UDK 004.65

DIGITAL OBSOLESCENCE

Sandra Deljanin, [email protected] University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology October 2011

Summary Problems of digital obsolescence due to obsolescence of computers, and data mediums are presented in this article. Librarians and archivists are mostly concerned because of the “” phenomenon, and they are looking for more efficient solutions to preserve cultural and intellectual heritage in digital form in order to de- crease expenses and prevent time wasting. Further in the article, disadvantages of some computer platforms and methods of temporary data revival are shown, but for now no efficient standardized and long-term strategy, which could be applied to all types of dig- ital resources, has been established. Many examples of computer, format, program and medium obsolescence that are listed, should awake everyone’s consciousness no matter what their professional occupation is, because contemporary business and social life can’t be imagined without computer technology which makes communication easier and faster, but it can also disable and interrupt all connections with future generations.

Key words digital obsolescence, Domesday project, , format specifications, digital dark age, , digital preservation strategies.

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1. Introduction which computer platform can read them and in Situation in which digital resource cannot be which format they are. It makes the data retrieval read anymore, either because physical medium process, with which librarians and archivists are that contains it is no longer in use, or hardware faced with always growing data collections, even or software which executes it is not available, is harder. known as the digital obsolescence phenomenon. There is a known case of NASA (National Common text can be presented on a stone plate, Aeronautics and Space Administration) space re- on parchment or microfilm, and it will always cordings and pilotless spacecrafts Viking 1 and be recognized as written text. However, as soon Viking 2 landing on Mars in 1976 saved on mag- as the text is digital it presents only an electric netic tapes. When the recordings were to be ana- impulses flow and those impulses are meaning- lyzed they turned out to be unreadable because ful only when they are interpreted by software they were in unknown format and their creators which created them or for which they were in- had meanwhile passed away or left NASA. tended. Rapid evolution of technological innova- The recordings were eventually extracted after tions and spreading of various computer hard- months of resolving doubts through thorough re- ware, digital coding options, operational systems search about how recording machines had func- and general or specific software are followed by tioned. (Blakeslee 1990) many serious problems which are questioning digital preservation. 2. BBC Domesday Project Attention was brought to librarians and ar- One of the most famous examples of digital chivists in the 1990s. Experts in those branches data loss due to digital obsolescence is the BBC discussed this topic a lot, but without any sig- Domesday Project, in which the entire British na- nificant solution except for continuous and im- tion took part and whose research was compiled mediate transfer of data and information to latest nine hundred years after the Domesday Book had media according to the current standards. Librar- been published. Original document known as the ians were under pressure to use every innovation “Doomsday Book” presents census of eleventh right after its invention in order to keep up. If the century England started in 1086, ordered by King latest technology had failed, one of solutions out William the Conqueror. TV producer from BBC of the situation was to transfer all resources to Peter Armstrong started an interesting adventure newer digital media. Downside was money and of reviving these traditional data collections with time wasting, which are always deficient, which new additions, photos, precise locations, town lead to resources being unavailable and libraries descriptions and reports from people across the becoming museums of failed technology. (Craw- country about everyday topics in 1983. He gath- ford and Gorman 1995) ered leading minds in technology and started one Digital media get worn out and damaged over of the main interactive projects of the time. time. These changes needn’t be obvious as it is This multimedia publication in which over the case with photos or books, but they are pres- million people took part was published in 1986. ent and almost everyone who owns a computer More than 2 GB of data were gathered, which experienced that – hard disk crashing, compact was a stunning amount for that time and the disc scratching, bit rot on magnetic tapes, or most common way for transferring data among just breaking down of data reader. Even if data computers were 5.25” floppy discs. Considering remain intact and bites are still on media, it is their limited capacity of 1.2 МB, results of the necessary to keep up with information about project were finally put on adopted laser discs,

