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A Descriptive Study of Japanese Biliterate Students in the United States : Bilingualism, Language-Minority Education, and Teachers' Role

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A Descriptive Study of Japanese Biliterate Students in the United States : Bilingualism, Language-Minority Education, and Teachers' Role University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-1998 A descriptive study of Japanese biliterate students in the United States : bilingualism, language-minority education, and teachers' role. Yoshiko Nagaoka University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Nagaoka, Yoshiko, "A descriptive study of Japanese biliterate students in the United States : bilingualism, language-minority education, and teachers' role." (1998). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 5338. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/5338 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF JAPANESE BILITERATE STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES: BILINGUALISM, LANGUAGE-MINORITY EDUCATION, AND TEACHERS' ROLE A Dissertation Presented by YOSHIKO NAGAOKA Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION September 1998 School of Education © Copyright by Yoshiko Nagaoka 1998 All Rights Reserved A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF JAPANESE BILITERATE STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES: BILINGUALISM, LANGUAGE-MINORITY EDUCATION, TEACHER'S ROLE A Dissertation Presented by YOSHIKO NAGAOKA approved as to styl4 ahd /content by i- Atron A. Gentry, Chair Robert W. Maloy, Member Charles K. Smith, Member lAJLA taifey W. Jackson, Dean SchAol of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the chair of my dissertation committee. Dr. Gentry, without whose help I could not have earned this degree. He not only taught me a tremendous amount about education but has treated me with utmost respect. Also, I would like to indicate my appreciation to the other members of my dissertation committee. Dr. Maloy and Dr. K. Smith, for supporting me throughout my stay at the University of Massachusetts. I also want to thank two other professors who helped me reach this stage: Dr. Moore and Dr. Martyn. Thanks also to my colleagues, Steve Delaney and Vanessa Harris. Steve Findley edited this dissertation with great skill and patience, and I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to him. In addition, I would like to thank the Wender family. Dr. Dorothea Wender, Jocelyn, and Leslie have provided much emotional support, and Melissa translated, edited, and made me laugh when I was feeling discouraged. Finally, I wish to dedicate this dissertation to my family: to my parents, Junji and Masami, and to my sister Yoriko and brother Toyoki. IV ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF JAPANESE BILITERATE STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES: BILINGUALISM, LANGUAGE-MINORITY EDUCATION, AND TEACHERS' ROLE SEPTEMBER 1998 YOSHIKO NAGAOKA, B.A., GAKUSHUUIN UNIVERSITY M.Ed., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Ed.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Professor Atron A. Gentry Japanese students in the United States have an opportunity to receive education in American public schools and in Japanese weekend supplementary schools guided by the Ministry of Education in Japan. This "bi-schooled" situation emphasizes positive aspects of educating biliterate children. However, developing literacy skills in both English and Japanese is a complicated task for students. Focusing on maintenance and development of literacy skills in Japanese as a first language, this study provides an intensive description of the Japanese writing experiences and practices of four ninth graders and of teaching experiences of three Japanese teachers in one weekend school in the United States. The students are native-born Japanese who have received more than five years of education in both American and the Japanese weekend school. All three teachers have experience teaching in Japan and have lived in the United States for over seven years. There is gap between the present situation of Japanese bi- v schooling students and these teachers' standards in the weekend school. Investigating these students and teachers allows us to perceive this gap. Data collected through a phenomenological in-depth interview method is presented in the following three aspects: students' self-understanding, their positive perspectives on learning two languages, and their difficulties under current conditions of bi-schooling. Also from teachers' perspectives, the teachers' observations of problems in the students' essays, their perception of problems in the students' bi-schooled situation, their strategies for instruction in Japanese composition, and their understanding of the role of Japanese weekend schools are examined. The examinations of thirteen students' writing samples by the teachers were included in the interviews. The findings identify important insights and approaches in the following areas: bilingual education, language-minority education, and teachers' roles, including their academic expectations of students, in educational settings. This study has implications for meaning of bilingual education, issues of language-minority education, the importance of teachers' awareness of issues and problems faced by language-minority students, the importance of parental involvement in education. In addition, it has ramifications for Japanese education in the United States as well as Japanese bilingual education in Japan. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. iv ABSTRACT . v LIST OF TABLES . x LIST OF FIGURES. xi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION. 1 1.1 Introduction. 1 1.2 Background of Japanese Education Outside Japan. 3 1.3 The Role of the Ministry of Education. 7 1.4 Japanese Education in the United States. 15 1.5 Statement of the Problem . 19 1.6 Purpose of Study. 28 1.7 Significance of the Study. 32 1.8 Overview of Chapters . 38 1.9 Definitions of Terms . 40 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . 42 2.1 Introduction. 42 2.2 Bilingualism. 42 2.2.1 Definition of Bilingualism . 44 2.2.2 Bilingual Education in the United States. 47 2.2.3 Code-Switching/Code-Mixing. 58 2.2.4 Communicative and Literacy Proficiency. 60 2.3 Language-Minority Education . 67 2.3.1 Educational Inequality and Inequity . 69 2.3.2 Language-Minority Students' Low Self-Esteem and Lack of Motivation. 73 2.3.3 Assessment of Minority Students' Language Proficiency. 75 2.3.4 Background Knowledge. 77 2.3.5 Shared Language in a Community. 79 Vll 2.4 The Role of Teachers 80 2.4.1 Classroom Culture . 82 2.4.2 Teachers' Power. 85 2.4.3 Teachers' Expectations . 87 2.4.4 Teachers' Responsibilities. 91 3. DESIGN OF THE STUDY. 94 3.1 Introduction. 94 3.2 Description of the School. 97 3.3 Description of the Participants.100 3.4 Procedures.105 3.5 Data Analysis .107 3.6 Limitations of Study.109 4. DATA ANALYSIS. 112 4.1 Introduction .112 4.2 Self-Understanding (students) .113 4.2.1 Ability in Japanese .114 4.2.2 Self-Evaluation of Japanese Compositions (prior to coming to America) (students).116 4.2.3 Self-Evaluation of Japanese Compositions (current) . 119 4.3 Positive Perspectives on Learning Two Languages (students) . 121 4.3.1 Transferring Knowledge between the Two Languages . 123 4.3.2 Shared Aspects of Japanese and English Composition . 126 4.3.3 Positive Attitude toward Acquiring Both Languages . 128 4.4 Difficulties under Current Conditions of Bi-schooling (students) .131 4.4.1 English Influences on Creating Japanese Compositions . 132 4.4.2 Insufficient Knowledge of Words and Chinese Characters.134 4.4.3 Deficiencies in Japanese Background .136 4.4.4 Hardships Based on Insufficient Time.138 4.4.5 Self-Denigration of Japanese Language Academic Abilities .140 vm 4.5 Problems in Japanese Composition for Japanese Students in America (teachers) . 142 4.5.1 Evaluations of the Compositions in General.143 4.5.2 The Confusion of Written and Spoken Language .... 146 4.5.3 Incorrect Expressions and Grammar.147 4.5.4 The Necessity of Planning/Polishing.148 4.5.5 The Influence of English.150 4.5.6 Insufficient Vocabulary/ Chinese Characters.152 4.5.7 Insufficient Background Knowledge.153 4.6 Understanding of Problems arising from the Students' Bi-schooled Situation (teachers).155 4.6.1 Insufficient Time .155 4.6.2 Students' Hardships.157 4.6.3 Compromises with Students' Academic Abilities .... 160 4.6.4 The Necessity of Parental Assistance.162 4.7 Strategies for Instruction in Japanese Composition (teachers) . 164 4.8 Understanding the Role of Japanese Weekend Schools (teachers).168 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .170 5.1 Introduction .170 5.2 Restatement of the Problem .170 5.3 Summary of Major Findings.171 5.4 Implications .181 5.5 Recommendations for Future Studies .183 5.6 Conclusion .185 APPENDICES A. WRITING SAMPLES.188 B. CONSENT FORMS.216 BIBLIOGRAPHY.218 IX LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 the number of students in traditional and weekend schools in twelve cities in the world.15 2.1 Bilingual Education Programs (I).49 2.2 Bilingual Education Programs (II).55 3.1 the number of the students in Amherst Japanese Language School for Children, Massachusetts.99 3.2 the amount of time taken for each interview.106 4.1 the number of kanji to be learned in elementary school [Grade 1 through 6] 134 4.2 the number of kanji to be learned in junior high school [Grade 7 through 9] 134 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 the number and percentage of students outside Japan attending three kinds of schools.4 1.2 the number and percentage of Japanese children attending traditional schools .16 1.3 the number and percentage of Japanese children attending Japanese weekend schools.17 1.4 the number and percentage of Japanese children outside Japan.18 2.1 Common Underlying Proficiency.51 2.2 Additive and Subtractive Bilingualism.53 2.3 Length of Time Required to Achieve Age-Appropriate Levels of Context-Embedded and Context-Reduced Communicative Proficiency.64 2.4 One View of Multiple Levels of Reciprocal Influence on Political Dynamics Related to Classroom Interaction ..
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