown area to hood will work if there is a large group of people give the area a distinctive feel. To be effective, who are willing to participate. This can enhance these landmarks should have a true connection the overall ambiance of a town. and meaning to the place. They should not be randomly chosen because they are distinctive. Moulton (1999) concludes that downtown must They should add to the unique atmosphere of the be a place with character and quality that makes place, not try to create it altogether. people want to live there. Neighbourhoods must have places for children to play, retail and food Dobson also mentions community signs. These shopping and the necessary services. Downtown signs can be placed at the boundaries between should feel safe and secure at night, and during each area of town and each area can have its own the day, and with more visitors and residents, a distinct sign. The signs can also help show successful downtown should be bursting with motorists where there are children playing and activity and interests anyway. A safe possibly ward off drug dealers; they might not environment and investor confidence are two enter the neighbourhood if they know it is full of necessary conditions to a successful downtown. mothers protecting their children. Moulton states that in order to be successful, the To create more camaraderie between town downtown area must also be accessible to all residents, people can get together and paint a forms of transportation including cars, trucks, mural on a blank area of a building or fence. buses, bikes, and pedestrians. This means that This not only gets residents to work together, but there must be adequate roads and sidewalks for also beautifies the town, thus creating a better people of all modes of transportation to enjoy. atmosphere for residents and tourists alike. Moulton states that there should also be various Crime and urban decay are also large factors in a amenities and attractions in or near the downward spiral of crime and urban decay. downtown area like sports stadiums or arenas to Once a community falls into disrepair, it tends to attract people. When there are more events held continue the journey downward until a major at stadiums or arenas, it gives people a reason to intervention occurs. Once criminals and drug look around the town and shop or eat dinner dealers move into the neighbourhood, the before or after the game. businesses and families tend to move out as quickly as possible. But well kept yards and

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Central Area Revitalization very dull atmosphere; adding colour and lush tropical plants can help to make streetscapes Miami’s Community Image Advisory Board is more inviting. A lack of trees is also a difficult responsible for making the Miami area beautiful, problem to solve, especially in downtown areas, safe – on roadways and on sidewalks, and since it is often coupled with the problem of attractive to tourists. Miami County receives having no space to plant any vegetation. In about $13.9 billion each year from overnight many communities, buildings are set too close to tourists, not to mention cruise ship tourists that the sidewalk or road to allow room for planting come through the Port of Miami. Therefore, to of trees or addition of flower boxes. continue attracting tourism revenue, the Community Image Advisory Board must ensure Davis (1999) discusses ways to go about that tourists can enjoy the beauty and overall revitalizing the downtown core of a town. ambiance of the area. Though the atmosphere of Projects can start as an idea to replace a Miami is not just maintained for tourists, it downtown area completely; including sidewalks, enhances the quality of life of the residents as traffic signals, streetlights, and public buildings. well. The economic status of a city is related to Alternatively, a project can be a systematic the physical condition and appearance of the improvement of each individual building in the community. Residents and tourists travel along streetscape to reach an eventual finished product. the highways and through the city on a regular These two approaches both help strengthen the basis, so these areas must leave a lasting downtown economy and provide a sense of impression on all those who use those spaces. community. Miami is well known as a beautiful subtropical In most downtown revitalization projects a core paradise with magnificent beaches and group of business owners, landowners, crystalline ocean, so the Community Image volunteers, city council members and others Advisory Board was created to uphold these become responsible for promoting the re- images. development of a downtown region (Davis, Some of the improvements the board has already 1999). In order to complete the project there completed include adding vegetation by several must be good communication between the overpasses and major roadways and adding volunteers, contractors, businesses and others plants and colour by sidewalks and public involved in the various aspects of the project. spaces. A few more of their goals for the future The revitalization group can be funded by both are: cleaning up the community by eliminating government grants, funds from business owners, garbage along roadways, adding more greenery and money raised by volunteers. to public spaces with high pedestrian and vehicle The preservation and reuse of old buildings is traffic to improve aesthetic environment, plan also a necessity for a good downtown (Moulton volunteer events to help with the government 1999). It does not have to be brand new; funded efforts. heritage buildings add character and originality While these are a few of the main goals of the to a downtown core. Both are important. A Community Image Advisory Board, there are downtown is never really finished. Projects and some setbacks as well. Some of these challenges improvements can always be made. to overcome include graffiti, litter, absence of Robertson and Hall (2001) state that public art colour, lack of trees, no space to plant foliage, has been increasingly added to downtown areas and hurricanes. as a means of urban revitalization since the Incorporation of these goals into a community’s 1980s; the incorporation of public art can be planning would greatly benefit a community. quite beneficial in a downtown area to add Less trash, more vegetation, and some volunteer beauty and colour to what could otherwise be a activities would strengthen the sense of place and bleak and drab downtown area. Public art sense of community for the residents as well as contributes to a sense of identity for a beautify the neighborhood. The setbacks are community and develops sense of place in also relevant. Though some trashcans would be residents of the area. It can also help address useful, litter will always be a problem, no matter community needs, have some educational value, how many trash receptacles are around. and promote social change. Sandner addresses Education about litter and its impacts on the public art (see section). environment are the best way to try to solve this. An absence of colour in the landscape creates a