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CD-ROM ancestors, in LV-ROM format (Laser important testing ground for implementation of Vision Read-Only Memory). Two discs, Commu- new strategies and development of the software nity Disc and National Disc were in the size of emulating program. Another team which worked a gramophone record (12”) but they looked like for The National Archives of Great Britain (The compact discs we use today with 300 МB of stor- National Archives in Kew) traced the original 1” age space on each side of the disc. They were magnetic tape. It contained photos and maps of readable by a specially configured player Philips Great Britain with locations of all important data VP415 called the Domesday Player, on Acorn that were used for the discs. Photos and maps computer BBC Master increased by SCSI con- have been scanned and laser discs converted into troller (Small Computer System Interface). User new digital format which can be read on different interface consisted of BBC Master Keyboard and machines. In July of 2004 data were published trackerball by which the user could move cursor on the web but this version was removed from on a screen and choose action with a click. Soft- the web in 2008 when its author Adrian Pearce ware for the project was written in BCPL (Basic died. Combined Programming Language) which was BBC Learning team led by George Auckland not widely spread and can be considered a C lan- published large amount of data from the Com- guage ancestor. (Darlington et al. 2003) munity Disc again in 2011 in format available Several libraries bought the whole system on the web named Domesday Reloaded (http:// package, but it was far from the original idea of www.bbc.co.uk/history/domesday). On this in- wide distribution. Participants of the project were ternet site, one can access photos and articles disappointed because their hard work wasn’t eas- from the original project and see how life of Brit- ily available in public. As time went by this proj- ish people has been changing in the last 25 years, ect became a basic example of digital obsoles- while visitors can refresh information with their cence, because less and less machines had access memories, photos and stories. to it. While information from the book are avail- able nowadays, Domesday project discs with 3. Types of obsolescence “more than 250.000 place names, 25.000 maps, Massive use of instead of video cas- 50.000 pictures, 3.000 data sets, 60 minutes of settes, or use of USB memory for data transfer moving pictures” (McKie and Thorpe 2002) instead of floppy disc, presents only few of many have become unreadable due to small ability of examples of technical obsolescence where new contemporary computers to read old formats and technology replaces the old one, becomes pre- the ability to access laser discs is even smaller. ferred and starts to be used more than the old A group of researchers from Michigan and one. Single products can be overtaken due to in- Leeds Universities formed the CAMiLEON ability of technology to proceed with its produc- consortium (Creative Archiving at Michigan & tion. It mostly happens when it is pushed from Leeds: Emulating the Old on the New) in 1999, market either because its creator left business or in order to save data from Domesday discs. In it was bought by competitor which intentionally 2003 CAMiLEON successfully improved the kills all his products. system. They enabled access to discs that were Some products become functionally obsolete already in bad physical shape by original hard- when they don’t work anymore in the way they ware . During the process, CAMiLEON used to when they were created, either because of was researching and developing strategies to inevitable natural wear or because of some inter- preserve digital material, so this project was an vening act. Product can be intentionally designed

INFOtheca No 1, Volume XIII, May 2012 45 DIGITAL OBSOLESCENCE to use components that get worn out faster, which 4. Emulation of obsolete computers leads to planned obsolescence. Example for this becomes obsolete when type of obsolescence is producing some appli- new generations of processors with increased ca- ance designed to wear within five years from pabilities replace the existing ones. Progress from the shopping day, forcing customers to replace it large and expensive computers with calculating with new after that amount of time. abilities to contemporary, powerful, cheap, fast Planned systemic obsolescence is inten- and reliable computers in different sizes and fea- tional attempt to make product obsolete by tures lasts less than an average human lifetime. changing its functional system in such a way The fact that computers which are available to- that it makes its use harder. New software day will be outdated in five years is devastating. which is being introduced is often incompat- Some manufacturers stopped producing and their ible with older versions. Although, for ex- computers have automatically become obsolete, ample, older version of the word process- like TI-99, Commodore 64 and Amiga. On the ing program is working well, it is mostly not other hand, new computer hardware opens doors able to read data saved in new version. Lack to new and improved programs, thus directly in- of compatibility is forcing users to buy new fluencing software and format obsolescence. programs although the old programs are still Thanks to the invention of hardware device working correctly. The other way to introduce i.e. software, the so called emulator, whose role systemic obsolescence is by eliminating main- is to imitate some other system that is not avail- tenance services. If the product breaks down, able, nowadays we can count on preservation of user is forced to buy a new one. The only, but electronic data saved on media dependant on spe- very important case where this example of sys- cific computer constructions, providing that spe- temic obsolescence can function is proprietary cial care is given to preserving media for storage software which is licensed by exclusive copy- for longer periods. Emulation is not focused on rights, where the third party is not allowed to the digital object but on systematic surrounding intervene on the product. Well known example in which the object is shown and from which it of this is when Microsoft stops their customer originates. (Van der Hoeven, et al. 2007) Through support for older versions of Windows and emulation, functions of a system are reproduced older service packages on new versions, like in such a way that they can be activated in some disabling web browser Explorer 9 within oper- other totally different system which is going to ating system Windows XP. act and look like the original system. Postponement obsolescence is a situation in Imitation or “emulation is a special type of which technological improvement of product is software application that creates a virtual object not introduced even if it is possible, when manu- computer on a currently available host comput- facturer is not able or doesn’t want to sell some er... Frequently, the object computer hardware is software service, but they enable users to install not available at the time the software engineers software on computer and use it for limited time. begin programming for it. Virtual hardware, or In the meantime, users can decide if they want emulation, is commonly used to substitute for the to buy replacement, to upgrade it or to start us- unavailable object computer hardware to allow ing newer software. In some cases old technolo- both engineering tasks to be developed simul- gies are used deliberately in order to avoid data taneously... Although emulation is most com- intrusion, a strategy known as “security through monly used to emulate future hardware designs, obsolescence”. it is also used – and arguably more easily – to

