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A Practical Review on the Measurement Tools for Cellular Adhesion Force

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A Practical Review on the Measurement Tools for Cellular Adhesion Force A practical review on the measurement tools for cellular adhesion force Rita Ungai-Salánki 1,2,3 *, Beatrix Peter 2, Tamás Gerecsei 1,2, Norbert Orgovan 1,2, Robert Horvath 2, Bálint Szabó 1,2 1Department of Biological Physics, Eötvös University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1A, Budapest, H-1117 Hungary 2Nanobiosensorics Group, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Institute for Technical Physics and Materials Science, Konkoly Thege M. út 29-33. 1121, Budapest, Hungary 3 CellSorter Company for Innovations, Erdőalja út 174, Budapest, H-1037 Hungary Abstract Cell–cell and cell–matrix adhesions are fundamental in all multicellular organisms. They play a key role in cellular growth, differentiation, pattern formation and migration. Cell-cell adhesion is substantial in the immune response, pathogen-host interactions, and tumor development. The success of tissue engineering and stem cell implantations strongly depends on the fine control of live cell adhesion on the surface of natural or biomimetic scaffolds. Therefore, the quantitative and precise measurement of the adhesion strength of living cells is critical, not only in basic research but in modern technologies, too. Several techniques have been developed or are under development to quantify cell adhesion. All of them have their pros and cons, which has to be carefully considered before the experiments and interpretation of the recorded data. Current review provides a guide to choose the appropriate technique to answer a specific biological question or to complete a biomedical test by measuring cell adhesion. Keywords (maximum 6): cell adhesion, single cell, adhesion force, force measurement techniques Commonly used units: Shear stress: 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa, 1 pN/µm2 = 1 Pa Force: 1 dyn = 10-5 N 1 Abbreviations: AFM: atomic force microscopy BFP: biomembrane force probe CTFM: cell traction force microscopy DDS: dimethyldichlorosilane ECM: extracellular matrix FluidFM: fluidic force microscopy FRET: fluorescence resonance energy transfer GETS: genetically encoded molecular tension sensor ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule-1 MAT: micropipette aspiration technique NTA: nitrilotriacetic acid OT: optical tweezers PA: polyacrilamide PCR: polymerase chain reaction PDMS: poly-dymethylsiloxane PLL-g-PEG: poly (L-lysine)-grafted-poly(ethylene glycol) PMMA: polymethylmethacrylate PPFC: parallel plate flow chamber QCM: quartz crystal microbalance QPD: quadrant photodiode RBC: red blood cell 2 RFC: radial flow chamber RGD: arginyl-glycyl-aspartic acid RPM: revolutions per minute SAM: self-assembled monolayer Sc: critical separation pressure SCFS: single cell force spectroscopy SPR: surface plasmon resonance SPT: step-pressure technique * Corresponding author: [email protected] 3 Table of contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5 1. Centrifugal and shear flow assays ............................................................................................. 11 1.1 Centrifugal assay ..................................................................................................................... 11 1.2 Spinning disk ........................................................................................................................... 13 1.3 Radial flow chamber................................................................................................................ 15 1.4 Parallel plate flow chamber ..................................................................................................... 18 1.5 Microfluidic rectangular channels ........................................................................................... 20 2. Micropipette manipulations ....................................................................................................... 22 2.1 Step-pressure technique (SPT) ................................................................................................ 23 2.2 Biomembrane force probe (BFP) ............................................................................................ 25 2.3 Micropipette aspiration technique (MAT) ............................................................................... 26 2.4 Computer-controlled micropipette .......................................................................................... 29 3. Optical tweezers (OT) ................................................................................................................... 32 4. Atomic force and fluidic force microscopy ................................................................................... 36 4.1 AFM to probe force normal to the surface .............................................................................. 38 4.2 AFM to probe tangential/lateral force ..................................................................................... 41 4.3 Fluidic force microscopy (FluidFM) ....................................................................................... 42 5. Cell traction force microscopy and FRET force sensors ........................................................... 46 5.1 Cell traction force microscopy ................................................................................................ 46 5.2 FRET force sensors ................................................................................................................. 49 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 53 Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................... 60 References ............................................................................................................................................. 61 4 Introduction Cell adhesion [1] is the ability of a cell to stick to another cell or to the extracellular matrix (ECM). Most mammalian cell types are anchorage-dependent and attach firmly to their environment [2]. Cell adhesion mediated by cell surface receptor molecules, such as integrins [3],[4], cadherins [5],[6], selectins, and members of the immunoglobulin superfamily is a fundamental phenomenon [7] vital for both multi and single cellular organisms (Fig.1). Upon binding their extracellular ligand (such as fibronectin, vitronectin or collagen), integrin molecules cluster to form focal adhesions, complexes containing structural and signalling molecules crucial to the adhesion process [8]. Best-characterized adhesions are the ‘classical’ focal adhesions (also termed focal contacts) and variants including fibrillar adhesions, focal complexes and podosomes [9]. Focal adhesions mediate strong adhesion to the substrate, and they anchor bundles of actin microfilaments through a plaque that consists of many different proteins [9]. Fibrillar adhesions are associated with ECM fibrils. Focal complexes are present mainly at the edges of the lamellipodium. Podosomes contain typical focal contact proteins — such as vinculin and paxillin and they are found in various malignant cells [9]. Communication between cells and the ECM is critically influenced by the mechanical properties of cell surface receptor-ligand interactions. Integrin binding forces were measured in intact cells by atomic force microscopy (AFM) for several RGD containing (Arg-Gly-Asp) ligands and ranged from 32 to 97 pN. The context of the RGD sequence within the ligand protein has considerable influence upon the final binding force [10]. Lee and Marchant reported that the binding force of the single molecular interaction between the RGD-ligand and the integrin was 90 pN [11]. Mechanical forces are central to the functioning of living cells. Cell adhesion is known to be closely related to the actin cytoskeleton, of which organization is crucial in determining the structural and mechanical properties of cells. While significant experimental progress has been made to measure the forces generated by cells, interpretation of these experimental results poses a challenge. Measurements can only be fully interpreted in the light of biophysical models of cell mechanics. However, even a single cell is so complex that theoretical models can usually describe only a few aspects of its behaviour, e.g., contractility considering some cellular components such as stress fibers [12]. In cell cultures on stiff substrates, the actin cytoskeleton tends to be organized into stress fibers, bundles of actin filaments tensed by myosin II molecular motors. Stress fibers usually end in focal adhesions: integrin-based adhesion contacts at the cell 5 membrane. The coupling between mechanics and biochemistry should also be considered in the model [13]. Some models are inspired by architecture like the the so-called tensegrity model [14] of the cytoskeleton [15]. Adhesion-dependent cells sense the mechanical properties of their environment by mechanotransductory processes through focal adhesions. Simplified models applying springs replacing the complex architecture and biochemistry of the cell can be successful to explain certain experimental results [16] A two-spring model [17] showed that the stiffer the environment, the stronger force is built up at focal adhesions by molecular motors interacting with the actin filaments. Dynamic control of cell adhesion is indispensable to the developing embryo [7], to the immune system [18], and critical in the metastasis
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