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Some art, done by local artists, can give local In the UK, BID have been used in industrial artists exposure and advertise their name, which areas and many more non-town centre districts could lead to more income from sales. Overall, are expected in the future. The group of it increases the aesthetic environment of the area, stakeholders vote on the investments made with adds much-needed colour to otherwise gray the budget and decide all proposals in this cement downtown areas, and makes the overall manner. The BID gives local businesses a atmosphere of downtown much more inviting chance to make a difference that will benefit the and enjoyable. community. The additional cost of being a part of the district must be feasible in order to make Business Improvement Districts the investment worthwhile. Once they decide on the monthly or yearly rate, it is treated just like a Business Improvement Districts (BID) are a tax, and businesses within the defined boundary form of partnership that adds to the existing can accumulate debt if they do not pay. public services within a defined area. BID’s are groups of local property owners that pool their A BID has many benefits for the community, money to implement projects to better their businesses, local authorities and landowners. It community. The BID model has been intro- helps create a sense of community, attracts duced in at least eight countries so far: Australia, investment in the area, helps to provide Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Africa, the sustainable investment for projects and services United States, and several European countries. in the area, creates an enhanced feeling of safety and well being and civic pride. The UK BID’s Gopal-Agge and Hoyt (2007) discuss how the Association claims that businesses benefit from BID model tends to be adopted primarily by the increased consumer spending and sales, older cities interested in revitalizing the crime is reduced, and the businesses get a say in downtown core. The model is widely accepted what happens in their part of town. The in almost all cities since it is flexible enough to authorities and landowners benefit from the fit into whatever the local conditions may be. increased investment in the area, land value Before implementing the model, a vote must be increases due to the area’s desirability increase, taken of all relevant landowners in the area to and it creates a positive relationship with a town ensure that all or almost all are willing to take council. A BID could address extra road part. The BID uses its budget to provide local maintenance, sidewalk construction, building services and goods to maintain the community, maintenance, signage, public space revitalization and can use some of the budget on improvement and other projects. projects. Enough businesses must be willing to Gopal-Agge and Hoyt also debate whether the participate, however. This may be more difficult model is democratic or autocratic. If run because of the financial status of some properly, it is a democratic system run by all landowners in downtown areas. However, once those who contribute to the budget; though often a central area was a little more pedestrian one or two elected principal members manage friendly, more shoppers and tourists would come the money and make most decisions without and thus more revenue for the business owners. consulting the rest of the group. The district will This would make it easier to make the monthly sometimes check their progress by conducting or yearly payments to the Business Improvement consumer surveys, checking local crime rates, District. retail sales and other various performance indicators. While the consensus on BID’s is Community Design Elements positive, some critics feel that they merely displace crime and other problems outside their The primary concern of community design, as service boundaries. Studies conducted on this stated in the Palm Desert, California, “spillover effect” have found that the majority of Comprehensive General Plan (2004) is ensuring the effects on surrounding areas are positive. quality of life for residents and tourists. To ensure quality of life, the plan says that the The National UK BID’s Association states that following must be in place: housing, shopping BID’s are partnerships between the local and commercial services, work places, schools, business community and local authorities. They parks, and other institutional facilities required in try to develop projects and services that benefit the daily life of residents. There must be a land the overall environment of the defined area. The use pattern that spreads housing, retail, business, principle of a BID works in all areas of a town.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 89 Literature Reviews 90 employment, parks and schools efficiently. water. They can also have a positive effect on There must also be a logical network of streets property values. Street trees are a good addition and service infrastructure that provides the to any downtown core to make the area more efficient delivery of utilities and public services. appealing, cleaner and more aesthetically A community must also be conscious of environ- pleasing. mental health, energy efficiency, resource use Revitalization of an urban area usually includes and management, and traffic efficiency and some incorporation of street trees (Wolf, 2003). circulation. The community must also be Street trees not only provide shade and a better economically sound in order to be sustained. aesthetic environment, they have also been The community requires safe access to local shown to have other effects. Wolf states that in a streets and facilities, diversity of residents, retail district, people are more likely to buy more multiple industries for revenue, public spaces, items if the aesthetic environment is more preservation of natural areas, drainage, and pleasant. Consumer behaviour seems linked vegetation of the community, and building positively to green streetscapes. When design that conserves energy and material consumers were asked to describe different resources. streetscape scenarios, some involving trees, Palm Desert’s Plan also states that the commu- others not, the scenario with no trees was almost nity must have continuity and cohesiveness, always described as “barren”, “stark” or “bleak”. while maintaining and preserving characteristics The scenarios with trees however got the unique to the space. Preservation of unique descriptions of “welcoming”, “relaxing”, qualities of a community creates a sense of pride “inviting” and “well kept”. Business districts in the place. The sense of place can be further with trees are generally characterized as having a increased by using distinct architectural styles, higher visual quality and comfort, having more and understanding and respecting the positive interactions between consumers and surrounding geography and environment of the merchants, being better maintained and kept up. area. The distinct architectural styles can be People interviewed also said they would be more defined with a set of design criteria. The criteria willing to drive farther, stay longer and pay more include things such as building height, structural for parking if they were going to a nicer retail setbacks, pattern of structures, roof types and area with trees and an overall more positive materials, color and texture, architectural details, aesthetic environment. The study shows that a and landscape design and materials. better aesthetic environment causes people to spend more money, so if the government To emphasize community design, a community invested some money in adding more vegetation, must highlight its unique qualities and market its it would probably help the economy. style. A few minor enhancements can often increase civic pride and the sense of community that the residents have. Communities can also Gateway Features benefit from a set of design criteria to reinforce The Canby Plan says that gateway features are continuity in architectural style. also important parts of a central area. They are designed to get motorists attention as they enter Street Trees and Greenery the downtown area. They can be decorative walls, arches, landscaping, or other type of The Palm Desert Comprehensive General Plan structure. A gateway feature, or entry portal, to a (2004) states that communities need open space downtown area makes a central area more visible as well as park land. Open spaces constitute to traffic passing through. This increases its recreational spaces and places to go in order to visibility and attracts people to stop and visit. get out of the house and into fresh air. It gives people a place to go, to walk the dog, and to meet neighbours or to just sit and enjoy some In Conclusion shade. The City of Canby Master Plan, Oregon • Creating a community image is very (2005) agrees, stating that street trees are important to the identity of a town. This can important in a downtown area for shade and be completed through any one of many aesthetic quality of the area. Trees help to ideas: control the effects of sun, wind and cold while creation of community signs reducing pollution in the area. Trees also help o stabilize soil, reduce erosion and manage storm o addition of gateway features

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o adding murals and other public art to Community Image Advisory Board, Miami, FL, buildings and public spaces USA. (2007, April 16). Improving Our Image, o incorporation of street trees and flowers Community Improvements, Program Goals and into the urban environment Challenges, Priorities. Miami-Dade Community Image Advisory Board. Retrieved July 4, 2007, • Forming a Business Improvement District from can also have a beneficial effect on a central http://www.miamidade.gov/image/home.asp area. When a BID is created, it has the potential to undertake many improvement Davis, Gregory A. (1999, April). Organizing and revitalization projects within the defined for Central Business District Revitalization. geographic area. Journal of Extension, 37(2). Retrieved July 2, 2007, from • Street trees and other forms of greenery can http://www.joe.org/joe/1999april/iw2.html help the central area seem more inviting. This makes the whole area more Dobson, Charles. (2002, February). Vancouver aesthetically pleasing and will make more Citizen’s Committee: Community Image Making. people spend more time there, which in turn, Retrieved July 3, 2007, from can help to improve the economy and http://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens- prosperity of the area. handbook/2_10_image_making.html Gopal-Agge, Devika and Hoyt, Lorlene. (2007). • Gateway features help to define the The Business Improvement District Model: A downtown area and make it more visible to Balanced Review of Contemporary Debates. passing traffic. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. • A community must have continuity of Retrieved July 2, 2007, from design. The architecture and design of the http://www.blackwell- area should reflect the unique characteristics synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1749- of the town. Design guidelines can be 8198.2007.00041.x?cookieSet=1 incorporated into a community plan and can Hall, Tim and Robertson, Iain. (2001, January). include anything from building setbacks and Public Art and Urban Regeneration: Advocacy, architectural styles to height restrictions, Claims and Critical Debates. Landscape building materials and colours, and structure Research, 26(1), 5-26. patterns. Moulton, Jennifer. (1999). Ten Steps to a Living References Downtown. Retrieved July 2, 2007, from http://www.alleghenyconference.org/public/cfm/ Association of Town Centre Management. Fast library/reports/10_Steps_to_a_Living_Downtow Facts for BIDs Partners. National UK BIDs n.pdf Advisory Service. Retrieved July 2, 2007, from http://www.ukbids.org/timetable.php Wolf, Kathleen L. (2003, May). Social Aspects of Urban Forestry: Public Response to the Urban City of Canby, OR, USA. (2005, June). Special Forest in Inner-City Business Districts. Journal Community Design Elements. NE Canby of Arboriculture, 28(3), 117-126. Master Plan. Retrieved July 4, 2007, from http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:m0Q1lFTiv WEJ:www.ci.canby.or.us/Departments/communi tydev%26plan/Canby_concept_plan/sec6.pdf+co mmunity+design+elements&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd =10&gl=ca City of Palm Desert, CA, USA. (2004, March 15). Community Design Element. Comprehensive General Plan. Retrieved July 3rd, 2007, from http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:JW9UlQ5I uFcJ:www.cityofpalmdesert.org/GeneralPlan/Co mmDesignElem.pdf+community+design+eleme nts&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=18&gl=ca