46 INFOtheca No 1, Volume XIII, May 2012 Sandra Deljanin create virtual historic or obsolete computers.” with so that further deterioration will take centu- (Quick, Maxwell 2005) Their precious software ries to happen.” (Quick, Maxwell 2005) All mag- is executed on modern computers thanks to emu- netic mediums have high entropical energy, and lators which can be found on websites like http:// only few optical media are close to be entropi- www.amigaforever.com and http://www.c64.com. cally equalized. “There is no comercial computer which hasn’t There are many commercial firms that offer been emulated in some way, from first personal media migration, format conversion and data computers like Commodore PET, or Apple II recovery services and expenses vary depending to contemporary Pentium PCs and Power Mac on procedure difficulty. “Simple migration of computers. Some of obvious reasons for emula- standard format 5.25” disks can cost anywhere tor popularity are nostalgy, playing old games, from $5-$50 per disk and up”, data conversion need for software which doesn’t exist on modern increases the price of service while restoring data machines, and even education.” (Ćalić 1998) from damaged media costs even more. (Entlich 2004) “Even if data migration is flawless across 5. Storage media temporariness intermediate media with repeated reading and Just as the advance of technology led to the writing using differing technologies, the time computer hardware obsolescence phenomenon, a spent idle between migrations will take its toll similar situation is present at data storage media on the stored data bits. Data migration success which are leaving space for their faster, smaller, rates are never 100% and successive storage/ with larger capacity and easier to read heiresses. migration cycles accumulate failures and expose “Frequently the new hardware is not backward the data to corruption and loss.” (Quick, Max- compatible with the older hardware’s media for well 2005) Besides data preservation on media more than one generation.” (Quick, Maxwell problems, there is a problem of reading media on 2005) That is the case with device for the 3.5” which data are still present but are coded because floppy discs which haven’t gone out of use com- decoding process is being deliberately hardened. pletely, but this device is not being built in the Modern encryption is being more and more used new generation computers even though it used in documents and media because publishers want to be a part of standard equipment. Floppy disc to protect their by limiting usage of used to be the main transferring medium between digital content and by method of DRM (Digital computers until the appearance of CDs and other Rights Management). advanced relatives, and today only its icon is in Paul Conway pointed out that “as our capac- wide use as a metaphor for data storage on the ity to record information has increased exponen- interface of most types of software (e. g. option tially over time, the longevity of the media used Save within Microsoft Office package). to store the information has decreased equiva- It’s a fact that bits on media get lost in time. lently.” (Li, Banach 2011) Although all digital One of the reasons for that outcome is physical media are susceptible to the obsolescence phe- features of materials the media are made from, nomenon, the ones more equalized with standard which have variable characteristics that make and in wider use will obsolete slower. “When them unstable. “Nature tries to equalize energy selecting a storage medium for digital materials, levels, and over time, it succeeds at erasing the it’s important to choose a type and brand that has data that is stored on most digital media. To store a reputation for good quality. While all media data for a long time, the media the data is stored will fail eventually, higher-quality media will on must be nearly entropically equalized to start last longer and ultimately help reduce the cost of

