COPELAND, RAEDENE P., Ph.D., ―Bikini, Beads, and Feathers‖ at Trinidad Carnival: The Voice of the Younger Generation. (2010) Directed by Dr. Nancy Hodges. Trinidad Carnival is a multifaceted festival that emerged out of slavery as a form of rebellion against the oppressive European colonialism of Trinidad (Hill, 1962). Traditionally, masquerade costumes embodied socio-political characters meant to mock or critique the slave-holders. However, today the majority of costumes have shifted to a more global costume form consisting of ―bikini, beads, and feathers‖ (Mason, 1998). This modern day costume reflects a shift to a predominantly younger masquerade population. The ―bikini, beads, and feathers‖ style is also representative of tensions in Trinidad society about the nature of the Carnival celebration today. The focus is now on the younger generation, who are heavily influenced by global styles and fashion, reflected in their preference for a ―Las Vegas Showgirl‖ style masquerade costume (Scher, 2002). Carnival and its costumes are being produced as part of the global economy, with outside influences helping to shape how Trinidad celebrates its Carnival. In this study, the ―bikini, beads, and feathers‖ masquerade costume is positioned as central to the Carnival experience, and the focus is on understanding the voices of the younger generation, currently a gap in existing literature. To accomplish this goal, this study employs an ethnographic methodology to explore the lived experiences of a broad demographic of Carnival participants. A multi-method data collection approach, including depth interviews, participant observation, journals, and visual documentation, is used to ensure depth and scope of data. Thirty-four participants were chosen through a purposive sampling approach. Participants included males and females, aged 22 to 63, and were engaged in a range of Carnival activities, from masquerade to costume production. Data were analyzed for commonalities and differences that surfaced across participants‘ experiences, which were then used to structure a thematic interpretation. Four conceptual areas contextualize the issues impacting present day Carnival celebrations: Embodying the Culture of Trinidad, Aesthetics and the Carnival Experience, The Economics of Experience, and Experiences in Social Context. Each area serves to address the broader issues surfacing from participants‘ lived experiences. They also help to shed light on the impact of the younger generation on present day Carnival celebrations and in particular, masquerade costume. A second level of interpretation was then developed to theorize masquerade costume as key to understanding Carnival as lived experience. This study posits that the ―bikini, beads, and feathers‖ style masquerade costume is essentially the voice of the younger generation. This style reflects how Trinidad society has changed and the extent to which Carnival has become a global product. Therefore, this study sheds light on the critical importance of dress to understanding the cultural phenomenon that is Carnival. Areas of potential further research, including implications of the ―bikini, beads, and feathers‖ for the ―authenticity‖ and internationalization of the Trinidad Carnival experience are discussed. ―BIKINI, BEADS, AND FEATHERS‖ AT TRINIDAD CARNIVAL: THE VOICE OF THE YOUNGER GENERATION by Raedene P. Copeland A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Greensboro 2010 Approved by ___________________________________ Committee Chair @ 2010 by Raedene P. Copeland DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation first to my family, my parents Lennox and Janet Copeland, my siblings Heidi, Sadina, and Jesu, and nephew Jonathan. My family is my support, my strength, and my inspiration, their acceptance and unconditional love for me are invaluable to my success. I also dedicate this research to the people of Trinidad and Tobago, with the hope that this research on our beautiful country and culture will continue to be advanced in scholarship. ii APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of The Graduate School at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Committee Chair __________________________________ Committee Members __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ ___________________________ Date of Acceptance by Committee ___________________________ Date of Final Oral Examination iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to give sincere thanks and appreciation to all those who have supported me throughout this new, challenging, and character building process. Let me first start with God without whom I would not have accomplished this feat. Thanks to my advisor Dr. Nancy Hodges for her tireless commitment to ensure that I produced a stellar product. She has been integral to my development as a writer, and my understanding of what is required to do solid research. Most importantly, I thank her for allowing me to follow my passion and choose a topic that I thought was valuable. In addition, I say thank you to my committee members: Drs. Gwendolyn O‘Neal, Kittichai Watchravesringkan, and William Tullar, for their unwavering support and thought provoking feedback. I want to thank my thirty-four participants without whom this study would not have been possible. I was humbled by their commitment to my research, support of my topic, and sacrifice of their time despite their busy Carnival schedule. Thanks to my loving parents Lennox and Janet Copeland, siblings, and nephew. Special thanks to Heidi, my oldest sister, for being there for me every step of the way and easing the worry of my parents who were not geographically with me. My uncle Glenister, aunty Joy, cousin Ayanna, and all my friends, Jeff, Danielle, Dwan, Sara, and many others, who have been exceptionally supportive and encouraging by rendering their time, words of support, and resources to help me complete this stage of my life. For all this support and more, I humbly and whole-heartedly say thank you. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 Background ........................................................................................ 3 Carnival: Then and Now ........................................................... 4 Components of Carnival ........................................................... 6 Trinidad Carnival in the Global Context ................................ 13 Purpose and Objectives .................................................................... 14 Conceptual Framework .................................................................... 15 Methodological Considerations .............................................. 15 Theoretical Considerations ..................................................... 16 Scope and Significance .................................................................... 17 Summary .......................................................................................... 20 II. THE LITERATURE THAT INFORMS THE RESEARCH ....................... 21 Understanding Carnival ................................................................... 21 Performance at Carnival .................................................................. 26 Dress at Carnival .............................................................................. 30 The Consumption of Carnival .......................................................... 35 Global Forces Shaping Carnival ...................................................... 38 Commodifying Carnival ......................................................... 40 Commercialization and Mas Costume .................................... 42 Summary .......................................................................................... 45 III. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................... 46 Ethnography as Interpretive Inquiry ................................................ 47 Data Collection Methods ................................................................. 49 In-Depth Interviews ................................................................ 50 Visual Documentation ............................................................ 51 Reflexivity............................................................................... 52 Participant Selection and Sample..................................................... 53 v Data Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................... 58 Summary .......................................................................................... 62 IV. INTERPRETING CARNIVAL: EMBODYING THE CULTURE OF TRINIDAD ................................ 63 Trinidad Carnival: The Mecca ......................................................... 64 Festivals versus Parades ................................................................... 71 Multiple Roles .................................................................................. 75 Costuming and Storytelling ............................................................. 78 V. INTERPRETING CARNIVAL: AESTHETICS AND THE CARNIVAL EXPERIENCE ...................... 84 Producing the Costume