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Public Art by Gina Sandner Gina Sandner is a fourth year Malaspina student majoring in Psychology. She wants to work on decreasing obesity in youth and is currently training towards her Personal Training certificate and Dive Instructor Certification. She is an avid SCUBA diver and wants to travel the world, experiencing many cultures. She comes from the interior of British Columbia and currently lives in Nanaimo, BC.

Public art projects have been undertaken by observation). In Nanaimo, British Columbia, the communities in Canada, the United States, the city uses flags in its Arts District and Old City United Kingdom, New Zealand, and many other Quarter to add interest to the already lovely countries around the world. Public art enhances urban landscape (personal observation; Nanaimo the visual and cultural experience of being in a Webmasters 2007). Public art is everywhere and city. Artists in some communities have captured can create a home from a place to live, carve a the history and culture of their towns in murals sense of place out of any environment. painted on the walls of buildings and other structures (see Figure 1). Tourists visit these mural towns looking to experience these beautification projects (Gabali, 2006; Mural Routes Inc., 2004; Karpan, 2005; Florida Mural Routes, 2001).

Figure 2: Public Art on Fast Food Store, Chemainus, BC, Canada Forms of Public Art Holman (1997) observes that public art is not limited to murals. It can come in the forms of sculpture, mosaics, fabric wall hangings, flags, artistic paving stones, and stained glass Figure 1: Mural painted on Belize Expeditions windows. It can even come in creations not office at Philip Goldson International Airport, meant to be permanent, for example sand castles Ladyville and ice carvings. Public art can be found Towns all over the world have brought history to anywhere from the farthest removed country life in grand scale on the sides of their buildings. road, to the city center of the country capital. Chemainus, British Columbia, a town facing the Public art can cover buildings, intersections and loss of its main forest industry industrial base, telephone poles. It can be found in subways, turned to art to bring tourism to town (Muni- under bridges, or in the head quarters of cipality of North Cowichan, 2001). Communities multinational corporations. across Florida, afraid of losing touch with their past, chose to paint the walls of huge buildings in Impacts of Public Art images from their shared past (Florida Mural Homan (1997) explains that in these settings, Routes 2001). Katikati (2007; 2006), explain unique from galleries and museums, art can be how New Zealand schoolchildren were given experienced side by side with its context. Art paint and freedom to create art on power poles affects its environment and the environment and lit up the town. In schools around affects the interpretation of the art. Vancouver, British Columbia, schools have created magical schools of fish, painted by the Hubbard et al. (2003) writes of the role of public students, and hung them in rainbow streams art in urban redevelopment, focusing on the across the chain link fences (personal reconstruction of Coventry, UK, in the post-war bombing in World War II. They suggest that the

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 92 Literature Reviews 93 years. Coventry nearly destroyed by German responsible for city beautification. The sculpture public art was an important feature of Coventry’s is a very real representation of the singer in her new and refreshed look, with the intention to full performance gear and is a symbol of both create a new identity for the city. Critics had talent and shame, because the community was suggested that the art was a waste of time and an rocked when the young singer was murdered. ineffective addition to the community’s final Some forms of art may engender strong goal. After Hubbard et al. (2003) analyzed the reactions, which can be controversial. artwork and all it was meant to represent, they Levine (2002) examines the controversy conclude that despite being a single element in associated with one work of public art in the grand scheme of urban design, it allowed for Manhattan in 1979. Levine suggests that public common experience of shared tension and joys art should represent images and events that of turning the old city into its refreshed form. provoke pride and community, because it enables a sense of cohesiveness, where as controversial images create conflict. Levine (2002) focuses his paper on the controversy over Richard Serra's sculpture, Tilted Arc, in downtown Manhattan in 1979 and then torn down five years later in response to the public outcry. Tilted Arc was a curving wall built out of raw steel that cut the Federal Plaza in two. It was 120 feet long and 12 feet high, and it cut across the path of those passing through the space who then had to walk around it. Levine (2002) suggests this controversy is characteristic of contemporary examples of art that may offend the wider public taste. He suggests that the avant-guard insistence that art be edgy and unique causes an easily avoidable controversy. They could do this by ensuring the Figure 2: Entrance Sign to Indian Church Village topics and presentations of public art are painted by Malaspina students. 2007. something that everyone can enjoy. He concluded that the public opinion suggests that Surveys of Public Experience of public art should not challenge public taste, but be in line with it. Levine (2002), however, also Public Art concludes that it would be ‘undemocratic’ to Hamilton et al. (2001) discuss public opinion stop funding avant-garde art in public spaces. surveys about recent of UK government policies on public art. These surveys suggest that public Preserving Historical Significance art should not be kept exclusively in cities and high visibility areas, but should be available to Hodder (1999) writes about the historic people of all walks of life in a variety of living preservation technique used in urban planning. conditions. Hamilton et al. also found a wide Through utilizing historical images, in murals variety of interpretations of the public art in the and sculptures, cities can bring their histories to communities, and that many communities lacked life, and create tourist attractions and a sense of the means to develop a real sense of public art as place for people born and raised, or recently a staple in the community. moving to the area. Preservation of historical buildings, as well as reverting to historical styles of building new structures can develop a sense of Potential for Controversy continuity, as well as a sense of value for the Lessoff (2000) examines the potential area’s origins. controversy of public art when he looked at the Hayden (1994) suggests that the process to sculpture of Selena, the Tejano singer, and the preserve socially significant places in an urban response it aroused. The controversy began when landscape requires both the reclaiming of pieces the artist took his proposal directly to city of the landscape that are historically significant, council, bypassing members of the city council and identifying their significance, in terms of

