University of Missouri, St. Louis IRL @ UMSL Dissertations UMSL Graduate Works 11-22-2005 Hacks, Cracks, and Crime: An Examination of the Subculture and Social Organization of Computer Hackers Thomas Jeffrey Holt University of Missouri-St. Louis, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://irl.umsl.edu/dissertation Part of the Criminology and Criminal Justice Commons Recommended Citation Holt, Thomas Jeffrey, "Hacks, Cracks, and Crime: An Examination of the Subculture and Social Organization of Computer Hackers" (2005). Dissertations. 616. https://irl.umsl.edu/dissertation/616 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the UMSL Graduate Works at IRL @ UMSL. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of IRL @ UMSL. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Hacks, Cracks, and Crime: An Examination of the Subculture and Social Organization of Computer Hackers by THOMAS J. HOLT M.A., Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Missouri- St. Louis, 2003 B.A., Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Missouri- St. Louis, 2000 A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Graduate School of the UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI- ST. LOUIS In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Criminology and Criminal Justice August, 2005 Advisory Committee Jody Miller, Ph. D. Chairperson Scott H. Decker, Ph. D. G. David Curry, Ph. D. Vicki Sauter, Ph. D. Copyright 2005 by Thomas Jeffrey Holt All Rights Reserved Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines both the subculture and social organization practices of computer hackers. The concept of normative orders (Herbert, 1998: 347) is used to explore hacker subculture in different contexts. To assess hacker social organization, I use Best and Luckenbill’s (1994) framework of organizational sophistication as well as measures from Decker et al. (1998). The relationships between subculture, social organization, and behavior are explored as well. I collected three qualitative data sets to explore these issues, including posts from six on-line hacker discussion forums, in-depth interviews with active hackers, and field observations at the Defcon 12 hacker convention. These data were triangulated and used to investigate the research questions. The findings suggest the social world of hackers is shaped by five normative orders: technology, knowledge, commitment, categorization, and law. These orders are interrelated, and overwhelmingly influenced by technology. Furthermore, hackers tend to perform hacks alone, but have relatively loose social networks that are used to share information and introduce subcultural norms to new hackers. These networks are couched in a larger hacker community that provided access to a variety of resources and materials. Finally, this analysis demonstrates the dynamic relationships between subculture, social organization, and behavior. I found that subculture and social organization structure the nature of deviant relationships, norms, and behavior. At the same time, the nature of deviant acts appears to influence social organization and subculture. I also discuss the implications for research on computer hackers and crime generally. Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. iii DEDICATION Many people deserve recognition for their assistance in the completion of this dissertation. To begin, I greatly appreciate Jody Miller for her tireless efforts as chair of my dissertation committee. Her advice on both research and writing was indispensable in shaping this work. The same can be said for Scott Decker, especially with regard to policy and law enforcement applications of this study. Many thanks go to Dave Curry and Vicki Sauter for their insights and aid throughout the course of this study. Furthermore, I am grateful for the training and education provided by the faculty of the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice at UMSL. Their efforts have molded my abilities as a researcher and academic. I must also thank the individual interviewees who participated in this study. Without their information and experiences, I would never have been able to understand hacking and hacker subculture. Mack Diesel requires special recognition for his assistance as a key informant. This research could not have been completed without his advice and insight. Vicki Sauter should also be thanked for her efforts in identifying participants. Justin Shacklette, Demond Powell, Kevin Fowler, and my fraternity brothers must also be thanked for their constant support and willingness to drag me out for a night of pro wrestling and movies. The constant “nerd” comments have always brought me great comfort. I must also express my gratitude to Brad Brick, Kim Martin, and Rob Fornango for their ability to listen and humor me when things became tough. In addition, Gus and Ellie Holt should be recognized for their help over the years. Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. iv Bob and Marilee Ingoldsby also deserve thanks for their help and support throughout my graduate studies. I also greatly appreciate my sister and brother-in-law Melissa and Mike Haley for the love and support they have shown. Their willingness to listen, help, and laugh throughout this time has been invaluable. I must also thank my parents, Bruce and Ginger Holt, who have given nothing but love and concern over the years. You have always provided great support and been there when I needed you. I must also express my gratitude to my wife Melissa for all that she has done for me. She has been my rock and anchor throughout my time as a graduate student. Despite various difficulties and bumps in the road, her love and care have been unwavering. I cannot put into words how grateful I am to have you as my wife, and cannot imagine life without you. I only hope to show you the same love and joy that you give me every day. Finally, my grandfather Jeff Layton deserves special recognition for his support throughout my life. He has been a benefactor who has helped me whether as a young boy or newlywed. Regardless of what changes have occurred, he has always been there to help in any way. Without his assistance, my life would not be the same. I dedicate this work to my grandfather, wife, and family who made all of this possible. I do not have the words to fully express what you have done for me; I can only say thank you. Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. v CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION 1 A Hacker Primer 5 Defining Hackers 5 A Brief History of Hackers 8 Literature Review 13 Subcultural Theories 13 Previous Research on Hacker Subculture 16 Theories of Social Organization 23 Previous Research on Hacker Social Organization 27 Conclusion: An Integrated Approach 30 2. DATA AND METHODS 33 Operationalization of Concepts 33 Researching Hackers 37 Data and Analysis Procedures 39 Hacker Web Forum Data 39 Forum Data Collection 40 Forum Data Analysis Plan 44 Interview Data 47 Interview Data Collection 49 The Sample 51 Interview Data Analysis Plan 53 Observation Data 53 The Defcon Convention 54 Observation Data Collection 56 Observation Data Analysis Procedures 57 Data Triangulation 59 3. NORMATIVE ORDERS OF HACKER SUBCULTURE 61 Technology 62 Knowledge 69 Status and Knowledge 75 Commitment 83 Categorizations 88 Law 99 Conclusion 110 4. THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF HACKERS 114 Mutual Association 115 Mutual Participation 123 Division of Labor 131 Extended Duration 139 Conclusion 143 Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. vi 5. SUBCULTURE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, AND DEVIANCE 147 Consequences of Social Organization, Subculture, and Behavior 148 Law Enforcement Efforts To Stop Hackers 152 Hacker Responses to Law Enforcement 155 Hacker Careers 157 Rewards From Hacking 160 Conclusions 163 Summary 166 Policy Implications 174 Implications For Future Research 175 GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS 179 APPENDIX A 186 APPENDIX B 189 REFERENCES 192 Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. vii ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 3.1 Schedule For First Day of Defcon 12 66 3.2 Root Fu Pagoda Made From Motherboards and Circuitry 68 3.3 Illustration from Hacker Web Forum 92 3.4 Spot the Fed Announcement from Defcon 12 108 4.1 Root Fu Program Announcement 124 4.2 Wardriving Mini-Game Rules 137 4.3 Wall of Shame/Sheep Screen 138 5.1 Notes On Avoiding Law Enforcement Detection 156 From the Defcon 12 Program Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. viii TABLES Tables Page 1.1 Best and Luckenbill’s (1994) Social Organization Framework 25 2.1 Descriptive Data on Forums Used 42 4.1 Forum Users Who Made Less Than Three Posts 119 4.2 Proportion of Moderators to General Forum Population 133 4.3 The User Ranking System of One Web Forum 134 Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. ix Holt, Thomas, 2005, UMSL, p. 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION This dissertation examines both the subculture and social organization practices of computer hackers. These concepts are interrelated, representing social aspects of crime (Warr, 2002; Best and Luckenbill, 1994). They also impact law enforcement and policy makers who must adjust responses to crime based on the organization of deviants (Best and Luckenbill, 1994: 13). The goals of this dissertation are threefold. First I identify the normative orders of hacker subculture in different contexts (Herbert, 1998: 347). Second, I examine hackers’ level of organization measured through hacker complexity of divisions of labor, coordination of roles, and purposiveness of associations (Best and Luckenbill, 1994: 12; Decker et al., 1998). Finally, I consider the conceptual linkages between the subculture, social organization, and behavior and their influences on one another. To explore these issues, I use a variety of data including on-line hacker discussion forums, in-depth interviews with active hackers, and field observations.1 As a whole, these analyses will increase the academic understanding of hackers and the social aspects of crime generally, with specific benefits to law enforcement and policy makers as well. The social aspects of crime are central to criminology because they address the nature of criminal behavior, associations, and organization.