INFOtheca No 1, Volume XIII, May 2012 47 DIGITAL OBSOLESCENCE replacing media over time.” (Bailey 2011) Also, make it work, attention of users is being held by making backup copies on different media will attractive offers of additional functional applica- decrease possibility of valuable digital data loss. tions, ensuring constant incomes. These formats “To avoid storage hardware dependence, the are the most endangered ones because they face storage media must not be tied to any one manu- fast specification change on one side and depend- facturer and the retrieval device must be able to ing on one product or company on the other. be crafted from simple parts. Future generations Formats that are proprietary and open pose must be able to construct a device to read the me- less risk of obsolescence because specifications dia with minimal understanding of what is on the are available in public allowing other companies media and with simple, readily available parts.” to produce software which can read them. An (Quick, Maxwell 2005) example is a subset of proprietary format which was adopted as standard PDF/A, archive version 6. Classification and cataloging of PDF owned by Adobe but is an open specifica- data format tion. PDF/A differs from PDF in that it requires Although some format specifications are in- XML format based metadata as well as removal dependent from specific software like coding of distracting elements which would complicate ASCII and Unicode schemes, most of them are decoding and speed up obsolescence – like audio connected to related software groups. Software and video recording, JavaScript etc. This kind and format specifications on which it is based of specifications is still susceptible to market usually develop together and therefore are nec- forces’ caprices and can easily be abandoned for essarily in tight connection. This is why discus- commercial reasons. sions about format obsolescence must include It can be said that specifications that are non- software obsolescence issues. Usually efficient proprietary and open are the most secure for software is being upgraded. Although most ap- data storage. They are supported by international plications can read files created by previous standards bodies whose representatives help versions, or the one before, ability to read even equalizing needs of a variety of users who are older versions mainly doesn’t exist. The latest not reflection of any single commercial inter- versions of software most often can’t read files est in standard creating. Open formats are also which haven’t migrated, while older versions of called free file formats unless they are bound by software often are not available or can’t be run copyrights, patents or other limitations, so ev- on current computer or under current version of eryone can use them for any purposes without operating system. charge. Compatibility with old versions is prior- The most problematic formats are those for- ity of these standards so there are no commercial mats whose specifications are proprietary and pressures for rapid obsolescence. closed and which are being connected to efficient Until today, thousands of formats and their long lasting software. They have a tendency to versions have been created and only recently an grow fast and exist in many different versions for effort has been made to catalogue and document different platforms, and their compatibility with them and understand their relations and varia- older versions is limited. Manufacturers follow tions. Without appropriate software file format commercial moment deliberately avoiding com- documentation and specifications, attempt to in- patibility with older versions of their own soft- terpret old file or even to determinate in which ware in order to force all users, including the ones format it was written becomes scary. Digital who prefer older versions, to do upgrading. To protection department of the Great Britain Na-