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 93 Literature Reviews 94 use, infrastructure and neighbourhoods, and then from limited mobility. If children feel they have coming up with creative interpretation of the played a part in the development and historic significance of the areas, and making beautification of their communities, Frank found them part of daily life and the city's flow. She that they feel better about their communities, suggests that key elements of this process should more involved, and are less likely to participate include urban preservation, architectural in antisocial behaviours, like vandalism. preservation and incorporating a feeling of Cooperative participation of both adults and heritage into the city. She suggests that in places youths can provide both immediate and long where structures are no longer useful, or there lasting benefits for the community. Frank (2006) are empty spaces, public art and cultivated open found that children and adults, who work spaces would bring a sense of belonging to the together on their community, tend to understand previously dilapidated areas. Buildings with each other better. This can lead to better significant social history should be given relationships between the generations, the landmark status, according to Hayden (1994), community benefits from the resources of youth, and should be restored and preserved as best the and youth benefit directly from the connections city is able. made during the project, the education and the entertainment of becoming involved in Importance of Youth in Planning something that benefits the community at large. Frank (2006) explores the importance of Breitbart (1995) emphasises the importance of involving youth in city planning. She argues that children’s utilization of their neighbourhoods as youth are a large contributing body within the and communities, including those with less than community, they should share their opinions, desirable traits, as areas of development and input and feelings about how a city should learning. Through experiencing their neighbour- develop. She also observes that as youth have a hoods in all their realities, children can learn different perspective to adults. By including about their environments and themselves in ways them in the process of decision making, adults that would be much more difficult if isolated may see new things through their eyes, and build from these areas. With direct experience, a more accessible, effective city for everyone children can develop an understanding of the who lives there. way things are, and develop an intrinsic sense of the realities they like and wish to promote, as well as an understanding of things they do not like and that they would like to change. According to Breitbart, children can develop a sense of capability, when they discuss and implement ways of changing the things they do not like about their environments. In this study, Brietbart reports that children explore as a way to gain knowledge about their environments, that it increases confidence and decreases anxiety.

A project was born of these discoveries and children created banners for an inner city Figure 3: Orange Walk children in taking a break from the flea market community. The teens first drew their environments, including what they disliked and Frank also found that children’s needs and wants what they hoped would change. Analysis was are often over looked in the development of done on the data collected from the children and community plans. Spaces and structures geared themes were decided upon. The children were for children were limited to schools, playgrounds then put in charge of designing and creating and day care centers. Children interact with their banners to be hung throughout the area. Brietbart communities in many other ways, and these reflected that the children felt more involved, ways are not facilitated when areas that would more welcome and a bigger part of the promote these interactions are over looked. community after the project. Brietbart’s expected Frank interviewed children who were raised in results included an increased sense of safety and cities; these children reported feeling isolated well-being in the area where the banners were from the community and feeling that they suffer hung. Contrary to expectations of local

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 94 Literature Reviews 95 authorities that the banners would be ‘torched or Robinson as saying “Civic art is not a fad. It is shot at’ if hug in the southern part of town, not merely a bit of aestheticism. There is nothing where the participants were from, the banners effeminate and sentimental about it… it is were hung. vigorous, virile, sane,” which I felt really summed up the purpose of what it is I am hoping Benefits of Public Art establish in my efforts to promote public art in Orange Walk Town, Belize. Semenza (2003) explored a specific example of the potential benefits of public art. According to References Semenza, a derelict or deteriorating physical environment can decrease sense of place, Breitbart, M. M. (1995). Banners for the street: increase a sense of alienation. This alienation Reclaiming space and designing change with correlates with increases in socially urban youth. Journal of Planning Education and dysfunctional behaviour, including littering, Research. Vol. (15) 35-49. vandalism, drug use, crime, and traffic Florida Mural Routes (2001) Florida Tourism violations. This behavior is associated with Industry Marketing Corporation. Retrieved July, increases in poor health and a decreased sense of 9, 2007 from well-being. Semenza examined a city http://www.visitflorida.com/cms/e/cms_mural_to beautification project in the Sunnyside wns_paint_heritage.php neighbourhood in Portland, Oregon. Before the project, Sunnyside was a community suffering Frank, K. I. (2006). The potential of youth from many social problems. The community participation in planning. Journal of Planning decided to reclaim a gathering space from the Literature. Vol. 20, No. 4. more dilapidated neighbourhood. According to Gabali, Hans (2006) Outdoor Murals and Semenza, their project consisted of painting a Essence of the Commnity: Preserving Our huge sunflower in the middle of an intersection Heritage. Retrieved July 9, 2007 from and installing a number of interactive art http://people.hofstra.edu/Martha_J_Kreisel/mura features. Since the revitalizing project, social ls_websites.html capital has increased, the community is being revitalized and residents report a greater sense of Hamilton, J., Forsyth, L., & De Iongh, D. (2001). well being Public art: A local authority perspective. Journal of Urban Design. Vol. 6, (3) 283-296. History of Civic Improvements Hayden, D. (1994). The power of place: Szczygiel (2003) analyzes civic improvements of Claiming urban landscapes as people’s history. the nineteenth century. The paper addressed that Journal of Urban History, Vol. 20, No. 4, 466- most of the traits associated with a beautiful city 485. are stereotypical of efforts made on behalf of Hodder, R. (1999). Redefining a southern city's white, upper class males. Szczygiel notes that in heritage: Historic preservation planning, public the process of beautifying a city, men often have art, and race in Richmond, Virginia. Journal of to take on roles traditionally thought of as Urban Affairs, Vol. 21 (4), 437–453. women’s for example, planting, planting and organizing. Volunteerism as a source of labour in Holman, H. (1997). Public Art: The Problems the processes of beautifying existing cities has and Potential of Multiple Meanings. been the subject of much debate, and cities that International Journal of Art & Design can afford it usually turn to employed and Education, Vol. 16 (2), 127–135. trained professionals to carry out their plans. Holman, V. (1997). The problems and potential Trends are changing and women’s are taking a of multiple meanings. International Journal of more prominent stance in the roles of city Art & Design Education, Vol. 16, (2), 127-135. beautification, community planning, and production of architecture. Artists have also Horowitz, G. M. (1996). Public art/public space: taken on an increasingly important role in city The spectacle of the Tilted Arc Controversy. beautification. Instead of just being consultants, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 54, artists now play an intricate role in designing No. 1, 8-14. parks, public spaces and producing public art. Szcygiel (1994) also quotes Charles Mulford

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Katikati (2006) Bay of Plenty- Open Air Mural Site. Retrieved on July 4, 2007 from http://www.katikati.co.nz/ Katikati (2007) Our Town- Nearby Attractions and Coming Events. Retrieved on July 7,2007 from http://www.pottsburyfarm.co.nz/id44.htm Lessoff, A. (2000). Public sculpture in Corpus Christi: A tangled struggle to define the character and shape the agenda of one Texas city. Journal of Urban History. 190-223. Levine, C. (2002). The paradox of public art: Democratic space and the avant-garde, and Richard Serra’s “Tilted Arc”. Philosophy & Geography, Vol. 5 (1) 51-68. Mele, C. (1996). Globalization, culture, and neighbourhood change: Reinventing the lower east side of New York. Urban Affairs Review, Vol. 32, No. 1, September 1996, 3-22. Municipality of North Cowichan, (2001) Connemara. Retrieved July 9, 2007 from http://www.chemainus.com/ Mural Routes Inc. (2004) Mural Routes. Retrieved July 8, 2007 from http://www.muralroutes.com/ archives/achives_mapping_murals.htm Nanaimo Webmasters (2007) Tourism Nanaimo. Retrieved on July 5, 2007, from http://www.tourismnanaimo.com/ Robin Karpan (2005) Saskatchewan Stock Photography. Retrieved July 8, 2007 from http://www.parklandpublishing.com/skphotos/moose_j aw/ Semenza, J. C. (2003). The intersection of urban planning, art, and public health: The Sunnyside plaza. |American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 93, No. 9, 1439-1441. Szczygiel, B. (2003). City beautiful revised: An analysis of nineteenth-century civic improvement efforts. Journal of Urban History, Vol. 29, No. 2, 107-132. Welcome to Cowichan (2001) Municipality of North Cowichan. Retrieved July 7, 2007 from http://cowichan2.iwebez.com/siteengine/activepa ge.asp?PageID=49&bhcp=1

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Urban Design by Darren Lucas Darren Lucas is a Geography major in the Urban Growth Management stream at Malaspina. He plans to work eventually in the urban design and planning field in a larger urban area. He was born in Vancouver, BC, and is currently living in Nanaimo, BC.

The ancient Greeks decided that your mind was agriculture. Other cities such as Tikal had what is divided into two forms of thinking. The first, believed to be a rather large manmade reservoir. episteme, is the result of one’s reflection upon Even though natural resources were likely the the existing reality and its experiences. The cause of sprouting cities in these regions, the second, doxa, is the way of thinking that nature most impressive and largest structures in the gives to you, in other words your natural known Mayan world were the ones serving a instincts and common sense. These two ways of religious purpose. thinking were what assisted the ancient Greeks in Orange Walk Town is the gateway to Lamanai. developing their ideologies in architecture. Their Archaeological evidence about Lamanai tells us, philosophies and architectural elements still have that it was once a part of the profound and well- a strong influence in today’s architecture. established Mayan civilization. However, based In order to develop a set of design guidelines for on weeks of fieldwork in the community, the Orange Walk Town, this paper integrates town’s primary architectural style seems more research on pre-existing structures and theories community in the Mediterranean than a Mayan. with knowledge from fieldwork in the community. Belize is a region with a rich history Synthesis and Analysis of Mayan culture including some remnants of Design guidelines are in place to allow a city to their preindustrial cities. According to Sjoberg grow in a controlled manner. These guidelines (1965), various world regions may have had address zoning, population density organization, some influence on the rise of self-sustaining, civil engineering ideals and urban beautification. preindustrial and independent cities such as Design guidelines do not exist in Orange Walk Lamanai. Sjoberg describes three prerequisites Town resulting in a more of a sporadic approach for the emergence of city life. The first is a, to the growth and development. The way the “favorable ecological base”. This would mean town has developed does not facilitate urban that there must be a large abundance of natural growth. As more people move to Orange Walk, resources available in the local region of an so will more traffic congestion, crowds, litter, emerging city. The second prerequisite is that and housing demands along with basic people starting the independent city must have infrastructure and utility needs (water, power and advanced technology and understanding (in sewage). A set of design guidelines would be relation to pre urban times) in both agricultural beneficial. The first rule of creating a set of and non-agricultural spheres. The third dictates design guidelines, according to architect Graeme that a complex social organization, or preferably Fligg at Merrick Architecture Firm in a well-developed power structure, has to exist to Vancouver, British Columbia, (personal keep the city sustainable and running. These communication) –The first rule of creating a set three factors create an environment in which of design guidelines is that these guidelines certain structures for shelter, farming, should address the elements of the present city in domesticated animals, public space, hierarchy, relativity to its mass, form, and density. and usually, during those times, a religious Consequently, aesthetics often have to respond platform, would be planned in order to develop a to their environment and history. basic layout in which a city would function and grow. Topography Sjorberg (1965) speaks of Mayan’s In 1721-1725 Alessandro Specchi as the designer Mesoamerican cities starting from maize. Since of a civic project in Rome - the Scala de Spagna maize comprised the major portion of the Mayan (figure 1), otherwise known in English as the diet, it was natural to assume that, like other Spanish Steps. These steps connected the already cities, the growth of Lamanai revolved around existing Piazza di Spagna with the Trinita

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 97 Literature Reviews 98 de’Monti, which were later completed by Francesco de Sanctis. In Alessandro’s time, the ground plane or topography was theorized as supporting all architectural production. Ching, (1996) states “the topographical characteristics of the ground plane, influences the form of the building that arises from it”. In addition, it was already decided by the mid-1700’s that certain forms of the environment alter and shape your form. Rediscovered by archaeologist Hiram Bingham in 1911, Machu Picchu, an ancient Incan city is a prime example of the topographic plane developing a design. This is ground effects design on a city scale. Figure 2: Falling Water. When the topographic plane connects with vertical plane in design, a third dimension of design and a sense of “space” is created. Keeping this in mind, if a set of large forms are erected as objects complimenting the landscape, they can be depicted as volumes in space, one of the very core ideas of a volumetric elements (Ching, 1996).

Organization Organization is the next step for how more than one structure can work together in creating a single form, or how single forms can coincide to create a pattern or a city form. Alhambra (figure 3), Palace of citadel of Moorish kings is located in Granada, Spain and created in 1248-1354. It is

Figure 1 Scala De Spagna

Another perfect example of the environment influencing design located in Connellsville Pennsylvania, is the Kaufman House. The Kaufman house, more famously known as Falling Water (figure 2), was designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Shaped from the vertical plane, it is surrounding and existing in a naturally formed waterfall. Specifically this design by Wright has gone an extension further into environmental oriented design. Instead of just reflecting elements found in the local environment, Falling Water is intertwined with its environment. Figure 3: Alhambra.