48 INFOtheca No 1, Volume XIII, May 2012 Sandra Deljanin tional Archive has developed an online informa- but they can’t reflect the real nature of multime- tion system about file formats and their follow- dial digital forms and by no means are they able ing software products, . Originally it to replace them. Suggestions to form digital mu- was developed as support for access to electronic seums in which old machines that can run origi- data records of the National Archive and for long nal software and compatible obsolete formats termed preservation, and today it is available for would be kept also have no grounds. Mainte- every single person who needs information about nance expenses would be high, access to original software products, their support and technical digital documents would be possible in only few requirements life cycle and about formats sup- locations in the world and as already stated, com- ported by some diferent software. puter hardware has limited lifetime. “The rate of Many projects involved with preservation of digital obsolescence keeps accelerating, and the cultural heritage are facing inevitable questions serious search for a long-term strategy for stor- about digitalization – “how to digitalize, in which age has yet to begin.” (Brand 1990) format, how detailed...?”. NINCH (The National The main challenge digital generation is faced Initiative for a Networked Cultural Heritage), with is: “how can masses of machine-generated, situated in Washington USA, lists the following machine-readable material be stored in a form formats as de facto standards which probably that is safe, secure from degradation and – poten- won’t obsolete in close future: uncompressed tially most calamitous in the long term – acces- ТIFF and PDF for images, ASCII and RTF for sible to subsequent generations?” (Huxley 2005) text. (2002) Systems dependant on There have been many tactics for protection of types of software whose license conditions and digital data which can be successfully performed software existence are not long-termed are not by persons and organizations on specific types appropriate for archiving and for making digital of materials in specific surroundings. However, collections of cultural heritage. none of them is suitable for all types of data, nei- File formats in which data are saved should ther efficient in all situations nor adequate for all be used widely, compatible with previous ver- institutions responsible for preserving cultural sions with history of compatibility available, heritage. Variety of formats and specifications ad- have reasonable upgrading cycles, solid support ditionally make finding a unique solution harder. to metadata, built-in error checking, open, un- Appropriate strategy should be determined by the compressed or to use compression without loss, type of digital object which is to be preserved, by and finally work with wide specter of hardware requests of users who want to access the object, and software configuration. (Bailey 2011) and by politics of institutions that are responsible for preservation of digital sources. 7. Is it possible to escape from Digital preservation is active managing of “digital dark age” and how? digital information through a wide specter of While it is still possible to read our written activities which will ensure their availability, heritage that is more than hundreds of years old increase their lifetime and protect them from on analog media, digital data that are only a few being ruined, from physical damaging and ob- years old are in serious danger of being lost for- solescence. This is a dynamic and continuous ever. An attempt to switch all digital media into process during which methods and technical re- analog form is almost mission impossible, even if quirements change along with rapid technologi- the fact that it would take eternity is disregarded. cal changes and which is followed by constant Solid copies are more resistant to obsolescence, investing of effort, time and money. Long-term

INFOtheca No 1, Volume XIII, May 2012 49 DIGITAL OBSOLESCENCE storage of information without error in proper preservation of technical surrounding in formats and on long life media makes it possible which a system is run, including operative to retrieve data in their original form, so a human systems, original application software, can read and understand them but they can also appliances and so on. Sometimes this op- be processed by a computer. “The “digital dark tion is called . It offers age”, in other words, could yet become a digi- possibility to face medium obsolescence tal golden age, with the total of human knowl- providing that medium is not broken so edge preserved for and accessible to everyone.” it can’t be read anymore. This is not a (Colvile 2007) strategy which can be run by a single in- stitution because maintenance of obsolete 7.1 Digital preservation strategies technology requires significant invest- 1. Bitstream copying – strategy also known ments in equipment and staff. as backing up data is a process of mak- 4. Digital archeology – includes methods ing an identical copy of a digital object. and procedures of rescuing content from Though a necessary component of all damaged media or from obsolete or dam- strategies for digital preservation, it is not aged hardware and software environment. a long lasting technique by itself because Digital archeology is explicit strategy for it deals only with data losses caused by urgent recovery of bitstream from un- hardware and media failure, whether it is readable medium whether due to physical normal malfunction and decay or system damage or hardware failure. Readable bit- failure, malicious destruction or natural streams can often be retrieved even from disaster. Bitstream copying is often com- very damaged media (especially magnetic bined with remote storage and saving media), but if content is very old, there is copies on different locations in order to a high possibility that retrieving may not avoid the possibility that both the origi- be possible and that content will not be nal and the copy are subjects of the same understandable. disaster. 5. Analog backups – involves conversion 2. Refreshing – this is a process of copying of digital objects into analog form ac- digital information from one long-term cording to archive standard and using storage medium to another of the same durable analog media like microfilms for type without any changes in bitstream preservation in archive conditions. To this (for example from older CD-RW to new- type of transfer most reliable are text and er CD-RW). Modified refreshing is about monochromatic photos because the loss copying data to another medium of similar of functionality of the original document type without changes in bit-pattern (from is minimal. Considering high costs and 100 MB Zip disk to 750 MB Zip disk). limitations of creating analog backing up Durable media like Gold CDs can lessen copies, this technique makes sense only the need for often refreshing and decrease for documents whose content deserves losses due to medium weariness, but du- highest level of loss protection. rable media don’t have infinite influence 6. Migration – involves transferring data on any potential loss source – they only into new systematic environment, conver- give false sense of security. sion from one format into another, from 3. Technology preservation – is based on one operative system into another, from