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 98 Literature Reviews 99 a grand example of how spaces of a building can Organization in residential terms, on a city scale, complement and stay in relation with one is best practiced by the size and shape of its lots. another. There was likely no one specific The ancient Greeks believed that every person designer, but it would be natural to assume that needs their own space, so the logical way to this building was the product of more than one design their cities was a grid pattern making sure mind considering its size and complexity. In that space was given and divide fairly. The other words, the structure reflects upon more Caplin House that was designed by architect than one person’s ideas. Fredrick Fisher in 1979 is a classic example of a house designed to reflect the Venice California For single-family dwelling or something similar urban lot shape. Its length is four times its width structures, space can be organized more to making it a narrow but aesthetically pleasing support the purposes such as family needs. from a topographic view, this was reflected with Different spaces and their associated functions a pleasing structure. This volume in space would may have separation within a structure. These also be very typical in a location such as San separations may be defined by a difference in Francisco or better yet, most highly urbanized level, walls, transparent and translucent areas of New York State. divisions, floral realms, and fluctuation in a room’s shape. The One-Half House project The final form of organization is radial (figure 4), drawn by architect John Hejduk, organization of single structures. Most people divides the three main areas of one building by already know that older cities generally develop making each one a different geometric shape in a radial pattern; this is easily visible from an (rectangle, triangle and semicircle). All the areas aerial view of older European cities. However are connected by two hallways, one vertically designers such as Malfaison and Kluchman above the other, and a set of stairs so each space created a prison (1772-75), located in has a distinct and different feel from the others. Ackerghem near Ghent, Belgium, based upon this design principle of radial (figure 5 radial city design concept example) expansion and organization.

Figure 2 Radial City Design.

Even though these design principles of organization, or relative theories of developing space from the environment, are successful, sometimes grander scale ideas and purposes become too segregated. This means that very distinct organization can sometimes cause more problems than solutions. Any study relative to cities understands there are many needs and issues present. These needs and issues may be

falsely observed and defined as divided aspects. Figure 1 One Half House In 1970 there was a case study done in Alberta involving a regional planning and national design policy. Lithwick (1970) addressed the

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 99 Literature Reviews 100 problems and prospects of urban Canada. community’s variety and visual setbacks. This is Blandly put, “The central thesis of the report was responsible design. Orange Walk has a design that we have failed to cope adequately with theme that mainly involves its Spanish and urban problems because we have dealt with each British history. This does not mean that one – housing, transportation, poverty, social unrest, should not include modern design as an option. environmental quality, and the fiscal squeeze – One should be careful of what is deemed largely in isolation.” What Lithwick was trying modern; contemporary design is sympathetic to to say is that all these topics were thought of as existing fabric and culture. Modern design, can completely separate functions and aspects of an compliment even the most historic of urban environment. They were never brought communities, but only if it is a good together as being absolutely relative, so the city’s environmentally reflective design. As mentioned design guidelines were set in place revolving previously form, mass and density are relative to around the idea of zoning isolation and most design guidelines addressing the present city. All likely architects and urban planners designed in all design guidelines respect of history. structural segregation. Vancouver’s current design scheme is almost exact opposite of that. Assessments Already under development is one structure, at Cambie Street and west Broadway, which Good design can never be legislated. Yet there combined commercial space, retail space, has to be a set of suggested rules so that a residential space, and one of the new Canada line community does not lose its sense of place. First sky train systems. This is treating the issues at of all, in order to set up boundaries, one must present with what I could call, “the design theory determine what spaces are public realms and of relativity” wherein more than one purpose is what spaces are private realms. After property used to integrate and help design a structure that lines have been addressed, the next phase is a would ultimately reflect the environment and its decision of inner property boundaries or more recent or ancient history. formally known as the building envelope. The size and shape of the building envelope will In Orange Walk’s case, there is one specific ideally be reflected in the constructed mass, this difference between itself and Vancouver. The determines how the street or boulevard feels. In population of Orange Walk is approximately addition, a small building envelope in relation to 15,300 citizens compared to Vancouver at a large property will give the existing road a 578,000 with a metropolitan population of sense of open space where as the opposite idea 2,116,581. In smaller populations intercity mass where the envelope is approximately the size of transit systems are not as practical. Nor are multi the structure gives a sense of protection and for zoned high rises, but Orange Walk should still some minds a form of comfort. have design guidelines for smaller multi zoned or mixed use buildings. Even though the town Conclusion has a relatively short walking distance from one end to the other (less than half an hour walk) Proportion and rhythm is important in some local residents still drive their vehicles to application to frequency of aesthetic patterns. get around. So it is a likely option to develop and Architecture is “frozen music” (Graeme Fligg, build upon the Town’s preexisting idea of houses Personal communication), this means that over shops. This form of design is old enough to ideally, any “good design” has not only a nuance be found in even Roman design. But, how do with the current community environment in its you tie these mixed uses together? This is where structure but should be repeating and diverting Queen Elizabeth Park and the central business with relativity to purposes represented in its self district, comes into play. Cullen depicts town and to the city. squares as excellent public realms. References Best Practices for Design Luz Maria Jimenez Narvaez. Design’s Own Responsible design enhances the conditions of Knowledge. Design issues 16 no1 36-5. residences in the immediate area. Variety, adds Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Spring richness of character to the community (variety 2000. ( Peer reviewed journal) in context with familiar history, material and Ching, Francis DK. Architecture form, space, form.). The public realm - all the areas available and order. Second Edition. Ed. Francis DK to the public – must fit in flawlessly with the

Malaspina Geography Field Project 2007 100 Literature Reviews 101

Ching. North America. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1996. (This resource was used for all example structures and credited architects, except for Graeme Fligg and designers from the Alberta case, shown above.) Sjoberg, Gideon. The Preindustrial City. New York New York: Free press paper back, 1965. Gertler, Leonard O. The Alberta case: Urban Issues. Comp. Brant Cowie. New York, Cincinnati, London, Toronto, Melbourne: Van Nostrand Reinhold Ltd., 1976. Internet photo resources http://www.paconserve.org/index-fw1.asp (falling water) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra (alhambra) http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi- bin/gbi.cgi/Piazza_di_Spagna.html/cid_2282258. html (scala de spagna) http://www.math.tu-dresden.de/geo/3D- modelling/DG1-04-05/axonometrie/John- Hejduk-klein.gif (one half house) http://www.waltopia.com/images/conceptual_ren dering.jpg (radial city design concept) Special thanks - to Mr. Graeme Fligg from Merrick Architecture firm in Vancouver, BC, Canada. -to my mother Jeanette Neinaber.

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Land Use and Zoning by Parker Krog Parker Krog is a fourth year university student majoring in Geography under the general stream, and minoring in Global Studies. He intends to go to law school with a special interest in eventually pursuing international trade law. He was born and raised in Nanaimo, British Columbia, where he currently resides

Land use planning is a process of protecting and improving both the community’s living Urban Densification and Zoning conditions and urban environment through the Urban sprawl is one of many results of poor, or proper use and development of land. Designating in some cases, no zoning. Some define sprawl as or zoning land uses creates a more pleasant an unlimited outward extension of development; atmosphere for local residents and tourists alike. low-density housing and commercial With a lack of focused land uses, individual development; leapfrog development; edgeless landowners can undermine the economic growth cities; and reliance on private automobiles for of surrounding businesses. Land use planning transportation (Squires, 2002). Still, others involves the regulation of the use and define sprawl as low-density development development of real estate. The most common spreading across rural areas caused by poorly form of land use planning is zoning. coordinated government regulations and private Objectives initiatives (Barnett, 2003). Others claim sprawl involves a strict separation of human activities Zoning regulations and restrictions are used by and too much mandatory driving (Kunstler, municipalities to control and direct the 1998). Regardless of the various interpretations, development of property within their borders. sprawl is abhorred and viewed as one of many Zoning provide the principal tools employed by maladaptive results of poor zoning regulations, planners to control and promote sound or simply no zoning at all development. The police power—the power to Urban densification is widely accepted regulate for the advancement of a community’s throughout all reviewed literature as a positive health, morals, safety, or general welfare – means of urban management, and very little provides the legal basis to zone. This literature opposing opinion was found throughout the review is a brief study of scholarly literature sources. Neuman (2005) in ‘The Compact City regarding land use and zoning practices that have Fallacy’, however, reviews empirical data been implemented in developing and developed regarding whether or not compact cities are countries alike. The general approach has been sustainable, and argues that urban densification to review ideas that are appropriate for a small does not necessarily produce more efficient and municipality in a developing country and those sustainable cities. Neuman suggests that the that require less financial input on behalf of the process of land use zoning is the most effective council. way of managing urban growth, both This paper briefly discusses urban sprawl and economically and demographically. Zoning is a densification, as well as the necessity of proper unique process that uses varying approaches for zoning restrictions to control sprawl. It then goes different areas. Although Neuman spends on to discuss traditional and mixed zoning, along considerable time arguing against the necessary with the benefits and downfalls associated with benefits of urban densification, other writers, both. This is followed by a brief analysis of including Siegan (1972) and Smith (1983), performance based zoning as alternative to promote urban densification and list myriad traditional zoning. Afterwards, there is a brief positive aspects associated with the notion. analysis of alternatives to zoning for land use Articles reviewed not only note the benefits of control. Finally, before discussing conclusions, urban densification to avoid sprawl, but also the notion of conceptual districts will be briefly consider land use zoning as the best approach to examined. densification. Mills (1979) identifies and acknowledges the failure of markets to properly allocate land within an urban environment, and

102 103 considers zoning necessary for realizing the further squatter settling. Dowall (1991) suggests potential of an urban environment. that complex zoning policies throughout all of a less developed city would not only be costly, but Traditional Zoning could also become a problem in the future. Traditional zoning is characterized by the Regardless of using a traditional land use zoning separation of land uses into specified geographic approach, future possible developments should districts and dimensional standards that set always be taken into consideration. Although it limitations on the magnitude of development that may be more difficult to plan multi-staged is allowed to take place on lots. Typical types of zoning policies, future growth and development land use zoning in traditional zoning are: should be considered when zoning, especially in residential (single-family), residential (multi- the central area. Goetz and Wofford (1979) family), commercial, and industrial. suggest that less developed cities should, however, place less emphasis on a process Traditional zoning methods cost virtually zoning approach than would be expected for a nothing to municipal governments (Levy, 1995). larger and more rapidly developing municipality. Aside from basic administrative costs or Dowall (1991) also agrees with the principles of occasional legal costs, zoning proves far cheaper performance based zoning in more developed than public ownership of land or the purchase of cities as advocated by Baker, Sipe, and Gleeson easements, which could instill the same amount (2006). This approach, however, is encouraged of control or greater (Levy, 1995). Kwartler in more developed cities with larger municipal (1989) suggests that despite the rigidities budgets. characteristic to traditional zoning, its structure allows for development predictability, certainty, Mixed Zoning and administrative accountability and objectivity. While zoning sacrifices personal building choice Having a central area with a number of mixed to some extent, many consider the relative uses that do not coordinate or mutually reinforce predictability regarding the potential use on one another in certain areas, and there are some adjacent sites a reasonable exchange. Traditional mixes of industrial with commercial uses within zoning protects both personal property the central and surrounding areas. These can be investments and public rights, and describes maladaptive to the overall development of parameters for land development and future communities, and may ultimately lead to a projects conform to these guidelines. Upon decrease in private and municipal revenue. individual review of proposed projects, no gray Siegan (1972) and Smith (1983) suggest area exists. Projects either comply with a zoning avoiding the development of these conflicting bylaw, or do not comply – ensuring objectivity, land uses. Not only do such zoning policies as the planner has virtually no discretion. decrease potential revenues, but they diminish Additionally, Traditional zoning places the the overall aesthetic appeal of the central area. single family home at the highest level of Smith (1983) suggests that by using non- protection. Zoning, therefore, is a useful method conforming zoning policies, which will to guarantee that these homes retain their value eventually relocate industrial land uses into more (Kelly, 1993) and an effective tool in helping to appropriate areas, cities can not only increase preserve the status quo of a community. revenues but can also help beautify their city. Dowall (1991) suggests avoiding complex Although a traditional North American zoning in locations surrounding central areas, consensus suggests the mixing of industrial, particularly in developing countries. By using residential, and commercial land uses as having a more traditional zoning policies on properties negative effect, a number of articles have surrounding the central area, less administrative suggested mixing commercial and residential burden is placed on council, and if needed these zoning by allowing residential units to be areas can be zoned with more complex bylaws in developed on top of commercial land uses within the future. Baker et al. (2006) support the idea of the downtown core. Many of the authors, traditional Euclidean land use policies in rural or including Berke et al. (2006), Polakowski and lesser developed urban areas. They suggest that Wachter (1990), Smith (1983), and Neuman in particular areas surrounding the central area, (2005) mention the benefits of having residential perhaps Union Town for example, less complex on top of commercial land uses. Goetz and zoning policies may prove beneficial to avoid Wofford (1979), as well as Berke et al. (2006)