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one program language into another, from enable determination whether important one computer technology generation into document characteristics have remained next generation, while old data remain unchanged through conversion from one unchanged. According to some, migra- format into another. It relies on creating tion is used interchangeably with refresh- representative type of digital object which ing but it is a broader and richer concept conveys which are the key aspects of digi- than refreshing. Purpose of migration is tal object. Once created, this form or pat- to preserve integrity of digital objects so tern can be used to algorithmically test if clients would be able to use them in the converted file has lost any of its essence. face of constantly changing technology. 10. Emulation – combines software and Some criticized this method claiming that hardware to reproduce running of another it can offer neither integrity nor authentic- computer with all its main characteristics, ity – there is always danger to lose during allowing programs or media designed for this process partial functionality which certain environment to be executed in dif- existed in old format, or that convertor ferent, most often newer environments. itself won’t be able to encode or transfer Emulation requires creating of emula- all features of original format (especially tors, programs for transferring code and when it comes to data protected by copy- instructions from one computer environ- right). ment so it can be properly executed in 7. Reliance on standards – this method is another. Well known use of emulators is based on adhering to stable, broad ac- at newer version of Apple Macintosh op- cepted and well-recognized open stan- erating system, which enables use of pro- dards during creating and archiving digi- grams based on previous series of proces- tal sources. This kind of standards are not sors no longer used on Apple computers. related to specific hardware or software Most of emulators available today were platform and in that way they can delay written for computer games of obsolete inaccessibility of digital resources due hardware in order to run them on modern to technological obsolescence. However, computers. stable standards are not available for all 11. Encapsulation – technique of grouping types of formats. digital objects and metadata to provide 8. Normalization – is a formalized imple- access to the object. Grouping process mentation of reliance on standards. Within should decrease the possibility of losing an archival repository all digital objects of any key component vital for decoding and specific type (e. g. color photos) are being presenting of the digital object. Appropri- converted into one chosen file format (e. ate types of metadata hermetically closed g. TIFF) which will reflect compromise with the digital object include: reference (it among many features like functionality, provides one or more markers for unique durability and preservability. By normal- identification of objects), representation ization of stored objects into set of chosen of information (provides interpreting bits formats whenever it is possible, number in appropriate way), provenance (descrip- of formats is controlled and complexity of tion of object source), fixity (proof that file managing is decreased. object is intact), and context information 9. Canonicalization – technique designed to (describes how object is related to other

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information outside logical structures tainly implies possibility to come up with some called “containers” or “shelves”). It is new techniques which will face key problems of considered to be a key element of emula- digital preservation, no matter how unpopular tion. they are at the moment.