103 104 also note the landscape benefits these policies than a simple action. Their main conclusions are bring to urban development. Housing units atop that future growth and development of an urban commercial activities within the central and area should be taken into consideration when surrounding areas can help increase densification zoning for a particular land use, and urban and business profitability due to more traffic. growth is necessarily associated with a changing Elickson (1973), Buholzer, and Smith (1983) urban landscape. They argue that although a suggest useful approaches such as incentives to process and performance based approach to encourage land owners to follow through with zoning may not be orderly; it is a reasonable these kinds of policies without having to actually means to implement zoning bylaws and can be implement a zoning by-law, mentioned in the more effective, as change is the only constant. following section. Carter et al. (2003) note the Too much advanced planning can be timely and benefits these provide by preventing crime redundant when new issues arise regarding land through environmental designs, as the residential use. units place eyes on the street, therefore discouraging criminals from operating in more Alternative Land Use Controls populated areas. Leung (2003), Ellickson (1973), and Buholzer Performance and Process (2007) suggest using incentives and bonus provisions to encourage properties to be Approaches established in accordance with a particular land Traditional zoning regulations are often use, as opposed to official zoning policies. The considered a “placeholder” until development notion of an incentive approach is that the owner occurs on a specified site. As such, the outcome is encouraged to go beyond what is required by of development on the site is largely providing something wanted by the community unpredictable. Alternatively, Katz and Ferrell, and council, rather than telling a property owner (2003) note that performance-based zoning what must be done beyond a minimum regulations do not attempt to control every requirement. The developer would in turn be possible aspect of a development, merely “what allowed to build beyond the limitations set by the is considered important”. lot’s particular zoning specifications. Berke et al. (2006) focus on the example of increasing According to Baker et al. (2006), central area housing units in the inner city. For example, a should be the main focus for planning, and provision might be developed that allows a suggests a performance based approach to be the business or office building to exceed the stated ideal way of doing so. Performance based floor-area ratio designated to a lot by a specified planning is a land use planning concept that percentage, provided the structure includes some establishes performance standards as opposed to residential units, parking, or sidewalk amenities. specification standards. An example of a performance standard would be “that walls, floor Some professionals have disagreed with and ceiling be constructed as to contain an incentives as a means of land use control. Donald interior fire for one hour”, while a specification (1980) encourages using zoning policies that are standard would be “that walls, floor and ceiling implemented into legal stipulations, as opposed be constructed of 4 inch thick masonry or stone”. to incentives as advocated by Smith (1983). This approach requires significant levels of Donald disagrees with such methods, suggesting expertise, however, and therefore demands they simply delay desired land use outcomes, greater financial resources than that of traditional and are an inefficient means of land control. zoning. Goetz and Wofford (1979) suggest Regardless of the author’s disagreement with efficiency as a useful guiding principle for the using land use incentives, however, he argues for analysis of land use controls. Buholzer (2007) land use zoning that encourages commercial considers performance-based zoning a beneficial activities to cluster in a central area, and supports alternative that avoids the uniformity produced the idea of mixing residential throughout. by the indirect measures conventional zoning uses to deal with land use impacts. Goetz and Conceptual Districts Wofford (1979) argue that zoning is not a static Conceptual zoning policies are based on the action, and traditional zoning policies may not predication that clustering particular land uses always be appropriate. Like other urban amongst functionally related activities will academics, they view zoning as a process rather increase overall urban efficiency and help

104 105 establish a cohesive urban landscape, and some zoning are becoming more common in the articles have briefly explored the benefits developed world; however such an approach associated with creating such zones. Neuman requires significantly higher levels of financial (2005) suggests clustering land uses, for input. Various alternatives to land use zoning can example, creating a hotel or financial district. also be useful to the community, however He does, however, suggest policies of the like implementing a traditional zoning policy should work best in larger urban areas. Baker et al. be the first step taken to address land use control (2006) note that clustered economic activities in Orange Walk Town. often function well together and tend to reinforce one another through ‘cumulative causation’, References which refers to the multiplier effects one activity gives to another, and vice versa. Therefore the Baker, Douglas C.; Sipe, Neil G.; Gleeson, notion of concept designation may be a positive Brendan J. “Performance-Based Planning: means to guiding development within downtown Perspectives from the United States, Australia, areas, whether done through legal stipulations or and New Zealand” Journal of Planning by using an incentive approach, as noted above. Education and Research. 25.4 (2006) 396-409. Barnett, J. Redesigning Cities: Principles, Conclusions Practice, Implementation. Chicago Planner’s Press. (2003). Overall, land use and zoning policies are valuable controls to the development of any Berke, Phillip R. Godschalk, David R. Kaiser, urban environment, and serve as essential Edward J. Rodriguez, Daniel A. Urban Land Use stepping stones to any future development and Planning Chicago, Illinois: University of Illinois urban growth. Zoning policies lead to a more Press, 2006. efficient and coordinated urban environment that has a greater aesthetic appeal and allows for a Buholzer, William. British Columbia Planning more centralized control on how growth is and Law Practice. British Columbia Gazette Markham, ON. 49.19 (2006). managed. This control will aid in being able to guide growth in the most appropriate manner, Carter, Sherry P; Carter, Stanley L; Dannenberg, and consequently will indirectly lead to an Andrew L. “Zoning Out Crime and Improving increase in tax revenue and overall economic Community Health in Sarasota, Florida: “Crime growth. Various notions contained in the studies Prevention Through Environmental Design” stand out. Urban densification is praised widely, American Journal of Public Health 93.9 (2003). and therefore should be always kept in mind when implementing land use policies. Using land Donald, Jud D. “The Effects of Zoning on Single use controls outside of conventional zoning such Family Residential Property Values: Charlotte, as nuisance laws and bonus incentives may help North Carolina” Land Economics 56.2, (1980). to guide development in a manner suitable to Dowall, David E. “Benefits of Minimal Land- communities. Also, the notion of mixing Use Regulations in Developing Countries” Cato commercial and residential land uses on the same Journal. 12.2 (1991) 413-423. lot agrees with the ideal of densification, and benefits associated with these policies are widely Ellickson, Robert C. “Alternatives to Zoning: recognized. Performance approaches to zoning Covenants, Nuisance Rules, and Fines as Land are largely accepted as well, as they help Use Controls” The University of Chicago Law establish a community vision and allow for Review 40.4 (1973). greater participation and involvement of all the Goetz, Michael L.; & Wofford, Larry E. “The stakeholders within a community. Land use Motivation for Zoning: Efficiency or Wealth zoning policies, therefore, come in many positive Redistribution” Land Economics 55.4, (1979). forms, and as such should be addressed and implemented in Orange Walk Town. Katz, P. & Ferrell G. Introduction to Form-Based Codes. The Town Paper, Council Report IV: On Based on all the literature and case studies Codes, 48-49, 61. (2003). reviewed, implementing traditional zoning policies seems the best approach for Orange Kelly, E.D. Managing Community Growth: Walk, as traditional zoning policies have been Policies, Techniques, and Impacts. Westport, commonly used to successfully guide CT: Praeger. (1993). development. Performance-based approaches to

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Kunstler, J.H. Home From Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the 21st Century. New York: Simon & Schuster. (1998). Kwartler, M. Legislating Aesthetics. In C. Haar & J. Kayden (Eds.) Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep (pp. 187-220). Chicago: Planner’s Press. (1989). Leung, Hok-Lin Land Use Planning Made Plain Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2003. Levy, J. Essential Microeconomics for Public PolicyAnalysis. Westport, CT; Praeger, (1995). Mills, David E. “Segregation, Rationing, and Zoning” Southern Economic Journal 45.4, (1979). Neuman, Michael. “The Compact City Fallacy” Journal of Planning Education and Research. 25.1 (2005) 11-26. Polakowski, Henry O.; & Wachter, Susan M. “The Effects of Land-Use Constraints on Housing Prices” Land Economics 66.3, (1990). Siegan, Bernard H. Land Use Without Zoning Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath & Company, 1972. Squires, G. Urban Sprawl and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan America. In Squires, G. (Ed.) Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences, & Policy Responses, (pp. 1-22). Washington D.C.: Urban Institute Press. (2002). Smith, Herbert H. The Citizen’s Guide to Zoning Chicago, Illinois: American Planning Association. Planners Press, 1983.

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