8 Conclusion It is very important to be aware of use and Bibliography limits of different digital forms, which should Bailey, Helen. 2011. Digital Preservation Series, Part meet not only temporary purposes but also to be 3 – There Are Solutions to This Problem. Preser- functional and available in the future. Not many vation Services at Dartmouth College Blog, De- cember 13. http://dartmouthpreservation.blogspot. people think about the fact that almost all of our com/2011/05/digital-preservation-series-part-3. knowledge recorded in digital form cannot last html. (приступљено августа 2011) even for our lifetimes. “To those who believe in Bailey, Helen. 2011. Digital Preservation Series, the immortality of new media files, Rothenberg Part 4 – Solutions, cont. Preservation Services offers a suitably new-age adage: Digital informa- at Dartmouth College Blog, June 14. http://dart- tion lasts forever - or five years, whichever comes mouthpreservation.blogspot.com/2011/06/digital- first.” (Huxley 2005) preservation-series-part-4.html. (приступљено Since microfilm proved to be one of the most августа 2011) durable media for data storage in analog form Blakeslee, Sandra. 1990. Lost on Earth: Wealth of (it can remain intact more than five hundred Data Found in Space. New York Times (March 20). http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/20/science/ years), some started thinking in that direction lost-on-earth-wealth-of-data-found-in-space.html. to store digital data on this medium. Company (приступљено августа 2011) which deals with services in the area of infor- Brand, Stewart. 1990. Escaping the Digital Dark Age. mation technologies, ACS (Affiliated Computer Library Journal Vol. 124, no. 2 (February): 46–49. Services), applied a request in 2004 for patent- Colvile, Robert. 2007. How to stave off a digital dark ing technology of archiving binary data, Method age. The Thelegraph (July 5). and apparatus for preserving binary data. (Pat- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3353826/ entGenius) In order to place binary data on mi- How-to-stave-off-a-digital-dark-age.html. crofilm, it is necessary to present them as images (приступљено септембра 2011) Crawford, W. and M. Gorman. 1995. Future librarie: readable by machines. Creators of this invention Dreams, Madness and Reality. Chicago: ALA. suggested use of 2-D barcode symbols for encod- Ćalić, Vlada. 1998. „Emulatori“. PC Press Br. 40 ing binary data, whose symbols join into images (novembar). http://www.pcpress.rs/arhiva/tekst. readable by microfilm writer device. Also, “any asp?broj=40&tekstID=1905. (приступљено сеп- available microfilm scanner that can capture a тембра 2011) clear image of the 2-D barcode symbol on the Darlington, Jeffrey, Andy Finney and Adrian Pearce. microfilm can return the image to a digital im- 2003. Domesday Redux: The rescue of the BBC age in a computer.” (Quick, Maxwell 2005) Cor- Domesday Project videodiscs. Ariadne Issue 36 rectly defined specification for encoding can be (July). http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue36/tna/. (приступљено септембра 2011) stored together with binary data in order to make Entlich, Richard. 2004. One Last Spin: Floppy Disks easier later recovery of data even if techniques Head Toward Retirement. RLG DigiNews Vol. 8, for coding become obsolete. (PatentGenius) no 6 (December). http://worldcat.org/arcviewer/1/ As far as it is known, this method for data OCC/2007/07/10/0000068923/viewer/file1.html. storage hasn’t still found its broad use but it cer- (приступљено октобра 2011)

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Huxley, John. 2005. The digital Dark Age. The Syd- of Cultural Heritage Materials. http://www.nyu. ney Morning Herald (September 23). http:// edu/its/humanities/ninchguide/V/. (приступљено www.smh.com.au/news/technology/the-digital- септембра 2011) dark-age/2005/09/22/1126982184206.html. PatentGenius. Method and apparatus for preserv- (приступљено августа 2011) ing binary data. http://www.patentgenius. Li , Yuan and Meghan Banach. 2011. Institutional com/patent/7489818.html#show-last-page. Repositories and Digital Preservation: Assess- (приступљено августа 2011) ing Current Practices at Research Libraries. D- The RISC OS Foundation. Countdown from Domes- Lib Magazine Vol. 17, no. 5/6 (May/June). http:// day: Richard Hallas reports on CAMiLEONs ef- www.dlib.org/dlib/may11/yuanli/05yuanli.html. forts to preserve the BBCs Domesday Project (приступљено августа 2011) for posterity. http://foundation.riscos.com/html/ McKie, Robin and Venessa Thorpe. 2002. Digi- features/11/domesday/count.htm. (приступљено tal Domesday Book lasts 15 years not 1000. септембра 2011) The Guardian (March 3). http://www.guard- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia. ian.co.uk/uk/2002/mar/03/research.elearning. org. (приступљено маја 2011) (приступљено септембра 2011) Quick, Ken and Mike Maxwell. 2005. Ending Digi- tal Obsolescence. In Archiving 2005. Vol. 2, Final Program and Proceedings, 201-205. Washington: The Society for Imaging Science and Technol- ogy. http://microfilm.net.au/pdf/ACS%20Data- surance%20White%20Paper.. (приступљено септембра 2011) Van der Hoeven, Jeffrey, Bram Lohman and Remco Verdegem. 2007. Emulation for Digital Preserva- tion in Practice: The Results. In The International Journal of , Issue 2 (December): 123-132. http://www.ijdc.net/index.php/ijdc/ar- ticle/viewFile/50/35. (приступљено октобра 2011)

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